49 Nevo <strong>an</strong>d Koren, Crossroads to Islam, 214. 50 Luxenberg, “Christmas in the Kor<strong>an</strong>.” 51 Ibid. 52 Ibid. 53 Ibid. 54 Reynolds, “Introduction,” 17. 55 Luxenberg, “Christmas in the Kor<strong>an</strong>.” 56 Ibid. 57 Ibid. Chapter 9: Who Collected the Qur'<strong>an</strong>? 1 Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. 6, book 66, no. 4987. 2 Ibid., book 65, no. 4784. 3 Powers, Muhammad Is Not the Father, 159. 4 Muhammad ibn Jarir at-Tabari, The History of al-Tabari, vol. 17, “The First Civil War,” tr<strong>an</strong>s. G. R. Hawting (Alb<strong>an</strong>y: State University of New York Press, 1996), 29. 5 Ibid., 34. 6 Ibid., 37. 7 Ibid., 78. 8 Ibid., 79. 9 Ibid., 79. 10 Ibid., 81. 11 Ibid., 82. 12 Ibid., 85–86. 13 See Small, Textual Criticism, 15–27, for useful summary descriptions of some of the principal early Qur'<strong>an</strong>ic m<strong>an</strong>uscripts. 14 Lester, “What Is the Kor<strong>an</strong>?” 15 Gilchrist, Jam' Al-Qur'<strong>an</strong>. 16 Fr<strong>an</strong>çois Déroche, La tr<strong>an</strong>smission écrite du Cor<strong>an</strong> d<strong>an</strong>s les débuts de l'islam: Le codex Parisino-petropolit<strong>an</strong>us (Leiden: Brill, 2009), is a fascinating study of <strong>an</strong> early Qur'<strong>an</strong>ic m<strong>an</strong>uscript, Bibliothèque nationale de Fr<strong>an</strong>ce (BNF) Arabe 328, which he combines with other m<strong>an</strong>uscripts that he establishes came from the same original, consisting of sections of suras 2 through 72. Déroche contends that this m<strong>an</strong>uscript, which does not contain most diacritical marks, dates from between 670 <strong>an</strong>d 720. The scholar Andrew Rippin, in reviewing Déroche's book, notes: “To Déroche, the evidence of the m<strong>an</strong>uscript suggests that the account of the ‘Uthm<strong>an</strong>ic collection <strong>an</strong>d production of a master set of m<strong>an</strong>uscripts to be distributed across the new empire simply c<strong>an</strong>not be historically accurate. The purported goal of ‘Uthm<strong>an</strong> could not have been accomplished, given the realities of the orthography available at the time; the vari<strong>an</strong>ts found in this copy of the text suggest that a unified text was also not achieved that early.” See Andrew Rippin's book review, “La Tr<strong>an</strong>smission écrite du Cor<strong>an</strong> d<strong>an</strong>s les débuts de l'islam: Le Codex Parisino-petropolit<strong>an</strong>us (Book review),” Journal of the Americ<strong>an</strong> Oriental Society 129:4 (2009), 706(3). See also Small, Textual Criticism, 21. 17 Arthur Jeffery, “A Vari<strong>an</strong>t Text of the Fatiha,” in Ibn Warraq, The Origins of the Kor<strong>an</strong>, 145–46. 18 Jeffery, “Vari<strong>an</strong>t Text,” 146–47. 19 Ibn Warraq, Virgins?, 221. 20 Ibid., 222. 21 Ibid., 223. 22 Ibid., 219.
23 Ibid., 220. 24 Ibid., 223. 25 Monk of Beth Hale, Disputation, fol. 4b (quoted in Hoyl<strong>an</strong>d, Seeing Islam, 471). There were two monasteries of Beth Hale, one in northern Iraq <strong>an</strong>d the other in Arabia; it is not known in which one this monk lived. 26 Prémare, “‘Abd al-Malik b. Marw<strong>an</strong>,” 207. 27 Ming<strong>an</strong>a, “The Tr<strong>an</strong>smission of the Kor<strong>an</strong>,” 102–3. 28 Ibn Hajar al-Asqal<strong>an</strong>i, Tahdhib al-Tahdhib, vol. 4 (Beyrouth: Dar al-Fikr, 1984–85), 195–97n386 (quoted in Prémare, “‘Abd al-Malik b. Marw<strong>an</strong>,” 206). 29 Ali Ibn Asakir, Tarikh madinat Dimashq, ed. Muhibb al-Din Umar al-Amrawi, vol. 12 (Beyrouth: Dar al-Fikr, 1995–2000), 116; Ibn Hajar, Tahdhib al-Tahdhib, 5:303–5n600 (quoted in Prémare, “‘Abd al-Malik b. Marw<strong>an</strong>,” 209). 30 Powers, Muhammad Is Not the Father, 160. 31 Ahmad Al-Baladhuri, Ansab al-ashraf, ed. Muhammad al-Yalawi, vol. 7 (Beyrouth: Biblioteca Islamica, 2002), 2, 300–301; Ibn Asakir, Tarikh madinat Dimashq, 12:159–60 (quoted in Prémare, “‘Abd al-Malik b. Marw<strong>an</strong>,” 208). 32 Ibn Asakir, Tarikh madinat Dimashq, 12:160 (quoted in Prémare, “‘Abd al-Malik b. Marw<strong>an</strong>,” 209). 33 Crone <strong>an</strong>d Hinds, God's Caliph, 28. 34 Ali Al-Samhudi, Wafa al-Wafa bi-akhbar dar al-Mustafa, ed. Muhammad Muhyi I-Din Abd al-Hamid, vol. 2 (Cairo, 1955; reprinted Beyrouth: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyya, 1984), 667–69 (quoted in Prémare, “‘Abd al-Malik b. Mar-w<strong>an</strong>,” 205). 35 Umar Ibn Shabba, Tarikh al-Madina al-munawwara, ed. Fahim Muhammad Shaltut, vol. 1 (Mecca, 1979), 7 (quoted in Prémare, “‘Abd al-Malik b. Marw<strong>an</strong>,” 204). 36 Abu Bakr Ibn Abi Da'ud al-Sijist<strong>an</strong>i, Kitab al-masahif, ed. Arthur Jeffery (Cairo: al-Matbaa al-Rahm<strong>an</strong>iyya, 1936), 35:18–19, 49–50 (quoted in Powers, Muhammad Is Not the Father, 161). 37 Prémare, “‘Abd al-Malik b. Marw<strong>an</strong>,” 204. 38 Hoyl<strong>an</strong>d, Seeing Islam, 490–91. 39 Leo-Umar, Letter (Armeni<strong>an</strong>), 292, 297–98, from Arthur Jeffery, “Ghevond's Text of the Correspondence between Umar II <strong>an</strong>d Leo III,” Harvard Theological Review 37 (1944): 269–322 (quoted in Hoyl<strong>an</strong>d, Seeing Islam, 500–501). 40 Ming<strong>an</strong>a, “The Tr<strong>an</strong>smission of the Kor<strong>an</strong>,” 109. 41 The Apology of al-Kindy Written at the Court of al-Mamun, circa A.D. 830 (quoted in Ming<strong>an</strong>a, “The Tr<strong>an</strong>smission of the Kor<strong>an</strong>,” 109). 42 Ibid. Chapter 10: Making Sense of It All 1 See Crone <strong>an</strong>d Cook, Hagarism; Donner, Muhammad <strong>an</strong>d the Believers. 2 See Philip K. Hitti, The Arabs: A Short History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1943; revised edition Washington, DC: Regnery, 1970), 57–58. Hitti reflects commonly held views that the Byz<strong>an</strong>tines <strong>an</strong>d Persi<strong>an</strong>s had exhausted themselves fighting each other <strong>an</strong>d that the people in the Byz<strong>an</strong>tine domains that the Arabs conquered welcomed the invaders, because the tribute they charged was lower. See also Nevo <strong>an</strong>d Koren, Crossroads to Islam, 93–94. 3 It appears the Arabs <strong>did</strong> encounter considerable resist<strong>an</strong>ce from the captive peoples. Recall the testimony of the Patriarch Sophronius to the brutality of the conquerors <strong>an</strong>d the misery of the conquered, recounted in chapter 1 of this book. Also, the pioneering histori<strong>an</strong> Bat Ye'or notes a hadith in which the caliph Umar asked one of his subordinates, “Do you think that these vast countries, Syria, Mesopotamia, Kufa, Basra, Misr [Egypt] do not have to be covered with troops who must be well paid?” This statement could be a surviving testimony to <strong>an</strong> occupation that was not as placid as it is often made out to have been. See Abu Yusuf Ya'qub, Le Livre de l'impôt foncier (Kitâb el- Kharâdj), tr<strong>an</strong>s. Edmond Fagn<strong>an</strong> (Paris: Paul Guethner, 1921) (quoted in Bat Ye'or, The Decline of Eastern Christi<strong>an</strong>ity Under Islam: From Jihad to Dhimmitude [Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996], 274). 4 Popp, “The Early History of Islam,” 18–19. 5 For more on this, see the pioneering study by Crone <strong>an</strong>d Cook, Hagarism. 6 See Donner, Muhammad <strong>an</strong>d the Believers.
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DID MUHAMMAD EXIST? An Inquiry into
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Dedicated to all those who do not f
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Contents Foreword by Johannes J. G.
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scholars will not be interested in
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650s-660s: Arabian conquest of Nort
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Muhammad and His Family, According
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Introduction
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historicity of Muhammad. Although t
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No one knows, for it has never rece
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Some of the bold scholars who have
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Influenced by this, the historians
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1
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ut this could apply to any of the Q
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Was That Muhammad? In light of all
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leader as the “devil.” It is un
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them, reprimand them, warn them, an
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was not even able to save himself f
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of polemical hyperbole or using a t
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2
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encountering some mention of Islam,
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The first biographer of Muhammad, I
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Allah [is] great in greatness and g
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This Qur'anic material is the earli
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that orthodox theologians produced
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Arabic language, he was eloquent an
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3
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The same can be said of an explanat
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“anyone who establishes in Islam
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But with Muhammad held up as an exe
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When Ibn Umar says that yes, he did
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these are known as as-Sahih as-Sitt
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was self-contradictory or absurd on
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latter's “godlessness and opposit
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Switching On the Full Light of Hist
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Ibn Ishaq's Reliability So are thes
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Muhammad's virtues, or a combinatio
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Jansen administers the coup de grâ
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Central to Islam, therefore, is the
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(Nor, for that matter, do Muslim hi
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5
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The problem with the third option i
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years of age. 6 The earliest Islami
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elationship, the Qur'an also has Ma
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einforced the point that Muhammad h
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“worked on Allah's Apostle so tha
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The Unchanging Qur'an Changes The Q
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during the eighth and ninth centuri
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did not worry over such matters, wh
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Rajam be inflicted on him who commi
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telling indications that it has bee
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ut suddenly verses 238 and 239 inte
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The Non-Arabic Arabic Qur'an A Book
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“We know indeed that they say,
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Puin explains: “The Koran claims
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a person dies, his Book (of deeds)
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The Syriac influence is not restric
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