European Red List of Bees
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information on distribution and life history data between<br />
the relatively well known, but species-poor, northwest <strong>of</strong><br />
Europe, and particularly the centre <strong>of</strong> bee diversity in the<br />
Mediterranean region that harbours the majority <strong>of</strong> the<br />
fauna. This deficiency may be due to insufficient, or even<br />
complete lack <strong>of</strong>, taxonomic expertise for large parts <strong>of</strong><br />
the <strong>European</strong> bee fauna. Such taxonomic deficits could be<br />
overcome by training the next generation <strong>of</strong> taxonomists,<br />
investing in carefully targeted faunistic surveys and better<br />
mobilising existing data from museum collections.<br />
Eucera nigrilabris (Data Deficient). © J. Devalez .<br />
3.4 Major threats to bees in Europe<br />
With the majority (56.7%) <strong>of</strong> <strong>European</strong> bee species<br />
being listed as Data Deficient, any overview <strong>of</strong> the<br />
threats to the continental apifauna will necessarily be<br />
incomplete. However, for conservation and management<br />
<strong>of</strong> bee diversity to be undertaken effectively, it is critical<br />
to have a clear understanding <strong>of</strong> taxonomy and ecology<br />
<strong>of</strong> the species present. National governments, through<br />
the Convention on Biological Diversity, recognise the<br />
existence <strong>of</strong> a taxonomic impediment and, through the<br />
Darwin Declaration, intend to address the situation<br />
(Environment Australia 1998). This shortfall in taxonomic<br />
expertise is very apparent in our understanding <strong>of</strong> bees.<br />
A major threat to effective deployment <strong>of</strong> conservation<br />
actions for the bees <strong>of</strong> Europe is an inability to understand<br />
and identify the species present and to monitor the state<br />
<strong>of</strong> populations effectively.<br />
According to the <strong>European</strong> <strong>Red</strong> <strong>List</strong>, 212 species had no<br />
threats identified, while for 1,067 species threats remain<br />
unknown. Identified threats for the remaining species<br />
(663) are presented below, and a summary <strong>of</strong> the relative<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> the different threatening processes is<br />
shown in Figure 11.<br />
Agricultural expansion and intensification<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> the environmental threats to bee diversity are<br />
associated with modern agriculture and, in particular,<br />
shifting agricultural practice and the increasing<br />
intensification <strong>of</strong> farming (Figure 11). These threats<br />
include those related to intensive arable farming (loss <strong>of</strong><br />
uncultivated habitats and widespread use <strong>of</strong> insecticides<br />
and herbicides (Sydenham et al. 2014, Gill and Raine<br />
2014)), livestock farming (resulting in grazing and<br />
stocking regimes that are damaging to grasslands and<br />
fragile Mediterranean ecosystems) (Vulliamy et al.<br />
2006) and the continued presence <strong>of</strong> commercial timber<br />
plantations (Navarro-Cerrillo et al. 2013).<br />
According to the <strong>European</strong> <strong>Red</strong> <strong>List</strong>, 366 species are<br />
affected by changes in agricultural practice, which can<br />
lead to large scale habitat loss and habitat degradation,<br />
especially in temperate regions. Shifts from grassland hay<br />
cropping regimes to the more intensive silage production<br />
(i.e. late season to early season cropping) or increased<br />
grazing, has resulted in large scale losses <strong>of</strong> herb-rich<br />
grasslands e.g., 97% loss <strong>of</strong> enclosed semi‐natural<br />
grasslands in England and Wales (Bullock et al. 2011) and<br />
97-99% <strong>of</strong> the historically managed grassland in Sweden<br />
(Dahlström et al. 2008). Loss <strong>of</strong> season-long flowering<br />
impacts particularly strongly on long-lived social insects,<br />
especially bumblebees (Bombus spp.), and in more<br />
intensively farmed regions <strong>of</strong> Europe, bumblebees are<br />
especially susceptible (Carvell et al. 2006, Rundlöf et al.<br />
2008). The loss <strong>of</strong> semi-natural grasslands also negatively<br />
impacts on localised and specialised solitary species (e.g.,<br />
Andrena hattorfiana and A. humilis in Sweden) (Franzén<br />
and Nilsson 2004).<br />
In other parts <strong>of</strong> Europe, traditional land use has been<br />
abandoned, allowing for development <strong>of</strong> scrub and<br />
ultimately woodland. This is especially true in places<br />
that are generally unsuitable for more intensive farming,<br />
and in places such as the Baltic States it is abandonment,<br />
rather than habitat fragmentation, that is the key driver<br />
<strong>of</strong> species composition in semi-natural grasslands<br />
(Dauber et al. 2006). 331 non-threatened species and<br />
35 threatened species are regarded as under threat from<br />
agricultural expansion, intensification and shifts in<br />
agricultural practice, and 307 non-threatened species and<br />
16 threatened species are regarded as under threat from<br />
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