PhD thesis Title Page Final _Richard Juma - Victoria University ...

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climate, and socio-economic conditions. Recent studies in the Turkana District shed more light on the major causes of vulnerability in that particular area and supports Scoones (1998) line of thought. According to Swift (1985) and the Turkana District Contingency Unit (1992), the main constraints that are said to facilitate famine are cattle raids from the neighbouring communities, livestock diseases and climatic factors. As will be discussed in Chapters 4 and 5, the historical context which encompasses the origin and culture that constitutes the identity of the Turkana people, and their marginalization through colonial and post colonial periods is important to their livelihood situation. Therefore, this study assumes the context given by Scoones (1998). 43 Generally, in this framework (Figure 4), drought among other factors is seen to change the resource flows critical for livelihood sustainability in the Turkana District by profoundly disrupting the local people’s assets or resources. Practically, the focus of this study centres on the idea that Turkana people, either as individuals or groups, do not think of their livelihood strategies immediately as crisis strikes. They first define the problem they face on the basis of their world view (e.g. values, norms, taboos, and roles), and give it a specific meaning before adopting a relevant livelihood strategy. The literature on livelihoods distinguishes between ‘coping’, which involves temporary adjustments to livelihoods in the face of crisis, but does not necessarily bring a change in livelihoods, and ‘adaptation’ which involves a longer term shift in the conventional practices and informal or formal rules pursued by households and communities inorder to secure their livelihoods and to minimize the risk of lives (Scoones 1998; Sinclair and Ham 2000). According to De Waal (1994), it is the local coping strategies 43 The context given by Scoones (1998) forms the basis for the consideration of a wide range of factors which have impacted negatively on the Turkana people’s livelihood. These factors are extensively discussed in Chapters 4 and 5. 53
that are the most important component in people’s survival in many crisis situations. However, my respondents, Turkana people, argued to the contrary that since they are aware that they live in a highly vulnerable system, they are more likely to pursue adaptive strategies, rather than coping strategies, while seeking all available options. Figure 4: A framework for analyzing Turkana pastoralists’ adaptation to a dryland situation with special response to drought. VULNERABILITY CONTEXT >Shocks >Seasonality >Trends Drought crisis Disorganizes the assets/resources - Economic imbalance - Decline in pastoral yields - Inability to meet the basic needs e.g. food Relative wealth/poverty of particular households/group/comm unity Source: Author 2009. LIVELIHOOD OUTCOME - Income - Food security etc Ellis (2000) observed that adaptive strategies determine the household’s livelihood outcome, that is, the goals that people are trying to achieve through their livelihood pursuits. The outcomes contribute to the 54 PASTORALISTS’ PERCEPTION - Individual perception of the change situation - Group ideologies, values, norms, taboos, roles etc as a frame of reference - Situation given meaning to shape adjustment behaviours LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES - Migration - Splitting families - Sale of skins and hides - Fishing - hunting and food gathering - Collection of firewood - Begging - Wage employment - Long distance trade - Pooling resources - Herd management etc SOCIAL NETWORKS
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Turkana livelihood strategies and a
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Abstract Drought and famine in Sub-
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Acknowledgement This work was carri
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Table of contents Abstract ........
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4.7 demographic considerations ....
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CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF
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Figure 22 Percentage loss in livest
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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Historic
Page 18 and 19: settlers and indigenous farmers. Si
Page 20 and 21: esults in increased deterioration o
Page 22 and 23: prolonged droughts as herders 3 los
Page 24 and 25: disease infection as they became vi
Page 26 and 27: Figure 1: Map of Turkana the study
Page 28 and 29: temporary assistance to impoverishe
Page 30 and 31: local patterns of adjustment to dro
Page 32 and 33: stress (Soja 1968). The ability to
Page 34 and 35: strategies 19 and achievement of su
Page 36 and 37: Therefore, the main goal of this st
Page 38 and 39: Devereux and Naeraa (1996); Hussein
Page 40 and 41: neighbours, such as the Samburu, an
Page 42 and 43: occupation of the poor (Robinson 19
Page 44 and 45: are aimed to directly reduce pressu
Page 46 and 47: 1.6 Justification for the study. Th
Page 48 and 49: placed on the contribution of socia
Page 50 and 51: CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1
Page 52 and 53: 2.2 Emergence of the sustainable li
Page 54 and 55: livelihood to cope with and recover
Page 56 and 57: change and development. Here, it im
Page 58 and 59: Figure 3: A framework for micro-pol
Page 60 and 61: draw when pursuing different liveli
Page 62 and 63: 2.3 Symbolic interaction theory and
Page 64 and 65: egging, and the pawning of women an
Page 66 and 67: to stress, especially to rapid popu
Page 70 and 71: livelihood security and sustainabil
Page 72 and 73: somewhat overlooked by the liveliho
Page 74 and 75: and the degree of variations (or ho
Page 76 and 77: The reasons for choosing Morulem as
Page 78 and 79: Figure 5: Total households in each
Page 80 and 81: Sampling key informants: There was
Page 82 and 83: Library research was carried out at
Page 84 and 85: Once I had found somewhere to live
Page 86 and 87: interviews (nine days for Morulem a
Page 88 and 89: constituted changes in response to
Page 90 and 91: interviewing the Turkana pastoralis
Page 92 and 93: directly and gave me the reasons wh
Page 94 and 95: a vehicle could bring to a rural pa
Page 96 and 97: with my 3 rd wife. Obviously, it wa
Page 98 and 99: interviews and/or interviewees. The
Page 100 and 101: in reciprocal claims and social net
Page 102 and 103: to thorough analysis to eliminate a
Page 104 and 105: me for a period of two years to ass
Page 106 and 107: CHAPTER 4 THE TURKANA REGION: HISTO
Page 108 and 109: 4.2 Brief historical background of
Page 110 and 111: group rapidly expanded and migrated
Page 112 and 113: Pokot. East of the Pokot and in the
Page 114 and 115: The Turkana know their environment
Page 116 and 117: July. Precipitation is somewhat cor
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Figure 7 Population projections by
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normally get access to graze their
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and Suguta. According to Norconsult
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forming a canopy forest with little
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capital, and the material culture o
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Kenya and Sudan. There are shortfal
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secondary schools, as compared to b
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the medical services and end up dea
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stock, greatly depends on the avail
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Traditionally, livestock ownership
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The importance of livestock in the
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informants, relatives, neighbours a
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to pay bridewealth (Key Informant I
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For instance, Apthorpe (1986) estab
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the same clan, and to avoid giving
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Figure 13: Married Turkana women. 9
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Informants argued that when a widow
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has made visible efforts to develop
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people overtime. It is argued here
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stems from arguments raised by hist
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the history of the Turkana, drought
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also lead to conflict with other he
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5.2.2 History of Negative Policy En
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an ideological justification for co
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mobilisation of young men into well
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the British administration in Turka
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of northern West Kenya. The colonia
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fishing (Turkana Development Annual
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The project failed due to lack of s
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Similar problems hampered other dev
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influence of irregularly - and some
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uild shelters, the satellite camps
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neighbourhoods in an area of about
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As discussed previously, the Turkan
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Figure 17: Territorial sections in
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Each age-set has distinct character
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cutting of these species of trees f
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considerable period of time. He wou
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unsustainable costs. The Turkana lo
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CHAPTER 6 THE 2005-2006 DROUGHT IMP
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drought as compared to the 1979-198
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also foot and mouth disease which a
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informants explained that camels, u
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On the defence of pastures during p
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Crude computation of the data gives
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Figure 19: Interpretation of the ca
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ebellious warriors and their genera
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partly help to explain why not many
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interviews. It represented a consen
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asking for assistance is not only a
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able to maintain a fairly steady su
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limits. In 2006, the 10 public prim
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Number of students enrolled 90 80 7
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than group solidarity. 142 However,
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Table 11: Gifts exchanged by Turkan
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iii) Gift exchanges in Turkana duri
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Another respondent narrated how he
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when to give, sell or slaughter an
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that emerged during the 2005-2006 d
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passively, but ventured out creativ
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CHAPTER 7 FACTORS THAT IMPINGE ON A
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According to Table 14, the two stud
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To appreciate the analysis in Table
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estimating global income poverty fi
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it was clear that respondents were
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‘poor’ category though reduced
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Notes: • Households in each categ
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environment became quite marked. Ap
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Notes: I) The food sources were arr
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7.5 Chapter summary The major focus
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strategies in one approach. How pas
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the puzzling problem with numbers.
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The sustainable livelihood model ha
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that Turkana people are passive and
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nation is usually caught unaware of
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Baker, M. J., and Lovenbury, H. T.
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Chambers, R. (1995). Poverty and Li
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Dietz, A. J., and Salih, M. A. M. (
Page 274 and 275:
Goldschmidt, W. (1969). Kambuya's C
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Kabeer, N. (2000b). Resources, Agen
Page 278 and 279:
McCabe, J. T. (1990). Success and F
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Pennings, J. M. E., and Smidts, A.
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Soja, E. (1968). The Geography of M
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Von Hohnel, L. (1894). Discovery of
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Appendices Appendix 1: Household Pr
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3………………………….. 1
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Appendix 3: Key Informants Schedule
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Appendix 5: Gender and the Division
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Appendix 7: Introductory Letter fro
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Appendix 9: Pre and Post the 2005-2
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Appendix 10: Pre and Post the 2005-
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285
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287
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289
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