PhD thesis Title Page Final _Richard Juma - Victoria University ...

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livelihood to cope with and recover from stresses and shocks. According to the social dimension, the sustainable livelihood approach demonstrates that poverty reduction requires an understanding of how rural livelihoods are conducted and sustained, as the ability to move out of poverty, reflects the capabilities and assets and/or lack thereof available to the poor (Ellis 2000). This includes material assets such as access to land, other natural resources, financial capital and credit, tools, inputs into productive activities, and others. It also reflects human capabilities (the knowledge and skills of the family); social and political factors such as contact networks and the openness of government institutions (Ellis 2000). Moreover, by understanding the dynamics of rural people’s livelihoods, we can begin to understand how they will be affected by shocks such as drought impacts, how they might respond with the resources they have, and how these conditions can be reflexively built to develop more successful coping strategies. The analysis of the Turkana livelihood situation, as contained in this <strong>thesis</strong>, relates to the social dimension which hence adopts the Ellis (2000) approach. 2.2.1 Principles and concepts of sustainable livelihood approach applicable to this study. The concept of sustainable livelihood approach provides a useful guideline for understanding survival strategies that households and individuals adopt during a crisis. The main guiding principles identified in the livelihood literatures which are relevant to my study are: Firstly, that Sustainable livelihood approach literature categorizes the main livelihood strategies which households pursue into three broad groups: i) Agricultural intensification, which refers to the strategies based on exploitation of natural resources (e.g. food crops, cash crops, livestock) including income from agriculture ii) Livelihood diversification which occurs when rural households construct a diverse portfolio of activities and social support capabilities for survival 39
in order to improve standard of living (Ellis 1998). This includes expansion of income from different sources (farm or off-farm). iii) Migration: when one or a few family members leave and earn money somewhere else and contribute to the household economy. Migration can be seasonal, circular or permanent. Two of these livelihood strategies (e.g. livelihood diversification and migration) fit quite well in the analysis of how the Turkana people adapt their livelihoods during a crisis as they represent strategies that are used to cope with drought and famine in the Turkana District. The Turkana people are known to have diversified their livelihood activities even during the pre-colonial period by engaging in agriculture, fishing, and hunting and gathering 34 . Secondly, Ellis’ (2000) definition of the sustainable livelihood approach places more emphasis on the social factors 35 as crucial elements to understanding the implications of household livelihood strategies. This assertion is applicable to the Turkana situation because food production in the study area is primarily, although not exclusively, reliant on local people’s social networks. Thirdly, while acknowledging that social structures and processes at a macro level in society have an important impact on livelihoods, they are not the only critical factors. The macro level has to be linked to the micro level where actors operate and individuals and households take action for changes to take place. 36 Using the sustainable livelihood approach in this analysis, these different aspects are incorporated. Fourthly, following Ashley and Carney (1999), this study favours a sustainable livelihood approach which focuses on the household and its assets as a unit of social 34 See the discussion in Chapter 5. 35 The question of social resources in livelihood analysis is a critical issue in understanding livelihood situation in the Turkana district (See Chapters 4, 5 and 6 for detailed discussion). 36 Long is one of the proponents of actor oriented approach (Long 2001, 2002) 40
Page 1 and 2:
Turkana livelihood strategies and a
Page 3 and 4: Abstract Drought and famine in Sub-
Page 5 and 6: Acknowledgement This work was carri
Page 7 and 8: Table of contents Abstract ........
Page 9 and 10: 4.7 demographic considerations ....
Page 11 and 12: CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF
Page 13 and 14: Figure 22 Percentage loss in livest
Page 16 and 17: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Historic
Page 18 and 19: settlers and indigenous farmers. Si
Page 20 and 21: esults in increased deterioration o
Page 22 and 23: prolonged droughts as herders 3 los
Page 24 and 25: disease infection as they became vi
Page 26 and 27: Figure 1: Map of Turkana the study
Page 28 and 29: temporary assistance to impoverishe
Page 30 and 31: local patterns of adjustment to dro
Page 32 and 33: stress (Soja 1968). The ability to
Page 34 and 35: strategies 19 and achievement of su
Page 36 and 37: Therefore, the main goal of this st
Page 38 and 39: Devereux and Naeraa (1996); Hussein
Page 40 and 41: neighbours, such as the Samburu, an
Page 42 and 43: occupation of the poor (Robinson 19
Page 44 and 45: are aimed to directly reduce pressu
Page 46 and 47: 1.6 Justification for the study. Th
Page 48 and 49: placed on the contribution of socia
Page 50 and 51: CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1
Page 52 and 53: 2.2 Emergence of the sustainable li
Page 56 and 57: change and development. Here, it im
Page 58 and 59: Figure 3: A framework for micro-pol
Page 60 and 61: draw when pursuing different liveli
Page 62 and 63: 2.3 Symbolic interaction theory and
Page 64 and 65: egging, and the pawning of women an
Page 66 and 67: to stress, especially to rapid popu
Page 68 and 69: climate, and socio-economic conditi
Page 70 and 71: livelihood security and sustainabil
Page 72 and 73: somewhat overlooked by the liveliho
Page 74 and 75: and the degree of variations (or ho
Page 76 and 77: The reasons for choosing Morulem as
Page 78 and 79: Figure 5: Total households in each
Page 80 and 81: Sampling key informants: There was
Page 82 and 83: Library research was carried out at
Page 84 and 85: Once I had found somewhere to live
Page 86 and 87: interviews (nine days for Morulem a
Page 88 and 89: constituted changes in response to
Page 90 and 91: interviewing the Turkana pastoralis
Page 92 and 93: directly and gave me the reasons wh
Page 94 and 95: a vehicle could bring to a rural pa
Page 96 and 97: with my 3 rd wife. Obviously, it wa
Page 98 and 99: interviews and/or interviewees. The
Page 100 and 101: in reciprocal claims and social net
Page 102 and 103: to thorough analysis to eliminate a
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me for a period of two years to ass
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CHAPTER 4 THE TURKANA REGION: HISTO
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4.2 Brief historical background of
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group rapidly expanded and migrated
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Pokot. East of the Pokot and in the
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The Turkana know their environment
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July. Precipitation is somewhat cor
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Figure 7 Population projections by
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normally get access to graze their
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and Suguta. According to Norconsult
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forming a canopy forest with little
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capital, and the material culture o
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Kenya and Sudan. There are shortfal
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secondary schools, as compared to b
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the medical services and end up dea
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stock, greatly depends on the avail
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Traditionally, livestock ownership
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The importance of livestock in the
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informants, relatives, neighbours a
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to pay bridewealth (Key Informant I
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For instance, Apthorpe (1986) estab
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the same clan, and to avoid giving
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Figure 13: Married Turkana women. 9
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Informants argued that when a widow
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has made visible efforts to develop
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people overtime. It is argued here
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stems from arguments raised by hist
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the history of the Turkana, drought
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also lead to conflict with other he
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5.2.2 History of Negative Policy En
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an ideological justification for co
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mobilisation of young men into well
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the British administration in Turka
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of northern West Kenya. The colonia
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fishing (Turkana Development Annual
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The project failed due to lack of s
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Similar problems hampered other dev
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influence of irregularly - and some
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uild shelters, the satellite camps
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neighbourhoods in an area of about
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As discussed previously, the Turkan
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Figure 17: Territorial sections in
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Each age-set has distinct character
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cutting of these species of trees f
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considerable period of time. He wou
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unsustainable costs. The Turkana lo
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CHAPTER 6 THE 2005-2006 DROUGHT IMP
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drought as compared to the 1979-198
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also foot and mouth disease which a
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informants explained that camels, u
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On the defence of pastures during p
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Crude computation of the data gives
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Figure 19: Interpretation of the ca
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ebellious warriors and their genera
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partly help to explain why not many
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interviews. It represented a consen
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asking for assistance is not only a
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able to maintain a fairly steady su
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limits. In 2006, the 10 public prim
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Number of students enrolled 90 80 7
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than group solidarity. 142 However,
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Table 11: Gifts exchanged by Turkan
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iii) Gift exchanges in Turkana duri
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Another respondent narrated how he
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when to give, sell or slaughter an
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that emerged during the 2005-2006 d
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passively, but ventured out creativ
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CHAPTER 7 FACTORS THAT IMPINGE ON A
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According to Table 14, the two stud
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To appreciate the analysis in Table
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estimating global income poverty fi
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it was clear that respondents were
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‘poor’ category though reduced
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Notes: • Households in each categ
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environment became quite marked. Ap
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Notes: I) The food sources were arr
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7.5 Chapter summary The major focus
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strategies in one approach. How pas
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the puzzling problem with numbers.
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The sustainable livelihood model ha
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that Turkana people are passive and
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nation is usually caught unaware of
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Baker, M. J., and Lovenbury, H. T.
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Chambers, R. (1995). Poverty and Li
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Dietz, A. J., and Salih, M. A. M. (
Page 274 and 275:
Goldschmidt, W. (1969). Kambuya's C
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Kabeer, N. (2000b). Resources, Agen
Page 278 and 279:
McCabe, J. T. (1990). Success and F
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Pennings, J. M. E., and Smidts, A.
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Soja, E. (1968). The Geography of M
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Von Hohnel, L. (1894). Discovery of
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Appendices Appendix 1: Household Pr
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3………………………….. 1
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Appendix 3: Key Informants Schedule
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Appendix 5: Gender and the Division
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Appendix 7: Introductory Letter fro
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Appendix 9: Pre and Post the 2005-2
Page 298 and 299:
Appendix 10: Pre and Post the 2005-
Page 300 and 301:
285
Page 302 and 303:
287
Page 304:
289
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