PhD thesis Title Page Final _Richard Juma - Victoria University ...

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placed on the contribution of social networks in livelihood sustainability. Chapter 7 discusses factors that impinge on adaptability in the Turkana District. Chapter 8 summarises the study, providing a conclusion and policy implications of the study. 1.8 Chapter summary and hypotheses. In this chapter, the following research questions were established: What are the indigenous livelihood strategies deployed by the Turkana people to cope with crises both in general, and in the 2005-2006 drought and famine in particular? And how do they cope on their own without support from outside the community? How do local practices and indigenous knowledge contribute, or not, to the challenge of maintaining sustainable livelihoods? The concept of social networking is used to focus on the dynamics of the Turkana people’s livelihood during a crisis. To set the scene for the discussion of the research problem, an overview was provided of the wider context in which the colonial and post independence government policies in Sub-Saharan Africa impoverished and increased pastoralist’s vulnerability to calamities. This was followed by a selected review of the literature on how various pastoralists adjust to the challenge of the impending crises such as migrating, splitting families, and so forth, depending on the configuration of their social relations. A preliminary observation arising from the literature review is that typical adaptive responses result in behaviours that take on exaggerated form in times of economic hardship. The review reveals that East African pastoralists possess a repertoire of adaptive strategies which they call into action during drought and famine. The adaptive responses are guided by a detailed knowledge of what environmental, physical, and social resources are available and how they might contribute to their survival in times of need. Survival then depends greatly on the group or individual capacity to access potential means of support in the social and economic world 33
around them, as will be illustrated in Chapter 2. The knowledge gained in this chapter leads to the formulation of two hypotheses as follows: i) Drought and famine stimulate the search for potential allies. 29 ii) The social and economic resources accessible to famished Turkana nomads determine the range and scope of adaptive responses. 30 Therefore, the following chapter provides a detailed discussion of the theoretical framework of the study. 29 As will be discussed in the next chapter, this study consider potential allies to include kinsmen, neighbours, bond-friends, the state, missionaries, traders, employers, pastoral and non-pastoral neighbours. 30 Hypotheses 1 and 2 are extensively discussed in chapter 6 and 7 respectively. 34
Page 1 and 2: Turkana livelihood strategies and a
Page 3 and 4: Abstract Drought and famine in Sub-
Page 5 and 6: Acknowledgement This work was carri
Page 7 and 8: Table of contents Abstract ........
Page 9 and 10: 4.7 demographic considerations ....
Page 11 and 12: CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF
Page 13 and 14: Figure 22 Percentage loss in livest
Page 16 and 17: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Historic
Page 18 and 19: settlers and indigenous farmers. Si
Page 20 and 21: esults in increased deterioration o
Page 22 and 23: prolonged droughts as herders 3 los
Page 24 and 25: disease infection as they became vi
Page 26 and 27: Figure 1: Map of Turkana the study
Page 28 and 29: temporary assistance to impoverishe
Page 30 and 31: local patterns of adjustment to dro
Page 32 and 33: stress (Soja 1968). The ability to
Page 34 and 35: strategies 19 and achievement of su
Page 36 and 37: Therefore, the main goal of this st
Page 38 and 39: Devereux and Naeraa (1996); Hussein
Page 40 and 41: neighbours, such as the Samburu, an
Page 42 and 43: occupation of the poor (Robinson 19
Page 44 and 45: are aimed to directly reduce pressu
Page 46 and 47: 1.6 Justification for the study. Th
Page 50 and 51: CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1
Page 52 and 53: 2.2 Emergence of the sustainable li
Page 54 and 55: livelihood to cope with and recover
Page 56 and 57: change and development. Here, it im
Page 58 and 59: Figure 3: A framework for micro-pol
Page 60 and 61: draw when pursuing different liveli
Page 62 and 63: 2.3 Symbolic interaction theory and
Page 64 and 65: egging, and the pawning of women an
Page 66 and 67: to stress, especially to rapid popu
Page 68 and 69: climate, and socio-economic conditi
Page 70 and 71: livelihood security and sustainabil
Page 72 and 73: somewhat overlooked by the liveliho
Page 74 and 75: and the degree of variations (or ho
Page 76 and 77: The reasons for choosing Morulem as
Page 78 and 79: Figure 5: Total households in each
Page 80 and 81: Sampling key informants: There was
Page 82 and 83: Library research was carried out at
Page 84 and 85: Once I had found somewhere to live
Page 86 and 87: interviews (nine days for Morulem a
Page 88 and 89: constituted changes in response to
Page 90 and 91: interviewing the Turkana pastoralis
Page 92 and 93: directly and gave me the reasons wh
Page 94 and 95: a vehicle could bring to a rural pa
Page 96 and 97: with my 3 rd wife. Obviously, it wa
Page 98 and 99:
interviews and/or interviewees. The
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in reciprocal claims and social net
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to thorough analysis to eliminate a
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me for a period of two years to ass
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CHAPTER 4 THE TURKANA REGION: HISTO
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4.2 Brief historical background of
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group rapidly expanded and migrated
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Pokot. East of the Pokot and in the
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The Turkana know their environment
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July. Precipitation is somewhat cor
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Figure 7 Population projections by
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normally get access to graze their
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and Suguta. According to Norconsult
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forming a canopy forest with little
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capital, and the material culture o
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Kenya and Sudan. There are shortfal
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secondary schools, as compared to b
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the medical services and end up dea
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stock, greatly depends on the avail
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Traditionally, livestock ownership
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The importance of livestock in the
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informants, relatives, neighbours a
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to pay bridewealth (Key Informant I
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For instance, Apthorpe (1986) estab
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the same clan, and to avoid giving
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Figure 13: Married Turkana women. 9
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Informants argued that when a widow
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has made visible efforts to develop
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people overtime. It is argued here
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stems from arguments raised by hist
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the history of the Turkana, drought
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also lead to conflict with other he
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5.2.2 History of Negative Policy En
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an ideological justification for co
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mobilisation of young men into well
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the British administration in Turka
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of northern West Kenya. The colonia
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fishing (Turkana Development Annual
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The project failed due to lack of s
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Similar problems hampered other dev
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influence of irregularly - and some
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uild shelters, the satellite camps
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neighbourhoods in an area of about
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As discussed previously, the Turkan
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Figure 17: Territorial sections in
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Each age-set has distinct character
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cutting of these species of trees f
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considerable period of time. He wou
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unsustainable costs. The Turkana lo
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CHAPTER 6 THE 2005-2006 DROUGHT IMP
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drought as compared to the 1979-198
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also foot and mouth disease which a
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informants explained that camels, u
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On the defence of pastures during p
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Crude computation of the data gives
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Figure 19: Interpretation of the ca
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ebellious warriors and their genera
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partly help to explain why not many
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interviews. It represented a consen
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asking for assistance is not only a
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able to maintain a fairly steady su
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limits. In 2006, the 10 public prim
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Number of students enrolled 90 80 7
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than group solidarity. 142 However,
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Table 11: Gifts exchanged by Turkan
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iii) Gift exchanges in Turkana duri
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Another respondent narrated how he
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when to give, sell or slaughter an
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that emerged during the 2005-2006 d
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passively, but ventured out creativ
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CHAPTER 7 FACTORS THAT IMPINGE ON A
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According to Table 14, the two stud
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To appreciate the analysis in Table
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estimating global income poverty fi
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it was clear that respondents were
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‘poor’ category though reduced
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Notes: • Households in each categ
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environment became quite marked. Ap
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Notes: I) The food sources were arr
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7.5 Chapter summary The major focus
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strategies in one approach. How pas
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the puzzling problem with numbers.
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The sustainable livelihood model ha
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that Turkana people are passive and
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nation is usually caught unaware of
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Baker, M. J., and Lovenbury, H. T.
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Chambers, R. (1995). Poverty and Li
Page 272 and 273:
Dietz, A. J., and Salih, M. A. M. (
Page 274 and 275:
Goldschmidt, W. (1969). Kambuya's C
Page 276 and 277:
Kabeer, N. (2000b). Resources, Agen
Page 278 and 279:
McCabe, J. T. (1990). Success and F
Page 280 and 281:
Pennings, J. M. E., and Smidts, A.
Page 282 and 283:
Soja, E. (1968). The Geography of M
Page 284 and 285:
Von Hohnel, L. (1894). Discovery of
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Appendices Appendix 1: Household Pr
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3………………………….. 1
Page 290 and 291:
Appendix 3: Key Informants Schedule
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Appendix 5: Gender and the Division
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Appendix 7: Introductory Letter fro
Page 296 and 297:
Appendix 9: Pre and Post the 2005-2
Page 298 and 299:
Appendix 10: Pre and Post the 2005-
Page 300 and 301:
285
Page 302 and 303:
287
Page 304:
289
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