PhD thesis Title Page Final _Richard Juma - Victoria University ...

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Notes: I) The food sources were arranged in terms of those relied on at all times, early dry seasons, late dry seasons, and during severe drought conditions. ii) The Ngibelai and Ngisonyoka appeared to have relied heavily on their social networks during the 2005-2006 drought and famine. Secondly, Morulem is isolated and far removed from any major population concentration centre such as towns or markets. In other words, it is remote, with a poorly developed social and economic infrastructure. The pastoralists, who live around Lokichar are, on the other hand, blessed in having a more favourable environment. They live near Lokichar market and are accessible to Lodwar town. 166 These are areas of diversified economies as opposed to almost pure pastoral economy of the Morulem ecosystem. Therefore, the Ngisonyoka were more exposed to the modern sector of the economy than the Ngibelai, and were better placed to pursue many ends to top up their domestic food reserves. For instance, one respondent at Lokichar village narrated how his family survived, and from a content analysis of his story, one may see a people responding to a much more socially and economically dynamic environment. One key informant from Lokichar village, an old man aged 68 years, captured the views of many respondents interviewed at Lokichar village. The key informant stated as follows: I engaged in small scale business at Lokichar market. I survived on (posho) maize meal bought from oria (Somali) traders in exchange for skins. My wife also bought grain using skins and some of her ornaments. At the end of 2006, Catholic priests at Lokichar parish were giving rice and cooking fat to those ready to do manual labour at their church. I then took up the job at the Catholic Church. I had five children and they all 166 As already mentioned in previous chapters, Lodwar town is the Turkana District. Headquarters. 239
survived (Key Informant Interview 13 th February 2007, Lokichar Village). The argument advanced here is that this wide range of opportunities at Lokichar locality saved the people. Therefore, diversification 167 acted as a safety valve in this case. It signalled efforts by the Ngisonyoka to actively manage vulnerability to the 2005-2006 drought and famine. This finding is supported by studies suggesting that it is the maintenance and continuous adaptation of a highly diverse portfolio of activities that is a distinguishing feature of rural survival strategies in contemporary poor countries 168 (Haggblade, Hazell, and Brown 1989; Reardon 1997; Von Braun and Pandya-Lorch 1991). However, the nature of diversification for livelihood depends on the context in which it takes place. For instance, in the case of Turkana pastoralists, it is worth noting that the Ngisonyoka involvement in so many survival strategies may also have been a sign of distress, for there is risk of misinterpretation of diversification for a thriving economy and robust community and household livelihoods. Thirdly, respondents explained that the inter-tribal feuds between the Ngibelai territorial section and their neighbours the Pokot tribe precluded symbiotic interaction. Consequently, the only symbiotic interaction during the 2005-2006 drought and famine under study was between the Turkana and the Merille of Ethiopia through the Namuruputh gateway. Yet, ironically, the Turkana share a much closer border with the Pokot than they do with the Merille. Thus, on account of their living close to the Pokot, the Ngibelai became greater victims of the forays from across the Pokot border than the Ngisonyoka. In this regard, we can argue that the Ngibelai environment is hostile and militates against adaptability. 167 In this study, livelihood diversification refers to the process by which the households studied constructed a diverse portfolio of activities and social support capabilities in their struggle for survival and in order to improve their standard of living. 168 According to World Bank World Development Report (2006), Kenya is among the poor countries (World Bank 2006). 240
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Turkana livelihood strategies and a
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Abstract Drought and famine in Sub-
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Acknowledgement This work was carri
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Table of contents Abstract ........
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4.7 demographic considerations ....
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CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF
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Figure 22 Percentage loss in livest
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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Historic
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settlers and indigenous farmers. Si
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esults in increased deterioration o
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prolonged droughts as herders 3 los
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disease infection as they became vi
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Figure 1: Map of Turkana the study
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temporary assistance to impoverishe
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local patterns of adjustment to dro
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stress (Soja 1968). The ability to
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strategies 19 and achievement of su
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Therefore, the main goal of this st
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Devereux and Naeraa (1996); Hussein
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neighbours, such as the Samburu, an
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occupation of the poor (Robinson 19
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are aimed to directly reduce pressu
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1.6 Justification for the study. Th
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placed on the contribution of socia
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CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1
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2.2 Emergence of the sustainable li
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livelihood to cope with and recover
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change and development. Here, it im
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Figure 3: A framework for micro-pol
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draw when pursuing different liveli
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2.3 Symbolic interaction theory and
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egging, and the pawning of women an
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to stress, especially to rapid popu
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climate, and socio-economic conditi
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livelihood security and sustainabil
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somewhat overlooked by the liveliho
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and the degree of variations (or ho
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The reasons for choosing Morulem as
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Figure 5: Total households in each
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Sampling key informants: There was
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Library research was carried out at
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Once I had found somewhere to live
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interviews (nine days for Morulem a
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constituted changes in response to
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interviewing the Turkana pastoralis
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directly and gave me the reasons wh
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a vehicle could bring to a rural pa
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with my 3 rd wife. Obviously, it wa
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interviews and/or interviewees. The
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in reciprocal claims and social net
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to thorough analysis to eliminate a
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me for a period of two years to ass
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CHAPTER 4 THE TURKANA REGION: HISTO
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4.2 Brief historical background of
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group rapidly expanded and migrated
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Pokot. East of the Pokot and in the
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The Turkana know their environment
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July. Precipitation is somewhat cor
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Figure 7 Population projections by
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normally get access to graze their
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and Suguta. According to Norconsult
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forming a canopy forest with little
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capital, and the material culture o
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Kenya and Sudan. There are shortfal
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secondary schools, as compared to b
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the medical services and end up dea
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stock, greatly depends on the avail
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Traditionally, livestock ownership
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The importance of livestock in the
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informants, relatives, neighbours a
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to pay bridewealth (Key Informant I
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For instance, Apthorpe (1986) estab
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the same clan, and to avoid giving
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Figure 13: Married Turkana women. 9
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Informants argued that when a widow
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has made visible efforts to develop
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people overtime. It is argued here
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stems from arguments raised by hist
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the history of the Turkana, drought
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also lead to conflict with other he
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5.2.2 History of Negative Policy En
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an ideological justification for co
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mobilisation of young men into well
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the British administration in Turka
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of northern West Kenya. The colonia
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fishing (Turkana Development Annual
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The project failed due to lack of s
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Similar problems hampered other dev
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influence of irregularly - and some
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uild shelters, the satellite camps
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neighbourhoods in an area of about
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As discussed previously, the Turkan
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Figure 17: Territorial sections in
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Each age-set has distinct character
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cutting of these species of trees f
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considerable period of time. He wou
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unsustainable costs. The Turkana lo
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CHAPTER 6 THE 2005-2006 DROUGHT IMP
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drought as compared to the 1979-198
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also foot and mouth disease which a
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informants explained that camels, u
Page 204 and 205: On the defence of pastures during p
Page 206 and 207: Crude computation of the data gives
Page 208 and 209: Figure 19: Interpretation of the ca
Page 210 and 211: ebellious warriors and their genera
Page 212 and 213: partly help to explain why not many
Page 214 and 215: interviews. It represented a consen
Page 216 and 217: asking for assistance is not only a
Page 218 and 219: able to maintain a fairly steady su
Page 220 and 221: limits. In 2006, the 10 public prim
Page 222 and 223: Number of students enrolled 90 80 7
Page 224 and 225: than group solidarity. 142 However,
Page 226 and 227: Table 11: Gifts exchanged by Turkan
Page 228 and 229: iii) Gift exchanges in Turkana duri
Page 230 and 231: Another respondent narrated how he
Page 232 and 233: when to give, sell or slaughter an
Page 234 and 235: that emerged during the 2005-2006 d
Page 236 and 237: passively, but ventured out creativ
Page 238 and 239: CHAPTER 7 FACTORS THAT IMPINGE ON A
Page 240 and 241: According to Table 14, the two stud
Page 242 and 243: To appreciate the analysis in Table
Page 244 and 245: estimating global income poverty fi
Page 246 and 247: it was clear that respondents were
Page 248 and 249: ‘poor’ category though reduced
Page 250 and 251: Notes: • Households in each categ
Page 252 and 253: environment became quite marked. Ap
Page 256 and 257: 7.5 Chapter summary The major focus
Page 258 and 259: strategies in one approach. How pas
Page 260 and 261: the puzzling problem with numbers.
Page 262 and 263: The sustainable livelihood model ha
Page 264 and 265: that Turkana people are passive and
Page 266 and 267: nation is usually caught unaware of
Page 268 and 269: Baker, M. J., and Lovenbury, H. T.
Page 270 and 271: Chambers, R. (1995). Poverty and Li
Page 272 and 273: Dietz, A. J., and Salih, M. A. M. (
Page 274 and 275: Goldschmidt, W. (1969). Kambuya's C
Page 276 and 277: Kabeer, N. (2000b). Resources, Agen
Page 278 and 279: McCabe, J. T. (1990). Success and F
Page 280 and 281: Pennings, J. M. E., and Smidts, A.
Page 282 and 283: Soja, E. (1968). The Geography of M
Page 284 and 285: Von Hohnel, L. (1894). Discovery of
Page 286 and 287: Appendices Appendix 1: Household Pr
Page 288 and 289: 3………………………….. 1
Page 290 and 291: Appendix 3: Key Informants Schedule
Page 292 and 293: Appendix 5: Gender and the Division
Page 294 and 295: Appendix 7: Introductory Letter fro
Page 296 and 297: Appendix 9: Pre and Post the 2005-2
Page 298 and 299: Appendix 10: Pre and Post the 2005-
Page 300 and 301: 285
Page 302 and 303: 287
Page 304:
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