PhD thesis Title Page Final _Richard Juma - Victoria University ...

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disease infection as they became victims of various diseases such as exophthalmia (acute vitamin A deficiency). A brief assessment conducted by the United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) in Turkana indicated that 25 per cent of the population suffered from malnutrition, that a large number of livestock died, and that a number of people dropped out of pastoralism and either now depend on food aid or have settled in peri- urban areas in search of employment (UNICEF 2006). With specific reference to recurrent drought problems in Africa, Glantz (1987) in his study proposed that livelihood intervention efforts in Africa should take drought into account as an expected event, and that for intervention programs to be viable, they must be designed with the ability to cope with the stress associated with drought. While supporting this line of thought, O’Leary (1990) and World Bank (1995) in their findings, recommended that since drought stress has continuously caused long- term economic disruption in African arid and semi-arid lands, occupied by pastoralists, a proper formulation of sustainable livelihood intervention policy should begin with an understanding, and analysis of local perceptions of drought, and the indigenous knowledge of drought mitigation. However, Kenya could be said to be ahead of many African states in having a National Food Policy drawn as a result of the harsh lessons learnt from the 1979-1980 drought and famine. But the document is not the final treatise of Kenya’s food security question. The time when all Kenyans will have access to adequate food intake is nowhere near. 9
1.2 Research problem: Critical gap in response to drought and famine in the Turkana district, Kenya. This study broadly explores how Turkana 6 pastoralists 7 are able to sustain their livelihoods in increasingly arid conditions, and the most appropriate ways in which their livelihood strategies can be enhanced. The Turkana people represent an interesting example of how pastoralists adapt to arid environments and cope with a number of adversities that are profoundly affecting their livelihoods. These pastoralists are an ethno-linguistic group identified as a paranilotic 8 people who speak one language, Ngaturkana, and by 2006, were estimated to number approximately 568,020. 9 Like the majority of pastoralists in Africa, Turkana pastoralists’ have traditionally led a lifestyle geared towards subsistence production. Their principal asset and the primary source of their sustenance is livestock. They keep cattle, sheep, goats, camels, and donkeys, and their staple food is meat, milk, and blood (Republic of Kenya 2002). Their culture revolves around flexible movement of livestock in response to sparse, erratic rainfall, ephemeral vegetation, water and security needs. They have traditionally adapted to an ecological niche in the Northwestern part of Kenya known as the Turkana District (see Figure 1). 6 Turkana is the name of both a tribal group of people, and the geographical area (Turkana District) they inhabit in Northwestern Kenya. Turkana people call their area eturkan meaning Turkanaland (Lamphear 1992). 7 This study adapts Nikola’s (2006) definition of pastoralists as cattle keepers who reside in areas which receive less than 400mm of rainfall per year with a length of growing period of 0 to 75 days and where cropping is not practised, and derive more than 50 per cent of their livehood from livestock rearing through opportunistic tracking on communal lands. 8 See chapter 4 for detailed discussion of the origin of the Turkana people. 9 The last population census in Kenya was taken in 1999. It was estimated that the population of the Turkana District would increase from 450,860 persons in 1999 to 568,020 persons by 2006 (Republic of Kenya 2002: 18). 10
Page 1 and 2: Turkana livelihood strategies and a
Page 3 and 4: Abstract Drought and famine in Sub-
Page 5 and 6: Acknowledgement This work was carri
Page 7 and 8: Table of contents Abstract ........
Page 9 and 10: 4.7 demographic considerations ....
Page 11 and 12: CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF
Page 13 and 14: Figure 22 Percentage loss in livest
Page 16 and 17: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Historic
Page 18 and 19: settlers and indigenous farmers. Si
Page 20 and 21: esults in increased deterioration o
Page 22 and 23: prolonged droughts as herders 3 los
Page 26 and 27: Figure 1: Map of Turkana the study
Page 28 and 29: temporary assistance to impoverishe
Page 30 and 31: local patterns of adjustment to dro
Page 32 and 33: stress (Soja 1968). The ability to
Page 34 and 35: strategies 19 and achievement of su
Page 36 and 37: Therefore, the main goal of this st
Page 38 and 39: Devereux and Naeraa (1996); Hussein
Page 40 and 41: neighbours, such as the Samburu, an
Page 42 and 43: occupation of the poor (Robinson 19
Page 44 and 45: are aimed to directly reduce pressu
Page 46 and 47: 1.6 Justification for the study. Th
Page 48 and 49: placed on the contribution of socia
Page 50 and 51: CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1
Page 52 and 53: 2.2 Emergence of the sustainable li
Page 54 and 55: livelihood to cope with and recover
Page 56 and 57: change and development. Here, it im
Page 58 and 59: Figure 3: A framework for micro-pol
Page 60 and 61: draw when pursuing different liveli
Page 62 and 63: 2.3 Symbolic interaction theory and
Page 64 and 65: egging, and the pawning of women an
Page 66 and 67: to stress, especially to rapid popu
Page 68 and 69: climate, and socio-economic conditi
Page 70 and 71: livelihood security and sustainabil
Page 72 and 73: somewhat overlooked by the liveliho
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and the degree of variations (or ho
Page 76 and 77:
The reasons for choosing Morulem as
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Figure 5: Total households in each
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Sampling key informants: There was
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Library research was carried out at
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Once I had found somewhere to live
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interviews (nine days for Morulem a
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constituted changes in response to
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interviewing the Turkana pastoralis
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directly and gave me the reasons wh
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a vehicle could bring to a rural pa
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with my 3 rd wife. Obviously, it wa
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interviews and/or interviewees. The
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in reciprocal claims and social net
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to thorough analysis to eliminate a
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me for a period of two years to ass
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CHAPTER 4 THE TURKANA REGION: HISTO
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4.2 Brief historical background of
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group rapidly expanded and migrated
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Pokot. East of the Pokot and in the
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The Turkana know their environment
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July. Precipitation is somewhat cor
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Figure 7 Population projections by
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normally get access to graze their
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and Suguta. According to Norconsult
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forming a canopy forest with little
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capital, and the material culture o
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Kenya and Sudan. There are shortfal
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secondary schools, as compared to b
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the medical services and end up dea
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stock, greatly depends on the avail
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Traditionally, livestock ownership
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The importance of livestock in the
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informants, relatives, neighbours a
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to pay bridewealth (Key Informant I
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For instance, Apthorpe (1986) estab
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the same clan, and to avoid giving
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Figure 13: Married Turkana women. 9
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Informants argued that when a widow
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has made visible efforts to develop
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people overtime. It is argued here
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stems from arguments raised by hist
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the history of the Turkana, drought
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also lead to conflict with other he
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5.2.2 History of Negative Policy En
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an ideological justification for co
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mobilisation of young men into well
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the British administration in Turka
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of northern West Kenya. The colonia
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fishing (Turkana Development Annual
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The project failed due to lack of s
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Similar problems hampered other dev
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influence of irregularly - and some
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uild shelters, the satellite camps
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neighbourhoods in an area of about
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As discussed previously, the Turkan
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Figure 17: Territorial sections in
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Each age-set has distinct character
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cutting of these species of trees f
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considerable period of time. He wou
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unsustainable costs. The Turkana lo
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CHAPTER 6 THE 2005-2006 DROUGHT IMP
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drought as compared to the 1979-198
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also foot and mouth disease which a
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informants explained that camels, u
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On the defence of pastures during p
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Crude computation of the data gives
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Figure 19: Interpretation of the ca
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ebellious warriors and their genera
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partly help to explain why not many
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interviews. It represented a consen
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asking for assistance is not only a
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able to maintain a fairly steady su
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limits. In 2006, the 10 public prim
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Number of students enrolled 90 80 7
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than group solidarity. 142 However,
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Table 11: Gifts exchanged by Turkan
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iii) Gift exchanges in Turkana duri
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Another respondent narrated how he
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when to give, sell or slaughter an
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that emerged during the 2005-2006 d
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passively, but ventured out creativ
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CHAPTER 7 FACTORS THAT IMPINGE ON A
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According to Table 14, the two stud
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To appreciate the analysis in Table
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estimating global income poverty fi
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it was clear that respondents were
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‘poor’ category though reduced
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Notes: • Households in each categ
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environment became quite marked. Ap
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Notes: I) The food sources were arr
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7.5 Chapter summary The major focus
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strategies in one approach. How pas
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the puzzling problem with numbers.
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The sustainable livelihood model ha
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that Turkana people are passive and
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nation is usually caught unaware of
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Baker, M. J., and Lovenbury, H. T.
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Chambers, R. (1995). Poverty and Li
Page 272 and 273:
Dietz, A. J., and Salih, M. A. M. (
Page 274 and 275:
Goldschmidt, W. (1969). Kambuya's C
Page 276 and 277:
Kabeer, N. (2000b). Resources, Agen
Page 278 and 279:
McCabe, J. T. (1990). Success and F
Page 280 and 281:
Pennings, J. M. E., and Smidts, A.
Page 282 and 283:
Soja, E. (1968). The Geography of M
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Von Hohnel, L. (1894). Discovery of
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Appendices Appendix 1: Household Pr
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3………………………….. 1
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Appendix 3: Key Informants Schedule
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Appendix 5: Gender and the Division
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Appendix 7: Introductory Letter fro
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Appendix 9: Pre and Post the 2005-2
Page 298 and 299:
Appendix 10: Pre and Post the 2005-
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285
Page 302 and 303:
287
Page 304:
289
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