PhD thesis Title Page Final _Richard Juma - Victoria University ...

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CHAPTER 7 FACTORS THAT IMPINGE ON ADAPTABILITY IN THE TURKANA DISTRICT 7.1 Introduction. The previous chapter described livelihoods in the two study villages by focusing on the impact of the 2005-2006 drought and famine, local people’s perception and awareness of the situation, and subsequent indigenous responses through their social networks. It was pointed out that the ultimate purpose in cultivating relationships is to gain access to economic opportunities that enable Turkana pastoralists suffering from food shortages to obtain additional food supplies to top up their household food reserves. Some of these responses are explicitly recognised in the livelihood framework, while others are less obvious, yet still relate to the Turkana people’s livelihood situation. In this chapter, it is argued that responses to drought and famine as discussed in Chapter 6 do not take place in a vacuum. Turkana people respond to such situations in complex and creative ways based on the resources accessible to them. For instance, issues relating to the ability of households with different resource endowment to undertake the activities, and the types of resources required are quite important in understanding a community’s livelihood response. Swift (1989), Chambers (1989), Moser (1998), Siegel and Alwang (1999) and Ellis (2000) have presented arguments that closely link vulnerability to asset ownership and generally suggest that, if a person’s livelihood platform is weak, his or her livelihood strategies are limited, and the outcome may be poverty. On the other hand, a person with a strong livelihood platform has many strings to play, and may be able to secure his or her livelihood, even in crisis. Therefore, a critical analysis of some of the socio-economic resources that impede Turkana people’s adaptability would help to deepen our understanding of their situation and enlighten us on what can be done to strengthen their adaptability. 223
In the methodology chapter, it was explained that to understand all the resources which impinge on adaptability in the Turkana District, it was necessary to assume that Turkana households, as with other pastoral households in Sub-Saharan Africa, are not homogenous. Therefore, the sample population was categorized into rural and urban. Two study villages, Morulem and Lokichar, which were rural and urban respectively, were identified and used as research sites. This chapter is divided into two parts. The first part will analyse if there existed any differences in the impact of the 2005-2006 droughts and famine on the sample population at Morulem and Lokichar villages taken separately. As mentioned in Chapter 6, the impact of drought will be measured in terms of ‘livestock losses’ and changes in post drought wealth statuses of households in the two localities, while the impact of famine will be analysed in terms of ‘human losses’. 153 On the basis of the results, we will then proceed to the second part of the chapter and discuss the factors which impinge on adaptability. 7.2 Impact of 2005-2006 droughts on Morulem and Lokichar residents. 7.2.1 Livestock losses at Morulem and Lokichar Villages. As stated above, for us to find out if there were any differences in the two study villages in terms of livestock losses, the size of each family’s herds prior and after drought was calculated. Then, the difference between each family’s herds prior to, and after drought was also calculated to enable us get the percentage death rate. This is shown in table 14 below 154. 153 As already mentioned in chapter 6, it is true there could be other ways of determining the impact of drought scientifically, but in this study ‘livestock losses’ were used as a measuring tool. 154 See appendix 9 for the full data. 224
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Turkana livelihood strategies and a
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Abstract Drought and famine in Sub-
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Acknowledgement This work was carri
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Table of contents Abstract ........
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4.7 demographic considerations ....
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CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF
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Figure 22 Percentage loss in livest
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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Historic
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settlers and indigenous farmers. Si
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esults in increased deterioration o
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prolonged droughts as herders 3 los
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disease infection as they became vi
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Figure 1: Map of Turkana the study
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temporary assistance to impoverishe
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local patterns of adjustment to dro
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stress (Soja 1968). The ability to
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strategies 19 and achievement of su
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Therefore, the main goal of this st
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Devereux and Naeraa (1996); Hussein
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neighbours, such as the Samburu, an
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occupation of the poor (Robinson 19
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are aimed to directly reduce pressu
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1.6 Justification for the study. Th
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placed on the contribution of socia
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CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1
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2.2 Emergence of the sustainable li
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livelihood to cope with and recover
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change and development. Here, it im
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Figure 3: A framework for micro-pol
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draw when pursuing different liveli
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2.3 Symbolic interaction theory and
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egging, and the pawning of women an
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to stress, especially to rapid popu
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climate, and socio-economic conditi
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livelihood security and sustainabil
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somewhat overlooked by the liveliho
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and the degree of variations (or ho
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The reasons for choosing Morulem as
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Figure 5: Total households in each
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Sampling key informants: There was
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Library research was carried out at
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Once I had found somewhere to live
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interviews (nine days for Morulem a
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constituted changes in response to
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interviewing the Turkana pastoralis
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directly and gave me the reasons wh
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a vehicle could bring to a rural pa
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with my 3 rd wife. Obviously, it wa
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interviews and/or interviewees. The
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in reciprocal claims and social net
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to thorough analysis to eliminate a
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me for a period of two years to ass
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CHAPTER 4 THE TURKANA REGION: HISTO
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4.2 Brief historical background of
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group rapidly expanded and migrated
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Pokot. East of the Pokot and in the
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The Turkana know their environment
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July. Precipitation is somewhat cor
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Figure 7 Population projections by
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normally get access to graze their
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and Suguta. According to Norconsult
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forming a canopy forest with little
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capital, and the material culture o
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Kenya and Sudan. There are shortfal
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secondary schools, as compared to b
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the medical services and end up dea
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stock, greatly depends on the avail
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Traditionally, livestock ownership
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The importance of livestock in the
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informants, relatives, neighbours a
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to pay bridewealth (Key Informant I
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For instance, Apthorpe (1986) estab
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the same clan, and to avoid giving
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Figure 13: Married Turkana women. 9
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Informants argued that when a widow
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has made visible efforts to develop
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people overtime. It is argued here
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stems from arguments raised by hist
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the history of the Turkana, drought
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also lead to conflict with other he
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5.2.2 History of Negative Policy En
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an ideological justification for co
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mobilisation of young men into well
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the British administration in Turka
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of northern West Kenya. The colonia
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fishing (Turkana Development Annual
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The project failed due to lack of s
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Similar problems hampered other dev
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influence of irregularly - and some
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uild shelters, the satellite camps
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neighbourhoods in an area of about
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As discussed previously, the Turkan
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Figure 17: Territorial sections in
Page 188 and 189: Each age-set has distinct character
Page 190 and 191: cutting of these species of trees f
Page 192 and 193: considerable period of time. He wou
Page 194 and 195: unsustainable costs. The Turkana lo
Page 196 and 197: CHAPTER 6 THE 2005-2006 DROUGHT IMP
Page 198 and 199: drought as compared to the 1979-198
Page 200 and 201: also foot and mouth disease which a
Page 202 and 203: informants explained that camels, u
Page 204 and 205: On the defence of pastures during p
Page 206 and 207: Crude computation of the data gives
Page 208 and 209: Figure 19: Interpretation of the ca
Page 210 and 211: ebellious warriors and their genera
Page 212 and 213: partly help to explain why not many
Page 214 and 215: interviews. It represented a consen
Page 216 and 217: asking for assistance is not only a
Page 218 and 219: able to maintain a fairly steady su
Page 220 and 221: limits. In 2006, the 10 public prim
Page 222 and 223: Number of students enrolled 90 80 7
Page 224 and 225: than group solidarity. 142 However,
Page 226 and 227: Table 11: Gifts exchanged by Turkan
Page 228 and 229: iii) Gift exchanges in Turkana duri
Page 230 and 231: Another respondent narrated how he
Page 232 and 233: when to give, sell or slaughter an
Page 234 and 235: that emerged during the 2005-2006 d
Page 236 and 237: passively, but ventured out creativ
Page 240 and 241: According to Table 14, the two stud
Page 242 and 243: To appreciate the analysis in Table
Page 244 and 245: estimating global income poverty fi
Page 246 and 247: it was clear that respondents were
Page 248 and 249: ‘poor’ category though reduced
Page 250 and 251: Notes: • Households in each categ
Page 252 and 253: environment became quite marked. Ap
Page 254 and 255: Notes: I) The food sources were arr
Page 256 and 257: 7.5 Chapter summary The major focus
Page 258 and 259: strategies in one approach. How pas
Page 260 and 261: the puzzling problem with numbers.
Page 262 and 263: The sustainable livelihood model ha
Page 264 and 265: that Turkana people are passive and
Page 266 and 267: nation is usually caught unaware of
Page 268 and 269: Baker, M. J., and Lovenbury, H. T.
Page 270 and 271: Chambers, R. (1995). Poverty and Li
Page 272 and 273: Dietz, A. J., and Salih, M. A. M. (
Page 274 and 275: Goldschmidt, W. (1969). Kambuya's C
Page 276 and 277: Kabeer, N. (2000b). Resources, Agen
Page 278 and 279: McCabe, J. T. (1990). Success and F
Page 280 and 281: Pennings, J. M. E., and Smidts, A.
Page 282 and 283: Soja, E. (1968). The Geography of M
Page 284 and 285: Von Hohnel, L. (1894). Discovery of
Page 286 and 287: Appendices Appendix 1: Household Pr
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3………………………….. 1
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Appendix 3: Key Informants Schedule
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Appendix 5: Gender and the Division
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Appendix 7: Introductory Letter fro
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Appendix 9: Pre and Post the 2005-2
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Appendix 10: Pre and Post the 2005-
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285
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287
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