PhD thesis Title Page Final _Richard Juma - Victoria University ...

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than group solidarity. 142 However, as discussed below, friendly cooperation did take place among kin, neighbours, and friends. I argue, however, that perhaps the stresses did not reach the extreme peak that leads to a downward curve, following the Laughlin and Brady model. 6.5.5: Reciprocity and exchange. In Turkana society, there is a difference between ‘asking’ (akilip) for an animal and ‘exchanging’ (akilokony) an animal. When a man ‘asks’ for an animal, “he simply asks for it”. For example, he might say, “my children are hungry and I need a milking cow”. In such cases, “you do not tell the man you will give him something later”. To exchange (akilokony), one goes to a man who is known to have a surplus of the wanted or needed animals; if both parties are willing, an exchange is made. “Exchanging is like buying something” and both parties are mutual beneficiaries. Akilokony is a way to increase or diversify the herds. The concept of reciprocity is an important and often overlooked aspect of Turkana survival, but it is an essential aspect of their ability to survive their environment. To fully appreciate reciprocity in Turkana society, one must abandon western notions of the concept. Although westerners may value the concept, they do not practice it to the extent that the Turkana do during a crisis. The western/agrarian ideal of saving seems contradictory to the practice of reciprocity in the Turkana District. Reciprocity is an intimate part of the social fabric of nomadic Turkana culture. It is altruistic behaviour and its benefits outweigh the costs. In Turkana, the cost, or risk, of not reciprocating is social ostracism. Generally, the act of reciprocity is uniformly adhered to in Turkana culture, and a herd owner can be confident that a gift (cost) today will probably yield a greater needed gift-in-return (benefit) at some point in the future. In effect, the more one 142 This was a mere observation, as it is beyond the scope of this study to analyze the Turkana social structure. 209
gives, the more (social) security one can accumulate for the future. Informants stated as follows: People who do not reciprocate are not good. How can people survive if they do not reciprocate to those who gave to them when they were faced with a problem? When you go to someone’s awi and they give you food when you don’t have any, you need to reciprocate when you do have some. Those who don’t reciprocate are like wild animals. Next time you will not even talk to them (Household Interview 5 th July 2007, Morulem Village; Household Interview 10 th June 2007, Lokicahr Village). This Turkana behaviour of reciprocity is quite similar to what has been observed among other communities in Sub-Saharan Africa. For instance, Mauss (1967) pointed out that in a number of civilisations, exchanges and contracts take place in the form of presents; in theory these are voluntary, but in reality they are given and reciprocated obligatorily. On reciprocity, a number of gifts were exchanged during the 2005-2006 drought and famine. Respondents pointed out that Turkana society is organised around the allocation of resources through gifts: gifts are mostly distributed within the family and kin group and among friends and individuals when each other is in need and must be acknowledged for it. They mentioned that gift exchange are very common during crises, but also help in making and nurturing social ties. 84 respondents (approximately 95 percent) interviewed said that during the 2005-2006 drought and famine, they exchanged some gifts with their friends and relatives through the traditional hospitality system. The major categories are shown in Table 11. Similarly, they indicated that they could not remember having given away much due to the depletion of their household resources. Moreover, respondents reiterated that the mass wandering and dispersals (see Figure 23) due to the 2005-2006 droughts tended to bring friends and relatives together, making immediate contact and exchange of gifts feasible. 210
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Turkana livelihood strategies and a
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Abstract Drought and famine in Sub-
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Acknowledgement This work was carri
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Table of contents Abstract ........
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4.7 demographic considerations ....
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CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF
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Figure 22 Percentage loss in livest
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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Historic
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settlers and indigenous farmers. Si
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esults in increased deterioration o
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prolonged droughts as herders 3 los
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disease infection as they became vi
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Figure 1: Map of Turkana the study
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temporary assistance to impoverishe
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local patterns of adjustment to dro
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stress (Soja 1968). The ability to
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strategies 19 and achievement of su
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Therefore, the main goal of this st
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Devereux and Naeraa (1996); Hussein
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neighbours, such as the Samburu, an
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occupation of the poor (Robinson 19
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are aimed to directly reduce pressu
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1.6 Justification for the study. Th
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placed on the contribution of socia
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CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1
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2.2 Emergence of the sustainable li
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livelihood to cope with and recover
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change and development. Here, it im
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Figure 3: A framework for micro-pol
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draw when pursuing different liveli
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2.3 Symbolic interaction theory and
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egging, and the pawning of women an
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to stress, especially to rapid popu
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climate, and socio-economic conditi
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livelihood security and sustainabil
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somewhat overlooked by the liveliho
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and the degree of variations (or ho
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The reasons for choosing Morulem as
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Figure 5: Total households in each
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Sampling key informants: There was
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Library research was carried out at
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Once I had found somewhere to live
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interviews (nine days for Morulem a
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constituted changes in response to
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interviewing the Turkana pastoralis
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directly and gave me the reasons wh
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a vehicle could bring to a rural pa
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with my 3 rd wife. Obviously, it wa
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interviews and/or interviewees. The
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in reciprocal claims and social net
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to thorough analysis to eliminate a
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me for a period of two years to ass
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CHAPTER 4 THE TURKANA REGION: HISTO
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4.2 Brief historical background of
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group rapidly expanded and migrated
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Pokot. East of the Pokot and in the
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The Turkana know their environment
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July. Precipitation is somewhat cor
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Figure 7 Population projections by
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normally get access to graze their
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and Suguta. According to Norconsult
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forming a canopy forest with little
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capital, and the material culture o
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Kenya and Sudan. There are shortfal
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secondary schools, as compared to b
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the medical services and end up dea
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stock, greatly depends on the avail
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Traditionally, livestock ownership
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The importance of livestock in the
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informants, relatives, neighbours a
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to pay bridewealth (Key Informant I
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For instance, Apthorpe (1986) estab
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the same clan, and to avoid giving
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Figure 13: Married Turkana women. 9
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Informants argued that when a widow
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has made visible efforts to develop
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people overtime. It is argued here
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stems from arguments raised by hist
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the history of the Turkana, drought
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also lead to conflict with other he
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5.2.2 History of Negative Policy En
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an ideological justification for co
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mobilisation of young men into well
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the British administration in Turka
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of northern West Kenya. The colonia
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fishing (Turkana Development Annual
Page 174 and 175: The project failed due to lack of s
Page 176 and 177: Similar problems hampered other dev
Page 178 and 179: influence of irregularly - and some
Page 180 and 181: uild shelters, the satellite camps
Page 182 and 183: neighbourhoods in an area of about
Page 184 and 185: As discussed previously, the Turkan
Page 186 and 187: Figure 17: Territorial sections in
Page 188 and 189: Each age-set has distinct character
Page 190 and 191: cutting of these species of trees f
Page 192 and 193: considerable period of time. He wou
Page 194 and 195: unsustainable costs. The Turkana lo
Page 196 and 197: CHAPTER 6 THE 2005-2006 DROUGHT IMP
Page 198 and 199: drought as compared to the 1979-198
Page 200 and 201: also foot and mouth disease which a
Page 202 and 203: informants explained that camels, u
Page 204 and 205: On the defence of pastures during p
Page 206 and 207: Crude computation of the data gives
Page 208 and 209: Figure 19: Interpretation of the ca
Page 210 and 211: ebellious warriors and their genera
Page 212 and 213: partly help to explain why not many
Page 214 and 215: interviews. It represented a consen
Page 216 and 217: asking for assistance is not only a
Page 218 and 219: able to maintain a fairly steady su
Page 220 and 221: limits. In 2006, the 10 public prim
Page 222 and 223: Number of students enrolled 90 80 7
Page 226 and 227: Table 11: Gifts exchanged by Turkan
Page 228 and 229: iii) Gift exchanges in Turkana duri
Page 230 and 231: Another respondent narrated how he
Page 232 and 233: when to give, sell or slaughter an
Page 234 and 235: that emerged during the 2005-2006 d
Page 236 and 237: passively, but ventured out creativ
Page 238 and 239: CHAPTER 7 FACTORS THAT IMPINGE ON A
Page 240 and 241: According to Table 14, the two stud
Page 242 and 243: To appreciate the analysis in Table
Page 244 and 245: estimating global income poverty fi
Page 246 and 247: it was clear that respondents were
Page 248 and 249: ‘poor’ category though reduced
Page 250 and 251: Notes: • Households in each categ
Page 252 and 253: environment became quite marked. Ap
Page 254 and 255: Notes: I) The food sources were arr
Page 256 and 257: 7.5 Chapter summary The major focus
Page 258 and 259: strategies in one approach. How pas
Page 260 and 261: the puzzling problem with numbers.
Page 262 and 263: The sustainable livelihood model ha
Page 264 and 265: that Turkana people are passive and
Page 266 and 267: nation is usually caught unaware of
Page 268 and 269: Baker, M. J., and Lovenbury, H. T.
Page 270 and 271: Chambers, R. (1995). Poverty and Li
Page 272 and 273: Dietz, A. J., and Salih, M. A. M. (
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Goldschmidt, W. (1969). Kambuya's C
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Kabeer, N. (2000b). Resources, Agen
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McCabe, J. T. (1990). Success and F
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Pennings, J. M. E., and Smidts, A.
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Soja, E. (1968). The Geography of M
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Von Hohnel, L. (1894). Discovery of
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Appendices Appendix 1: Household Pr
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3………………………….. 1
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Appendix 3: Key Informants Schedule
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Appendix 5: Gender and the Division
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Appendix 7: Introductory Letter fro
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Appendix 9: Pre and Post the 2005-2
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Appendix 10: Pre and Post the 2005-
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285
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287
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289
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