PhD thesis Title Page Final _Richard Juma - Victoria University ...

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neighbourhoods in an area of about 10km². The homesteads are geographically close to each other and use the same water points and pastures or grazing areas (Gulliver 1955). Neighbourhoods provide some security from possible raids by bandits or neighbouring tribes. Neighbourhoods also play a regulatory role governing access to water, pasture, and general natural resource use by all members in a given geographical area. For example, during a prolonged drought, members from primary and secondary neighbourhoods may use the same pastures and water points. Apart from sharing resources, homesteads share corporate responsibility for maintaining water holes (Gulliver 1951). Informants pointed out that neighbourhoods act as a corporate system whereby members share food such as meat, milk, and grain in adverse ecological conditions. For example, heads of households would slaughter animals in turn and share meat with all members of the neighbourhood. Neighbourhoods also perform social roles or functions. Converging points in a neighbourhood such as water pools become centres for the dissemination of information on the state of pastures, timing of feasts, raiding plans or a place to barter goats, skins for grain or iron ware (Gulliver 1951). A neighbourhood is not a permanent social institution. It breaks up often and units would regroup in response to environmental changes. Changes in climatic conditions such as the change from wet to dry season pastoral conditions result in the movement of homesteads and hence the disintegration of neighbourhoods. Gulliver (1951) reported that the composition and locations of neighbourhoods fluctuates widely from year to year; my observation during fieldwork is that when the risk of raids or food crises is greater, an adakar grows, is more cohesive, and moves as a unit. 167
Stock-associates and Bond-friendships 112 (Lopae): Stock-associateship has been a practice among the Turkana people since pre-colonial times, and were not formed strictly within Turkana borders. These configurations are a major institution of collaboration among individual Turkana herders. It includes relatives and special friends whose relationships are built or strengthened by mutual assistance or the gift exchange of stock animals. One may seek stock in time of need and give stock when others are in need (Gulliver 1955). According to informants, when stock is depleted by epidemics or failures of pastures or drought, a person with insufficient stock to warrant a separate camp of his own would put his stock together with other stock associates to minimize the risk of disease or loss from raiding. Therefore, stock associateship is the core of social relations among the Turkana people whereby one may attend feasts and get food and shelter in the home of a stock associate. Each man’s circle of stock associates is a different network, both socially and geographically, and provides him with a type of support structure and mutual insurance. Gulliver (1951: 104-105) estimated that each herder has about 30 stock- associates. The exchange of animals involves much begging (Ngulip) and argument, which the Turkana enjoy. Gulliver (1955) identified two categories of stock associateship among the Turkana. The first category involves close agnates (Ngitungakan-my people), such as in-laws. In this category, reciprocal rights would involve gifts of cattle and the relationships are intense, reliable, and persist for a long time. The second category of stock associateship involves acquaintances or strangers (Ngikolomata). Reciprocal gifts would involve goats or sheep. The relationship diminishes with time and eventually dies (Gulliver 1955). 112 In this study the terms ‘special friend’ and ‘bond-friend’ are used interchangeably. The term means those whom you demand animal, food, or gift during hardships (crises), and you also have an obligation to give, when they are in hardships. In other words they are exchange relationships. 168
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Turkana livelihood strategies and a
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Abstract Drought and famine in Sub-
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Acknowledgement This work was carri
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Table of contents Abstract ........
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4.7 demographic considerations ....
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CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF
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Figure 22 Percentage loss in livest
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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Historic
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settlers and indigenous farmers. Si
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esults in increased deterioration o
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prolonged droughts as herders 3 los
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disease infection as they became vi
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Figure 1: Map of Turkana the study
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temporary assistance to impoverishe
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local patterns of adjustment to dro
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stress (Soja 1968). The ability to
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strategies 19 and achievement of su
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Therefore, the main goal of this st
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Devereux and Naeraa (1996); Hussein
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neighbours, such as the Samburu, an
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occupation of the poor (Robinson 19
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are aimed to directly reduce pressu
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1.6 Justification for the study. Th
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placed on the contribution of socia
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CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1
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2.2 Emergence of the sustainable li
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livelihood to cope with and recover
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change and development. Here, it im
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Figure 3: A framework for micro-pol
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draw when pursuing different liveli
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2.3 Symbolic interaction theory and
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egging, and the pawning of women an
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to stress, especially to rapid popu
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climate, and socio-economic conditi
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livelihood security and sustainabil
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somewhat overlooked by the liveliho
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and the degree of variations (or ho
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The reasons for choosing Morulem as
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Figure 5: Total households in each
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Sampling key informants: There was
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Library research was carried out at
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Once I had found somewhere to live
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interviews (nine days for Morulem a
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constituted changes in response to
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interviewing the Turkana pastoralis
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directly and gave me the reasons wh
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a vehicle could bring to a rural pa
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with my 3 rd wife. Obviously, it wa
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interviews and/or interviewees. The
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in reciprocal claims and social net
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to thorough analysis to eliminate a
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me for a period of two years to ass
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CHAPTER 4 THE TURKANA REGION: HISTO
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4.2 Brief historical background of
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group rapidly expanded and migrated
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Pokot. East of the Pokot and in the
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The Turkana know their environment
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July. Precipitation is somewhat cor
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Figure 7 Population projections by
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normally get access to graze their
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and Suguta. According to Norconsult
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forming a canopy forest with little
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capital, and the material culture o
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Kenya and Sudan. There are shortfal
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secondary schools, as compared to b
Page 132 and 133: the medical services and end up dea
Page 134 and 135: stock, greatly depends on the avail
Page 136 and 137: Traditionally, livestock ownership
Page 138 and 139: The importance of livestock in the
Page 140 and 141: informants, relatives, neighbours a
Page 142 and 143: to pay bridewealth (Key Informant I
Page 144 and 145: For instance, Apthorpe (1986) estab
Page 146 and 147: the same clan, and to avoid giving
Page 148 and 149: Figure 13: Married Turkana women. 9
Page 150 and 151: Informants argued that when a widow
Page 152 and 153: has made visible efforts to develop
Page 154 and 155: people overtime. It is argued here
Page 156 and 157: stems from arguments raised by hist
Page 158 and 159: the history of the Turkana, drought
Page 160 and 161: also lead to conflict with other he
Page 162 and 163: 5.2.2 History of Negative Policy En
Page 164 and 165: an ideological justification for co
Page 166 and 167: mobilisation of young men into well
Page 168 and 169: the British administration in Turka
Page 170 and 171: of northern West Kenya. The colonia
Page 172 and 173: fishing (Turkana Development Annual
Page 174 and 175: The project failed due to lack of s
Page 176 and 177: Similar problems hampered other dev
Page 178 and 179: influence of irregularly - and some
Page 180 and 181: uild shelters, the satellite camps
Page 184 and 185: As discussed previously, the Turkan
Page 186 and 187: Figure 17: Territorial sections in
Page 188 and 189: Each age-set has distinct character
Page 190 and 191: cutting of these species of trees f
Page 192 and 193: considerable period of time. He wou
Page 194 and 195: unsustainable costs. The Turkana lo
Page 196 and 197: CHAPTER 6 THE 2005-2006 DROUGHT IMP
Page 198 and 199: drought as compared to the 1979-198
Page 200 and 201: also foot and mouth disease which a
Page 202 and 203: informants explained that camels, u
Page 204 and 205: On the defence of pastures during p
Page 206 and 207: Crude computation of the data gives
Page 208 and 209: Figure 19: Interpretation of the ca
Page 210 and 211: ebellious warriors and their genera
Page 212 and 213: partly help to explain why not many
Page 214 and 215: interviews. It represented a consen
Page 216 and 217: asking for assistance is not only a
Page 218 and 219: able to maintain a fairly steady su
Page 220 and 221: limits. In 2006, the 10 public prim
Page 222 and 223: Number of students enrolled 90 80 7
Page 224 and 225: than group solidarity. 142 However,
Page 226 and 227: Table 11: Gifts exchanged by Turkan
Page 228 and 229: iii) Gift exchanges in Turkana duri
Page 230 and 231: Another respondent narrated how he
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when to give, sell or slaughter an
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that emerged during the 2005-2006 d
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passively, but ventured out creativ
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CHAPTER 7 FACTORS THAT IMPINGE ON A
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According to Table 14, the two stud
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To appreciate the analysis in Table
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estimating global income poverty fi
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it was clear that respondents were
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‘poor’ category though reduced
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Notes: • Households in each categ
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environment became quite marked. Ap
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Notes: I) The food sources were arr
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7.5 Chapter summary The major focus
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strategies in one approach. How pas
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the puzzling problem with numbers.
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The sustainable livelihood model ha
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that Turkana people are passive and
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nation is usually caught unaware of
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Baker, M. J., and Lovenbury, H. T.
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Chambers, R. (1995). Poverty and Li
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Dietz, A. J., and Salih, M. A. M. (
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Goldschmidt, W. (1969). Kambuya's C
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Kabeer, N. (2000b). Resources, Agen
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McCabe, J. T. (1990). Success and F
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Pennings, J. M. E., and Smidts, A.
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Soja, E. (1968). The Geography of M
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Von Hohnel, L. (1894). Discovery of
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Appendices Appendix 1: Household Pr
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3………………………….. 1
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Appendix 3: Key Informants Schedule
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Appendix 5: Gender and the Division
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Appendix 7: Introductory Letter fro
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Appendix 9: Pre and Post the 2005-2
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Appendix 10: Pre and Post the 2005-
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285
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287
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