PhD thesis Title Page Final _Richard Juma - Victoria University ...

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the history of the Turkana, drought occurrences have in most cases been followed by famines. Table 4: Major historical droughts and famines, names and descriptions among the Turkana. Year Local name (Turkana) Local perceptions 1925 Ekwakoit Bad hunger. 1930 Abrikae Drought and bad hunger. 1942 Lolewo Bad animal disease. 1943 Ekuwan loyang Drought and famine. 1947 Ataa nachoke Animal disease and famine. 1949 Ngilowi Animal disease. 1952 Lotira Animal disease, drought and famine. 1953- 1954 Lokulit Bad years, famine continued. 1960 Namotor Drought and famine. All people were starving. 1966 Etop Serious but short drought. 1971 Lolewo Cholera epidemic, many deaths. 1979- 1981 Loukoi (CCPP), Lopiar, Atanayanaye Animal disease (CCPP, anthrax), security problems, famine. 1984 Kilejok, Kidirik Minimal rain, animal raiding. 1990- 1992 Lopiar Skins everywhere, many livestock deaths. 1997 Etop Serious but short drought. 2005- 2006 Kumando Drought and bad hunger. Drought which terminated everything. Source: Swift (1985); Turkana Drought Contingency Unit (1992); and Field data (2007). 143
5.2.1.1 Phases of drought and effects in Turkana. It is now arguable that drought conditions in the Turkana area are becoming the norm while non-drought years are the exception (Levile and Crosskey 2006). But, in order to understand drought impacts in Turkana, one fundamental question needs to be answered: “How are Turkana pastoralist livelihoods affected by drought?” According to Swift (1985) and the Turkana Drought Contingency Unit (1992), drought conditions in Turkana have had serious implications in the past. The impact has mainly been on the herders’ economy and their social lives. Both Figures 14 and 15 provide an overview of the socio-economic implications of drought related stress in the Turkana District. Some of these drought related events will be analysed in chapters 6 and 7. According to Swift (1985), Norconsult (1990), Turkana Drought Contingency Unit (1992), and field respondents, the most direct effect of a shortage in rainfall on Turkana pastoralists’ livelihoods is the drying up of water sources and declining forage resources for livestock, as shown in both Figures 14 and 15. Livestock, which are the most important asset for Turkana pastoralists, are directly dependent on access to forage and water resources. Therefore, when forage supply is depleted, nutritional condition of livestock deteriorates, affecting their health, for example, their fertility and live weights. As seen in Figures 14 and 15, animal death rates increase, and, due to this, there are many skins on the market, and prices fall. Pastoral households increasingly try to sell or barter part of their animals, but market prices decline rapidly as there are few buyers. Cereals are not easily available since, in case of the nation-wide drought, the farm sector is affected by low production whereby cereal prices escalate, especially in the absence of price control. Alternative sources such as hunting and gathering, sale of firewood, and alternative income through casual employment could be sought. Movements become uneven, and households may break up to reduce the demand for food, though this may 144
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Turkana livelihood strategies and a
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Abstract Drought and famine in Sub-
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Acknowledgement This work was carri
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Table of contents Abstract ........
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4.7 demographic considerations ....
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CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF
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Figure 22 Percentage loss in livest
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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Historic
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settlers and indigenous farmers. Si
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esults in increased deterioration o
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prolonged droughts as herders 3 los
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disease infection as they became vi
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Figure 1: Map of Turkana the study
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temporary assistance to impoverishe
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local patterns of adjustment to dro
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stress (Soja 1968). The ability to
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strategies 19 and achievement of su
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Therefore, the main goal of this st
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Devereux and Naeraa (1996); Hussein
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neighbours, such as the Samburu, an
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occupation of the poor (Robinson 19
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are aimed to directly reduce pressu
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1.6 Justification for the study. Th
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placed on the contribution of socia
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CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1
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2.2 Emergence of the sustainable li
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livelihood to cope with and recover
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change and development. Here, it im
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Figure 3: A framework for micro-pol
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draw when pursuing different liveli
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2.3 Symbolic interaction theory and
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egging, and the pawning of women an
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to stress, especially to rapid popu
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climate, and socio-economic conditi
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livelihood security and sustainabil
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somewhat overlooked by the liveliho
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and the degree of variations (or ho
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The reasons for choosing Morulem as
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Figure 5: Total households in each
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Sampling key informants: There was
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Library research was carried out at
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Once I had found somewhere to live
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interviews (nine days for Morulem a
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constituted changes in response to
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interviewing the Turkana pastoralis
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directly and gave me the reasons wh
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a vehicle could bring to a rural pa
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with my 3 rd wife. Obviously, it wa
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interviews and/or interviewees. The
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in reciprocal claims and social net
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to thorough analysis to eliminate a
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me for a period of two years to ass
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CHAPTER 4 THE TURKANA REGION: HISTO
Page 108 and 109: 4.2 Brief historical background of
Page 110 and 111: group rapidly expanded and migrated
Page 112 and 113: Pokot. East of the Pokot and in the
Page 114 and 115: The Turkana know their environment
Page 116 and 117: July. Precipitation is somewhat cor
Page 118 and 119: Figure 7 Population projections by
Page 120 and 121: normally get access to graze their
Page 122 and 123: and Suguta. According to Norconsult
Page 124 and 125: forming a canopy forest with little
Page 126 and 127: capital, and the material culture o
Page 128 and 129: Kenya and Sudan. There are shortfal
Page 130 and 131: secondary schools, as compared to b
Page 132 and 133: the medical services and end up dea
Page 134 and 135: stock, greatly depends on the avail
Page 136 and 137: Traditionally, livestock ownership
Page 138 and 139: The importance of livestock in the
Page 140 and 141: informants, relatives, neighbours a
Page 142 and 143: to pay bridewealth (Key Informant I
Page 144 and 145: For instance, Apthorpe (1986) estab
Page 146 and 147: the same clan, and to avoid giving
Page 148 and 149: Figure 13: Married Turkana women. 9
Page 150 and 151: Informants argued that when a widow
Page 152 and 153: has made visible efforts to develop
Page 154 and 155: people overtime. It is argued here
Page 156 and 157: stems from arguments raised by hist
Page 160 and 161: also lead to conflict with other he
Page 162 and 163: 5.2.2 History of Negative Policy En
Page 164 and 165: an ideological justification for co
Page 166 and 167: mobilisation of young men into well
Page 168 and 169: the British administration in Turka
Page 170 and 171: of northern West Kenya. The colonia
Page 172 and 173: fishing (Turkana Development Annual
Page 174 and 175: The project failed due to lack of s
Page 176 and 177: Similar problems hampered other dev
Page 178 and 179: influence of irregularly - and some
Page 180 and 181: uild shelters, the satellite camps
Page 182 and 183: neighbourhoods in an area of about
Page 184 and 185: As discussed previously, the Turkan
Page 186 and 187: Figure 17: Territorial sections in
Page 188 and 189: Each age-set has distinct character
Page 190 and 191: cutting of these species of trees f
Page 192 and 193: considerable period of time. He wou
Page 194 and 195: unsustainable costs. The Turkana lo
Page 196 and 197: CHAPTER 6 THE 2005-2006 DROUGHT IMP
Page 198 and 199: drought as compared to the 1979-198
Page 200 and 201: also foot and mouth disease which a
Page 202 and 203: informants explained that camels, u
Page 204 and 205: On the defence of pastures during p
Page 206 and 207: Crude computation of the data gives
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Figure 19: Interpretation of the ca
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ebellious warriors and their genera
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partly help to explain why not many
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interviews. It represented a consen
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asking for assistance is not only a
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able to maintain a fairly steady su
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limits. In 2006, the 10 public prim
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Number of students enrolled 90 80 7
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than group solidarity. 142 However,
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Table 11: Gifts exchanged by Turkan
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iii) Gift exchanges in Turkana duri
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Another respondent narrated how he
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when to give, sell or slaughter an
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that emerged during the 2005-2006 d
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passively, but ventured out creativ
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CHAPTER 7 FACTORS THAT IMPINGE ON A
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According to Table 14, the two stud
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To appreciate the analysis in Table
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estimating global income poverty fi
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it was clear that respondents were
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‘poor’ category though reduced
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Notes: • Households in each categ
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environment became quite marked. Ap
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Notes: I) The food sources were arr
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7.5 Chapter summary The major focus
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strategies in one approach. How pas
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the puzzling problem with numbers.
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The sustainable livelihood model ha
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that Turkana people are passive and
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nation is usually caught unaware of
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Baker, M. J., and Lovenbury, H. T.
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Chambers, R. (1995). Poverty and Li
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Dietz, A. J., and Salih, M. A. M. (
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Goldschmidt, W. (1969). Kambuya's C
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Kabeer, N. (2000b). Resources, Agen
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McCabe, J. T. (1990). Success and F
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Pennings, J. M. E., and Smidts, A.
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Soja, E. (1968). The Geography of M
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Von Hohnel, L. (1894). Discovery of
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Appendices Appendix 1: Household Pr
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3………………………….. 1
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Appendix 3: Key Informants Schedule
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Appendix 5: Gender and the Division
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Appendix 7: Introductory Letter fro
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Appendix 9: Pre and Post the 2005-2
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Appendix 10: Pre and Post the 2005-
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285
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287
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289
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