PhD thesis Title Page Final _Richard Juma - Victoria University ...

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secondary schools, as compared to boys’. I realized that this is related to cultural practices, as most informants argued that educating a girl is seen as “a waste of money”, as they will move away from their family when they marry. A key informant (an old man from Morulem village) summarized the situation as follows: They [girls] are visitors; they will get married and move with their husbands. It is better to spend money in education of boys than girls (Key Informant Interview 6 th February 2007, Morulem village). A woman respondent (from Morulem village) added to this statement as follows: Some girls are sent to school, but in many cases parents do not see any benefits of investing money in a daughter’s education when they will marry her to another family. A woman’s voice cannot be heard, so when a father decides when his girls are to marry so he can get riches and cows, the mother keeps quiet, because traditionally mothers should not say anything (Key Informant Interview 15 th February 2007, Morulem village). These views about school enrolment in the Turkana District were summarised by one informant (an old man from Lokichar village). His opinion was shared by many people interviewed during the fieldwork. He stated as follows: Some children are not sent to school because the family needs their labour; some cannot afford to pay the fees and uniforms; many have no access to schools; and others see it as misuse of resources to send children to school when there are very few employment opportunities for those who have education (Key Informant Interview 7 th May 2007, Lokichar Village). . 115
Health: The major diseases that have regularly been reported in the Turkana District are malaria, skin diseases, respiratory tract infections, and diarrhoea (Republic of Kenya 2002; UNICEF 2006). Malaria can be prevented by the use of bed nets, but not everybody has the financial means to acquire nets. These are similar to what Bonfiglioll and Watson (1992) found to be common diseases among poor people throughout the World. Therefore, the interpretation could be that most Turkana people are generally poor. During my fieldwork, I learnt from a doctor stationed at Lodwar District hospital that one out of four children in the Turkana district is malnourished and undernourished. UNICEF has also tried to eradicate polio in many parts of the Turkana District through vaccination, but this has not been achieved in many parts of Turkana. Informants narrated how bad sanitation and hygiene contribute negatively to the health of the population. They claimed that only a few households have sanitary latrines. I observed that solid human waste is disposed in fields close to homesteads, and can make the area also susceptible to diseases. Animals are slaughtered near homesteads, and the remains are left for the flies and other parasites. Despite the fact that Turkana people are exposed to various diseases, there are very limited health centres in rural Turkana, and a doctor/patient ratio is estimated at 1:75,000 (Republic of Kenya 2002: 10). This is made worse by the fact that in Kenya, healthcare planning is centralised. Drugs and medical supplies sent to rural health centres are made centrally in Nairobi (capital city) and don’t always reflect the specific needs of the rural areas. The average distance to the nearest health facility in the Turkana District is 50 kilometres. Therefore, in cases where treatment is necessary, people have to travel long distances to hospital. As mentioned earlier, the infrastructure is very poor, and there is no reliable public transport system. The result is that many people who need assistance never reach 116
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Turkana livelihood strategies and a
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Abstract Drought and famine in Sub-
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Acknowledgement This work was carri
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Table of contents Abstract ........
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4.7 demographic considerations ....
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CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF
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Figure 22 Percentage loss in livest
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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Historic
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settlers and indigenous farmers. Si
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esults in increased deterioration o
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prolonged droughts as herders 3 los
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disease infection as they became vi
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Figure 1: Map of Turkana the study
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temporary assistance to impoverishe
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local patterns of adjustment to dro
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stress (Soja 1968). The ability to
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strategies 19 and achievement of su
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Therefore, the main goal of this st
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Devereux and Naeraa (1996); Hussein
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neighbours, such as the Samburu, an
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occupation of the poor (Robinson 19
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are aimed to directly reduce pressu
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1.6 Justification for the study. Th
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placed on the contribution of socia
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CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1
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2.2 Emergence of the sustainable li
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livelihood to cope with and recover
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change and development. Here, it im
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Figure 3: A framework for micro-pol
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draw when pursuing different liveli
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2.3 Symbolic interaction theory and
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egging, and the pawning of women an
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to stress, especially to rapid popu
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climate, and socio-economic conditi
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livelihood security and sustainabil
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somewhat overlooked by the liveliho
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and the degree of variations (or ho
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The reasons for choosing Morulem as
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Figure 5: Total households in each
Page 80 and 81: Sampling key informants: There was
Page 82 and 83: Library research was carried out at
Page 84 and 85: Once I had found somewhere to live
Page 86 and 87: interviews (nine days for Morulem a
Page 88 and 89: constituted changes in response to
Page 90 and 91: interviewing the Turkana pastoralis
Page 92 and 93: directly and gave me the reasons wh
Page 94 and 95: a vehicle could bring to a rural pa
Page 96 and 97: with my 3 rd wife. Obviously, it wa
Page 98 and 99: interviews and/or interviewees. The
Page 100 and 101: in reciprocal claims and social net
Page 102 and 103: to thorough analysis to eliminate a
Page 104 and 105: me for a period of two years to ass
Page 106 and 107: CHAPTER 4 THE TURKANA REGION: HISTO
Page 108 and 109: 4.2 Brief historical background of
Page 110 and 111: group rapidly expanded and migrated
Page 112 and 113: Pokot. East of the Pokot and in the
Page 114 and 115: The Turkana know their environment
Page 116 and 117: July. Precipitation is somewhat cor
Page 118 and 119: Figure 7 Population projections by
Page 120 and 121: normally get access to graze their
Page 122 and 123: and Suguta. According to Norconsult
Page 124 and 125: forming a canopy forest with little
Page 126 and 127: capital, and the material culture o
Page 128 and 129: Kenya and Sudan. There are shortfal
Page 132 and 133: the medical services and end up dea
Page 134 and 135: stock, greatly depends on the avail
Page 136 and 137: Traditionally, livestock ownership
Page 138 and 139: The importance of livestock in the
Page 140 and 141: informants, relatives, neighbours a
Page 142 and 143: to pay bridewealth (Key Informant I
Page 144 and 145: For instance, Apthorpe (1986) estab
Page 146 and 147: the same clan, and to avoid giving
Page 148 and 149: Figure 13: Married Turkana women. 9
Page 150 and 151: Informants argued that when a widow
Page 152 and 153: has made visible efforts to develop
Page 154 and 155: people overtime. It is argued here
Page 156 and 157: stems from arguments raised by hist
Page 158 and 159: the history of the Turkana, drought
Page 160 and 161: also lead to conflict with other he
Page 162 and 163: 5.2.2 History of Negative Policy En
Page 164 and 165: an ideological justification for co
Page 166 and 167: mobilisation of young men into well
Page 168 and 169: the British administration in Turka
Page 170 and 171: of northern West Kenya. The colonia
Page 172 and 173: fishing (Turkana Development Annual
Page 174 and 175: The project failed due to lack of s
Page 176 and 177: Similar problems hampered other dev
Page 178 and 179: influence of irregularly - and some
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uild shelters, the satellite camps
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neighbourhoods in an area of about
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As discussed previously, the Turkan
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Figure 17: Territorial sections in
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Each age-set has distinct character
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cutting of these species of trees f
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considerable period of time. He wou
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unsustainable costs. The Turkana lo
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CHAPTER 6 THE 2005-2006 DROUGHT IMP
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drought as compared to the 1979-198
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also foot and mouth disease which a
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informants explained that camels, u
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On the defence of pastures during p
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Crude computation of the data gives
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Figure 19: Interpretation of the ca
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ebellious warriors and their genera
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partly help to explain why not many
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interviews. It represented a consen
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asking for assistance is not only a
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able to maintain a fairly steady su
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limits. In 2006, the 10 public prim
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Number of students enrolled 90 80 7
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than group solidarity. 142 However,
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Table 11: Gifts exchanged by Turkan
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iii) Gift exchanges in Turkana duri
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Another respondent narrated how he
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when to give, sell or slaughter an
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that emerged during the 2005-2006 d
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passively, but ventured out creativ
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CHAPTER 7 FACTORS THAT IMPINGE ON A
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According to Table 14, the two stud
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To appreciate the analysis in Table
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estimating global income poverty fi
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it was clear that respondents were
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‘poor’ category though reduced
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Notes: • Households in each categ
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environment became quite marked. Ap
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Notes: I) The food sources were arr
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7.5 Chapter summary The major focus
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strategies in one approach. How pas
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the puzzling problem with numbers.
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The sustainable livelihood model ha
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that Turkana people are passive and
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nation is usually caught unaware of
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Baker, M. J., and Lovenbury, H. T.
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Chambers, R. (1995). Poverty and Li
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Dietz, A. J., and Salih, M. A. M. (
Page 274 and 275:
Goldschmidt, W. (1969). Kambuya's C
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Kabeer, N. (2000b). Resources, Agen
Page 278 and 279:
McCabe, J. T. (1990). Success and F
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Pennings, J. M. E., and Smidts, A.
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Soja, E. (1968). The Geography of M
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Von Hohnel, L. (1894). Discovery of
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Appendices Appendix 1: Household Pr
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3………………………….. 1
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Appendix 3: Key Informants Schedule
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Appendix 5: Gender and the Division
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Appendix 7: Introductory Letter fro
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Appendix 9: Pre and Post the 2005-2
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Appendix 10: Pre and Post the 2005-
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285
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287
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