PhD thesis Title Page Final _Richard Juma - Victoria University ...

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forming a canopy forest with little understory. The seed pods (“ngitit”) 78 are a prized feed for goats and the crushed seeds are food for humans. Moving away from the river, there is a sequence of thickets of cordia sinensis (‘edome’), salvadora persica (‘asekon’ or ‘toothbrush tree’), balanites species (‘ebei’, ‘elemach’), Acacia seyal, and dichrostachys cinerea (Morgan (1971). In areas distant from the water courses, the species vary, but include acacia nubica (‘epetet’), acacia mellifera, acacia reficiens (‘eregae’), dobera glabra (‘edapal’), boscia coriacea (‘erdung’), commiphora africana (‘ekadel’), and euphorbia cuneata. Near the lake and lower stretches of the rivers, hyphaena coriacea (‘eengol’ or ‘doum palm’) is dominant (Barrett 1996; Barrow 1988, 1996; Norconsult 1990; Soper 1985). The wood, fruits, leaves, bark, and gums from these trees are used by the Turkana people in many ways. Fruits, seeds and leaves are foods for livestock and people. The temperature difference offered by shade (Perhaps 10-15 degrees F) is another high value. The wood is used for fuel and making charcoal 79 [see figure 10 below], and for building homes, fences, furniture (traditional stools; chairs; and beds), and fashioning many traditional utensils, containers for milk and oil, and watering troughs. Wood is made into toothbrushes, walking sticks, spears, bows, arrows, and a type of club used against wild animals. Fibre is woven into rope, baskets, packing carriers for donkeys, and thatched mats used for bedding. Medicines, ornaments, dyes, and perfumes are some of the other uses of tree products (Barrow 1996). In relation to vegetation resources, Scoones (1994) argues that in general, ecosystems in dry land areas do not follow equilibrium dynamics, but biomas production is highly spatial and temporarily variable. Therefore, in these so called non-equilibrium ecosystems, as in Turkana, pastoral 78 The Latin name or scientific name followed, in parentheses, by the Turkana name. 79 According to UNEP (2000) there is an enormous increase in charcoal burning in the Turkana District during drought period. 109
production systems are designed to deal with high levels of spatial variability in resource production. The environment of southern Turkana was surveyed in detail by the south Turkana Geographical Expedition (Baker and Lovenbury 1971; Caukwell 1971; Coe 1972; Hemming 1972; Morgan 1971, 1974). More recent environmental and mapping studies include the Turkana District Resources survey (Ecosystems ltd 1985), Ellis and Dick’s Landsat analysis of Turkana vegetation (1986), Norconsults Environmental study of the Turkana District (1990), and Republic of Kenya (2002). Figure 10: Charcoal for sale in Turkana. Source: UNDP 2000: 45. 4.8.2 Physical capital. Physical assets are resources used in production of goods and services. Buildings, irrigation, canals, roads, tools, machines and so on are physical capital (Ellis 2000). Traditionally, the Turkana did not have much physical 110
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Turkana livelihood strategies and a
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Abstract Drought and famine in Sub-
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Acknowledgement This work was carri
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Table of contents Abstract ........
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4.7 demographic considerations ....
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CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF
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Figure 22 Percentage loss in livest
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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Historic
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settlers and indigenous farmers. Si
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esults in increased deterioration o
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prolonged droughts as herders 3 los
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disease infection as they became vi
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Figure 1: Map of Turkana the study
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temporary assistance to impoverishe
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local patterns of adjustment to dro
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stress (Soja 1968). The ability to
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strategies 19 and achievement of su
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Therefore, the main goal of this st
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Devereux and Naeraa (1996); Hussein
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neighbours, such as the Samburu, an
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occupation of the poor (Robinson 19
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are aimed to directly reduce pressu
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1.6 Justification for the study. Th
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placed on the contribution of socia
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CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1
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2.2 Emergence of the sustainable li
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livelihood to cope with and recover
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change and development. Here, it im
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Figure 3: A framework for micro-pol
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draw when pursuing different liveli
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2.3 Symbolic interaction theory and
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egging, and the pawning of women an
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to stress, especially to rapid popu
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climate, and socio-economic conditi
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livelihood security and sustainabil
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somewhat overlooked by the liveliho
Page 74 and 75: and the degree of variations (or ho
Page 76 and 77: The reasons for choosing Morulem as
Page 78 and 79: Figure 5: Total households in each
Page 80 and 81: Sampling key informants: There was
Page 82 and 83: Library research was carried out at
Page 84 and 85: Once I had found somewhere to live
Page 86 and 87: interviews (nine days for Morulem a
Page 88 and 89: constituted changes in response to
Page 90 and 91: interviewing the Turkana pastoralis
Page 92 and 93: directly and gave me the reasons wh
Page 94 and 95: a vehicle could bring to a rural pa
Page 96 and 97: with my 3 rd wife. Obviously, it wa
Page 98 and 99: interviews and/or interviewees. The
Page 100 and 101: in reciprocal claims and social net
Page 102 and 103: to thorough analysis to eliminate a
Page 104 and 105: me for a period of two years to ass
Page 106 and 107: CHAPTER 4 THE TURKANA REGION: HISTO
Page 108 and 109: 4.2 Brief historical background of
Page 110 and 111: group rapidly expanded and migrated
Page 112 and 113: Pokot. East of the Pokot and in the
Page 114 and 115: The Turkana know their environment
Page 116 and 117: July. Precipitation is somewhat cor
Page 118 and 119: Figure 7 Population projections by
Page 120 and 121: normally get access to graze their
Page 122 and 123: and Suguta. According to Norconsult
Page 126 and 127: capital, and the material culture o
Page 128 and 129: Kenya and Sudan. There are shortfal
Page 130 and 131: secondary schools, as compared to b
Page 132 and 133: the medical services and end up dea
Page 134 and 135: stock, greatly depends on the avail
Page 136 and 137: Traditionally, livestock ownership
Page 138 and 139: The importance of livestock in the
Page 140 and 141: informants, relatives, neighbours a
Page 142 and 143: to pay bridewealth (Key Informant I
Page 144 and 145: For instance, Apthorpe (1986) estab
Page 146 and 147: the same clan, and to avoid giving
Page 148 and 149: Figure 13: Married Turkana women. 9
Page 150 and 151: Informants argued that when a widow
Page 152 and 153: has made visible efforts to develop
Page 154 and 155: people overtime. It is argued here
Page 156 and 157: stems from arguments raised by hist
Page 158 and 159: the history of the Turkana, drought
Page 160 and 161: also lead to conflict with other he
Page 162 and 163: 5.2.2 History of Negative Policy En
Page 164 and 165: an ideological justification for co
Page 166 and 167: mobilisation of young men into well
Page 168 and 169: the British administration in Turka
Page 170 and 171: of northern West Kenya. The colonia
Page 172 and 173: fishing (Turkana Development Annual
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The project failed due to lack of s
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Similar problems hampered other dev
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influence of irregularly - and some
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uild shelters, the satellite camps
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neighbourhoods in an area of about
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As discussed previously, the Turkan
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Figure 17: Territorial sections in
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Each age-set has distinct character
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cutting of these species of trees f
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considerable period of time. He wou
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unsustainable costs. The Turkana lo
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CHAPTER 6 THE 2005-2006 DROUGHT IMP
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drought as compared to the 1979-198
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also foot and mouth disease which a
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informants explained that camels, u
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On the defence of pastures during p
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Crude computation of the data gives
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Figure 19: Interpretation of the ca
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ebellious warriors and their genera
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partly help to explain why not many
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interviews. It represented a consen
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asking for assistance is not only a
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able to maintain a fairly steady su
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limits. In 2006, the 10 public prim
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Number of students enrolled 90 80 7
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than group solidarity. 142 However,
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Table 11: Gifts exchanged by Turkan
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iii) Gift exchanges in Turkana duri
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Another respondent narrated how he
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when to give, sell or slaughter an
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that emerged during the 2005-2006 d
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passively, but ventured out creativ
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CHAPTER 7 FACTORS THAT IMPINGE ON A
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According to Table 14, the two stud
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To appreciate the analysis in Table
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estimating global income poverty fi
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it was clear that respondents were
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‘poor’ category though reduced
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Notes: • Households in each categ
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environment became quite marked. Ap
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Notes: I) The food sources were arr
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7.5 Chapter summary The major focus
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strategies in one approach. How pas
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the puzzling problem with numbers.
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The sustainable livelihood model ha
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that Turkana people are passive and
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nation is usually caught unaware of
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Baker, M. J., and Lovenbury, H. T.
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Chambers, R. (1995). Poverty and Li
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Dietz, A. J., and Salih, M. A. M. (
Page 274 and 275:
Goldschmidt, W. (1969). Kambuya's C
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Kabeer, N. (2000b). Resources, Agen
Page 278 and 279:
McCabe, J. T. (1990). Success and F
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Pennings, J. M. E., and Smidts, A.
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Soja, E. (1968). The Geography of M
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Von Hohnel, L. (1894). Discovery of
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Appendices Appendix 1: Household Pr
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3………………………….. 1
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Appendix 3: Key Informants Schedule
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Appendix 5: Gender and the Division
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Appendix 7: Introductory Letter fro
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Appendix 9: Pre and Post the 2005-2
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Appendix 10: Pre and Post the 2005-
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285
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287
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289
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