Environmental Challenges in the Joint Border Area of Norway Finland and Russia
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REPORTS 41 | 2015<br />
<strong>Environmental</strong> <strong>Challenges</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jo<strong>in</strong>t <strong>Border</strong><br />
<strong>Area</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Norway</strong>, F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong><br />
JUKKA YLIKÖRKKÖ | GUTTORM N. CHRISTENSEN | NIKOLAY KASHULIN | DMITRII DENISOV |<br />
HELÉN JOHANNE ANDERSEN | ELLI JELKÄNEN (EDIT.)
<strong>Environmental</strong> <strong>Challenges</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jo<strong>in</strong>t <strong>Border</strong><br />
<strong>Area</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Norway</strong>, F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong><br />
JUKKA YLIKÖRKKÖ<br />
GUTTORM N. CHRISTENSEN<br />
NIKOLAY KASHULIN<br />
DMITRII DENISOV<br />
HELÉN JOHANNE ANDERSEN<br />
ELLI JELKÄNEN (EDIT.)
REPORTS 41 | 2015<br />
ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES IN THE JOINT BORDER AREA OF NORWAY, FINLAND AND RUSSIA<br />
Centre for Economic Development, Transport <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Environment for Lapl<strong>and</strong><br />
Layout: Elli Jelkänen<br />
Cover photos: Sergei S<strong>and</strong>imirov (top photo), Jukka Ylikörkkö (bottom left),<br />
Guttorm N. Christensen (bottom right)<br />
Maps: Riku Elo<br />
Pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g place: Juvenes Pr<strong>in</strong>t<br />
ISBN 978-952-314-258-9 (pr<strong>in</strong>t<br />
ISBN 978-952-314-259-6 (PDF)<br />
ISSN-L 2242-2846<br />
ISSN 2242-2846 (pr<strong>in</strong>t)<br />
ISSN 2242-2854 (onl<strong>in</strong>e)<br />
URN:ISBN:978-952-314-259-6<br />
www.doria.fi/ely-keskus
Acknowledgements<br />
Special thanks to <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g persons for <strong>the</strong>ir contribution to <strong>the</strong> EU Kolarctic ENPI project ”Trilateral Cooperation<br />
on <strong>Environmental</strong> <strong>Challenges</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jo<strong>in</strong>t <strong>Border</strong> <strong>Area</strong>.”<br />
Steer<strong>in</strong>g group<br />
Seppo Hellsten<br />
Timo Jokela<strong>in</strong>en<br />
Bente Christiansen<br />
Guttorm N. Christensen<br />
Nikolay Kashul<strong>in</strong><br />
Olga Mokrotovarova<br />
Project coord<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
Ilona Grekelä<br />
Helén Johanne Andersen<br />
Project personnel<br />
Jukka Aroviita<br />
Emmanuela Daza Secco<br />
Tanja Dubrov<strong>in</strong><br />
Elli Jelkänen<br />
Erkki Järv<strong>in</strong>en<br />
Petri Liljaniemi<br />
Katja Määttänen<br />
Annukka Puro-Tahvana<strong>in</strong>en<br />
Martti Rask<br />
Juha Riihimäki<br />
Jukka Ruuhijärvi<br />
Erno Salonen<br />
Samuli Sairanen<br />
Ari Savikko<br />
Mikko Tolkk<strong>in</strong>en<br />
Jukka Ylikörkkö<br />
Per-Arne Amundsen<br />
Paul Eric Aspholm<br />
Ka<strong>the</strong>r<strong>in</strong>e Bell<br />
Tore Flatl<strong>and</strong>smo Berglen<br />
Cecilie Bye<br />
La<strong>in</strong>a Dalsbø<br />
Vo Thanh Dam<br />
Renee van Dorst<br />
Bjørg Jenny Engdahl<br />
Geir Dahl-Hansen<br />
Eirik Henriksen<br />
Kar<strong>in</strong> Str<strong>and</strong> Johannessen<br />
Mart<strong>in</strong> Rognli Johansen<br />
Tiia Kalske<br />
Brianne Kelly<br />
Bjørn Larsen<br />
Liu Li<br />
Marit Mjelde<br />
Birgitte Refsnes<br />
Javier Sanchez-Hern<strong>and</strong>ez<br />
Sigrid Skoglund<br />
Aslak Smalås<br />
Sverre Solberg<br />
Tove Svendby<br />
Anna von Streng Velken<br />
Aleks<strong>and</strong>ra Antsiferova<br />
Vladimir Chizov<br />
Vladimir Dauvalter<br />
Dmitrii Denisov<br />
Tatyana Kashul<strong>in</strong>a<br />
Anna Kosova<br />
Lubov Kudryavtseva<br />
Sergei Makogonyk<br />
Olga Petrova<br />
Natalia Polikarpova<br />
Sergei S<strong>and</strong>imirov<br />
Elena Siekk<strong>in</strong>en<br />
Petr Terentjev<br />
Ingrida Terentjeva<br />
Svetlana Valkova<br />
Oksana V<strong>and</strong>ysh<br />
Elena Zubova<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>a Zueva<br />
Field, <strong>of</strong>fice <strong>and</strong> laboratory staff from <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g organizations<br />
INEP, MAHEM, LAP ELY, SYKE, NILU, METLA, RKTL, FMIF, UiT <strong>and</strong> SPA ”Typhoon”<br />
This publication has been produced with <strong>the</strong> assistance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> European Union but <strong>the</strong> contents <strong>of</strong> this publication<br />
can <strong>in</strong> no waybe taken to reflect <strong>the</strong> views <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> European Union.
Contents<br />
Acknowledgements....................................................................................................... 1<br />
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 3<br />
Chapter 1: Climate change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area <strong>and</strong> modell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> SO 2<br />
emissions from <strong>the</strong> Nikel <strong>and</strong> Zapolyarny facilities................................ 5<br />
1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 6<br />
2 Climate change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area........................................................................... 7<br />
3 Emissions, dispersion <strong>and</strong> deposition <strong>of</strong> SO 2<br />
from Nikel <strong>and</strong><br />
Zapolyarny, model studies......................................................................................... 14<br />
Chapter 2: Classifications <strong>of</strong> ecological state <strong>and</strong> environmental health............ 23<br />
1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 24<br />
2 Chemical status...................................................................................................... 25<br />
3 Typology.................................................................................................................. 30<br />
4 Phytoplankton......................................................................................................... 32<br />
5 Periphytic diatoms................................................................................................... 34<br />
6 Zoobenthos............................................................................................................. 37<br />
Chapter 3: The ecological condition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River <strong>and</strong> Lake Inarijärvi....... 43<br />
1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 44<br />
2 Climate change impacts on hydrology <strong>and</strong> water level fluctuation......................... 46<br />
3 Toxic substances on <strong>the</strong> sediments <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River......................................... 52<br />
4 Plankton communities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River.............................................................. 60<br />
5 Aquatic macrophytes <strong>of</strong> Lake Inarijärvi <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River ............................... 68<br />
6 Zoobenthos <strong>of</strong> Lake Inarijärvi <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River .............................................. 73<br />
7 Fish communities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River <strong>and</strong> long-term<br />
malformation tendencies............................................................................................ 80<br />
8 Long-term effects <strong>of</strong> metal contam<strong>in</strong>ation, water regulation,<br />
species <strong>in</strong>vasion <strong>and</strong> climate change on <strong>the</strong> fish <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River....................... 90<br />
9 Contam<strong>in</strong>ants <strong>in</strong> fish <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River................................................................ 98<br />
Chapter 4: Evaluation <strong>and</strong> development <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake monitor<strong>in</strong>g network........... 107<br />
1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 108<br />
2 Water quality......................................................................................................... 109<br />
3 Sediments <strong>and</strong> paleolimnology..............................................................................116<br />
4 Biology.................................................................................................................. 132<br />
Chapter 5: Influence <strong>of</strong> pollution <strong>and</strong> climate variation <strong>in</strong><br />
small rivers <strong>in</strong>dicated by freshwater pearl mussels.............................................. 159<br />
1 Freshwater pearl mussel – The environmental storyteller.................................... 160
Introduction<br />
F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />
Lake Inari<br />
!P<br />
<strong>Norway</strong><br />
Näätämö<br />
Paatsjoki<br />
Nellim<br />
Km<br />
0 50 100<br />
!P<br />
EU ENPI Project Trilateral Cooperation on <strong>Environmental</strong><br />
<strong>Challenges</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jo<strong>in</strong>t <strong>Border</strong> <strong>Area</strong> was implemented<br />
<strong>in</strong> years 2011–2014 as a collaboration between<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish, Norwegian <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n environmental<br />
researchers <strong>and</strong> authorities. This report describes<br />
<strong>the</strong> research that addressed several current areas <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse area. The Pasvik<br />
watercourse is located <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>,<br />
<strong>Russia</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Norway</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn Fennosc<strong>and</strong>ia <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula <strong>and</strong> it is important for <strong>the</strong> water<br />
supply, energy production, fish<strong>in</strong>g, aquaculture, tourism<br />
<strong>and</strong> recreation.<br />
Trilateral cooperation started <strong>in</strong> Interreg IIIA Kolarctic<br />
project <strong>of</strong> 2003–2006 <strong>in</strong> which F<strong>in</strong>nish, <strong>Russia</strong>n<br />
<strong>and</strong> Norwegian environmental authorities <strong>and</strong> researchers<br />
from a number <strong>of</strong> research <strong>in</strong>stitutes developed<br />
a jo<strong>in</strong>t environmental monitor<strong>in</strong>g programme for <strong>the</strong><br />
Pasvik River.<br />
Research concentrated on <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> water bodies<br />
Lake Inarijärvi <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River. The ma<strong>in</strong> environmental<br />
changes are caused by metallurgical <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong> <strong>and</strong> regulation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River for<br />
hydropower. Climate change will also affect <strong>the</strong> state<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> environment <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> future. The aims <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
studies were to develop tools to assess <strong>the</strong> effects<br />
<strong>of</strong> harmful substances, water level regulation <strong>and</strong> climate<br />
change <strong>and</strong> to illustrate <strong>the</strong>ir effects on different<br />
aquatic environments.<br />
The climate change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kola<br />
Pen<strong>in</strong>sula was assessed based on a long time series<br />
<strong>of</strong> meteorological observations. A clear change towards<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> temperature <strong>and</strong> precipitation could<br />
be seen. Transboundary pollution was modeled <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> results show that SO 2<br />
emissions from <strong>the</strong> facilities<br />
<strong>in</strong> Nikel <strong>and</strong> Zapolyarny <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pechenga area <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Russia</strong> move to F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> Norwegian territory by air.<br />
The project developed a monitor<strong>in</strong>g programme to assess<br />
<strong>the</strong> effects <strong>and</strong> extent <strong>of</strong> this airborne pollution.<br />
The effects <strong>of</strong> pollutants, water level regulation <strong>and</strong><br />
climate change on <strong>the</strong> ecological condition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
River <strong>and</strong> Lake Inarijärvi was studied. Lake Inarijärvi<br />
was found to be <strong>in</strong> a good state both chemically<br />
<strong>and</strong> biologically, but parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River suffer<br />
from pollution. Water level regulation has changed <strong>the</strong><br />
ecology <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> waterways. Climate change will also<br />
cause changes as <strong>the</strong> ris<strong>in</strong>g water temperature will<br />
shift <strong>the</strong> fish species community, for <strong>in</strong>stance.<br />
The exist<strong>in</strong>g lake monitor<strong>in</strong>g network was developed<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r. The small lakes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area were<br />
monitored <strong>and</strong> a better monitor<strong>in</strong>g programme based<br />
on <strong>the</strong> most representative lakes <strong>and</strong> sensitive <strong>and</strong><br />
cost-effective variables was developed.<br />
The results <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> project have wide application.<br />
The raw data is <strong>of</strong> high quality <strong>and</strong> can be used <strong>in</strong> future<br />
scientific publications. The assessment <strong>of</strong> climate<br />
change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area <strong>and</strong> its effect on <strong>the</strong> regulated water<br />
bodies can be <strong>of</strong> use <strong>in</strong>ternationally.<br />
This is <strong>the</strong> summary report for <strong>the</strong> project. The project<br />
Activities produced detailed expert reports on several<br />
different, environmentally relevant subjects <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik area, which have been compressed <strong>in</strong>to<br />
chapters <strong>of</strong> shortened, simplified reports. Orig<strong>in</strong>al full<br />
text reports are available at www.pasvikmonitor<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
org<br />
!P<br />
Pasvikelva<br />
River Paz<br />
Kirkenes<br />
!P !P<br />
Nikel<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Arctic Circle<br />
!P<br />
Pechenga<br />
Zapoljarnyi<br />
70 °N<br />
60 °N<br />
© ESRI<br />
3
4
Chapter 1: Climate change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border<br />
area <strong>and</strong> modell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> SO 2<br />
emissions<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Nikel <strong>and</strong> Zapolyarny facilities<br />
Bjørnevatnet <strong>and</strong> Nikel. Photo: Juha Riihimäki<br />
5
1 Introduction<br />
The first part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> project dealt with climate change<br />
<strong>and</strong> transboundary airborne pollutants <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> areas<br />
surround<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse.<br />
Climate change affects both <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>and</strong> human<br />
population <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>, <strong>Norway</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>. Climate change processes were assessed<br />
with a decades-long time series <strong>of</strong> meteorological<br />
observations from <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula. The extensive<br />
data set enabled a reliable quantification <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g changes <strong>in</strong> climate <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> region. Both<br />
temperature <strong>and</strong> precipitation seem to be <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> warm<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tensity is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
However, it should be noted that <strong>the</strong> climate change<br />
is not an evenly distributed process as <strong>the</strong>re are differences<br />
between <strong>the</strong> coastal <strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ental areas,<br />
for example. Detailed assessments <strong>of</strong> changes <strong>in</strong> different<br />
regions are especially important because <strong>the</strong>y<br />
need to be considered <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> environmental protection,<br />
economic activities <strong>and</strong> social development <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula.<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> sources <strong>of</strong> pollutants <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area are <strong>the</strong><br />
Pechenganikel m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> metallurgical company’s<br />
smelter <strong>in</strong> Nikel <strong>and</strong> roast<strong>in</strong>g plant <strong>in</strong> Zapolyarny.<br />
Emissions <strong>of</strong> SO 2<br />
<strong>and</strong> heavy metals (Ni, Co, Cu, As)<br />
are prom<strong>in</strong>ent. Total emissions <strong>of</strong> SO 2<br />
are about 100<br />
000 tonnes annually, 40 000 tonnes from Zapolyarny<br />
<strong>and</strong> 60 000 tonnes from Nikel. Diffusive emissions <strong>in</strong><br />
Nikel greatly affect areas <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> vic<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> smelter.<br />
Model studies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sulfur dioxide emissions, dispersion<br />
<strong>and</strong> deposition from Nikel <strong>and</strong> Zapolyarny<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrial plants were performed us<strong>in</strong>g two different<br />
models, a WRF-Chem model <strong>and</strong> a TAPM model.<br />
Correct <strong>in</strong>formation about <strong>the</strong> emissions is important<br />
<strong>in</strong> order to obta<strong>in</strong> reliable model results. The model<br />
results were compared with monitor<strong>in</strong>g data to verify<br />
model performance.<br />
WRF-Chem represents atmospheric processes <strong>in</strong><br />
a very detailed way. The model is most suited to study<br />
processes <strong>and</strong> specific episodes. Budget rout<strong>in</strong>es<br />
were <strong>in</strong>cluded to <strong>in</strong>vestigate <strong>the</strong> different processes <strong>of</strong><br />
loss <strong>of</strong> SO 2<br />
from <strong>the</strong> atmosphere. TAPM can be used<br />
to model air pollution for longer time periods <strong>and</strong> it<br />
was run for <strong>the</strong> year 2011. Both models can be <strong>of</strong> use<br />
<strong>in</strong> obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> harmful emissions from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel facilities.<br />
The Pasvik River. Photo S. Grechany.<br />
6
2 Climate change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area<br />
ALEKSANDRA ANTSIFEROVA, OLGA MOKROTOVAROVA, ELENA SIEKKINEN<br />
This assessment <strong>of</strong> climate change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> jo<strong>in</strong>t border area is based on data <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g network spann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> whole pen<strong>in</strong>sula. Climate<br />
data from <strong>Russia</strong>n hydrometeorological stations<br />
<strong>in</strong> Nikel <strong>and</strong> Janiskoski <strong>and</strong> from Norwegian automated<br />
meteorological station <strong>in</strong> Svanvik were used for a<br />
detailed study <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area.<br />
Manifestations <strong>of</strong> climate change are extremely<br />
uneven <strong>in</strong> different areas. Detailed region-by-region<br />
assessments <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> observed <strong>and</strong> expected climate<br />
changes are especially important because <strong>the</strong>y are to<br />
be considered <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> economic activities <strong>in</strong><br />
wea<strong>the</strong>r-dependent <strong>in</strong>dustries <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> regions’ social<br />
<strong>in</strong>frastructure development.<br />
The process <strong>of</strong> global climate change has turned<br />
out to be varied <strong>and</strong> comprises three periods: warm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1910–1945, slight cool<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 1946–1975, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>tensive warm<strong>in</strong>g s<strong>in</strong>ce 1976. Also <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula<br />
<strong>the</strong> ambient air temperature has changed dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
1936–2012. A time series <strong>of</strong> spatially-averaged yearly<br />
anomalies (deviations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> climatic norm <strong>of</strong> mean<br />
values <strong>of</strong> 1961–1990) <strong>of</strong> air temperature <strong>and</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ear<br />
trends to describe <strong>the</strong> tendency (average rate) <strong>of</strong> temperature<br />
change <strong>in</strong> different time <strong>in</strong>tervals illustrates<br />
<strong>the</strong> changes (Figure 1).<br />
The change <strong>of</strong> annual mean air temperature <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula was assessed by <strong>the</strong> values <strong>of</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ear<br />
trend coefficient for <strong>the</strong> three monitor<strong>in</strong>g periods: For<br />
<strong>the</strong> 1 st monitor<strong>in</strong>g period (1936–2012) <strong>the</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ear trend<br />
coefficient amounts to 0.06°С <strong>in</strong> 10 years. For <strong>the</strong> 2 nd<br />
(1961–2012) it amounts to 0.3°С <strong>in</strong> 10 years <strong>and</strong> for<br />
<strong>the</strong> 3 rd (1976–2012) it amounts to 0.6°С <strong>in</strong> 10 years,<br />
i.e. <strong>the</strong> warm<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tensity is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Even <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> relatively small territory <strong>of</strong> Murmansk<br />
Region <strong>the</strong> change rate <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> average air temperature<br />
<strong>and</strong> precipitation regime is notably different <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
western part from that <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> central part or at <strong>the</strong> sea<br />
coasts. The geographic distribution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ear trend<br />
coefficients <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mean seasonal anomalies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> air<br />
temperature <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> period 1976 through 2012 <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
territory <strong>of</strong> Murmansk Region is presented <strong>in</strong> Figure 2.<br />
˚С<br />
4,0<br />
3,0<br />
2,0<br />
1,0<br />
0,0<br />
-1,0<br />
-2,0<br />
-3,0<br />
1936<br />
1940<br />
1944<br />
1948<br />
1952<br />
1956<br />
1960<br />
1964<br />
1968<br />
1972<br />
1976<br />
1980<br />
1984<br />
1988<br />
1992<br />
1996<br />
2000<br />
2004<br />
2008<br />
2012<br />
Figure 1. Anomalies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> annual mean (January–December) air temperature ( о С), averaged<br />
for <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula territory <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g period from 1936 through 2012. The curve<br />
correlates with 11-year slid<strong>in</strong>g averag<strong>in</strong>g. The straight l<strong>in</strong>es show l<strong>in</strong>ear trends for <strong>the</strong> periods<br />
1936–2012, 1961–2012, <strong>and</strong> 1976–2012.<br />
7
a) W<strong>in</strong>ter b) Spr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
70<br />
69<br />
0.66<br />
0.87<br />
0.47<br />
0.83<br />
0.49<br />
0.45<br />
0.63<br />
0.79<br />
0.80<br />
0.42<br />
70<br />
69<br />
0.37<br />
0.37<br />
0.51<br />
0.47<br />
0.54<br />
0.47<br />
0.46<br />
0.43<br />
0.41<br />
0.50<br />
68<br />
67<br />
0.79<br />
0.72<br />
0.65<br />
0.67<br />
0.75<br />
0.67<br />
0.77<br />
0.78<br />
0.58<br />
0.70<br />
0.26<br />
68<br />
67<br />
0.41<br />
0.51<br />
0.41<br />
0.44<br />
0.44<br />
0.45<br />
0.55<br />
0.52<br />
0.66<br />
0.58<br />
0.66<br />
66<br />
0.62<br />
0.53<br />
30 35 40<br />
66<br />
0.51<br />
0.57<br />
30 35 40<br />
c) Summer d) Autumn<br />
70<br />
69<br />
0.33<br />
0.39<br />
0.37<br />
0.32<br />
0.30<br />
0.31<br />
0.32<br />
0.34<br />
0.39<br />
0.34<br />
70<br />
69<br />
0.55<br />
0.64<br />
0.54<br />
0.64<br />
0.61<br />
0.57<br />
0.61<br />
0.61<br />
0.59<br />
0.64<br />
68<br />
67<br />
0.46<br />
0.46<br />
0.33<br />
0.43<br />
0.39<br />
0.48<br />
0.49<br />
0.48<br />
0.44<br />
0.50<br />
0.75<br />
68<br />
67<br />
0.68<br />
0.62<br />
0.58<br />
0.62<br />
0.62<br />
0.72<br />
0.64<br />
0.64<br />
0.62<br />
0.72<br />
0.63<br />
0.42<br />
0.72<br />
0.46<br />
0.67<br />
66<br />
66<br />
30 35 40<br />
30 35 40<br />
Figure 2. The average rate <strong>of</strong> seasonal air temperature changes ( o C/10 years) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula territory accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong><br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g data from 1976–2012. The maximum <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mean air temperature is observed <strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> west <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kola<br />
Pen<strong>in</strong>sula. However, <strong>in</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> summer <strong>the</strong> warm<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>in</strong> that area is m<strong>in</strong>imal. The geographic distribution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mean<br />
seasonal air temperature <strong>in</strong>crease is more even <strong>in</strong> autumn.<br />
Climate change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border<br />
area <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> values <strong>of</strong> mean<br />
annual, mean seasonal <strong>and</strong><br />
extreme air temperatures<br />
The Janiskoski station performs a full range <strong>of</strong> meteorological<br />
observations with radiological monitor<strong>in</strong>g, it<br />
monitors cross-border pollutant air transfer <strong>and</strong> samples<br />
precipitations for chemical composition analysis.<br />
Janiskoski, Nikel <strong>and</strong> Svanvik hydrometeorological<br />
stations’ temperature regimes are shown <strong>in</strong> Figure<br />
3. In Janiskoski <strong>the</strong> mean annual air temperature is<br />
-0.7°С. January is <strong>the</strong> coldest <strong>and</strong> July is <strong>the</strong> warmest<br />
month with many-year mean air temperatures <strong>of</strong><br />
-13.3°С <strong>and</strong> +13.6°С, respectively. In Nikel <strong>the</strong> mean<br />
annual air temperature is +0.2°С. January is <strong>the</strong> coldest<br />
<strong>and</strong> July is <strong>the</strong> warmest month with temperatures<br />
<strong>of</strong> -10.7°С <strong>and</strong> +13.1°С, respectively.<br />
Time series describ<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> air temperature annual<br />
<strong>and</strong> seasonal anomalies <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> period <strong>of</strong> 1955 through<br />
2012 <strong>and</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ear trends characteriz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> tendency<br />
(average rate) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> temperature change <strong>in</strong> different<br />
time <strong>in</strong>tervals shows that <strong>the</strong> warm<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tensity has<br />
been <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g at <strong>the</strong> both stations. At <strong>the</strong> same time,<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> annual mean air temperature at<br />
<strong>the</strong> Nikel station is higher than that at Janiskoski both<br />
yearly <strong>and</strong> specifically <strong>in</strong> each season. Just like on an<br />
average <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula, <strong>the</strong> coldest 11-year observation<br />
period at <strong>the</strong> stations Nikel <strong>and</strong> Janiskoski<br />
was 1976–1988 <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> period s<strong>in</strong>ce 2002 until now<br />
is <strong>the</strong> warmest.<br />
8
SVANVIK<br />
!(<br />
!( NIKEL<br />
!(<br />
JANISKOSKI<br />
0 50<br />
km<br />
© Maanmittauslaitos, lupa nro 7/MML/15<br />
Figure 3. Temperature regime <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> Janiskoski, Nikel <strong>and</strong> Svanvik hydrometeorological stations<br />
Currently, <strong>the</strong> period <strong>of</strong> 1961–1990 is regarded as<br />
<strong>the</strong> basel<strong>in</strong>e period for calculations, i.e. <strong>the</strong> climatic<br />
norm. However, <strong>the</strong>re is an op<strong>in</strong>ion that <strong>the</strong> “basel<strong>in</strong>e”<br />
period should be approximated to <strong>the</strong> present time,<br />
i.e. <strong>the</strong> observation period 1971–2000 should be used<br />
(Table 1).<br />
Noticeably, <strong>the</strong> monthly mean air temperature <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> warmest 11-year period is higher than <strong>the</strong> climatic<br />
norm <strong>in</strong> every month except February. In particular,<br />
while <strong>the</strong>re is an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mean<br />
air temperature both yearly <strong>and</strong>, especially, <strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter,<br />
<strong>the</strong> monthly mean air temperature <strong>in</strong> February at <strong>the</strong><br />
Janiskoski station has been below <strong>the</strong> climate norm 8<br />
times over <strong>the</strong> last 11 years, <strong>and</strong> 2 times <strong>the</strong> negative<br />
anomaly exceeded <strong>the</strong> average quadratic deviation.<br />
This confirms once aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> climatologists’ warn<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
that even dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> “global warm<strong>in</strong>g” period considerable<br />
negative anomalies <strong>of</strong> air temperature are possible.<br />
The seasonal division <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> year <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula<br />
is w<strong>in</strong>ter: November–March; spr<strong>in</strong>g: April, May;<br />
summer: June–August <strong>and</strong> autumn: September–October.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> signs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> seasonal change from<br />
w<strong>in</strong>ter to summer <strong>and</strong> vice versa is a permanent<br />
cross<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> 0°С positively (beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g) <strong>and</strong><br />
negatively (beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter). The analyses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
dates <strong>of</strong> this zero cross<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> period s<strong>in</strong>ce 1955<br />
show that at <strong>the</strong> Janiskoski <strong>and</strong> Nikel stations <strong>the</strong> duration<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> period with daily mean air temperature<br />
above 0°С is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g (≈3 days over 10 years). In<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r words, w<strong>in</strong>ter has begun to start 1.2–0.9 days<br />
later <strong>and</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g 1.9–2.7 days earlier <strong>in</strong> ten years.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Janiskoski <strong>and</strong> Nikel stations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> period<br />
1955–2012 <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> days with maximum temperature<br />
extremes has been grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> all seasons.<br />
However, <strong>the</strong> frequency trends were statistically <strong>in</strong>significant.<br />
The frequency trends <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>imal temperature<br />
extremes <strong>in</strong> all seasons both <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> period s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
1955 <strong>and</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce 1976 at both stations are negative but<br />
only <strong>the</strong> trend <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>imal temperature extremes<br />
<strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter at <strong>the</strong> Nikel station is statistically significant.<br />
It seems that <strong>the</strong> severity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area climate<br />
is decreas<strong>in</strong>g. Meteorological data from <strong>the</strong> automated<br />
Norwegian station Svanvik was used for a more<br />
detailed study <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> climate <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area. However,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Svanvik data was shorter <strong>and</strong> had gaps<br />
<strong>and</strong> some <strong>of</strong> it had to be restored based on <strong>the</strong> data <strong>of</strong><br />
Nikel. Due to this certa<strong>in</strong> calculation errors should be<br />
taken <strong>in</strong>to account.<br />
9
Table 1. Monthly mean air temperature (˚С) for three periods: <strong>the</strong> climate norm 1961–1990, 1971–2000, <strong>and</strong> for <strong>the</strong> warmest<br />
11-year observation period 2001–2012.<br />
Period I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII Year<br />
Janiskoski hydrometeorological station<br />
1961-1990 -14.2 -13.1 -8.3 -2.3 4.0 10.0 13.3 10.9 5.9 0.1 -7.0 -12.0 -1.1<br />
1971-2000 -13.6 -12.3 -7.5 -2.2 3.9 10.2 13.5 10.9 6.1 -0.1 -7.6 -11.7 -0.9<br />
2001-2012 -12.1 -13.7 -7.8 -0.8 5.0 10.4 14.1 11.4 6.8 1.0 -5.9 -9.2 -0.1<br />
Nikel hydrometeorological station<br />
1961-1990 -11.9 -11.1 -6.9 -2.0 3.6 9.6 13.0 11.0 6.5 0.5 -5.7 -9.8 -0.3<br />
1971-2000 -10.9 -9.8 -5.9 -1.7 3.6 9.5 13.2 11.2 6.6 0.4 -5.9 -9.1 0.1<br />
2001-2012 -9.0 -10.5 -5.8 0.0 4.7 9.7 13.8 11.8 7.5 1.7 -4.0 -6.6 1.1<br />
a<br />
b<br />
T°C<br />
0,0<br />
-2,0<br />
-4,0<br />
-6,0<br />
-8,0<br />
-10,0<br />
-12,0<br />
-14,0<br />
-16,0<br />
y = 0,0643x -8,4795<br />
R² = 0,0956<br />
y = 0,1305x -11,83<br />
R² = 0,2632<br />
1985<br />
1987<br />
1989<br />
1991<br />
1993<br />
1995<br />
1997<br />
1999<br />
2001<br />
2003<br />
2005<br />
2007<br />
2009<br />
2011<br />
T°C<br />
5,0<br />
4,0<br />
3,0<br />
2,0<br />
1,0<br />
0,0<br />
-1,0<br />
-2,0<br />
-3,0<br />
-4,0<br />
-5,0<br />
y = 0,0775x + 0,3929<br />
R² = 0,1673<br />
y = 0,1058x -0,4468<br />
R² = 0,2858<br />
1985<br />
1987<br />
1989<br />
1991<br />
1993<br />
1995<br />
1997<br />
1999<br />
2001<br />
2003<br />
2005<br />
2007<br />
2009<br />
2011<br />
Svanvik<br />
Линейная (Svanvik)<br />
Nikel<br />
Линейная (Nikel)<br />
Svanvik<br />
Линейная (Svanvik)<br />
Nikel<br />
Линейная (Nikel)<br />
c<br />
d<br />
T°C<br />
16,0<br />
15,0<br />
14,0<br />
13,0<br />
12,0<br />
11,0<br />
10,0<br />
9,0<br />
8,0<br />
7,0<br />
6,0<br />
y = 0,0078x + 11,444<br />
R² = 0,0053<br />
y = 0,0229x + 10,854<br />
R² = 0,028<br />
1985<br />
1987<br />
1989<br />
1991<br />
1993<br />
1995<br />
1997<br />
1999<br />
2001<br />
2003<br />
2005<br />
2007<br />
2009<br />
2011<br />
T°C<br />
8,0<br />
7,0<br />
6,0<br />
5,0<br />
4,0<br />
3,0<br />
2,0<br />
1,0<br />
0,0<br />
-1,0<br />
-2,0<br />
y = 0,0546x + 3,4286<br />
R² = 0,1094<br />
y = 0,0846x + 2,3556<br />
R² = 0,1686<br />
1985<br />
1987<br />
1989<br />
1991<br />
1993<br />
1995<br />
1997<br />
1999<br />
2001<br />
2003<br />
2005<br />
2007<br />
2009<br />
2011<br />
Svanvik<br />
Линейная (Svanvik)<br />
Nikel<br />
Линейная (Nikel)<br />
Svanvik<br />
Линейная (Svanvik)<br />
Nikel<br />
Линейная (Nikel)<br />
Figure 4. Changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mean seasonal air temperature (˚С) <strong>in</strong> (a) w<strong>in</strong>ter, b) spr<strong>in</strong>g, c) summer, d) autumn) for <strong>the</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g period<br />
1985 through 2012 at <strong>the</strong> meteorological stations Nikel <strong>and</strong> Svanvik. Straight l<strong>in</strong>es show l<strong>in</strong>ear trends.<br />
10
The mean annual air temperature is lower <strong>in</strong> Svanvik<br />
than <strong>in</strong> Nikel. However, <strong>the</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ear trend coefficient<br />
demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> growth rate <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mean annual air<br />
temperature <strong>in</strong> Svanvik is higher <strong>and</strong> estimated as<br />
0.9°С <strong>in</strong> ten years dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> period <strong>of</strong> 1985–2012.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> same period <strong>in</strong> Nikel <strong>the</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ear trend coefficient<br />
is almost two times lower <strong>and</strong> amounts to 0.5 °C <strong>in</strong><br />
10 years. The same tendency is observed <strong>in</strong> all seasons<br />
(Figure 4). In Svanvik <strong>the</strong> largest <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
mean seasonal air temperature is observed <strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter<br />
(with <strong>the</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ear trend coefficient for this season equal<br />
to 1.3°С <strong>in</strong> ten years), <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> least <strong>in</strong>crease is observed<br />
<strong>in</strong> summer (0.2°С <strong>in</strong> ten years). Statistical significance<br />
can not be determ<strong>in</strong>ed due to Svanvik’s data<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g partly restored.<br />
Precipitation regime’s<br />
changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> values <strong>of</strong><br />
annual, seasonal <strong>and</strong> daily<br />
maximum total precipitation<br />
The average annual precipitation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area<br />
is 500 mm. Table 2 presents <strong>the</strong> many-year mean<br />
amounts <strong>of</strong> precipitation per month, as well as annual<br />
total precipitation amounts <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> period 1976 through<br />
2012. As a rule, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> summer months <strong>the</strong> amount<br />
<strong>of</strong> precipitation is 2–2.5 times larger than that <strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter.<br />
In summer precipitation <strong>in</strong>tensity is considerably<br />
higher than that <strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter. The daily precipitation <strong>of</strong><br />
>10 mm <strong>in</strong> summer is fairly usual. Such precipitation<br />
may occur several times dur<strong>in</strong>g one season. In w<strong>in</strong>ter,<br />
<strong>the</strong>re are considerably fewer days with precipitation <strong>of</strong><br />
>10 mm, not every year; 0.5 mm per day is <strong>the</strong> most<br />
common.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> middle 1970’s an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend <strong>of</strong> annual<br />
precipitation amount has been observed at <strong>the</strong><br />
Janiskoski <strong>and</strong> Nikel hydrometeorological stations.<br />
This <strong>in</strong>crease is 1.8 mm/month for 10 years at <strong>the</strong><br />
Janiskoski station <strong>and</strong> 2.4 mm/month for 10 years at<br />
Nikel station.<br />
The changes <strong>of</strong> total precipitation anomalies are<br />
different <strong>in</strong> different seasons. At <strong>the</strong> Janiskoski station<br />
an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> seasonal precipitation is observed <strong>in</strong><br />
all seasons except for w<strong>in</strong>ter. In spr<strong>in</strong>g, summer, <strong>and</strong><br />
autumn precipitation is 3–4 mm/month for 10 years.<br />
At <strong>the</strong> Nikel station an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> precipitation <strong>in</strong> all<br />
seasons is observed <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> largest <strong>in</strong>crease is <strong>in</strong> autumn:<br />
6 mm/month for 10 years.<br />
Heavy ra<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> snowfall create <strong>the</strong> greatest problems<br />
for various <strong>in</strong>dustrial activities. In w<strong>in</strong>ter virtually<br />
no changes are observed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> days with<br />
extreme precipitation both at Janiskoski <strong>and</strong> at Nikel.<br />
In spr<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> days with extreme<br />
precipitation is greater at Nikel than at Janiskoski.<br />
In summer, slight <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> days<br />
with extreme precipitation is observed at <strong>the</strong> Janiskoski<br />
station while a decrease is observed at Nikel. In<br />
autumn, certa<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> days with<br />
peak precipitations is observed at <strong>the</strong> both stations.<br />
Noticeably, <strong>the</strong> changes <strong>in</strong> all seasons are statistically<br />
<strong>in</strong>significant.<br />
Table 2. Average precipitation (mm) per month, season, <strong>and</strong> year.<br />
Janiskoski station<br />
month<br />
I<br />
31<br />
II<br />
25<br />
III<br />
26<br />
IV<br />
32<br />
V<br />
40<br />
VI<br />
61<br />
VII<br />
75<br />
VIII<br />
68<br />
IX<br />
50<br />
X<br />
51<br />
XI<br />
36<br />
XII<br />
29<br />
season<br />
w<strong>in</strong>ter<br />
147<br />
spr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
72<br />
summer<br />
204<br />
autumn<br />
101<br />
w<strong>in</strong>ter<br />
147<br />
year 524<br />
Nikel station<br />
month<br />
I<br />
37<br />
II<br />
28<br />
III<br />
28<br />
IV<br />
28<br />
V<br />
32<br />
VI<br />
54<br />
VII<br />
69<br />
VIII<br />
60<br />
IX<br />
48<br />
X<br />
55<br />
XI<br />
40<br />
XII<br />
36<br />
season<br />
w<strong>in</strong>ter<br />
169<br />
spr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
60<br />
summer<br />
183<br />
autumn<br />
103<br />
w<strong>in</strong>ter<br />
169<br />
year 515<br />
11
W<strong>in</strong>d regime <strong>and</strong> frequency<br />
<strong>of</strong> various w<strong>in</strong>d speed grades<br />
A typical feature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area w<strong>in</strong>d regime is its<br />
monsoon pattern, i.e. a clear seasonal change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
prevail<strong>in</strong>g w<strong>in</strong>d directions. In w<strong>in</strong>ter sou<strong>the</strong>rn w<strong>in</strong>ds<br />
from <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> prevail <strong>in</strong> Nikel <strong>and</strong> due to <strong>the</strong> local<br />
terra<strong>in</strong> differences south-west w<strong>in</strong>ds prevail <strong>in</strong> Janiskoski<br />
(Figure 6). In summer, nor<strong>the</strong>rn <strong>and</strong> north-eastern<br />
w<strong>in</strong>ds from <strong>the</strong> Barents Sea prevail <strong>in</strong> Nikel <strong>and</strong><br />
north-eastern w<strong>in</strong>ds are <strong>the</strong> most frequent <strong>in</strong> Janiskoski.<br />
The annual mean w<strong>in</strong>d speed <strong>in</strong> Nikel is 3.8 m/s<br />
<strong>and</strong> fluctuates seasonally with<strong>in</strong> 1 m/s. The w<strong>in</strong>d<br />
speed <strong>in</strong> Janiskoski is somewhat lower with <strong>the</strong> annual<br />
mean <strong>of</strong> 1.8 m/s <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> yearly fluctuation <strong>of</strong> 0.5<br />
m/s.<br />
In Nikel <strong>the</strong> highest frequency is observed for <strong>the</strong><br />
average w<strong>in</strong>d speed with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> grade <strong>of</strong> 2–3 m/s. In<br />
Janiskoski over 46 % <strong>of</strong> w<strong>in</strong>d accounts for very weak<br />
w<strong>in</strong>d up to 1 m/s. In Nikel <strong>the</strong> concentrations <strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ants<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> metallurgical<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ambient air may <strong>in</strong>crease dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> periods <strong>of</strong> weak w<strong>in</strong>d, or <strong>the</strong> so-called stale air.<br />
At <strong>the</strong> Nikel station <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> days with still air<br />
<strong>and</strong> low speed w<strong>in</strong>d has somewhat <strong>in</strong>creased s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
<strong>the</strong> middle 1970’s, while at <strong>the</strong> Janiskoski station <strong>the</strong><br />
number <strong>of</strong> stale air cases has decreased.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most important parameters <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> w<strong>in</strong>d<br />
regime is <strong>the</strong> average number <strong>of</strong> days with stormy<br />
w<strong>in</strong>d (w<strong>in</strong>d speed ≥15 m/s). The number <strong>of</strong> stormy<br />
w<strong>in</strong>d cases <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter months <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> period<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> highest frequency <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>of</strong> cyclone<br />
processes <strong>and</strong> decreases almost 5 times <strong>in</strong> summer<br />
(Table 3). S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> middle 1970’s <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> stormy<br />
days has been observed to decrease 3 days <strong>in</strong> 10<br />
years both at <strong>the</strong> Nikel <strong>and</strong> Janiskoski stations.<br />
Conclusions<br />
The climate change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area is characterized<br />
by <strong>the</strong>rmal regime changes, an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
mean annual <strong>and</strong> mean seasonal air temperature <strong>in</strong><br />
particular. The <strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>of</strong> this <strong>in</strong>crease is grow<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
<strong>and</strong> it is more significant <strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter. In Nikel <strong>and</strong> Janiskoski<br />
<strong>the</strong> frequency <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> days with maximum air<br />
temperatures extremes is grow<strong>in</strong>g, along with decreas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> days with m<strong>in</strong>imal temperatures.<br />
Both at Janiskoski <strong>and</strong> Nikel precipitation is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The largest <strong>in</strong>crease is observed at <strong>the</strong> Nikel<br />
station <strong>in</strong> autumn. In spr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> autumn <strong>the</strong> number<br />
<strong>of</strong> days with extreme precipitation is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Nikel<br />
<strong>and</strong> at Janiskoski <strong>the</strong> number is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> all<br />
seasons except w<strong>in</strong>ter.<br />
The w<strong>in</strong>d demonstrates monsoon pattern <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
border area. In w<strong>in</strong>ter, sou<strong>the</strong>rn <strong>and</strong> south-western<br />
w<strong>in</strong>ds prevail, while <strong>in</strong> summer <strong>the</strong> prevail<strong>in</strong>g w<strong>in</strong>d directions<br />
are north <strong>and</strong> north-east. At Nikel a decrease<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> stormy days <strong>and</strong> a grow<strong>in</strong>g number<br />
<strong>of</strong> days with low w<strong>in</strong>d speed can be seen <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> period<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> middle 1970’s <strong>and</strong> until <strong>the</strong> present. Both <strong>the</strong><br />
number <strong>of</strong> days with stormy w<strong>in</strong>d <strong>and</strong> low speed w<strong>in</strong>d<br />
is decreas<strong>in</strong>g at Janiskoski.<br />
Table 3. Average number <strong>of</strong> days with gusts <strong>of</strong> w<strong>in</strong>d 15 m/s or more. The average number <strong>of</strong> days less than 1 means that<br />
such gusts <strong>of</strong> w<strong>in</strong>d do not occur every year.<br />
Janiskoski station<br />
month<br />
I<br />
1<br />
II<br />
1<br />
III<br />
1<br />
IV<br />
1<br />
V<br />
1<br />
VI<br />
1<br />
VII<br />
0.2<br />
VIII<br />
0.4<br />
IX<br />
0.5<br />
X<br />
1<br />
XI<br />
1<br />
XII<br />
1<br />
year 10<br />
Nikel station<br />
month<br />
I<br />
9<br />
II<br />
9<br />
III<br />
8<br />
IV<br />
6<br />
V<br />
5<br />
VI<br />
4<br />
VII<br />
2<br />
VIII<br />
2<br />
IX<br />
2<br />
X<br />
7<br />
XI<br />
8<br />
XII<br />
7<br />
year 71<br />
12
W<br />
NW<br />
N<br />
45<br />
40<br />
35<br />
30<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
NE<br />
E<br />
W<br />
NW<br />
N<br />
40<br />
35<br />
30<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
NE<br />
E<br />
SW<br />
SE<br />
SW<br />
SE<br />
S<br />
S<br />
W<br />
NW<br />
N<br />
45<br />
40<br />
35<br />
30<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
NE<br />
E<br />
W<br />
NW<br />
N 40<br />
35<br />
30<br />
NE<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
E<br />
SW<br />
SE<br />
SW<br />
SE<br />
S<br />
Figure 6. Seasonal frequency <strong>of</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter (blue) <strong>and</strong> summer (red) w<strong>in</strong>d directions. In Nikel station (left) <strong>the</strong> still air frequency is 19%<br />
<strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter <strong>and</strong> 9 % <strong>in</strong> summer. In Janiskoski station (right) <strong>the</strong> still air frequency is 27 % <strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter <strong>and</strong> 20 % <strong>in</strong> summer.<br />
S<br />
References<br />
Oganesyan V.V. 2004: Climate change <strong>in</strong> Moscow from 1879 to 2002 <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> extreme values <strong>of</strong> temperature <strong>and</strong> precipitations.<br />
Meteorology <strong>and</strong> hydrology 9: 31–37. Moscow. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Bulyg<strong>in</strong>a, O.N., Korshunova, N.N., Razuvaev, V.N., Shaimardanov, M.Z., Shvets, N.V. 2000: Variability <strong>of</strong> extreme climate<br />
phenomena <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> territory <strong>of</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>. Publications <strong>of</strong> VNIIGMI-IDC 167: 16–32. Obn<strong>in</strong>sk. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Yakovlev, B.A. 1961: Climate <strong>of</strong> Murmansk Region. Murmansk publish<strong>in</strong>g company. 24–27. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Davydov, A.A., Antsiferova, A.R. 2007: Climate change <strong>in</strong> Barentsburg from 1960 to 2005 <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> values <strong>of</strong> annual mean temperature<br />
<strong>and</strong> its extreme values. Integrated research <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Spitsbergen environment, 7: 140–150. Kola Science Center<br />
RAS. Apatity. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
13
3 Emissions, dispersion <strong>and</strong> deposition<br />
<strong>of</strong> SO 2<br />
from Nikel <strong>and</strong> Zapolyarny, model<br />
studies<br />
TORE FLATLANDSMO BERGLEN, BJØRG JENNY ENGDAHL, ANNA VON STRENG VELKEN, LIU LI, VO THANH DAM,<br />
ØYVIND HODNEBROG, FRODE STORDAL<br />
The soil <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n-Norwegian border area is rich<br />
<strong>in</strong> metals <strong>and</strong> m<strong>in</strong>erals. In 1921 nickel was discovered<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> soil near Kolosjoki <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik Valley, close to<br />
<strong>the</strong> Norwegian border. A smelter was established <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> 1930s to exploit <strong>the</strong>se nickel resources. Nickel is<br />
an important constituent <strong>in</strong> sta<strong>in</strong>less steel <strong>and</strong> hence a<br />
strategically important resource. The nickel produc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
facilities were an important target dur<strong>in</strong>g World War<br />
II. After <strong>the</strong> war <strong>the</strong> plants were reconstructed. Now<br />
<strong>the</strong> plants are owned by Kola M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Metallurgical<br />
Company (Kola MMC), a subsidiary <strong>of</strong> Norilsk-Nickel 1 .<br />
The ore <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area is rich <strong>in</strong> heavy metals,<br />
but also conta<strong>in</strong>s a fraction <strong>of</strong> sulphur (5–6 %). The<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrial processes cause large emissions <strong>of</strong> sulfur<br />
dioxide (SO 2<br />
) <strong>and</strong> heavy metals. The comb<strong>in</strong>ed SO 2<br />
emissions from <strong>the</strong> two facilities are reported to be<br />
over 100 000 tonnes per year, about 40 % from Zapolyarny<br />
<strong>and</strong> 60 % from Nikel respectively. The emissions<br />
from <strong>the</strong> briquett<strong>in</strong>g facility <strong>in</strong> Zapolyarny <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
smelter <strong>in</strong> Nikel affect air quality <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area, both on a<br />
local <strong>and</strong> on a regional scale.<br />
NILU has been conduct<strong>in</strong>g a monitor<strong>in</strong>g program<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area s<strong>in</strong>ce 1974, funded by Norwegian<br />
authorities (M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Climate <strong>and</strong> Environment <strong>and</strong><br />
Norwegian Environment Agency). At <strong>the</strong> moment <strong>the</strong>re<br />
are two well equipped monitor<strong>in</strong>g stations operat<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
one at Svanvik, 8.5 km to <strong>the</strong> west <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> city <strong>of</strong><br />
Nikel <strong>and</strong> one <strong>in</strong> Karpdalen, about 30 km north <strong>of</strong> Nikel<br />
<strong>and</strong> 20 km north-west <strong>of</strong> Zapolyarny. Both Svanvik<br />
<strong>and</strong> Karpdalen monitor SO 2<br />
<strong>and</strong> meteorology cont<strong>in</strong>uously,<br />
<strong>in</strong> addition <strong>the</strong>re are sampl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> analysis<br />
<strong>of</strong> heavy metals <strong>in</strong> air <strong>and</strong> precipitation. There is also<br />
long term monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> SO 2<br />
at Viksjøfjell us<strong>in</strong>g passive<br />
samplers. These are <strong>the</strong> stations at <strong>the</strong> Norwegian<br />
side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> border. In <strong>Russia</strong> <strong>the</strong>re are air quality monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
stations <strong>in</strong> Nikel <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Zapolyarny us<strong>in</strong>g high<br />
resolution monitors 2 . See map <strong>in</strong> Figure 1 for location<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> nickel produc<strong>in</strong>g facilities <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
stations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area.<br />
As already stated, emissions from <strong>the</strong> nickel produc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
facilities <strong>in</strong> Zapolyarny <strong>and</strong> Nikel affect <strong>the</strong><br />
environment both on a local <strong>and</strong> on a regional scale.<br />
In order to quantify <strong>the</strong> impact <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se emissions,<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is a need to better underst<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> sources, dispersion<br />
<strong>and</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pollution from <strong>the</strong>se facilities.<br />
Atmospheric models constitute a good tool to better<br />
answer this need. In that respect models also constitute<br />
a valuable supplement to monitor<strong>in</strong>g. The ma<strong>in</strong><br />
focus <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> NILU studies is to model <strong>the</strong> emissions,<br />
dispersion, chemical loss <strong>and</strong> deposition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> SO 2<br />
emitted from <strong>the</strong> briquett<strong>in</strong>g plant <strong>in</strong> Zapolyarny <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> smelter <strong>in</strong> Nikel us<strong>in</strong>g two different atmospheric<br />
models, WRF-Chem (Wea<strong>the</strong>r Research <strong>and</strong> Forecast<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with chemistry <strong>in</strong>cluded) <strong>and</strong> TAPM (The Air<br />
Pollution Model, developed by CSIRO).<br />
The atmosphere is a complex system that behaves<br />
accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> laws <strong>of</strong> physics <strong>and</strong> chemistry. The<br />
basic assumption <strong>in</strong> modell<strong>in</strong>g is that <strong>the</strong> atmospheric<br />
processes can be solved ma<strong>the</strong>matically. A model is<br />
a large set <strong>of</strong> equations that is solved us<strong>in</strong>g supercomputers.<br />
However, simplifications, also called parameterizations,<br />
have to be made. Parameterization is<br />
a method to represent equations us<strong>in</strong>g variables <strong>and</strong><br />
formulas that are easier to solve ma<strong>the</strong>matically.<br />
Both WRF-Chem <strong>and</strong> TAPM are Eulerian models.<br />
This means that <strong>the</strong> atmosphere is divided <strong>in</strong>to boxes.<br />
Then <strong>the</strong> variables are calculated for each grid<br />
box. The models <strong>in</strong>clude processes like emissions,<br />
chemical loss, dry deposition (loss onto surfaces),<br />
wet deposition (loss by ra<strong>in</strong>), <strong>and</strong> transport between<br />
adjacent grid boxes (by w<strong>in</strong>d or convection). For emissions<br />
from po<strong>in</strong>t sources it is important to have f<strong>in</strong>e<br />
resolution near <strong>the</strong> emission po<strong>in</strong>t, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se studies<br />
this means <strong>the</strong> stacks at <strong>the</strong> smelter, <strong>and</strong> more coarse<br />
resolution at a regional scale. Figure 2 shows <strong>the</strong><br />
model doma<strong>in</strong>s applied <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> WRF-Chem model with<br />
f<strong>in</strong>e resolution near <strong>the</strong> Zapolyarny <strong>and</strong> Nikel facilities<br />
(1 × 1 km 2 grid boxes), <strong>the</strong>n a regional model doma<strong>in</strong><br />
14<br />
1 http://www.nornik.ru/en/about-norilsk-nickel/operations/kola-mmc [URL 17-Dec-2014]<br />
2 See http://www.kolgimet.ru/<strong>in</strong>dex.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=54&Itemid=239 [URL 22-Dec-2014]
Figure 1. Nickel produc<strong>in</strong>g facilities (Nikel <strong>and</strong> Zapolyarny) <strong>and</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g stations for air quality, precipitation quality <strong>and</strong> meteorology<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area between <strong>Norway</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>.<br />
Figure 2. The model doma<strong>in</strong>s: doma<strong>in</strong> d01 is <strong>the</strong> outermost doma<strong>in</strong>, doma<strong>in</strong> d02 is an <strong>in</strong>termediate/regional doma<strong>in</strong> while doma<strong>in</strong><br />
d03 covers <strong>the</strong> area close to Nikel <strong>and</strong> Zapolyarny.<br />
15
(5 × 5 km 2 grid boxes), <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ally an outer model doma<strong>in</strong><br />
(25 × 25 km 2 grid boxes).<br />
The SO 2<br />
emissions from Nikel can vary considerably<br />
even on a short time scale, from virtually no<br />
emissions to large plumes <strong>of</strong> flue gas pour<strong>in</strong>g out <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> smelter <strong>and</strong> stacks. This variation is probably dependent<br />
upon <strong>the</strong> smelt<strong>in</strong>g processes employed but<br />
no details are known. Due to this lack <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
concern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> emissions variation, <strong>the</strong> model assumed<br />
constant emissions, add<strong>in</strong>g up to 40 000 tonnes<br />
SO 2<br />
per year from Zapolyarny <strong>and</strong> 60 000 tonnes SO 2<br />
per year from Nikel.<br />
In Nikel a large fraction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> flue gas is emitted<br />
at ground level, i.e. from <strong>the</strong> smelter build<strong>in</strong>gs. These<br />
emissions affect <strong>the</strong> air quality <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> vic<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
smelter <strong>and</strong> also local air quality <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> city <strong>of</strong> Nikel<br />
(when <strong>the</strong> w<strong>in</strong>d is com<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> north). The aim <strong>of</strong><br />
a stack is to emit pollutants high above <strong>the</strong> ground so<br />
that <strong>the</strong> flue gas is diluted when it reaches <strong>the</strong> ground<br />
(lower concentrations). The proportion <strong>of</strong> diffusive<br />
ground level emissions is not known. For <strong>the</strong> Nikel<br />
smelter, <strong>the</strong> model assumed that 50 % were emitted<br />
at <strong>the</strong> ground (diffusive emissions) <strong>and</strong> 50 % from 160<br />
m above ground level (layer 4 <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> model).<br />
WRF-Chem model<br />
WRF-Chem (The Wea<strong>the</strong>r Research <strong>and</strong> Forecast<br />
with chemistry <strong>in</strong>cluded) model has been applied to<br />
study two specific episodes (Engdahl et al. 2014). Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> summer episode <strong>in</strong> June–July 2007 <strong>the</strong>re were<br />
large emissions comb<strong>in</strong>ed with stable atmosphere<br />
<strong>and</strong> weak w<strong>in</strong>d. In this study <strong>the</strong> period 1.–7. July<br />
2007 was <strong>in</strong>vestigated. Dur<strong>in</strong>g w<strong>in</strong>ter 2010/11 <strong>the</strong>re<br />
were many episodes with high concentrations <strong>in</strong> Karpdalen.<br />
Karpdalen is <strong>in</strong>fluenced by emissions from<br />
both Zapolyarny <strong>and</strong> Nikel. The period 23. December<br />
2010–7. January 2011 was <strong>in</strong>vestigated.<br />
The WRF-Chem model is able to describe air pollution<br />
on both local <strong>and</strong> regional scale. A nested grid<br />
was applied to <strong>the</strong> study area, which was divided <strong>in</strong>to<br />
three doma<strong>in</strong>s (Figure 2). The largest doma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
<strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn regions <strong>of</strong> Fennosc<strong>and</strong>ia, northwest<br />
<strong>Russia</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Barents Sea with grid box size <strong>of</strong> 25<br />
× 25 km 2 . The middle doma<strong>in</strong> covered eastern F<strong>in</strong>nmark,<br />
some regions <strong>of</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> region<br />
around Nikel with grid box size <strong>of</strong> 5 × 5km 2 . The<br />
smallest doma<strong>in</strong> concentrated on <strong>the</strong> immediate vic<strong>in</strong>ity<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> emission sources with grid box size <strong>of</strong> 1 ×<br />
1 km 2 . In <strong>the</strong> vertical <strong>the</strong> atmosphere was divided <strong>in</strong>to<br />
layers, th<strong>in</strong> layers close to <strong>the</strong> ground <strong>and</strong> gradually<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g layers with altitude.<br />
As <strong>in</strong>put data to <strong>the</strong> model, prescribed meteorological<br />
data from WRF were applied. In a way, <strong>the</strong>se data<br />
are <strong>the</strong> same as data used for wea<strong>the</strong>r forecast. Data<br />
from WRF were compared with analysis data from European<br />
Centre for Medium Range Wea<strong>the</strong>r Forecast,<br />
ECMWF. The WRF data compared well with <strong>the</strong> analysis<br />
data. This means that <strong>the</strong> meteorological <strong>in</strong>put<br />
data represent well <strong>the</strong> meteorological conditions <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> atmosphere, like w<strong>in</strong>d direction <strong>and</strong> w<strong>in</strong>d speed,<br />
temperature, etc. Especially w<strong>in</strong>d direction <strong>and</strong> w<strong>in</strong>d<br />
speed, as well as atmospheric stability are important<br />
parameters for dispersion <strong>of</strong> air pollution. In addition,<br />
wet deposition/ra<strong>in</strong>fall is an important loss process<br />
for sulphur. As described earlier <strong>the</strong> model assumed<br />
constant emissions <strong>of</strong> SO 2<br />
, 40 000 tonnes per year<br />
from Zapolyarny <strong>and</strong> 60 000 tonnes per year from Nikel.<br />
For Nikel 50 % were emitted at ground level <strong>and</strong><br />
50 % at 160 m above ground.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> summer episode <strong>of</strong> 1.–<br />
8. July 2007 <strong>the</strong>re was a high pressure system over<br />
<strong>the</strong> Barents Sea <strong>and</strong> a low pressure system south<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula. This caused dry wea<strong>the</strong>r<br />
<strong>and</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> strong w<strong>in</strong>ds, only some nor<strong>the</strong>astern<br />
w<strong>in</strong>ds were noted. At <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> episode <strong>the</strong><br />
high pressure area had moved eastwards, w<strong>in</strong>d had<br />
grown stronger <strong>and</strong> blew from <strong>the</strong> east. The nor<strong>the</strong>astern<br />
w<strong>in</strong>ds transported <strong>the</strong> emissions from Nikel <strong>and</strong><br />
Zapolyarny towards <strong>the</strong> city <strong>of</strong> Nikel <strong>and</strong> also some towards<br />
Svanvik. The SO 2<br />
concentrations are generally<br />
highest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se areas near <strong>the</strong> smelter. But emissions<br />
can disperse over relatively large areas <strong>and</strong> even far<br />
<strong>in</strong>to F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>, Sweden <strong>and</strong> <strong>Norway</strong>, though concentrations<br />
far<strong>the</strong>r away from <strong>the</strong> sources are much lower.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter episode <strong>of</strong> 23. December<br />
2010–7. January 2011 <strong>the</strong>re was relatively<br />
weak w<strong>in</strong>d from <strong>the</strong> west, which changed suddenly <strong>in</strong>to<br />
stronger sou<strong>the</strong>rn w<strong>in</strong>d around <strong>the</strong> turn <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> year.<br />
After a while <strong>the</strong>re was some nor<strong>the</strong>rn w<strong>in</strong>d, but <strong>the</strong><br />
episode ended with sou<strong>the</strong>rn w<strong>in</strong>d aga<strong>in</strong>. Stable conditions<br />
<strong>and</strong> weak w<strong>in</strong>ds transport <strong>the</strong> emissions slowly<br />
away from <strong>the</strong> city <strong>of</strong> Nikel <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> local concentrations<br />
north <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> smelters are <strong>the</strong>refore higher.<br />
Comparison with observations is <strong>the</strong> only way to<br />
verify model performance. Model results were compared<br />
with observations <strong>of</strong> Svanvik, Nikel (only summer<br />
episode) <strong>and</strong> Karpdalen (only w<strong>in</strong>ter episode) (Figure<br />
3). Observations show a pattern typical for monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
stations located close to major emission sources, <strong>the</strong>re<br />
are usually very low concentrations when <strong>the</strong> w<strong>in</strong>d<br />
16
is com<strong>in</strong>g from o<strong>the</strong>r directions than <strong>the</strong> smelter. The<br />
gas plume is well def<strong>in</strong>ed close to <strong>the</strong> sources <strong>and</strong><br />
when <strong>the</strong> flue gas plume hits <strong>the</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g station,<br />
<strong>the</strong> concentration suddenly <strong>in</strong>creases.<br />
The modelled concentrations are lower than <strong>the</strong><br />
observed maximum concentrations <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> variation<br />
<strong>in</strong> actual concentrations is larger. A possible explanation<br />
for this is that <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> real atmosphere <strong>the</strong> gas plume<br />
from <strong>the</strong> stacks is well def<strong>in</strong>ed, whereas <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> model it<br />
will be distributed evenly with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> grid boxes (“levelled<br />
out” <strong>in</strong> a 1 × 1 km 2 grid box). Ano<strong>the</strong>r explanation<br />
is that <strong>the</strong> model emissions are not well represented.<br />
The gas is also emitted at <strong>the</strong> ground level (diffuse<br />
emissions), not only from <strong>the</strong> stacks, but no reliable<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation exists concern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ground:stack<br />
emission ratio. Especially Svanvik is affected both by<br />
ground level emissions <strong>and</strong> stack emissions. There is<br />
also a no <strong>in</strong>formation about <strong>the</strong> time variation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
emissions. In <strong>the</strong> model constant emissions are assumed<br />
whereas <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> real atmosphere <strong>the</strong> emissions<br />
will vary considerably on a short time scale. Correct<br />
emission <strong>in</strong>formation is crucial to obta<strong>in</strong> more precice<br />
model results.<br />
Plots show<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> dispersion <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> three model<br />
doma<strong>in</strong>s have been elaborated (Figure 4). Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
summer episode <strong>the</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ds were stronger <strong>and</strong> dispersion<br />
more effective on a regional scale. Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
w<strong>in</strong>ter episode <strong>the</strong>re were stable conditions, weak<br />
w<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>and</strong> slow dispersion (results not shown). Short<br />
“films” were also made to show <strong>the</strong> dispersion dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> summer episode 3 .<br />
A budget quantify<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> processes important for<br />
SO 2<br />
was elaborated as a tool <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> model development.<br />
These rout<strong>in</strong>es were also helpful <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> assess-<br />
Figure 3. Modelled <strong>and</strong> observed concentrations <strong>of</strong> SO 2<br />
from (a) Svanvik 3. July 2007, (b) Nikel 3. July 2007, (c) Svanvik 3. January<br />
2011, <strong>and</strong> (d) Karpdalen 3. January 2011. If <strong>the</strong> observations are close to 0, <strong>the</strong>y are not visible <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> plot (blue dots).<br />
3 Please see ”films” at [visited 01-03-2015]:<br />
http://folk.uio.no/torefl/WRF-Chem/Domene1_SO2-SO4_delay10.gif<br />
http://folk.uio.no/torefl/WRF-Chem/Domene2_SO2-SO4_delay10.gif<br />
http://folk.uio.no/torefl/WRF-Chem/Domene3_SO2-SO4_delay10.gif<br />
17
Figure 4. Dispersion <strong>of</strong> SO 2<br />
for 6. July 2007 at 12h UTC a) model doma<strong>in</strong> 1 (outermost doma<strong>in</strong>), b) model doma<strong>in</strong> 2 (<strong>in</strong>termediate)<br />
<strong>and</strong> model doma<strong>in</strong> 3 (<strong>in</strong>nermost doma<strong>in</strong>). Please note different scale <strong>in</strong> plots (a) <strong>and</strong> (b) compared to plot (c). Unit: ppb (parts per<br />
billion, 10 -9 , mix<strong>in</strong>g ratio) as sum over <strong>the</strong> lowermost model layers.<br />
ment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> wet deposition parameterization. Wet deposition<br />
is an important process <strong>and</strong> has a large effect<br />
on SO 2<br />
<strong>and</strong> H 2<br />
SO 4<br />
concentrations. Thus a budget was<br />
calculated to determ<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> contribution from each<br />
s<strong>in</strong>gle process (dry deposition, wet deposition, transport,<br />
chemistry etc.) with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> model grid (largest<br />
doma<strong>in</strong>).<br />
SO 2<br />
emissions <strong>and</strong> transport <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> model doma<strong>in</strong><br />
are <strong>the</strong> two most important sources dur<strong>in</strong>g both summer<br />
<strong>and</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter episodes. Emissions are positively <strong>the</strong><br />
largest source <strong>of</strong> SO 2<br />
, especially <strong>in</strong> boxes near Nikel,<br />
<strong>and</strong> transport from <strong>the</strong> outer edges <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> model doma<strong>in</strong><br />
are m<strong>in</strong>or. There is a large difference between<br />
<strong>the</strong> summer <strong>and</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter episodes concern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> pathways<br />
<strong>of</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> SO 2<br />
from <strong>the</strong> atmosphere. Sunlight,<br />
especially shortwave UV, drives <strong>the</strong> chemical processes<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> atmosphere (photochemistry) <strong>and</strong> sunlight<br />
is abundant <strong>in</strong> summer (midnight sun) <strong>and</strong> absent<br />
<strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter. Sunlight generates OH, which is <strong>the</strong> most<br />
important oxidant <strong>in</strong> daytime chemistry. OH also oxidizes<br />
SO 2<br />
to H 2<br />
SO 4<br />
. Chemical loss is <strong>the</strong> most important<br />
summertime process <strong>of</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> SO 2<br />
from <strong>the</strong><br />
atmosphere, <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs be<strong>in</strong>g wet deposition <strong>and</strong> dry<br />
deposition.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter <strong>the</strong>re is a polar night <strong>and</strong> total<br />
absence <strong>of</strong> direct sunlight <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area. Chemical<br />
loss is m<strong>in</strong>or <strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>tertime due to low levels <strong>of</strong><br />
oxidants <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> atmosphere (e.g. OH). Because only<br />
a little sulfuric acid is formed, all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reactions are<br />
reduced. The ma<strong>in</strong> loss processes dur<strong>in</strong>g w<strong>in</strong>ter are<br />
wet deposition <strong>and</strong> dry deposition.<br />
Deposition, dry or wet, is <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al removal process<br />
<strong>of</strong> sulphur from <strong>the</strong> atmosphere. Sulphur deposited on<br />
<strong>the</strong> ground will eventually contribute to acidification.<br />
Oxidation changes SO 2<br />
<strong>in</strong>to H 2<br />
SO 4<br />
but does not remove<br />
it from <strong>the</strong> atmosphere.<br />
18
TAPM model<br />
TAPM (The Air Pollution Model developed by CSIRO)<br />
was set up for <strong>the</strong> border area <strong>and</strong> run for <strong>the</strong> year<br />
2011, i.e. <strong>the</strong> meteorological data represented 2011.<br />
The set up concern<strong>in</strong>g model doma<strong>in</strong>s <strong>and</strong> emissions<br />
were similar to <strong>the</strong> WRF-Chem (see previous section).<br />
Monthly mean <strong>and</strong> annual mean concentrations<br />
were put to file, as well as results <strong>of</strong> dry <strong>and</strong> wet deposition.<br />
In addition hourly mean results for <strong>the</strong> grid<br />
boxes represent<strong>in</strong>g Svanvik, Nikel smelter, city <strong>of</strong> Nikel<br />
<strong>and</strong> Zapolyarny were put to file. Model – observation<br />
comparison for hourly mean values at Svanvik is<br />
shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 5. Annual mean ground level values<br />
for <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ner model doma<strong>in</strong> are shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 6.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> Svanvik station <strong>the</strong> model tends to overestimate<br />
<strong>the</strong> peak maximum values, maximum value <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> model is 3300 µg/m 3 <strong>of</strong> SO 2<br />
while observations<br />
show maximum 858 µg/m 3 , i.e. <strong>the</strong> model maximum<br />
is a factor 4 higher than observed. The model also<br />
overestimates <strong>the</strong> annual mean concentration (model<br />
results 23 µg SO 2<br />
/m 3 vs observations 7,3 µg SO 2<br />
/m 3 ).<br />
It is difficult to compare short term values at <strong>Russia</strong>n<br />
stations s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> observations are 20-m<strong>in</strong>utes mean<br />
while <strong>the</strong> model calculates 1-hr means. For Zapolyarny<br />
<strong>and</strong> Nikel <strong>the</strong> model underestimates <strong>the</strong> observed<br />
values concern<strong>in</strong>g annual mean concentrations (results<br />
not shown).<br />
Dry deposition is <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> loss pathway close to<br />
<strong>the</strong> smelter. The dry deposition results resemble to a<br />
large extent <strong>the</strong> ground level concentrations (results<br />
not shown). This is logical s<strong>in</strong>ce dry deposition is a<br />
function <strong>of</strong> ground level concentration <strong>and</strong> deposition<br />
velocity. Wet deposition is a function <strong>of</strong> concentrations<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> column <strong>of</strong> air, solubility <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> compounds,<br />
clouds <strong>and</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>fall.<br />
To estimate deposition <strong>of</strong> heavy metals a simple<br />
method has been elaborated. The best <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
available concern<strong>in</strong>g deposition <strong>of</strong> sulphur <strong>and</strong> deposition<br />
<strong>of</strong> Ni are <strong>the</strong> observations from Svanvik <strong>and</strong><br />
Karpdalen where both components were sampled<br />
an analyzed simultaneously dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> period 1993–<br />
2003. The nss-S:Ni-fraction 4 was about 35 at Svanvik<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g this period. The basic idea here is <strong>the</strong>n to<br />
use <strong>the</strong> observed nss-S:Ni-ratio from 1993–2003 from<br />
Svanvik <strong>and</strong> Karpdalen <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> model calculated deposition<br />
<strong>of</strong> sulphur from TAPM to estimate deposition<br />
<strong>of</strong> Ni. In this study a nss-S:Ni-ratio <strong>of</strong> 25 <strong>and</strong> 30 was<br />
assumed. This is lower than observed dur<strong>in</strong>g 1993–<br />
2003. But given that <strong>the</strong> emission <strong>of</strong> sulphur has decreased<br />
<strong>and</strong> emissions <strong>of</strong> Ni <strong>in</strong>creased s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong><br />
Svanvik SO2 model & observation µg/m³<br />
3500<br />
3000<br />
2500<br />
2000<br />
1500<br />
1000<br />
500<br />
0<br />
1<br />
314<br />
627<br />
940<br />
1253<br />
1566<br />
1879<br />
2192<br />
2505<br />
2818<br />
3131<br />
3444<br />
3757<br />
4070<br />
4383<br />
4696<br />
5009<br />
5322<br />
5635<br />
5948<br />
6261<br />
6574<br />
6887<br />
7200<br />
7513<br />
7826<br />
8139<br />
8452<br />
Model<br />
Observations<br />
Figure 5. Model results <strong>and</strong> observations (hourly mean values) from <strong>the</strong> Svanvik monitor<strong>in</strong>g station, count<strong>in</strong>g hours from 1 st January<br />
2011. Unit µg SO 2<br />
/m 3 .<br />
4 nss-S is abbreviation for non sea-salt sulphur<br />
19
Figure 6. Annual mean concentration <strong>of</strong> SO 2<br />
for <strong>the</strong> year 2011 for <strong>the</strong> area close to Nikel <strong>and</strong> Zapolyarny. Unit: µg/m 3 .<br />
ratio is likely lower now than 20 years ago. Ni-deposition<br />
for 5 stations <strong>and</strong> 9 lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area were<br />
estimated. For Svanvik <strong>the</strong> estimate is lower than<br />
observations, but with<strong>in</strong> a factor 2 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> observed values<br />
<strong>of</strong> Ni.<br />
Conclusions<br />
Models represent an important tool to better underst<strong>and</strong><br />
emissions, dispersion <strong>and</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> pollutants<br />
emitted from smelter facilities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area. Correct<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation about <strong>the</strong> emissions is crucial <strong>in</strong> order<br />
to obta<strong>in</strong> reliable model results. Total emissions <strong>of</strong><br />
SO 2<br />
is about 100 000 tonnes annually, 40 000 tonnes<br />
from Zapolyarny <strong>and</strong> 60 000 tonnes from Nikel. Diffusive<br />
emissions <strong>in</strong> Nikel greatly affect areas <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
vic<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> smelter. It is also important to represent<br />
wet deposition correctly <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> model. Meteorology,<br />
especially w<strong>in</strong>d <strong>and</strong> stability, are important factors for<br />
dispersion from <strong>the</strong> smelters.<br />
The WRF-Chem model (Wea<strong>the</strong>r Research <strong>and</strong><br />
Forecast<strong>in</strong>g with chemistry <strong>in</strong>cluded) has been set up<br />
for <strong>the</strong> border area with a nested grid centered on Zapolyarny<br />
<strong>and</strong> Nikel. The periods 1.–7. July 2007 (dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> summer episode 2007) <strong>and</strong> 23. December<br />
2010–7. January 2011 (w<strong>in</strong>ter with elevated concentrations)<br />
have been <strong>in</strong>vestigated. The model tends to<br />
underestimate <strong>the</strong> concentration <strong>in</strong> episodes. Budget<br />
rout<strong>in</strong>es were <strong>in</strong>cluded to <strong>in</strong>vestigate <strong>the</strong> different loss<br />
processes. Chemistry is an important loss process <strong>in</strong><br />
summertime, but not <strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter. Wet deposition <strong>and</strong> dry<br />
deposition are <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> loss processes <strong>of</strong> sulphur.<br />
Short “films” have been made to show <strong>the</strong> dispersion.<br />
WRF-Chem does represent atmospheric processes<br />
<strong>in</strong> a very detailed way. However, it is computationally<br />
dem<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g. In that respect <strong>the</strong> model is most<br />
suited to study processes (emissions, dispersion, chemical<br />
loss, dry deposition, wet deposition etc.) <strong>and</strong> to<br />
study specific episodes (e.g. summer episode 2007)<br />
ra<strong>the</strong>r than produce long-term calculations <strong>of</strong> concentrations<br />
<strong>and</strong> deposition.<br />
20
TAPM (The Air Pollution Model) was set up for <strong>the</strong><br />
border area <strong>and</strong> run for <strong>the</strong> year 2011. Both short term<br />
(hour) <strong>and</strong> long term (month, year) concentration means<br />
were put to file, as well as annual mean <strong>of</strong> dry <strong>and</strong><br />
wet deposition. The model overestimates <strong>the</strong> observed<br />
values at Svanvik (both hourly mean <strong>and</strong> annual<br />
mean concentrations), while it underestimates <strong>the</strong> annual<br />
mean observations for <strong>the</strong> Zapolyarny <strong>and</strong> Nikel<br />
stations. The model shows high values to <strong>the</strong> north<br />
<strong>of</strong> Nikel, but <strong>the</strong>re are no observations to verify <strong>the</strong>se<br />
results.<br />
A method to estimate deposition <strong>of</strong> heavy metals<br />
has been elaborated based on model results <strong>of</strong> deposition<br />
<strong>of</strong> sulphur <strong>and</strong> observed sulphur:Ni ratio at<br />
Svanvik <strong>and</strong> Karpdalen.<br />
TAPM is fast to run on <strong>the</strong> supercomputer, but <strong>the</strong>re<br />
is no access to <strong>the</strong> model code (“black box”). Because<br />
<strong>of</strong> this it is <strong>the</strong>refore difficult to make sensitivity tests to<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigate <strong>and</strong> analyze <strong>the</strong> results.<br />
References<br />
Engdahl, B.J., Velken, A.v.S., Berglen, T.F., Hodnebrog, Ø., <strong>and</strong> Stordal, F. 2014: Utslipp, spredn<strong>in</strong>g og avsetn<strong>in</strong>g av SO2<br />
fra Nikel og Zapoljarnij, En WRF-Chem modellstudie, NILU OR 57/2014 (<strong>in</strong> Norwegian with Summary <strong>and</strong> figure captions<br />
<strong>in</strong> English).<br />
Berglen, T.F., Liu, L., <strong>and</strong> Dam, V.T. 2014: Emissions, dispersion <strong>and</strong> deposition <strong>of</strong> SO 2<br />
emitted from Nikel <strong>and</strong> Zapolyarny<br />
facilities. A TAPM model study, NILU OR 70/2014.<br />
Pechenganikel after <strong>the</strong> summer episode <strong>of</strong><br />
2007. Photo: Espen Aarnes.<br />
Affiliations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> authors: Tore Flatl<strong>and</strong>smo Berglen (NILU), Bjørg Jenny Engdahl (NILU, now Meteorological Institute, <strong>Norway</strong>), Anna<br />
von Streng Velken (NILU, now Norwegian Environment Agency), Liu Li (NILU), Vo Thanh Dam (NILU), Øyv<strong>in</strong>d Hodnebrog (Univ.<br />
<strong>of</strong> Oslo, now CICERO), <strong>and</strong> Frode Stordal (Univ. <strong>of</strong> Oslo)<br />
21
22
Chapter 2: Classifications <strong>of</strong> ecological<br />
state <strong>and</strong> environmental health<br />
JUKKA YLIKÖRKKÖ<br />
Vätsäri wilderness. Photo Jukka Ylikörkkö.<br />
23
1 Introduction<br />
When assess<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> chemical state <strong>of</strong> surface waters,<br />
different limit values <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ards are applied <strong>in</strong> different<br />
countries. Similarly <strong>the</strong> classification <strong>of</strong> aquatic<br />
ecological status is based on different organisms <strong>and</strong><br />
multiple variables. Therefore <strong>the</strong> risk assessments<br />
<strong>and</strong> ecological evaluations are <strong>of</strong>ten difficult to compare.<br />
The classifications for ecological status <strong>and</strong> limit<br />
values for concentrations <strong>of</strong> hazardous substances<br />
are undergo<strong>in</strong>g updat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> changes <strong>in</strong> Europe,<br />
both on national <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational level. Intercalibration<br />
<strong>and</strong> harmonization has been done between <strong>the</strong><br />
EU nations. St<strong>and</strong>ards or classifications are <strong>of</strong>ten not<br />
suitable for naturally harsh <strong>and</strong> nutrient poor nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
environments. Here <strong>the</strong> validity <strong>of</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g st<strong>and</strong>ards<br />
<strong>and</strong> metrics for lakes is assessed us<strong>in</strong>g data collected<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> project.<br />
Literature review <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational comparison<br />
concern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> national <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational classifications,<br />
typologies, st<strong>and</strong>ards <strong>and</strong> limit values for ecological<br />
state <strong>and</strong> environmental health has been done<br />
as a background 1 for <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g work with project<br />
data. The most valid tools for analysis <strong>and</strong> report<strong>in</strong>g<br />
results are selected for trilateral monitor<strong>in</strong>g programme<br />
based on this assessment. These outcomes will<br />
also support <strong>the</strong> selection <strong>of</strong> most representative <strong>and</strong><br />
cost-effective environmental variables <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dicators<br />
for aquatic monitor<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Biological diversity metrics are compared<br />
between <strong>the</strong> regions us<strong>in</strong>g Kruskal-Wallis<br />
test, which is a non-parametric variance<br />
analysis suitable for small, skewed data <strong>and</strong><br />
for groups <strong>of</strong> unequal size.<br />
Sediment samples.<br />
Photo: Helén Andersen<br />
Field equipment. Photo: Jukka Ylikörkkö<br />
1 See precursory work at www.pasvikmonitor<strong>in</strong>g.org<br />
24
2 Chemical status<br />
In this part water chemistry data from <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
(Chapter 3) <strong>and</strong> lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surround<strong>in</strong>g regions<br />
(Chapter 4) was used. For reference an additional lake<br />
LN-2 from north-east <strong>of</strong> Nikel was <strong>in</strong>cluded. The lakes<br />
can be grouped <strong>in</strong>to 3 areas <strong>in</strong> relation to Nikel: nor<strong>the</strong>ast<br />
lake LN-2 is <strong>the</strong> most exposed to <strong>the</strong> smelter’s<br />
airborne emissions, Norwegian lakes <strong>in</strong> Jarfjord are<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r away <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> same direction <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> rest <strong>of</strong> lakes<br />
<strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong> are located south or west <strong>of</strong><br />
Nikel, upw<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> prevail<strong>in</strong>g w<strong>in</strong>d direction <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
least affected by <strong>the</strong> airborne emissions. The Pasvik<br />
River runs roughly along this gradient. It receives heavy<br />
metals <strong>in</strong> wastewater discharge through Kuetsjarvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> some aerial deposition. All values are measured<br />
from 1 m depth dur<strong>in</strong>g project period 2012–2013.<br />
The chemical st<strong>and</strong>ards assessed here <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
<strong>the</strong> lists <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> EU priority substances <strong>and</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
EU countries’ specific pollutants, <strong>Russia</strong>n MAHEM,<br />
United States <strong>Environmental</strong> Agency (USEPA) <strong>and</strong><br />
Canada. The latter two st<strong>and</strong>ard lists concern criteria<br />
for aquatic life. The work has been done with st<strong>and</strong>ards<br />
valid <strong>in</strong> 2013.<br />
The most common metals have limit values <strong>in</strong> all<br />
national <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> EU st<strong>and</strong>ards (Table 4). Cadmium,<br />
chromium, copper, nickel <strong>and</strong> z<strong>in</strong>c have <strong>of</strong>ten water<br />
hardness-dependent st<strong>and</strong>ards. The project lakes’<br />
water hardness <strong>in</strong> CaCO 3<br />
content was estimated<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g calcium <strong>and</strong> magnesium concentrations. Most<br />
locations had s<strong>of</strong>t water: estimated CaCO 3<br />
< 20 mg/l.<br />
For Kuetsjarvi <strong>the</strong> hardness was higher: 40 mg/l, <strong>and</strong><br />
for LN-2 estimation <strong>in</strong>dicated hard water: 125 mg/l.<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ards for s<strong>of</strong>t water <strong>in</strong> Table 4 were calculated for<br />
hardness 17 mg/l CaCO 3<br />
, because <strong>the</strong> models <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
do not apply on lower values (CCME 2012).<br />
Project data mean values were compared to chronic<br />
<strong>and</strong> long-term environmental st<strong>and</strong>ards, <strong>and</strong> data<br />
maximums to maximum allowable concentrations<br />
(MACs) <strong>and</strong> acute short-term st<strong>and</strong>ards.<br />
The 33 EU priority substances that <strong>in</strong>clude persistent<br />
organic pollutants, organochloride <strong>and</strong> organophosphorus<br />
compounds <strong>and</strong> pesticides were not<br />
analyzed <strong>in</strong> water <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> scope <strong>of</strong> this project.<br />
Major ions<br />
Lake LN-2 has both <strong>the</strong> maximum <strong>and</strong> average<br />
sulphate concentration above all <strong>the</strong> listed st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
values (Figures 1–2, Table 1). Results from <strong>the</strong> lakes<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r regions or <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River were substantially<br />
below <strong>the</strong> lowest st<strong>and</strong>ards. Regional maximum<br />
<strong>and</strong> average values aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> lowest st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
are summarized <strong>in</strong> Table 1 <strong>and</strong> Figures 1 <strong>and</strong> 2.<br />
Table 1. The lowest st<strong>and</strong>ards for major ions with <strong>the</strong> correspond<strong>in</strong>g maximum (short-term) or highest average (longterm)<br />
<strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> lakes or regions <strong>in</strong> 2012–2013 sampl<strong>in</strong>g period. St<strong>and</strong>ard-exceed<strong>in</strong>g results emphasized.<br />
Lowest st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
(mg)<br />
LN-2/<br />
(mg)<br />
Kuetsjarvi<br />
(mg)<br />
Jarfjord max.<br />
(mg)<br />
Small lakes max.<br />
(mg)<br />
Pasvik max.<br />
(mg)<br />
Na short-term 120 MAHEM 4.3 4.1 4.0 1.6 1.7<br />
Mg short-term 40 MAHEM 10.3 4.4 1.1 1.2 1.3<br />
K short-term 10 MAHEM 0.70 0.95 0.44 0.54 0.50<br />
Cl- short-term 300 MAHEM 5.7 3.9 5.6 1.8 1.6<br />
Cl- long-term 120 Canada 4.0 3.2 - 1.7 1.4<br />
SO4 short-term 100 MAHEM 126.0 34.1 4.6 3.5 6.4<br />
SO4 long-term 50 Canada 118.5 30.0 - 3.3 4.6<br />
25
Figure 1. Maximum measured sulphate <strong>in</strong> Lake LN-2, regionally<br />
<strong>in</strong> small lakes, Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
with <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n MAC (100 mg/l).<br />
Figure 2. Average sulphate levels <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> Lake LN-2, regionally <strong>in</strong><br />
small lakes, Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River with<br />
<strong>the</strong> Canadian alert level for long-term average (50 mg/l).<br />
Metals<br />
Metals are given as dissolved concentrations <strong>in</strong> filtered<br />
(0.45 µm) samples unless stated o<strong>the</strong>rwise. Nickel<br />
<strong>and</strong> copper are <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> metals emitted by <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> study area. Both are found on high levels <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
nearest lakes (LN-2 <strong>and</strong> Kuetsjarvi) <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> some <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Jarfjord lakes (Table 2, Figures 3–7).<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ards represent added risk <strong>in</strong><br />
addition to <strong>the</strong> background concentration. Regional<br />
background concentrations were not noted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
results. The lowest MAC for copper is 1 μg/l<br />
by MAHEM. There are s<strong>in</strong>gle results from all <strong>the</strong> lake<br />
groups that exceed this concentration. USEPA acute<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard for s<strong>of</strong>t water (
Figure 3. Maximum measured copper <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> small lakes,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River <strong>and</strong> Vätsäri area. The l<strong>in</strong>es show short-tem<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard values: USEPA (2.6 μg/l) <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n MAC (1.0 μg/l)<br />
Figure 4. Average copper <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> small lakes, <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
River <strong>and</strong> Vätsäri area. The l<strong>in</strong>es show long-term st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
values for s<strong>of</strong>t water: <strong>the</strong> UK (1 μg/l), Canada (2 μg/l), Sweden<br />
(4 μg/l) .<br />
Figure 5. Maximum measured nickel <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> small lakes, <strong>the</strong><br />
Pasvik River <strong>and</strong> Vätsäri area. The l<strong>in</strong>es show short-term st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
values: USEPA (105 μg/l) <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n MAC (10 μg/l).<br />
Figure 6. Average nickel <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> small lakes, <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
River <strong>and</strong> Vätsäri area. The l<strong>in</strong>es show long-term st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
values for s<strong>of</strong>t water: USEPA (12 μg/l), EU EQS (20 μg/l) <strong>and</strong><br />
Canada (24 μg/l).<br />
Figure 7. Lake LN-2 maximum <strong>and</strong> average copper <strong>and</strong> maximum<br />
nickel. L<strong>in</strong>es show correspondent st<strong>and</strong>ard values adjusted<br />
for <strong>the</strong> lake’s water hardness by <strong>the</strong> USEPA criteria.<br />
27
Several o<strong>the</strong>r measured metal concentrations are<br />
<strong>the</strong> highest <strong>in</strong> LN-2 yet below <strong>the</strong> lowest st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
(Table 3). These <strong>in</strong>clude maximum total alum<strong>in</strong>um <strong>and</strong><br />
cadmium.<br />
Alum<strong>in</strong>um is measured both as total <strong>and</strong> labile. Total<br />
alum<strong>in</strong>um maximum concentrations are clearly <strong>the</strong><br />
highest close to Nikel, but do not exceed <strong>the</strong> lowest<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard values.<br />
Manganese MAC by MAHEM (10 µg/l) is exceeded<br />
by many lakes. Consider<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> past results measured<br />
from streams (Salm<strong>in</strong>en 2005) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> monitored<br />
lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area, 10–20 µg/l still represents <strong>the</strong> Mn<br />
background level <strong>in</strong> lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area. The only notably<br />
high manganese concentration is found <strong>in</strong> Lake<br />
LN-2 (max. 123 µg/l). Manganese is not noted <strong>in</strong> national<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard lists, but for example USEPA (2010)<br />
refers to results from LC 50<br />
experiments with mussels,<br />
which <strong>in</strong>dicate Mn on <strong>the</strong> order <strong>of</strong> tens <strong>of</strong> milligrams<br />
to be toxic.<br />
Iron MAC by MAHEM (100 µg/l) is also exceeded<br />
by several water bodies. The st<strong>and</strong>ard is aga<strong>in</strong> ra<strong>the</strong>r<br />
low compared to <strong>the</strong> regional background level (Salm<strong>in</strong>en<br />
2005). In long-term all <strong>the</strong> iron st<strong>and</strong>ards are<br />
met.<br />
There seems to be elevated z<strong>in</strong>c concentration <strong>in</strong><br />
Lake LN-2, which does not meet <strong>the</strong> lowest st<strong>and</strong>ards<br />
<strong>in</strong> maximum or long-term concentrations. Background<br />
levels <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region’s streams are generally less than<br />
1 µg/l for Zn (Salm<strong>in</strong>en 2005) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> content <strong>in</strong> all <strong>the</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r lakes is clearly below <strong>the</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard.<br />
Nutrients <strong>and</strong> trophic status<br />
Ammonium, nitrate <strong>and</strong> phosphate<br />
MAHEM MACs for ammonium (400 μg/l) <strong>and</strong> nitrate<br />
nitrogen (9100 μg/l) are <strong>the</strong> lowest <strong>of</strong> considered st<strong>and</strong>ards.<br />
All <strong>the</strong> measured results were notably below<br />
<strong>the</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard MACs. Among <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>the</strong> maximum<br />
measured ammonium nitrogen concentration varied<br />
from 9.0 to 60.0 μg/l, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River 9.0–85.0<br />
μg/l, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> maximum nitrate nitrogen 3–49 μg/l <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>and</strong> 1–46 μg/l <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> river. All <strong>the</strong> maximum<br />
measured phosphate phosphorus concentrations were<br />
below MAHEM MAC (150 μg/l), vary<strong>in</strong>g from 1 to 9<br />
μg/l <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>and</strong> 1–5 μg/l <strong>in</strong> Pasvik river.<br />
pH<br />
The measured m<strong>in</strong>imum pH values from <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River mostly exceeded <strong>the</strong> 6.5 limit, which<br />
is most <strong>of</strong>ten used st<strong>and</strong>ard for m<strong>in</strong>imum pH. Lake<br />
Sierramjärvi had lower m<strong>in</strong>imum (5.8), which seems<br />
to be a s<strong>in</strong>gle anomaly when observed <strong>in</strong> long time<br />
scale. The lake is <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> reference area <strong>and</strong> m<strong>in</strong>imally<br />
affected by anthropogenic pressures.<br />
COD<br />
The highest measured chemical oxygen dem<strong>and</strong> values<br />
were 6.8 mg/l (Virtuovoshjaur) <strong>and</strong> 5.8 mg/l <strong>in</strong><br />
Pasvik River (Ruskebukta). <strong>Russia</strong>n MAC for COD is<br />
15 mg/l.<br />
Trophic status<br />
Us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Canadian trophic status criteria for mean<br />
total phosphorus, <strong>the</strong> lakes are ultra-oligotrophic (< 4<br />
μg/l) or oligotrophic (< 10 μg/l). The Pasvik River water<br />
reservoirs are all oligotrophic (< 10 μg/l total P),<br />
except for Ruskebukta, which is meso-eutrophic <strong>in</strong><br />
terms <strong>of</strong> total phosphorus (22 μg/l). This is consistent<br />
with <strong>the</strong> previous studies <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r obta<strong>in</strong>ed results<br />
(see Chapter 3).<br />
Conclusions<br />
<strong>Russia</strong>n maximum allowable concentrations <strong>and</strong> Canadian<br />
or US environmental agency criteria for <strong>the</strong><br />
protection <strong>of</strong> aquatic life are <strong>the</strong> most comprehensive<br />
national st<strong>and</strong>ard lists <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>refore useful <strong>in</strong> assess<strong>in</strong>g<br />
chemical status. Moreover <strong>the</strong>se are most <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
<strong>the</strong> lowest <strong>and</strong> strictest st<strong>and</strong>ards. For example <strong>the</strong><br />
USEPA criteria are set as a result <strong>of</strong> lethal dose <strong>and</strong><br />
effect dose studies with zooplankton, some benthic<br />
animals <strong>and</strong> fish to m<strong>in</strong>imize <strong>the</strong> risk to aquatic biota<br />
(e.g. USEPA 2014).<br />
Sulphate accumulation is a key issue <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study<br />
area. That is detected by <strong>the</strong> lowest st<strong>and</strong>ards, which<br />
represent an early level <strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />
Nickel concentration is elevated <strong>in</strong> lakes near <strong>the</strong><br />
Nikel smelter <strong>and</strong> this is detected by all <strong>the</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ards.<br />
However <strong>the</strong>re is a great difference between different<br />
criteria <strong>and</strong> whe<strong>the</strong>r water hardness is considered.<br />
There are some unnecessarily low st<strong>and</strong>ards for<br />
copper, manganese <strong>and</strong> iron. These are <strong>Russia</strong>n national<br />
maximum concentrations <strong>and</strong> consider<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
background concentration <strong>the</strong>y may be too sensitive<br />
for <strong>the</strong> study area. Use <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r criteria or lowest observed<br />
toxic concentration as a reference po<strong>in</strong>ts out<br />
better <strong>the</strong> potential pollution <strong>in</strong> lakes downw<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Nikel smelter.<br />
Eutrophication is generally not a key issue <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
study area.<br />
28
Table 3. The lowest st<strong>and</strong>ards for metals with <strong>the</strong> correspond<strong>in</strong>g maximum (short-term) or highest average (long-term) <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong><br />
lakes or regions <strong>in</strong> 2012–2013 sampl<strong>in</strong>g period. St<strong>and</strong>ard-exceed<strong>in</strong>g results emphasized.<br />
Lowest st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
(µg/l)<br />
LN-2<br />
(µg/l)<br />
Kuetsjarvi<br />
(µg/l)<br />
Jarfjord max.<br />
(µg/l)<br />
Vätsäri-<strong>Russia</strong> max.<br />
(µg/l)<br />
Pasvik max.<br />
(µg/l)<br />
Al short-term 750 USEPA 134.0 113 12.0 50.0 86.0<br />
Al long-term 87 USEPA 47.0 49.6 - 36.8 65.0<br />
Cd short-term 0.35 USEPA 0.14 0.12 0.01 0.09 0.02<br />
Cd long-term 0.03 CA 0.11 0.06 - 0.05 0.02<br />
Mn short-term 10 MAHEM 123 48 6.09 13.2 (Virtuvuoshjaur) 25 (Vaggatem)<br />
11.0 (Kochejaur)<br />
Fe short-term 100 MAHEM 233 238 49.0 185 (Virtuvuoshjaur)<br />
174 (Kochejaur)<br />
365 (Vaggatem)<br />
139 (Skrukkebukta)<br />
Fe long-term 300 CA 143 108 - 106 223<br />
Co short-term 10 MAHEM 6.6 2.2 0.15 0.25 0.3<br />
Zn short-term 10 MAHEM 18 7.8 1.7 5.2 2.9<br />
Zn long-term 8 SWE 13,65 4.7 - 2.9 1.2<br />
Pb short-term 6 MAHEM 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4<br />
Table 4. Metal st<strong>and</strong>ard concentration by <strong>the</strong> EU priority substance list, Canadian (CCME 2011, Meays & Nordl<strong>in</strong> 2013), <strong>the</strong> US<br />
(USEPA 2012) criteria for aquatic life, <strong>Russia</strong>n MAHEM MAC values for Pasvik River, Swedish specific pollutants (Naturvårdsverket<br />
2008) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> UK proposal for specific pollutants (UKTAG 2008). The most sensitive value for each variable bolded.<br />
A. Long-term st<strong>and</strong>ards (µg/l)<br />
Al Cd Cr (III) Cr (VI) Fe Cu Ni Zn As Se Pb Hg Cl SO4<br />
EU EQS 0.08 3 20.00 7.2 5 0.05 5<br />
CA 100 1 0.03 2 8.90 1.0 300 2.00 24.86 2 30.0 5 1.0 1.0 2 0.026 120 000 50 000<br />
US 87 0.07 2 20.19 2 1.0 1000 2.01 2 11.65 2 26.7 2 150 5.0 0.3 2 230 000<br />
SW EQS 4.00 3/8.0 4<br />
UK 4.70 3.4 1000 1.00 6 8.0 6<br />
B. Short-term st<strong>and</strong>ards <strong>and</strong> MACs (µg/l)<br />
Al Cd Cr (III) Cr (VI) Fe Cu Ni Zn As Se Pb Hg Cl SO4<br />
EU MAC 0.45 3 - 0.07 5<br />
CA 640 128 000 7<br />
US 750 0.35 2 422.42 2 16.00 2.64 2 104.78 2 26.70 2 340 8.56 2 860<br />
RUS MAC 40 (labile) 5 70.00 20.00 100 1.00 10.00 10.00 50 2.0 6.00 0.01 300 100 000<br />
UK 32<br />
[1] when pH ≥ 6.5<br />
[2] when water hardness 17 mg/l CaCO 3<br />
(USEPA, Canada)<br />
[3] when water hardness < 40 mg/l CaCO 3<br />
[4] when water hardness < 24/> 24 mg/l CaCO 3<br />
[5] lead <strong>and</strong> mercury measured with <strong>the</strong>ir compounds<br />
[6] when water hardness < 50 mg/l CaCO 3<br />
[7] when water hardness < 30 mg/l CaCO 3<br />
29
3 Typology<br />
Typologies <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir categories have been discussed<br />
about <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> precursory work. 1 Project data from lakes<br />
(Chapters 4 <strong>and</strong> 5) was primarily used for type categorization.<br />
Older water quality data was used alongside<br />
when available. The results are shown <strong>in</strong> Table 1.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish typology separates North-Lapl<strong>and</strong> lakes<br />
above p<strong>in</strong>e forest l<strong>in</strong>e as a type itself. The range <strong>of</strong><br />
this type was estimated by model<strong>in</strong>g from latitude, longitude<br />
<strong>and</strong> altitude (Mikkola p.c. 2013). Based on <strong>the</strong><br />
geographical model three <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> project lakes <strong>in</strong> area<br />
belong to ‘North-Lapl<strong>and</strong>’ type (Table 1). All <strong>the</strong> lakes<br />
are at least 3 meters deep <strong>in</strong> average. Therefore,<br />
based on <strong>the</strong>ir size (< 40 km 2 ) <strong>and</strong> water colour (< 30<br />
mg Pt/l), <strong>the</strong> rest fit <strong>in</strong> type ‘small <strong>and</strong> medium-sized<br />
clear water lakes’. Alkal<strong>in</strong>ity threshold <strong>of</strong> 0.4 meq/l, on<br />
average, for calcium-rich lakes was not exceeded.<br />
Norwegian typology starts from division to altitud<strong>in</strong>al<br />
zones. All <strong>the</strong> project lakes fall <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> ‘Forest’<br />
zone below tree l<strong>in</strong>e. The size category is ei<strong>the</strong>r small<br />
(< 5 km 2 ) or large (> 5 km 2 ). The third tier describes<br />
alkal<strong>in</strong>ity. Kuetsjarvi exceeds <strong>the</strong> average alkal<strong>in</strong>ity<br />
threshold (0.2 meq) <strong>and</strong> so represents moderately<br />
calcium rich type. At last <strong>the</strong> lakes are categorized<br />
for clarity based on colour (mg Pt/l) or total organic<br />
carbon (TOC). Most lakes are clear based on water<br />
colour values <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> project data <strong>and</strong> available data<br />
from previous years. Lake Vaggatem <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
watercourse is set to ‘humic’ water colour category<br />
(colour > 30 mg Pt/l) by <strong>the</strong> Norwegian authority <strong>and</strong><br />
so it will be considered as such.<br />
As a result <strong>the</strong> lakes represent two different types<br />
accord<strong>in</strong>g to F<strong>in</strong>nish system <strong>and</strong> four types <strong>in</strong> Norwegian<br />
typology. Geographical location divides <strong>the</strong><br />
lakes <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish typology; size, alkal<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>and</strong> colour<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Norwegian. The resulted types describe partly<br />
different aspects: <strong>the</strong> size category is different <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Norwegian system has more alkal<strong>in</strong>ity categories.<br />
Water clarity is uniformly assessed <strong>and</strong> expressed by<br />
both typologies.<br />
The lakes closest to Nikel smelter are high <strong>in</strong> calcium.<br />
This is mostly due to dry deposition <strong>of</strong> calcium<br />
compounds from <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>and</strong> partly natural state<br />
because <strong>of</strong> calcareous bedrock. Based on alkal<strong>in</strong>ity<br />
measures, however, <strong>the</strong>y are, at most, moderately alkal<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
The Pasvik River is heavily modified for hydropower<br />
<strong>and</strong> it has to a large extent lost its river character.<br />
The large reservoirs are considered as humic lakes <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Norway</strong>. In F<strong>in</strong>nish typology <strong>the</strong>se would be similarly<br />
heavily modified or artificial humic lakes or lakes with<br />
short retention time <strong>in</strong> case <strong>the</strong> retention is less than<br />
10 days. Lake Vaggatem is presented as an example<br />
here.<br />
Photo:Esko Jaskari.<br />
1 www.pasvikmonitor<strong>in</strong>g.org<br />
30
Table 1. Categories used <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> Norwegian typologies <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> result<strong>in</strong>g types for different project lakes.<br />
Size (km 2 )<br />
Altitude<br />
(masl)<br />
Calcium<br />
(mg/l)<br />
Alk.<br />
(mekv/l)<br />
Colour<br />
(mg Pt/l)<br />
TOC<br />
(mg/l)<br />
FI type NO type<br />
FI<br />
Lampi 222 < 5 222 < 4 < 0.2 < 30 < 5 6.1 Small <strong>and</strong> medium size clear 12 Forest zone calcium-poor clear<br />
Harrijärvi < 5 127 < 4 < 0.2 < 30 < 5 6.1 Small <strong>and</strong> medium size clear 12 Forest zone calcium-poor clear<br />
Pitkä-Surnujärvi < 5 126 < 4 < 0.2 < 30 < 5 6.1 Small <strong>and</strong> medium size clear 12 Forest zone calcium-poor clear<br />
Sierramjärvi < 5 254 < 4 < 0.2 < 30 < 5 1 North-Lapl<strong>and</strong> lakes 12 Forest zone calcium-poor clear<br />
RU<br />
Shuonijaur 5–40 180 < 4 < 0.2 < 30 < 5 6.1 Small <strong>and</strong> medium size clear 12 Forest zone large calcium-poor clear<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi 5–40 159 < 4 < 0.2 < 30 5–15 6.1 Small <strong>and</strong> medium size clear 12 Forest zone large calcium-poor clear<br />
Toartesjaur < 5 195 < 4 < 0.2 < 30 < 5 6.1 Small <strong>and</strong> medium size clear 12 Forest zone calcium-poor clear<br />
Virtuovoshjaur < 5 182 < 4 < 0.2 < 30 5-15 6.1 Small <strong>and</strong> medium size clear 12 Forest zone calcium-poor clear<br />
Riuttikjaure < 5 190 < 4 < 0.2 < 30 < 5 6.1 Small <strong>and</strong> medium size clear 12 Forest zone calcium-poor clear<br />
Kochejaur < 5 133 < 4 < 0.2 < 30 5–15 6.1 Small <strong>and</strong> medium size clear 12 Forest zone calcium-poor clear<br />
LN-2 < 5 210 > 20 < 0.2 < 30 < 5 6.1 Small <strong>and</strong> medium size clear * 12 Forest zone calcium-poor clear<br />
Kuetsjarvi 5–40 21 4–20 0.2-1 < 30 5–15 6.1 Small <strong>and</strong> medium size clear 14.7 Forest zone large moderately calcium-rich<br />
NO<br />
Gardsjøen < 5 82 < 4 < 0.2 < 30 < 5 6.1 Small <strong>and</strong> medium size clear 12 Forest zone calcium-poor clear<br />
Holmvatnet < 5 156 < 4 < 0.2 < 30 < 5 1 North-Lapl<strong>and</strong> lakes 12 Forest zone calcium-poor clear<br />
Rabbvatnet < 5 83 < 4 < 0.2 < 30 < 5 6.1 Small <strong>and</strong> medium size clear 12 Forest zone calcium-poor clear<br />
Durvatn < 5 231 < 4 < 0.2 < 30 < 5 1 North-Lapl<strong>and</strong> lakes 12 Forest zone calcium-poor clear<br />
Børsevatn < 5 178 < 4 < 0.2 < 30 < 5 6.1 Small <strong>and</strong> medium size clear * 12 Forest zone calcium-poor clear<br />
Vaggatem 5–40 51 < 4 < 0.2 30–90 5–15 7.1. Medium-sized humic lakes 13 Forest zone large calcium-poor humic lakes<br />
*borderl<strong>in</strong>e case on <strong>the</strong> modeled forest l<strong>in</strong>e<br />
31
4 Phytoplankton<br />
Data processed here consist <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton densities<br />
<strong>and</strong> chlorophyll a contents for Vätsäri <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n<br />
lakes (Chapter 4). The sampled zone for phytoplankton<br />
was 0–2 m <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> 0–10 m <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>Norway</strong>. Sampl<strong>in</strong>g was conducted dur<strong>in</strong>g grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
season <strong>in</strong> June–September. For detailed sampl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
methods see Chapter 4 Biology.<br />
Results <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
Chlorophyll<br />
The measured chlorophyll a was low <strong>in</strong> Vätsäri lakes:<br />
less than 2 µg/l (Table 1). The reliable detection limit<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> analysis is 1 µg/l. The studied lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong><br />
had similarly low chlorophyll content, apart from Lake<br />
Shuonijaur. Lake chlorophyll a is a phytoplankton metric<br />
<strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish, Norwegian <strong>and</strong> Swedish classification.<br />
All systems give consistent good or high status class<br />
to measured chlorophyll results. The Norwegian reference<br />
value for nor<strong>the</strong>rn clear water lakes is <strong>the</strong> lowest,<br />
thus it would be <strong>the</strong> first metric to react to a rise<br />
<strong>in</strong> chlorophyll content.<br />
Species diversity<br />
Even though diversity <strong>in</strong>dices are not used for phytoplankton<br />
classification <strong>in</strong> any country <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong><br />
species between <strong>the</strong> regions is compared <strong>in</strong> Figure 1.<br />
Norwegian Jarfjord <strong>and</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish Vätsäri are neighbour<strong>in</strong>g<br />
regions with ra<strong>the</strong>r similar trophic status. Some<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jarfjord lakes have very high copper content<br />
(see Chapter 4) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>refore <strong>the</strong> species diversity<br />
is expected to be lower than <strong>in</strong> Vätsäri. <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes<br />
locate more south <strong>and</strong> are mostly bigger <strong>in</strong> surface<br />
<strong>and</strong> catchment area, which should contribute to<br />
higher phytoplankton species diversity.<br />
The <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes differ from <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r two regions<br />
with significantly higher number <strong>of</strong> species (Kruskal-<br />
Wallis, p = 0.01). Jarfjord lakes tend to have fewer<br />
species, but <strong>in</strong> this data set no difference to Vätsäri<br />
could be verified.<br />
Conclusions<br />
Grow<strong>in</strong>g season chlorophyll a content gives an <strong>in</strong>dication<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phytoplankton biomass <strong>and</strong> thus <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> general trophic status. Apply<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> limit values<br />
for correct type <strong>in</strong> any <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> national classifications<br />
should reveal possible status deterioration. Therefore<br />
chlorophyll content should be measured systematically<br />
from all <strong>the</strong> locations.<br />
Biomass <strong>of</strong> harmful cyanobacteria (blue-green<br />
algae) is a straightforward <strong>and</strong> commonly used<br />
phytoplankton metric <strong>of</strong> eutrophication for which taxa<br />
biomasses would be required. It would be a good additional<br />
tool for assess<strong>in</strong>g phytoplankton communities.<br />
Phytoplankton seasonal changes should be considered<br />
when us<strong>in</strong>g it as a quality element. Phytoplankton<br />
classification is recommended to be based<br />
on more than one grow<strong>in</strong>g season sample. In <strong>Norway</strong><br />
five annual samples are recommended (Direktoratsgruppa<br />
2013).<br />
32
Table 1. Average measured chlorophyll <strong>in</strong> June–September 2013 <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> current type-specific reference values,<br />
high/good (H/G) class limit values <strong>and</strong> consequent status classes <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish, Norwegian <strong>and</strong> Swedish lake<br />
classification.<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Chlorophyll a<br />
(µg/l)<br />
Harrijärvi 1.65<br />
Lampi 222 < 1<br />
Pitkä-Surnujärvi 1.25<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish 1 Norwegian 2 Swedish 3<br />
Ref.<br />
(µg/l)<br />
H/G<br />
(µg/l)<br />
3 4<br />
Sierramjärvi < 1 2 3<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Shuonijaur 2.44<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi 0.78<br />
Toartesjaur 1.44<br />
Riuttikjaure 0.41<br />
Virtuovoshjaur 0.6<br />
Kochejaur 1.05<br />
class<br />
Ref.<br />
(µg/l)<br />
H/G<br />
(µg/l)<br />
class<br />
Ref.<br />
(µg/l)<br />
H/G<br />
(µg/l)<br />
class<br />
high 1.3 2 high 2 4 high<br />
3 4 high 1.3 2<br />
good<br />
high<br />
2 4 high<br />
[1] F<strong>in</strong>nish types: small <strong>and</strong> medium size clear lakes or (Sierramjärvi) North-Lapl<strong>and</strong> lakes.<br />
[2] All lakes forest zone calcium-poor clear water (L-N5) type<br />
[3] Ecotype for phytoplankton: Northl<strong>and</strong> clear lakes.<br />
Gardsjøen<br />
Holmvatnet<br />
Rabbvatnet<br />
Durvatn<br />
average<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50 60<br />
6<br />
4<br />
5<br />
7<br />
5,5<br />
Lampi 222<br />
Harrijärvi<br />
Pitkä-Surnujärvi<br />
Sierramjärvi<br />
average<br />
6<br />
12<br />
13<br />
12<br />
17<br />
Shuonijaur<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi<br />
Toartesjaur<br />
Virtuovoshjaur<br />
Riuttikjaure<br />
Kochejaur<br />
average<br />
11<br />
16<br />
20<br />
19<br />
31<br />
24,5<br />
50<br />
Jarfjord Vätsäri <strong>Russia</strong><br />
Figure 1. The number <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton species <strong>in</strong> each lake <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> regional<br />
averages.<br />
33
5 Periphytic diatoms<br />
Diatom communities have been traditionally studied<br />
<strong>in</strong> rivers <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>re are only few metrics that apply to<br />
lake littoral habitats. Here diatom communities were<br />
assessed us<strong>in</strong>g Diatom Assessment <strong>of</strong> Lake Ecological<br />
Status (DALES) for nutrient level, saprobity <strong>in</strong>dex<br />
for organic pollution <strong>and</strong> community metrics for general<br />
quality. The material <strong>in</strong>cludes Chapter 4 lake data.<br />
Results <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
Diversity<br />
Diatom species diversity <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir relative abundances<br />
were estimated with Shannon entropy (Shannon<br />
& Weaver 1962) (Table 1). The <strong>in</strong>dex value <strong>in</strong>creases<br />
with both species number <strong>and</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g equality <strong>in</strong><br />
abundance. Evenness value is derived from <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dex<br />
to illustrate how evenly <strong>the</strong> species are distributed.<br />
The results between <strong>the</strong> three regions were compared<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g a non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test.<br />
Species diversity is used <strong>in</strong> ecological assessment,<br />
but <strong>the</strong>y are not among <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn Water Framework<br />
Directive classification tools. Based on water<br />
quality analysis (See Chapter 4, Water quality), Vätsäri<br />
lakes represent <strong>the</strong> most undisturbed small lakes<br />
<strong>and</strong> Jarfjord lakes represent slightly polluted, small,<br />
clear water lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> same region. Pollution impact<br />
was expected to show <strong>in</strong> lower diversity <strong>in</strong> Jarfjord.<br />
Due to <strong>the</strong>ir more sou<strong>the</strong>rn location <strong>and</strong> greater size<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes are expected represent ecologically<br />
divergent lake types with more species.<br />
Species richness <strong>and</strong> diversity <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> diatom<br />
samples was <strong>the</strong> highest <strong>in</strong> Vätsäri area <strong>and</strong> lowest<br />
<strong>in</strong> Jarfjord, with regional average <strong>of</strong> 60 <strong>and</strong> 28 spp.<br />
respectively. The difference is statistically significant<br />
(Kruskal-Wallis, p = 0.05). The number <strong>of</strong> species <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Russia</strong>n lakes varied widely from 22 to 56, be<strong>in</strong>g 40<br />
Table 1. Number <strong>of</strong> diatom species, Shannon entropy <strong>and</strong> evenness<br />
value for each lake calculated from diatom species. For<br />
Vätsäri lakes values are averages <strong>of</strong> 2–3 sampl<strong>in</strong>g stations.<br />
No. <strong>of</strong> species Shannon Evenness<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Lampi 222 50.7 2.98 0.76<br />
Harrijärvi 37.5 2.51 0.69<br />
Pitkä-Surnujärvi 83.3 3.54 0.8<br />
Sierramjärvi 67.0 3.08 0.73<br />
Average 59.6 3.00 0.75<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Shuonijaur 22 1.54 0.5<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi 30 3.03 0.89<br />
Toartesjaur 46 3.18 0.83<br />
Virtuovoshjaur 46 2.82 0.74<br />
Riuttikjaure 56 3.58 0.89<br />
Average 40.0 2.83 0.77<br />
Jarfjord<br />
Gardsjøen 23 2.08 0.66<br />
Holmvatnet 22 2.34 0.76<br />
Rabbvatnet 31 2.7 0.79<br />
Durvatn 34 2.97 0.84<br />
Average 27.5 2.5 0.76<br />
34
on average. Shannon entropy or evenness was not<br />
significantly different between <strong>the</strong> three areas.<br />
Diatom Assessment <strong>of</strong> Lake Ecological status<br />
DALES <strong>in</strong>dex was developed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> UK for lake diatom<br />
community assessment. It is an average score per<br />
taxa method <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> eutrophication impact. The<br />
sample taxa were mostly found among <strong>the</strong> UKTAG<br />
(2008) list <strong>of</strong> species or genuses. In case species level<br />
was not found <strong>the</strong> genus alone was used. Genera<br />
that weren’t listed were ignored <strong>in</strong> calculation.<br />
The reference <strong>in</strong>dex value for low alkal<strong>in</strong>ity water<br />
(0.8) (Table<br />
2). The <strong>in</strong>dex values somewhat reflected <strong>the</strong> water<br />
quality: <strong>the</strong> values were highest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn lakes,<br />
which are more humic <strong>and</strong> higher <strong>in</strong> nutrients. The difference<br />
was due to higher proportion <strong>of</strong> Nitzschia <strong>and</strong><br />
certa<strong>in</strong> Gomphonema <strong>and</strong> Navicula species. Fragilaria<br />
on genus level gives high score compared to some<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> genus, <strong>and</strong> so hav<strong>in</strong>g many<br />
Fragilaria sp. <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> data also raises <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dex value.<br />
Saprobic <strong>in</strong>dex<br />
Sladecek (1973) saprobic <strong>in</strong>dex resulted oligosaprobic<br />
level <strong>and</strong> clean water quality class for majority <strong>of</strong><br />
lakes (Table 3). Shuonijaur diatom community was<br />
found to be mesosaprobic <strong>and</strong> it exceeded <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard limit for clean water class with two o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
lakes.<br />
Table 2. DALES <strong>in</strong>dex values, <strong>the</strong>ir respective ecological quality<br />
ratios (EQR) <strong>and</strong> mean 2012-2013 total phosphorus content<br />
for each lake. Aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> reference value (20) <strong>and</strong> high/good<br />
threshold (36), all results represent high status.<br />
DALES Class P tot. mean (µg/l)<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Lampi 222 14<br />
2.0<br />
Harrijärvi 6 2.3<br />
high<br />
Pitkä-Surnujärvi 20 4.0<br />
Sierramjärvi 26 3.8<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Shuonijaur 26<br />
4.8<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi 27 3.0<br />
Toartesjaur 28 high<br />
7.5<br />
Virtuovoshjaur 21 8.5<br />
Riuttikjaure 36 7.0<br />
Jarfjord<br />
Gardsjøen 20<br />
Holmvatnet 12<br />
Rabbvatnet 19<br />
high<br />
Durvatn 23<br />
Table 3. Diatom periphyton <strong>in</strong>ferred water quality estimation by<br />
<strong>the</strong> saprobic <strong>in</strong>dex (S), <strong>the</strong> consequent saprobic level <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Russia</strong>n st<strong>and</strong>ard water quality class (II clean; III moderately<br />
polluted).<br />
S Saprobic level Class<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Lampi 222 1.16 α-oligosaprobic II<br />
Harrijärvi 1.25 α-oligosaprobic II<br />
Pitkä Surnujärvi 1.22 α-oligosaprobic II<br />
Sierramjärvi 1.44 α-oligosaprobic II<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Shuonijaur 1.63 β-mesosaprobic III<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi 1.57 α-oligosaprobic III<br />
Toartesjaur 1.46 α-oligosaprobic II<br />
Virtuovoshjaur 1.39 α-oligosaprobic II<br />
Riuttikjaure 1.42 α-oligosaprobic II<br />
Jarfjord<br />
Gardsjoen 1.55 α-oligosaprobic III<br />
Holmvatn 1.34 α-oligosaprobic II<br />
Rabbvatn 1.45 α-oligosaprobic II<br />
Durvatn 1.22 α-oligosaprobic II<br />
35
pH reconstruction by diatom analysis<br />
Diatom communities can be used <strong>in</strong> estimation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
environment pH with method by Moiseenko & Razumovskii<br />
(2009). The results come close to measured<br />
pH values which represent neutral water (Table 4).<br />
This supports <strong>the</strong> assumption that recently measured<br />
pH values represent <strong>the</strong> prevail<strong>in</strong>g long-term level <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> lakes.<br />
Community <strong>in</strong>dices<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish classification <strong>of</strong> type-specific species <strong>and</strong> percent<br />
model aff<strong>in</strong>ity give variable results (Table 5). The<br />
<strong>in</strong>dices are currently based on ra<strong>the</strong>r small reference<br />
lake data which most likely expla<strong>in</strong>s <strong>the</strong> moderately<br />
low results: <strong>the</strong> studied lakes are not affected by any<br />
large scale impact <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>refore <strong>the</strong> results should <strong>in</strong>dicate<br />
at least good status class. The larger lakes (><br />
5 km) were not classified for <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> representative<br />
reference data.<br />
Conclusions<br />
DALES <strong>in</strong>dex seemed to have an approximate reaction<br />
to nutrient level. Index taxa did not perfectly match<br />
<strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn taxonomic composition <strong>and</strong> some species<br />
had to be dropped out or listed on genus level<br />
which caused unwanted variation to <strong>in</strong>dex values.<br />
Saprobic <strong>in</strong>dex gave reasonable results <strong>in</strong> primarily<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g out <strong>the</strong> one mesosaprobic lake. Lakes <strong>in</strong> Vätsäri<br />
<strong>and</strong> Jarfjord were found to be oligosaprobic, as<br />
expected. Diatom community as pH estimator proved<br />
to be an accurate <strong>in</strong>dicator <strong>of</strong> cation-anion balance.<br />
The data was scarce both spatially <strong>and</strong> temporally,<br />
consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> only 4–5 lakes per area <strong>and</strong> only one<br />
diatom sample from most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m. There were also<br />
some differences <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sampl<strong>in</strong>g efforts between <strong>the</strong><br />
regions <strong>and</strong> also <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> regional catchment properties<br />
that were not controlled <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study. All this may contribute<br />
to <strong>the</strong> observed diversity results. Never<strong>the</strong>less,<br />
changes <strong>in</strong> species richness would be a straightforward<br />
ecological metric easy to monitor <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> future.<br />
Table 4. The diatom-<strong>in</strong>ferred pH <strong>and</strong> chemical measured pH for<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestigated lakes. Vätsäri lake values are averages from<br />
three parallel samples.<br />
Table 5. Average ecological quality ratio (EQR) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish<br />
type-specific species <strong>and</strong> percent model aff<strong>in</strong>ity metrics. Results<br />
vary from 0.4 < moderate > 0.6 to 0.6 < good > 0.8.<br />
Lake pH (diatom) pH (chemical)<br />
FI type<br />
Class (EQR)<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Lampi 222 6.8 6.7<br />
Harrijärvi 6.7 6.7<br />
Pitkä Surnujärvi 6.9 6.7<br />
Sierramjärvi 7.0 6.8<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Shuonijaut 6.8 6.8<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi 7.3 7.0<br />
Toartesjaur 7.0 6.9<br />
Virtuovoshjaur 7.0 6.9<br />
Riuttikjaure 7.2 7.1<br />
Jarfjord<br />
Gardsjoen 6.9 6.8<br />
Holmvatn 6.9 6.8<br />
Rabbvatn 7.0 7.0<br />
Durvatn 7.0 7.0<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Lampi 222 6.1 good (0.6)<br />
Harrijärvi 6.1 good (0.6)<br />
Pitkä-Surnujärvi 6.1 good (0.6)<br />
Sierramjärvi 1 good (0.6)<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Shuonijaur - -<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi - -<br />
Toartesjaur 6.1 good (0.6)<br />
Virtuovoshjaur 6.1 moderate (0.5)<br />
Riuttikjaure 6.1 good (0.6)<br />
Jarfjord<br />
Gardsjøen 6.1 good (0.6)<br />
Holmvatnet 1 moderate (0.5)<br />
Rabvatn 6.1 moderate (0.4)<br />
Durvatn 1 moderate (0.5)<br />
36
6 Zoobenthos<br />
Benthic macro<strong>in</strong>vertebrate metrics for biological classification<br />
are studied here as <strong>the</strong>y are considered <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish, Norwegian <strong>and</strong> Swedish classifications<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n st<strong>and</strong>ards. F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> Swedish <strong>in</strong>dices<br />
are primarily community <strong>in</strong>dices. The Norwegian approach<br />
is to detect <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> impact <strong>and</strong> use relevant<br />
metrics. Here acidification <strong>and</strong> chemical pollution are<br />
considered <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>cipal impacts. Swedish <strong>and</strong> Norwegian<br />
systems apply additional multimetric <strong>in</strong>dices<br />
that were not possible to calculate by h<strong>and</strong>.<br />
In addition to <strong>the</strong> small lakes zoobenthos data from<br />
lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River was collected. Lake Kuetsjarvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> Vaggatem results are <strong>in</strong>cluded here to create<br />
a gradient <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial pollution.<br />
Littoral data was collected us<strong>in</strong>g a kick-net (mesh<br />
size 0.5 mm) with total <strong>of</strong> 1.5–2 m<strong>in</strong>utes <strong>of</strong> sampl<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>undal samples are collected with 2–5 Ekman grab<br />
samples. Data sampl<strong>in</strong>g details are available <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
publication Ylikörkkö et al. (2015).<br />
Results <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
Community metrics<br />
The F<strong>in</strong>nish littoral <strong>in</strong>dices, type-specific species <strong>and</strong><br />
percent model aff<strong>in</strong>ity (PMA), lack reference data for<br />
clear nor<strong>the</strong>rn lakes where taxa is scarce. The <strong>in</strong>dices<br />
use more sou<strong>the</strong>rn data as comparison, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
falsely poor <strong>and</strong> bad values for both littoral <strong>in</strong>dices.<br />
For this reason <strong>the</strong> littoral results will not be considered<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
The pr<strong>of</strong>undal samples had very few <strong>in</strong>dividuals,<br />
especially <strong>in</strong> Jarfjord <strong>and</strong> Vätsäri. The above mentioned<br />
weakness was also apparent <strong>in</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>undal PMA,<br />
which yielded low results (Table 1). Some lakes had<br />
so few taxa that PMA would have been 0, which is<br />
not a useful result. Pr<strong>of</strong>undal Invertebrate Community<br />
Metric (PICM) requires certa<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dicator Chironomidae<br />
<strong>and</strong> Oligochaeta on species level to assess benthos<br />
status. PICM species were not found <strong>in</strong> half <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes.<br />
This is likely because <strong>of</strong> extremely low density<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>vertebrates <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> studied lakes <strong>and</strong> not because<br />
<strong>of</strong> true oxygen depletion. When <strong>the</strong>re were <strong>in</strong>dicator<br />
species for PICM calculation, <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> relatively<br />
sensitive Sergentia <strong>and</strong> Cladotanytarsus resulted<br />
<strong>in</strong> high <strong>in</strong>dex values <strong>and</strong> high status class (Table 1).<br />
Swedish average score per taxon (ASPT) method<br />
measures littoral ecological quality through taxa <strong>in</strong>dicator<br />
values <strong>in</strong> relation to pollution (Naturvårdsverket<br />
2007). The <strong>in</strong>dex value is an average <strong>of</strong> all <strong>in</strong>dicator<br />
taxa. It also describes <strong>the</strong> community diversity,<br />
namely <strong>the</strong> proportion <strong>of</strong> resilient Chironomidae <strong>and</strong><br />
Oligochaeta to <strong>the</strong> more sensitive mayflies (Ephemeroptera),<br />
caddisflies (Trichoptera), stoneflies (Plecoptera),<br />
etc. The higher <strong>the</strong> score <strong>the</strong> more sensitive<br />
species it holds. The Swedish <strong>in</strong>dices use regional<br />
reference states based on Illies’ ecoregions <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
studied lakes belong to ‘boreal upl<strong>and</strong>’.<br />
The results from APST vary from moderate to high<br />
(Table 2). There is no evident explanation for moderate<br />
results, o<strong>the</strong>r than low distribution <strong>of</strong> fauna. There<br />
is a wide variance <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> results even <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> reference<br />
lakes, which shows <strong>in</strong> lowered class boundaries. Likely<br />
<strong>the</strong> reference data does not suit well <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rnmost<br />
lakes.<br />
Benthic quality <strong>in</strong>dex (BQI) is <strong>the</strong> Swedish pr<strong>of</strong>undal<br />
metric. The <strong>in</strong>dex is an average score per taxon<br />
method for Chironomidae species <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir tolerance<br />
to oxygen depletion.<br />
For most lakes <strong>the</strong>re were no <strong>in</strong>dicator species<br />
identified <strong>and</strong> thus no material to calculate <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dex<br />
from. There was mostly one or at most two <strong>in</strong>dicator<br />
species <strong>in</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>undal samples that enabled <strong>in</strong>dex<br />
calculation. Results <strong>in</strong>dicate ma<strong>in</strong>ly good status class<br />
(Table 3). In Harrijärvi <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> Chironomus<br />
plumosus dropped <strong>the</strong> status to poor. As <strong>the</strong>re were<br />
very few taxa small differences <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> community reflected<br />
as drastic changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dex value. In addition,<br />
<strong>the</strong> class limit values were set higher than usually,<br />
requir<strong>in</strong>g more than 70 % <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reference value<br />
to reach good status.<br />
37
Table 1. The F<strong>in</strong>nish lake type, pr<strong>of</strong>undal PMA <strong>and</strong> PICM status classes. The <strong>in</strong>dex could not<br />
be used if <strong>in</strong>dicator taxa for PICM calculation was not present.<br />
FI Type PMA PICM F<strong>in</strong>al status<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Lampi222 6.1 - no taxa -<br />
Harrijärvi 6.1 Good Good Good<br />
Pitkä-Surnujärvi 6.1 Good no taxa Good<br />
Sierramjärvi 1 - High High<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Shuonijaur 6.1 High High High<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi 6.1 Good High High<br />
Toartesjaur 6.1 Moderate High High<br />
Virtuovoshjaur 6.1 - no taxa<br />
Riuttikjaur 6.1 Poor High High<br />
Kochejaur 6.1 - no taxa -<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
Vaggatem 7.1 - no taxa -<br />
Kuetsjarvi 6.1 Good High High<br />
Jarfjord<br />
Gardsjøen 6.1 High High High<br />
Holmvatnet 1 - no taxa -<br />
Rabbvatnet 6.1 Moderate High High<br />
Durvatn 1 - no taxa -<br />
Table 2. The average score per taxon (ASPT) value <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
correspond<strong>in</strong>g status class. Reference value for ‘boreal upl<strong>and</strong>’<br />
is 5.6. The status class boundaries are set lower than usually:<br />
high/good threshold 3.36 (60 % <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reference).<br />
ASPT<br />
Class<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Lampi222 3.5 High<br />
Harrijärvi 1.9 Moderate<br />
Pitkä-Surnujärvi 2.5 Moderate<br />
Sierramjärvi 2.8 Good<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Shuonijaur 4.4 Good<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi 3 Good<br />
Toartesjaur 2.9 Good<br />
Virtuovoshjaur 4.8 High<br />
Riuttikjaure 5.7 High<br />
Kochejaur 4.4 Good<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
Vaggatem 2.9 Good<br />
Kuetsjarvi 2.7 Good<br />
Jarfjord<br />
Gardsjøen 2.1 Moderate<br />
Holmvatnet 5.3 High<br />
Rabbvatnet 2.7 Good<br />
Durvatn 6.1 High<br />
Table 3. Benthic quality <strong>in</strong>dex (BQI) value <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> correspond<strong>in</strong>g<br />
status class. The reference value for ‘boreal upl<strong>and</strong>’ is<br />
3.25. The class limit values are set higher than usually: high/<br />
good threshold 3.1, good/moderate threshold 2.28 (70 % <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
reference).<br />
Vätsäri<br />
BQI<br />
Class<br />
Harrijärvi 1 Poor<br />
Sierramjärvi 3 Good<br />
<strong>Russia</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
Shuonijaur 3 Good<br />
Kuetsjarvi 3 Good<br />
Jarfjord<br />
Gardsjøen 3 Good<br />
Holmvatnet 3 Good<br />
38
Index for acidification<br />
Norwegian ‘Raddum’ <strong>in</strong>dex for acidification measures<br />
<strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dicator taxa <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> littoral zoobenthos<br />
community (Direktoratsgruppa 2009). It is<br />
based on a list <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dicator values from 0 to 1 for certa<strong>in</strong><br />
taxa. Observed taxa are given scores <strong>and</strong> simply<br />
<strong>the</strong> highest score i.e. <strong>the</strong> most sensitive species makes<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dex value. Taxa that were not found <strong>in</strong> reference<br />
list were excluded.<br />
The <strong>in</strong>dex results vary from no impact (1) to moderately<br />
(0.5) <strong>and</strong> strongly acidified (0.25) (Table 4).<br />
There were three lakes where <strong>the</strong> only <strong>in</strong>dicator species<br />
were tolerant <strong>and</strong> so <strong>the</strong> results <strong>in</strong>dicate severe<br />
acidification (0). However, water quality <strong>in</strong> any <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
lakes does not support noticeable acidification. The<br />
difference between <strong>in</strong>dex values 1 <strong>and</strong> 0 was made <strong>in</strong><br />
many cases by a s<strong>in</strong>gle species, e.g. just one <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
<strong>of</strong> Gammarus <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sample. Evidently <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dex<br />
was worsened by naturally low diversity <strong>and</strong> density <strong>of</strong><br />
benthic fauna. The <strong>in</strong>dex does show consistently low<br />
values <strong>in</strong> Jarfjord, where acidification has been observed<br />
<strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r lakes (Puro-Tahvana<strong>in</strong>en et al. 2011;<br />
Chapter 4 Water quality). So far it cannot be ruled out<br />
that benthic communities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> studied lakes haven’t<br />
suffered from acidic deposition.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> Norwegian classification <strong>the</strong><br />
amphipod Gammarus species are used as an <strong>in</strong>dicator<br />
<strong>of</strong> good status class (Direktoratsgruppa 2009).<br />
They are considered sensitive especially to acidification.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> studied lakes Gammarus lacustris was<br />
found <strong>in</strong> lakes Sierramjärvi <strong>and</strong> Lampi 222 <strong>in</strong> Vätsäri.<br />
Index for organic pollution<br />
Woodiwiss <strong>in</strong>dex, or so called ‘Trend Biotic Index’<br />
(Woodiwiss 1964), is a st<strong>and</strong>ard tool <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong> to<br />
analyse littoral zoobenthos communities <strong>in</strong> terms<br />
<strong>of</strong> organic pollution impact. The <strong>in</strong>dex is based on<br />
<strong>the</strong> presence or absence <strong>of</strong> key taxonomic groups:<br />
Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichopera, Asellus sp.<br />
etc. Taxa abundances are not considered. The <strong>in</strong>dex<br />
value decreases from 10 to 0 towards pollution.<br />
The results <strong>in</strong>dicate ma<strong>in</strong>ly clean (>7) status (Table<br />
5). Shuonijaur, Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> Vaggatem yielded<br />
slightly deteriorated values (6–7). The result is sensible<br />
as <strong>the</strong>se lakes lie closest to pollution sources <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel. Certa<strong>in</strong> Jarfjord lakes yield <strong>the</strong> lowest<br />
values (3–4), which is a result <strong>of</strong> fewer key taxa.<br />
Table 4. The Raddum <strong>in</strong>dex for acidification values for <strong>the</strong><br />
studied lakes. 1 <strong>in</strong>dicates no acidification, 0.5 moderate, 0.25<br />
strong <strong>and</strong> 0 <strong>the</strong> most severe acidification.<br />
Raddum value<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Lampi222 1<br />
Harrijärvi 0<br />
Pitkä-Surnujärvi 1<br />
Sierramjärvi 1<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Shuonijaur 1<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi 1<br />
Toartesjaur 1<br />
Virtuovoshjaur 1<br />
Riuttikjaure 1<br />
Kochejaur 1<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
Vaggatem 1<br />
Kuetsjarvi 1<br />
Jarfjord<br />
Gardsjøen 0.25<br />
Holmvatnet 0<br />
Rabbvatnet 0.5<br />
Durvatn 0<br />
Table 5. The Woodiwiss/Trend Biotic Index <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> correspond<strong>in</strong>g<br />
status for <strong>the</strong> studied lakes littoral data (I: clean, II: clean,<br />
III: moderately polluted).<br />
Woodiwiss<br />
Status<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Lampi222 9 I<br />
Harrijärvi 9 I<br />
Pitkä-Surnujärvi 9 I<br />
Sierramjärvi 9 I<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Shuonijaur 7 II<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi 8 I<br />
Toartesjaur 8 I<br />
Virtuovoshjaur 10 I<br />
Riuttikjaure 8 I<br />
Kochejaur 10 I<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
Vaggatem 7 II<br />
Kuetsjarvi 6–7 II<br />
Jarfjord<br />
Gardsjøen 3 III<br />
Holmvatnet 4 III<br />
Rabbvatnet 8 I<br />
Durvatn 6 II<br />
39
Table 6. The number <strong>of</strong> families <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> EPT families<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> studied lakes’ littoral data.<br />
Families<br />
EPT-families<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Lampi 222 11 2<br />
Harrijärvi 10 4<br />
Pitkä-Surnujärvi 12 5<br />
Sierramjärvi 16 6<br />
Average 12.3 4.3<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Shuonijaur 8 2<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi 11 3<br />
Toartesjaur 10 5<br />
Virtuovoshjaur 13 6<br />
Riuttikjaure 10 5<br />
Kochejaur 18 9<br />
Average 11.7 5<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
Vaggatem 6 0<br />
Kuetsjarvi 11 5<br />
Jarfjord<br />
Gardsjøen 4 0<br />
Holmvatnet 3 1<br />
Rabbvatnet 8 5<br />
Durvatn 9 4<br />
Average 6.0 2.5<br />
Number <strong>of</strong> families <strong>and</strong> EPT-families<br />
Number <strong>of</strong> families <strong>in</strong> littoral <strong>and</strong> riparian zones is a<br />
metric <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Canadian zoobenthos assessment. The<br />
number <strong>of</strong> Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera <strong>and</strong> Trichoptera<br />
(EPT) families toge<strong>the</strong>r is a widely used parameter<br />
<strong>in</strong> Canada <strong>and</strong> also as part <strong>of</strong> Swedish multimetric<br />
zoobenthos <strong>in</strong>dex ‘MILA’. The parameters are only<br />
used as a part <strong>of</strong> greater entity or multimetric <strong>in</strong>dex<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>re are no reference values available. Never<strong>the</strong>less,<br />
<strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> families <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> EPT<br />
families <strong>in</strong> littoral samples are studied here. Expectations<br />
were similar to those for periphyton diversity:<br />
pollution-affected Jarfjord area ought to express lower<br />
family diversities.<br />
The only notable difference <strong>in</strong> family diversity between<br />
<strong>the</strong> areas was <strong>in</strong>deed lower number <strong>of</strong> all families<br />
<strong>in</strong> Jarfjord (Table 6). On average <strong>the</strong>re were 6<br />
families, <strong>in</strong> comparison to 12 families both <strong>in</strong> Vätsäri<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes. The difference was statistically<br />
close to significant (p=0.06, Kruskal-Wallis). In Jarfjord<br />
<strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> EPT families was also lower, but<br />
<strong>the</strong>re was no statistical significance between <strong>the</strong> areas<br />
(p=0.38, Kruskal-Wallis).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River littoral family diversity was ra<strong>the</strong>r<br />
low <strong>in</strong> Vaggatem. The location is prone to several<br />
factors that add up to <strong>the</strong> result, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g water level<br />
regulation <strong>and</strong> slight pollution. Effects <strong>of</strong> water level<br />
regulation on littoral benthos have been studied <strong>in</strong> Keto<br />
et al. (2008), where <strong>the</strong> decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> Ephemeroptera<br />
<strong>and</strong> Trichoptera taxa were observed to result from<br />
regulation. There were no EPT-families found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
2013 samples <strong>in</strong> Vaggatem. Moderately polluted Lake<br />
Kuetsjarvi expressed fairly average results. However,<br />
<strong>the</strong>re are more nutrients <strong>in</strong> Kuetsjarvi (See Chapter 3<br />
Water quality) than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r small lakes <strong>and</strong> thus<br />
it’s not completely comparable to <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
Conclusions<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>the</strong>matical <strong>in</strong>dices proved to be prone<br />
to falsely low results due to low abundance <strong>of</strong> benthic<br />
fauna. This shows <strong>in</strong> large-scale drop <strong>in</strong> status with<br />
loss <strong>of</strong> just one species. At <strong>the</strong> moment, many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
community <strong>in</strong>dices are too uncerta<strong>in</strong> to be applied <strong>in</strong><br />
status assessment.<br />
Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera <strong>and</strong> Trichoptera species<br />
are considered sensitive to acidification, pollution<br />
<strong>and</strong> water level regulation. The number <strong>of</strong> families <strong>and</strong><br />
EPT families are feasible diversity metrics that could<br />
be used <strong>in</strong> detect<strong>in</strong>g changes <strong>in</strong> time, presum<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
sampl<strong>in</strong>g efforts are st<strong>and</strong>ardized. Similarly <strong>the</strong> Woodiwiss/Trend<br />
Biotic Index po<strong>in</strong>ted out <strong>the</strong> communities<br />
lack<strong>in</strong>g EPT <strong>in</strong>dicator species.<br />
40
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USEPA 2012: Water quality criteria. Aquatic life criteria. United States <strong>Environmental</strong> Protection Agency. http://water.epa.<br />
gov/scitech/swguidance/st<strong>and</strong>ards/criteria/aqlife/<strong>in</strong>dex.cfm [accessed 5.11.2012]<br />
Ylikörkkö, J., Christensen, G.N., Andersen, H.J., Denisov, D., Amundsen, P.-A., Terentjev, P., Jelkänen, E. (edit.) 2015: <strong>Environmental</strong><br />
Monitor<strong>in</strong>g Programme for Aquatic Ecosystems <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Norwegian, F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n <strong>Border</strong> <strong>Area</strong> – Updated<br />
Implementation Guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
Fix<strong>in</strong>g oxygen samples.<br />
Photo: Esko Jaskari<br />
41
42
Chapter 3: The ecological condition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Pasvik River <strong>and</strong> Lake Inarijärvi<br />
Macrophyte studies <strong>in</strong> Lake Muddusjärvi. Photo: Jukka Ylikörkkö<br />
43
1 Introduction<br />
The areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> Chapter 3 were Lake Inarijärvi,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> major lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
watercourse. The ecological status <strong>of</strong> Lake Inarijärvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River were estimated by us<strong>in</strong>g def<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicators sensitive for hydrological change <strong>in</strong>duced<br />
by climate change <strong>and</strong> water level regulation. The<br />
presence <strong>and</strong> amounts <strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ants <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> water,<br />
fish tissues <strong>and</strong> bottom sediments <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> watercourse<br />
were determ<strong>in</strong>ed. The effects <strong>of</strong> climate change,<br />
contam<strong>in</strong>ants, water level regulation <strong>and</strong> species<br />
<strong>in</strong>troductions <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>vasions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River were<br />
estimated by analyz<strong>in</strong>g a long time series <strong>of</strong> fish population<br />
<strong>in</strong> two ma<strong>in</strong> lakes.<br />
The water quality <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik area has been monitored<br />
for longer than biological <strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>of</strong> ecological<br />
status. The newest trends <strong>in</strong> water quality have<br />
been published <strong>in</strong> a separate report Pasvik Water<br />
Quality until 2013 (Ylikörkkö et al. 2014) which is a<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>uation <strong>of</strong> earlier reports <strong>of</strong> 2007 <strong>and</strong> 2011.<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> reason for <strong>the</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> water<br />
quality <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse is <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel<br />
copper-nickel smelter complex on <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula.<br />
Lake Inarijärvi <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> upper part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
River are affected ma<strong>in</strong>ly by low levels <strong>of</strong> atmospherically<br />
transported pollutants whereas <strong>the</strong> lower part <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> vic<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> areas downstream<br />
are affected by both direct waste water discharge <strong>and</strong><br />
atmospheric deposition. Along <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is also discharge <strong>of</strong> water from <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
hydropower plant cascade. The issues tied to <strong>the</strong> hydropower<br />
stations <strong>in</strong>clude changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> rivers’ regime<br />
resultant from construction <strong>of</strong> water reservoirs, upsett<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> natural water balance <strong>and</strong> impact on <strong>the</strong><br />
hydro-chemical regime <strong>of</strong> small rivers <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir selfclean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
capacity.<br />
Lake Inarijärvi is situated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> upstream <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Pasvik watercourse <strong>and</strong> is free <strong>of</strong> direct emissions<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel. There is some nutrient load<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from diffuse <strong>and</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t sources <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
River regulation <strong>in</strong>flicts moderate water level fluctuation.<br />
The water quality is excellent <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> measured<br />
chemical <strong>in</strong>dicators have stayed on <strong>the</strong> same levels<br />
throughout <strong>the</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g programme.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> directly connected lakes<br />
<strong>the</strong> water monitor<strong>in</strong>g data <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> observation period<br />
confirms certa<strong>in</strong> stabilization <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> established<br />
hydro-chemical regime, pollutants’ concentrations <strong>and</strong><br />
pollution <strong>in</strong>dicators. Copper, nickel, <strong>and</strong> sulphates are<br />
<strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> pollutants <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> bas<strong>in</strong>. The monitor<strong>in</strong>g data<br />
also shows that pollutants are brought <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> water<br />
bodies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> river bas<strong>in</strong> system both directly with<br />
wastewater <strong>and</strong> by way <strong>of</strong> long-range transboundary<br />
air transport. The most polluted water body <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
bas<strong>in</strong> is <strong>the</strong> Kolosjoki River where <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel<br />
comb<strong>in</strong>e plant wastewater is discharged, as well<br />
as <strong>the</strong> stream connect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Lakes Salmijarvi <strong>and</strong><br />
Kuetsjarvi. The concentration <strong>of</strong> metals <strong>and</strong> sulphates<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> water notably <strong>in</strong>creases downstream from<br />
Lake Kuetsjarvi. In Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>the</strong> concentrations<br />
<strong>of</strong> copper <strong>and</strong> nickel are clearly elevated <strong>and</strong> have<br />
changed <strong>in</strong>significantly <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> last years <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
period<br />
44
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Inari<br />
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Näätämö<br />
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Figure 1. Map <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> study area.<br />
!(<br />
!(<br />
0 50<br />
km<br />
© Maanmittauslaitos, lupa nro 7/MML/14<br />
!(<br />
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Golfstream<br />
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0 5<br />
km<br />
Figure 2. Map <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g stations <strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi.<br />
© Karttakeskus Oy, Lupa L4659<br />
45
2 Climate change impacts on hydrology<br />
<strong>and</strong> water level fluctuation<br />
SEPPO HELLSTEN AND JUHA RIIHIMÄKI<br />
Climate change forecasts used <strong>in</strong> this study (see generally<br />
Veijala<strong>in</strong>en et al. 2012) estimate annual mean<br />
temperature <strong>in</strong> Lake Inarijärvi watershed to <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
3.6 °C <strong>in</strong> 2040–2069 compared to annual mean temperature<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g 1971–2000 <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease on mean<br />
w<strong>in</strong>ter temperature (December–February) is estimated<br />
to be 5.1 °C. Annual mean precipitation is estimated<br />
to <strong>in</strong>crease 12 % <strong>and</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter mean precipitation 16<br />
%. These changes would affect also <strong>the</strong> yearly hydrological<br />
cycle alter<strong>in</strong>g tim<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> high <strong>and</strong> low water<br />
levels <strong>and</strong> discharges on lakes <strong>and</strong> rivers.<br />
The hydrological model, Watershed Simulation <strong>and</strong><br />
Forecast<strong>in</strong>g System (WSFS) (Vehvilä<strong>in</strong>en et al. 2005),<br />
was used to estimate climate change impacts on hydrology<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River catchment (Figure 1). Climate<br />
chance scenario used was mean <strong>of</strong> 19 global<br />
climate models calculated by F<strong>in</strong>nish meteorological<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitute FMI (Jylhä et al. 2009) with emission scenario<br />
SRES A1B (IPCC 2000).<br />
Effects <strong>of</strong> climate change <strong>in</strong>duced changes on<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River hydrology <strong>and</strong> Lake Inarijärvi water<br />
levels were analyzed us<strong>in</strong>g DHRAM calculation programme<br />
on <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River <strong>and</strong> water-level fluctuation<br />
analysis tool (Regcel) on Lake Inarijärvi. Scenario<br />
period used <strong>in</strong> this study was 2040–2069 <strong>and</strong> reference<br />
period used was 1971–2000.<br />
Materials <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
Regcel model developed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish Environment<br />
Institute (SYKE) was used to enable assessment <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> ecological impacts <strong>of</strong> water-level regulation on<br />
aquatic macrophytes, benthic <strong>in</strong>vertebrates, fishes<br />
<strong>and</strong> nest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> waterfowl. Indicators for Lake Inarijärvi<br />
were calculated for reference period 1971–2000 <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> average values <strong>of</strong> that period were compared to<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicators calculated for <strong>the</strong> scenario period 2040–<br />
2069.<br />
The Dundee Hydrological Regime Assessment<br />
Method (DHRAM) was used for water flow analysis.<br />
This approach compares differences between <strong>the</strong><br />
affected <strong>and</strong> unaffected flow data <strong>and</strong> is <strong>the</strong>refore<br />
descriptive. It resembles <strong>the</strong> Regcel application, but<br />
uses only discharge data without any measured biological<br />
response. The method assessess <strong>the</strong> degree<br />
<strong>of</strong> hydrological alteration, presum<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>the</strong> change<br />
is hav<strong>in</strong>g an ecologically harmful impact on naturally<br />
adapted biota. Discharge factors are divided <strong>in</strong>to<br />
five different groups, <strong>in</strong> which both mean value (A)<br />
<strong>and</strong> coefficients <strong>of</strong> variation (B) are used as <strong>in</strong>dicators.<br />
Comparisons between un-affected <strong>and</strong> affected<br />
situations are calculated as an absolute change (%).<br />
Hydrological change thresholds used for allocation <strong>of</strong><br />
Water level (m.a.s.l.)<br />
119,6<br />
119,4<br />
119,2<br />
119,0<br />
118,8<br />
118,6<br />
118,4<br />
118,2<br />
118,0<br />
117,8<br />
1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 1.6. 1.7. 1.8. 1.9. 1.10. 1.11.1.12.<br />
Date<br />
MW 1971-2000 MW 2040-2069<br />
Discharge (m 3 /s)<br />
240<br />
0<br />
1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 1.6. 1.7. 1.8. 1.9. 1.10. 1.11. 1.12.<br />
Date<br />
MQ 1971-2000 MQ 2040-2069<br />
Figure 1. Simulated water level fluctuations (left) <strong>and</strong> simulated discharges (right) for <strong>the</strong> reference period <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> scenario period at Lake Inarijärvi.<br />
200<br />
160<br />
120<br />
80<br />
40<br />
46
f<strong>in</strong>al impact po<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al impact classes can be<br />
found <strong>in</strong> Black et al. (2000).<br />
In our study DHRAM was applied to compare <strong>the</strong><br />
regulated water flow (reference period) <strong>in</strong> Kaitakoski<br />
(1970–2000) <strong>and</strong> simulated flow for climate change<br />
scenario (2040–2069).<br />
Results<br />
Regcel<br />
Results for <strong>the</strong> water level fluctuation <strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>of</strong><br />
Lake Inarijärvi are presented on Table 1. Simulated<br />
water levels have quite clear <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>in</strong> some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dicators although <strong>the</strong>re are many <strong>in</strong>dicators where<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is no change or it is negligible.<br />
Magnitude <strong>of</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g flood is an <strong>in</strong>dicator that describes<br />
“clean<strong>in</strong>g effect” <strong>of</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g high water levels<br />
transport<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> dead organic material to upper shore<br />
areas. Higher spr<strong>in</strong>g flood is considered to <strong>in</strong>hibit<br />
excessive growth <strong>of</strong> shore vegetation. Spr<strong>in</strong>g flood<br />
magnitude <strong>in</strong> Lake Inarijärvi is very small <strong>in</strong> reference<br />
period <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>re is no spr<strong>in</strong>g flood at all <strong>in</strong> scenario<br />
period.<br />
Water level change dur<strong>in</strong>g grow<strong>in</strong>g season <strong>in</strong> Lake<br />
Inarijärvi is smaller <strong>in</strong> scenario period than <strong>in</strong> reference<br />
period. The change is calculated by subtract<strong>in</strong>g<br />
75 % fractal <strong>of</strong> water levels <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> first ice-free month<br />
from <strong>the</strong> 75 % fractal <strong>of</strong> water levels <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> rest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
grow<strong>in</strong>g season (from 30 days after ice-out to 30th<br />
September). If <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dicator value <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> water level<br />
change were negative (water level is lower<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g season), it would promote zonation <strong>of</strong><br />
littoral vegetation <strong>and</strong> would have positive effect on<br />
shore habitat diversity. However, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dicator value is<br />
positive (water level is ris<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g season)<br />
<strong>in</strong> both reference period <strong>and</strong> scenario period <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
unfavorable conditions. Never<strong>the</strong>less, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dicator<br />
value is smaller (<strong>and</strong> better) <strong>in</strong> scenario period.”<br />
Carex zone is <strong>the</strong> optimum grow<strong>in</strong>g level <strong>of</strong> sedge<br />
(Carex) species be<strong>in</strong>g important habitat for nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
pike spawn<strong>in</strong>g. Change <strong>in</strong> maximum vertical extension<br />
<strong>of</strong> Carex zone <strong>and</strong> decrease <strong>of</strong> water level dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
spawn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn pike is negligible. However,<br />
although <strong>in</strong>dicator m<strong>in</strong>imum water depth <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Carex<br />
zone dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> spawn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn pike is hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
negative value <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that water levels at Lake Inarijärvi<br />
stays below optimum zone for Carex species<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g spawn<strong>in</strong>g period, <strong>the</strong> direction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> change<br />
between reference period <strong>and</strong> scenario period is positive.<br />
Extent <strong>of</strong> frozen productive zone describes how<br />
much <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> littoral productive zone is frozen dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
w<strong>in</strong>ter. It is important factor affect<strong>in</strong>g organisms<br />
(aquatic vegetation, <strong>in</strong>vertebrates <strong>and</strong> eggs <strong>of</strong> autumn<br />
spawn<strong>in</strong>g fish species) that can’t tolerate freez<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Decrease <strong>of</strong> extent <strong>of</strong> frozen productive zone over 10<br />
percentage po<strong>in</strong>ts is positive effect. Also changes <strong>in</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r similar <strong>in</strong>dicators depend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> water level changes<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g ice covered period i.e. extent <strong>of</strong> ice pressure<br />
zone <strong>and</strong> magnitude <strong>of</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter drawdown have similar<br />
positive effects.<br />
Table 1. Water level fluctuation <strong>in</strong>dicators calculated with Regcel model <strong>and</strong> assessment <strong>of</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> climate change on environment.<br />
“+” = positive effect, “-“ = negative effect.<br />
Water level fluctuation <strong>in</strong>dicator<br />
Reference period<br />
1971–2000<br />
Climate change<br />
scenario<br />
2040–2069<br />
Effect<br />
Magnitude <strong>of</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g flood (m) 0.03 -0.01<br />
Water level change dur<strong>in</strong>g grow<strong>in</strong>g season (m) 0.21 0.10 +<br />
Maximum vertical extension <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Carex zone (m) 0.24 0.25<br />
Extent <strong>of</strong> frozen productive zone (%) 33.63 21.99 +<br />
Extent <strong>of</strong> ice pressure zone (%) 50.83 37.18 +<br />
Extent <strong>of</strong> disturbed productive zone (%) 38.27 32.07 +<br />
Water level rise dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> nest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> birds (m) 0.18 0.13 +<br />
Magnitude <strong>of</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter drawdown = water level decrease dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ice<br />
cover period (m)<br />
1.20 0.92 +<br />
Decrease <strong>of</strong> water level dur<strong>in</strong>g spawn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn pike (m) 0.00 0.01<br />
M<strong>in</strong>imum water depth <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Carex zone dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> spawn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
pike (m)<br />
-0.44 -0.23 +<br />
Mean number <strong>of</strong> days per year when water level > 119,35 9.7 6.4 +<br />
47
Magnitude <strong>of</strong> monthly water conditions<br />
Tim<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> annual extremes<br />
Magnitude <strong>and</strong> duration <strong>of</strong> annual extremes<br />
Flow (m3/s)<br />
Variation coefficient (%)<br />
Flow (m3/s)<br />
Variation coefficient (%)<br />
Day number<br />
Variation coefficient (%)<br />
200<br />
60 300<br />
50<br />
250<br />
90<br />
160<br />
120<br />
80<br />
40<br />
0<br />
Janmeameameameameameameamean<br />
0 mean mean mean mean<br />
Feb-<br />
Mar-<br />
Apr-<br />
May-<br />
Jun-<br />
Jul-<br />
Aug-<br />
Sep-<br />
Oct-<br />
Nov-<br />
Dec-<br />
1-Day-M<strong>in</strong>-<br />
Date<br />
Mean Regulated<br />
CV Regulated<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
Mean Recalculated<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
CV Recalculated Mean Regulated<br />
CV Regulated<br />
0<br />
250<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
1-day-m<strong>in</strong>imum<br />
flow<br />
1-day-maximum<br />
flow<br />
3-day-m<strong>in</strong>imum<br />
flow<br />
3-day-maximum<br />
flow<br />
7-day-m<strong>in</strong>imum<br />
flow<br />
7-day-maximum<br />
flow<br />
30-day-m<strong>in</strong>imum<br />
flow<br />
30-day-maximum<br />
flow<br />
90-day-m<strong>in</strong>imum<br />
flow<br />
Mean Recalculated<br />
CV Recalculated<br />
Figure 2. Magnitude <strong>of</strong> monthly water conditions <strong>and</strong> magnitude <strong>and</strong> duration <strong>of</strong> annual extremes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River. Comparison<br />
<strong>of</strong> current (1970–2000 deep blue, red l<strong>in</strong>e) <strong>and</strong> climate change (2040–2069, light blue, black l<strong>in</strong>e) hydrology.<br />
80<br />
70<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
90-day-maximum<br />
flow<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
0<br />
Day number<br />
250<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
Tim<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> annual extremes<br />
1-Day-M<strong>in</strong>-<br />
Date<br />
Mean Regulated<br />
CV Regulated<br />
Variation coefficient Tim<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> (%) annual Number/duration extremes <strong>of</strong> pulses (d)<br />
90<br />
35<br />
Day number<br />
Variation coefficient (%)<br />
250<br />
80<br />
90<br />
30<br />
70<br />
80<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
1-Day-Max-<br />
Date<br />
Mean Regulated<br />
Mean Recalculated<br />
CV Regulated<br />
CV Recalculated<br />
1-Day-Max-<br />
0 Date<br />
1-Day-M<strong>in</strong>-<br />
Mean Recalculated Date<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
CV Recalculated Mean Regulated<br />
CV Regulated<br />
0<br />
Figure 3. Tim<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> annual extremes <strong>and</strong> frequency <strong>and</strong> duration <strong>of</strong> high <strong>and</strong> low pulses <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River. Comparison <strong>of</strong> current<br />
(1970–2000, deep blue, red l<strong>in</strong>e) <strong>and</strong> climate change (2040–2069, light blue, black l<strong>in</strong>e) hydrology.<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
Frequency <strong>and</strong> duration <strong>of</strong> high <strong>and</strong> low pulses<br />
Number <strong>of</strong> High- Number <strong>of</strong> Low-<br />
1-Day-Max-<br />
Pulses<br />
Pulses<br />
Date Mean Regulated<br />
Mean Recalculated<br />
CV Regulated<br />
CV Recalculated<br />
70<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
0<br />
Duration- Hi-<br />
Pulse<br />
Variation coefficient (%)<br />
Duration- Lo -<br />
Pulse<br />
Mean Recalculated<br />
CV Recalculated<br />
200<br />
180<br />
160<br />
140<br />
120<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
48
Productive littoral zone between mean high water<br />
<strong>and</strong> mean low water is disturbed by wave action dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
open water period <strong>and</strong> by freez<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> ice pressure<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g ice covered period. These disturbances also<br />
have an effect on littoral biota restrict<strong>in</strong>g survival <strong>of</strong><br />
sensitive species. Change <strong>in</strong> extent <strong>of</strong> disturbed productive<br />
zone, although only 6.2 percentage po<strong>in</strong>ts, is<br />
positive.<br />
Water level rise dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> nest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> birds can<br />
destroy nests near <strong>the</strong> water. Decrease <strong>in</strong> water level<br />
rise is only 0,05 m but <strong>the</strong> direction <strong>of</strong> change is<br />
positive <strong>and</strong> it can have an positive effect on nest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
success <strong>of</strong> birds.<br />
Wave action <strong>in</strong>duced erosion is significant disturbance<br />
affect<strong>in</strong>g littoral habitats on Lake Inarijärvi <strong>and</strong><br />
water levels above 119.35 m.a.s.l. are considered to<br />
be <strong>the</strong> conditions when erosion <strong>in</strong> Lake Inarijärvi is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
substantially (Puro-Tahvana<strong>in</strong>en et al. 2011).<br />
Decrease <strong>in</strong> mean number <strong>of</strong> days per year when water<br />
level is greater than 119.35 m.a.s.l. has a positive<br />
effect on erosion sensitive shores mitigat<strong>in</strong>g disturbance<br />
caused by erosion.<br />
DHRAM<br />
DHRAM analysis was applied to water flow data from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Kaitakoski station, situated at <strong>the</strong> outlet <strong>of</strong> Lake<br />
Inarijärvi. The difference between flow situations was<br />
also quite clear; with very much higher spr<strong>in</strong>g flow <strong>and</strong><br />
lower flow dur<strong>in</strong>g summer.<br />
There are relatively large changes between <strong>the</strong> reference<br />
period <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> climate change scenario period<br />
<strong>in</strong> flow situations accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> DHRAM analysis.<br />
When compar<strong>in</strong>g monthly water level fluctuations,<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is a clear change from summer months to w<strong>in</strong>ter<br />
as a consequence <strong>of</strong> climate change. However, summer<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> variation are <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> factors<br />
affect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> situation (Figure 2).<br />
Magnitude <strong>and</strong> duration <strong>of</strong> annual extremes shows<br />
no significant change <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al impact po<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
although <strong>the</strong> values <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> extremes have changed<br />
slightly (Table 1, Figure 2). The tim<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> annual extremes<br />
has changed significantly, but <strong>the</strong>re has been<br />
also <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g variation as a consequence <strong>of</strong> climate<br />
change (Figure 3). Change <strong>in</strong> flood tim<strong>in</strong>g reaches 2<br />
f<strong>in</strong>al impact po<strong>in</strong>ts, which is quite significant from <strong>the</strong><br />
po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong> ecology.<br />
More relevant ecological change is visible <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
frequency <strong>and</strong> duration <strong>of</strong> high <strong>and</strong> low pulses (Figure<br />
3). There are more high <strong>and</strong> low pulses, but mean<br />
duration is significantly lower. This situation can cause<br />
environmental stress for most biota, which cannot<br />
adapt to rapid changes (Richter et al. 1996).<br />
There are no big differences <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> rate <strong>and</strong> frequency<br />
<strong>of</strong> change <strong>in</strong> conditions. DHRAM analysis<br />
showed only a weak trend; a total <strong>of</strong> impact 2 po<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
were reached, which accord<strong>in</strong>g to Black et al. (2000)<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicates a low risk <strong>of</strong> impact.<br />
Conclusions<br />
Climate change impacts on hydrology <strong>and</strong> water level<br />
fluctuation <strong>in</strong>dicators were analysed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
River catchment. Two different hydrological analysis<br />
systems were applied. Water level data for Lake Inarijärvi<br />
was analysed us<strong>in</strong>g Regcel model. The model<br />
enables assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ecological impacts <strong>of</strong> water-level<br />
regulation on aquatic macrophytes, benthic<br />
<strong>in</strong>vertebrates, fishes <strong>and</strong> nest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> waterfowl.<br />
The results <strong>in</strong> water level fluctuation <strong>in</strong>dicators<br />
showed that changes <strong>in</strong> water level fluctuation would<br />
have ma<strong>in</strong>ly positive effects on environment brought<br />
by decrease <strong>in</strong> fluctuation. Water level change dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
grow<strong>in</strong>g season <strong>in</strong> Lake Inarijärvi be<strong>in</strong>g smaller<br />
<strong>in</strong> scenario period than <strong>in</strong> reference period promotes<br />
zonation <strong>of</strong> littoral vegetation <strong>and</strong> would have a positive<br />
effect on shore habitat diversity. Decrease <strong>of</strong><br />
extent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> zone disturbed by wave action, extent<br />
frozen productive zone, extent <strong>of</strong> ice pressure zone<br />
<strong>and</strong> magnitude <strong>of</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter drawdown all have positive<br />
effects on survival <strong>of</strong> sensitive littoral biota. Decrease<br />
<strong>in</strong> water level rise can have a positive effect on nest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
success <strong>of</strong> birds <strong>and</strong> decrease <strong>in</strong> mean number <strong>of</strong><br />
days per year when water level is greater than 119.35<br />
m.a.s.l. has an positive effect on erosion sensitive<br />
shores.<br />
General flow data for <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River was analysed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> DHRAM programme. The method is rapid,<br />
but <strong>the</strong> biological response was partly unclear.<br />
The analysis showed that <strong>the</strong> climate change <strong>in</strong>duced<br />
change <strong>in</strong> flow regimes would have low risk <strong>of</strong> impact.<br />
Both Regcel <strong>and</strong> DHRAM method can be effectively<br />
used to assess hydrological <strong>and</strong> ecological effects <strong>of</strong><br />
climate change on lakes <strong>and</strong> rivers us<strong>in</strong>g measured<br />
<strong>and</strong> simulated water level <strong>and</strong> discharge data.<br />
49
References<br />
Black, A.R., Bragg, O.M., Duck, R.W., Jones, A.M., Rowan, J.S., Werritty A. 2000: Anthropogenic Impacts upon <strong>the</strong> Hydrology<br />
<strong>of</strong> Rivers <strong>and</strong> Lochs: Phase I A User Manual Introduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Dundee Hydrological Regime Assessment Method. -<br />
SNIFFER Report No SR(00)01/2F. 32 p.<br />
IPCC. 2000: IPCC Special Report, Emission Scenarios. (Nakicenovic, N., Swart R. (eds.)). Cambridge University Press.<br />
UK. 570 p.<br />
Jylhä, K., Ruosteenoja, K., Venälä<strong>in</strong>en, A., Tuomenvirta, H., Ruokola<strong>in</strong>en, L., Saku, S., Seitola, T. 2009: Arvioita Suomen<br />
muuttuvasta ilmastosta sopeutumistutkimuksia varten. ACCLIM-hankkeen raportti 2009. Ilmatieteen laitos, Reports<br />
2009:4. Hels<strong>in</strong>ki. 102 p. (<strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish)<br />
Puro-Tahvana<strong>in</strong>en, A., Aroviita, J., Järv<strong>in</strong>en, E. A., Kuoppala, M., Marttunen, M., Nurmi, T., Riihimäki, J., Salonen, E. 2011:<br />
Inarijärven tilan kehittym<strong>in</strong>en vuos<strong>in</strong>a 1960-2009. Suomen ympäristökeskus. Suomen ympäristö 2011, 19. Hels<strong>in</strong>ki, 89 p<br />
http://www.ymparisto.fi/default.asp?contentid=393911&lan=fi (<strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish with abstracts <strong>in</strong> Swedish <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> English)<br />
Richter, B.D, Baumgartner, J.V., Powell, J. & Braun, D.P. 1996: A method for assess<strong>in</strong>g hydrological alteration with<strong>in</strong> a river<br />
network. Conservation Biology 10: 1163–1174.<br />
Vehvilä<strong>in</strong>en, B., Huttunen, M., Huttunen, I. 2005: Hydrological forecast<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> real time monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>: The watershed<br />
simulation <strong>and</strong> forecast<strong>in</strong>g system (WSFS). In: Innovation, Advances <strong>and</strong> Implementation <strong>of</strong> Flood Forecast<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Technology, conference papers, Tromsø, <strong>Norway</strong>, 17–19 October 2005.<br />
Veijala<strong>in</strong>en, N., Jakkila, J., Nurmi, T., Vehvilä<strong>in</strong>en, B., Marttunen, M., Aaltonen, J. 2012: Suomen vesivarat ja ilmastonmuutos<br />
– vaikutukset ja muutoksi<strong>in</strong> sopeutum<strong>in</strong>en, WaterAdapt-projekt<strong>in</strong> loppuraportti (F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>´s water resources <strong>and</strong> climate<br />
change – Effects <strong>and</strong> adaptation, f<strong>in</strong>al report <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> WaterAdapt –project). Suomen ympäristökeskus, Suomen ympäristö<br />
16/2012, Hels<strong>in</strong>ki, 138 p. (<strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish)<br />
The Pasvik River.<br />
Photo: O. Persh<strong>in</strong>.<br />
50
Carex zone <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River.<br />
Photo: Juha Riihimäki.<br />
The rocks <strong>of</strong> Lake Inari reflect water level fluctuation.<br />
Photo: Heidi Salow.<br />
51
3 Toxic substances on <strong>the</strong> sediments <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
VLADIMIR DAUVALTER, GUTTORM N. CHRISTENSEN, HELÉN JOHANNE ANDERSEN<br />
Lakes <strong>and</strong> reservoirs (<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir sediments as storage<br />
<strong>of</strong> physical <strong>and</strong> chemical dis<strong>in</strong>tegration products <strong>of</strong> a<br />
wide range <strong>of</strong> chemical substances) serve as collectors<br />
<strong>of</strong> all substances delivered <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong>ir catchment<br />
area. Sediments are an important <strong>in</strong>formation source<br />
about climatic, geochemical <strong>and</strong> environmental<br />
conditions that existed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> catchment area <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> reservoirs itself, which allows estimat<strong>in</strong>g today’s<br />
ecological state <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> air <strong>and</strong> aquatic environments.<br />
Heavy metals’ concentrations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments allow<br />
estimat<strong>in</strong>g contam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>and</strong> history <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigated lakes.<br />
Sediment cores from <strong>the</strong> river-<strong>and</strong>-lake system <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River were used to estimate <strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> metallurgical company<br />
activity on <strong>the</strong> waterway’s status. Maximum concentration<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestigated heavy metals (nickel (Ni),<br />
copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), z<strong>in</strong>c (Zn), cadmium (Cd),<br />
lead (Pb), mercury (Hg) <strong>and</strong> arsenic (As)) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediment<br />
surface layers was identified <strong>in</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi<br />
receiv<strong>in</strong>g waste waters from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel<br />
Company. Heavy metal content decrease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediment<br />
surface layers is observed downstream <strong>the</strong><br />
Pasvik River from waste water <strong>in</strong>flow, although contam<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
is considerably high. In <strong>the</strong> lakes polluted<br />
only by air transport <strong>and</strong> household sewage <strong>the</strong>re was<br />
no <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ni, Cu, Co, Zn content emitted by<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel but great <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> chalcophile<br />
elements’ (Pb, Cd, Hg <strong>and</strong> As) concentration was discovered.<br />
The average sedimentation rate <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes<br />
under study appeared to be higher (1–3 mm/year)<br />
than on an average for <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn Fennosc<strong>and</strong>ia<br />
(less than 1 mm/year). Phosphorus content<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease is detected towards sediment surface <strong>in</strong> some<br />
lakes which may give evidence <strong>of</strong> eutrophication<br />
process development.<br />
Materials <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
Sediment cores for heavy metal analysis were collected<br />
at five stations <strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi (1. White<br />
Stone, 2. Gulf Stream, 3. Salmijarvi, 4. Kolosjoki, 5.<br />
Shuonijoki) <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> lakes Ruskebukta, Vaggatem <strong>and</strong><br />
Skrukkebukta (Introduction, Figures 1 <strong>and</strong> 2). Sediment<br />
cores for persistent organic pollutants (POPs)<br />
were collected <strong>in</strong> lakes Vaggatem, Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong><br />
Skrukkebukta. The upper 3 cm <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediment core<br />
was sliced <strong>in</strong> 1 cm sections.<br />
Industrial impact on <strong>the</strong> lake ecosystem was determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ation factor (C f<br />
) <strong>of</strong> each<br />
priority heavy metal contam<strong>in</strong>ant (Ni, Cu, Co, Zn, Pb,<br />
Cd, Hg <strong>and</strong> As) (method <strong>of</strong> Håkanson, 1980, 1984).<br />
i<br />
In this approach <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g classification <strong>of</strong> C f<br />
was<br />
used: C fi<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r lakes under study. The highest Pb concentrations<br />
were detected <strong>in</strong> lakes Ruskebukta <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta.<br />
Generally, <strong>the</strong> average background concentrations<br />
<strong>of</strong> almost all heavy metals (except Cd) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Pasvik River reservoir catchment areas are higher<br />
than <strong>the</strong> average background concentrations <strong>in</strong> sediments<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> North-West <strong>of</strong> Murmansk Region <strong>and</strong><br />
border area <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> neighbour<strong>in</strong>g countries (Kashul<strong>in</strong><br />
et al. 2009).<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to factor analysis <strong>the</strong> chemical composition<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediment background layers is <strong>in</strong>fluenced<br />
by natural peculiarities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River dra<strong>in</strong>age<br />
(physical parameters <strong>and</strong> geochemical peculiarities)<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> processes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake itself (biological processes,<br />
changes <strong>in</strong> reductive-oxidative conditions etc.).<br />
Three groups were clearly identified by cluster analysis:<br />
<strong>the</strong> first group <strong>in</strong>cludes channel reservoirs (lakes<br />
Ruskebukta, Vaggatem <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta), <strong>the</strong><br />
second is <strong>the</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi stations 1 <strong>and</strong> 3 with<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imum sedimentation rate where <strong>the</strong> deepest sediment<br />
layers are <strong>the</strong> most approximated to <strong>the</strong> natural<br />
background values <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> third is <strong>the</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi<br />
station 4 <strong>and</strong> 5 with <strong>the</strong> maximum sedimentation rate<br />
where background sediment layers most likely were<br />
never reached.<br />
Vertical distribution <strong>of</strong> elements <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments<br />
Waste water from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel <strong>in</strong>tegrated plant<br />
is <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ation source <strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> surface waters <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> territory <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial area.<br />
heavy metals (Ni, Cu, Zn, <strong>and</strong> Fe (iron)) <strong>and</strong> organic<br />
substances (xanthates) are <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> components <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> waste waters (Dauvalter 2002).<br />
Even though <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel reduced its heavy<br />
metal discharge <strong>in</strong>to Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>the</strong>re is no observed<br />
decrease <strong>of</strong> concentrations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments<br />
<strong>in</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> almost all <strong>the</strong> elements have<br />
surface maximums. Only Hg is characterized by maximum<br />
concentrations at depths 2–4 cm <strong>of</strong> sediment cores<br />
almost at all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake stations (Figure 1). No significant<br />
changes were found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> vertical distribution<br />
<strong>of</strong> Ni, Cu, Co <strong>and</strong> Zn concentrations <strong>in</strong> sediments <strong>of</strong><br />
Ruskebukta <strong>and</strong> Vaggatem situated upstream from<br />
Lake Kuetsjarvi. A slight <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> Ni <strong>and</strong> Cu concentrations<br />
is observed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> upper 4 cm sediments<br />
<strong>of</strong> Lake Vaggatem, which is connected with airborne<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrial pollution from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel. However<br />
an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend <strong>of</strong> concentrations <strong>of</strong> chalcophile<br />
elements (Pb, Cd, Hg <strong>and</strong> As) was discovered <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> surface layers <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se lakes <strong>in</strong> comparison with<br />
<strong>the</strong> background content. The greatest <strong>in</strong>crease was<br />
observed <strong>in</strong> Lake Ruskebukta for Hg. This phenomenon<br />
is probably connected to <strong>the</strong> global atmospheric<br />
pollution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn hemisphere <strong>and</strong> not directly<br />
connected with <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel because this part<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River catchment area is not significantly<br />
affected by <strong>the</strong> discharges (Pacyna & Pacyna 2001;<br />
Hagen et al. 1991). A slight decrease <strong>of</strong> Cd concentration<br />
is also found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> upper layer <strong>in</strong> Lake Vaggatem.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> sediments <strong>of</strong> Lake Skrukkebukta situated<br />
downstream from Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>the</strong> maximum concentrations<br />
<strong>of</strong> Ni, Cu, Co, Cd <strong>and</strong> Pb were found <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> upper 1 cm layer (Figure 1). A significant <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
<strong>of</strong> heavy metal concentrations as compared to <strong>the</strong><br />
background was detected <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> upper 3 cm <strong>of</strong> sediments.<br />
Concentration decrease <strong>of</strong> alum<strong>in</strong>ium (Al), magnesium<br />
(Mg), potassium (K) <strong>and</strong> calsium (Ca) is observed<br />
towards to sediment surface <strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi<br />
(Figure 2) which can be related to <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>flow <strong>of</strong> a large<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> sulphate <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> content <strong>of</strong> waste waters<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel Company caus<strong>in</strong>g release <strong>of</strong><br />
alkal<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> alkal<strong>in</strong>e-earth metals <strong>and</strong> Al from <strong>the</strong> suspended<br />
particles <strong>and</strong> sediments <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir transition<br />
<strong>in</strong>to a dissolvable form (Baklanov & Makarova 1992).<br />
The sulphate content <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> water <strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi<br />
is 2–3 times higher than <strong>in</strong> all <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r lakes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Pasvik River system under study. Such regularity was<br />
also discovered <strong>in</strong> sediments <strong>of</strong> Lake Skrukkebukta.<br />
Increase <strong>of</strong> Mn <strong>and</strong> Fe concentrations is observed<br />
towards <strong>the</strong> sediment surface almost at all <strong>the</strong> stations<br />
<strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi. Increase <strong>of</strong> phosphorus (P)<br />
content is also observed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface layers <strong>of</strong> sediments<br />
<strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r lakes. This can<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicate development <strong>of</strong> eutrophication processes, related<br />
to <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>flow <strong>of</strong> household sewage <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> river<br />
flow regulation <strong>and</strong> result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> flow deceleration,<br />
stagnations, <strong>and</strong>, f<strong>in</strong>ally, accumulation <strong>of</strong> nutrients<br />
<strong>in</strong> aquatic ecosystems. Phosphorus accumulated <strong>in</strong><br />
sediments can be a source <strong>of</strong> this nutrient permeat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> water layers (Lennox 1984; S<strong>and</strong>man et al.<br />
1990; Shaw & Prepas, 1990).<br />
Factor analysis was performed to discover <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong><br />
factors <strong>in</strong>fluenc<strong>in</strong>g chemical composition formation <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> sediments. The first factor is effect <strong>of</strong> discharged<br />
waters <strong>and</strong> emissions from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel Company,<br />
<strong>the</strong> second factor is natural processes tak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
place <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> water layer <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments <strong>of</strong> reservoirs<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> third factor comprises reductive-oxidative<br />
processes <strong>and</strong> eutrophication.<br />
53
Cu<br />
0<br />
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Ni 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 Cu 0 40 80 120 160 Ni 0 100 200<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0<br />
5<br />
10<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
15<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Ruskebukta<br />
5<br />
10<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
5<br />
10<br />
15<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
4<br />
5<br />
5<br />
10<br />
15<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Ruskebukta<br />
Zn 0 200 400 600 800 Co 0 100 200 300 400 500 Zn 0 40 80 120 Co 0 20 40<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0<br />
5<br />
10<br />
15<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Ruskebukta<br />
5<br />
10<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
15<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Ruskebukta<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50 Cd 0 0.1 0.2<br />
Pb 0 10 20<br />
0<br />
0<br />
5<br />
10<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
15<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Ruskebukta<br />
5<br />
10<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
15<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Ruskebukta<br />
0 0.4 0.8 1.2<br />
As 0 4 8<br />
Hg 0 0.1 0.2<br />
0<br />
0<br />
5<br />
10<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
15<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Ruskebukta<br />
5<br />
10<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
15<br />
1<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
2<br />
3<br />
4<br />
5<br />
5<br />
10<br />
15<br />
1<br />
2<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
5<br />
3<br />
4<br />
5<br />
10<br />
15<br />
1<br />
2<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
5<br />
3<br />
4<br />
Cd 0 1 2 3 4<br />
0<br />
Pb<br />
0<br />
5<br />
10<br />
15<br />
3<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
1<br />
2<br />
4<br />
5<br />
5<br />
10<br />
15<br />
3<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
1<br />
2<br />
4<br />
5<br />
As 0 40 80 120<br />
0<br />
Hg<br />
0<br />
5<br />
10<br />
15<br />
1<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
4<br />
5<br />
2<br />
3<br />
5<br />
10<br />
15<br />
1<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
4<br />
5<br />
2<br />
3<br />
15<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Ruskebukta<br />
Figure 1. Vertical distribution <strong>of</strong> heavy metal concentrations (µg/g) <strong>in</strong> bottom sediment columns <strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi (stations 1–5) <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River lakes (red = Skrukkebukta, green =<br />
Vaggatem, blue = Ruskebukta).<br />
54
Al<br />
0<br />
0 10000 20000 30000<br />
Mg<br />
0<br />
0 20000 40000 60000<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
5<br />
10<br />
15<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
4<br />
5<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
5<br />
10<br />
15<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
4<br />
5<br />
K<br />
0<br />
0 2000 4000 6000<br />
Na<br />
0<br />
0 400 800 1200<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
5<br />
10<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
15<br />
4<br />
15<br />
4<br />
5<br />
5<br />
Figure 2. Vertical distribution (sediment depth, cm) <strong>of</strong> Al, Mg, K <strong>and</strong> Na concentrations (µg/g) <strong>in</strong> sediments <strong>of</strong><br />
Lake Kuetsjarvi.<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
5<br />
10<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
Element distribution <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface layers <strong>of</strong> bottom<br />
sediments<br />
Pechenganikel emissions are <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> source <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
heavy metal concentrations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
system. This is especially <strong>in</strong>tensive <strong>in</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi.<br />
The highest Ni <strong>and</strong> Cu concentrations exceed<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> background values 10–380 times are observed at<br />
a distance ≤10 km from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel (Dauvalter<br />
1994, 1995, 1999). The background concentration<br />
exceed<strong>in</strong>g reduces up to 3–7 times at a distance <strong>of</strong> 10<br />
to 40 km from <strong>the</strong> pollution source. Co concentrations<br />
were 4–10 times higher than <strong>the</strong> background at a distance<br />
<strong>of</strong> ≤15 km from <strong>the</strong> pollution source <strong>and</strong> up to 3<br />
times higher <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r lakes, which is evidence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
emissions’ impact.<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial waste water from <strong>the</strong><br />
Pechenganikel enters Lake Kuetsjarvi. The highest<br />
concentrations <strong>of</strong> heavy metals were observed at <strong>the</strong><br />
deepest station 1 (Ni, As), at stations 4 <strong>and</strong> 5 (Cu, Cd,<br />
Pb, Hg) situated nearest to <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel waste<br />
water discharge area <strong>and</strong> also at station 3 (Zn, Co),<br />
closest to <strong>the</strong> channel connect<strong>in</strong>g Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River watercourse. In <strong>the</strong> lower course <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River <strong>in</strong> Lake Skrukkebukta <strong>the</strong> maximum<br />
concentrations <strong>of</strong> Ni, Cu, Co, Zn, Cd <strong>and</strong> Pb were<br />
found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface sediment layer which is related<br />
to <strong>the</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ated water <strong>in</strong>flow from Lake Kuetsjarvi<br />
Concentration <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> chalcophile elements<br />
(Pb, Cd, As <strong>and</strong> Hg) was observed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> upper sediment<br />
layers <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River upper<br />
stream. High concentrations were observed <strong>in</strong> Lake<br />
Ruskebukta (<strong>the</strong> highest As <strong>and</strong> Hg concentrations<br />
except for Lake Kuetsjarvi), which proves that atmospheric<br />
emissions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel are not<br />
<strong>the</strong> major contam<strong>in</strong>ation source <strong>of</strong> chalcophile elements.<br />
The highest Fe <strong>and</strong> Mn concentrations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
surface layers <strong>of</strong> sediment were recorded at station 1<br />
<strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> highest concentrations <strong>of</strong><br />
alkal<strong>in</strong>e-earth metals (Ca, Mg <strong>and</strong> Sr (strontium)) <strong>and</strong><br />
P are also discovered <strong>in</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi. Increased P<br />
content was observed <strong>in</strong> Ruskebukta, which is related<br />
to <strong>the</strong> water flow regulation <strong>and</strong> household waste<br />
water discharge from <strong>the</strong> populated localities on lake<br />
shores.<br />
Factor analysis was performed to identify <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong><br />
factors <strong>in</strong>fluenc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> formation <strong>of</strong> chemical composition<br />
<strong>of</strong> today’s sediments <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface 1 cm layer<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestigated reservoirs. The first factor consists<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> lakes’ contam<strong>in</strong>ation processes<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> second factor comb<strong>in</strong>es values characteriz<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> biological activity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reservoirs as well as some<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> elements <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Earth crust (Na (sodium)<br />
<strong>and</strong> Mg). Most likely <strong>the</strong> processes tak<strong>in</strong>g place <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
55
eservoirs play <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> role despite <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> heavy contam<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
<strong>in</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi.<br />
Two groups <strong>of</strong> reservoirs were determ<strong>in</strong>ed by cluster<br />
analysis. The first group is <strong>the</strong> water area <strong>of</strong> Lake<br />
Kuetsjarvi (stations 2–5). The second group forms <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> lakes situated downstream <strong>and</strong> upstream from Lake<br />
Kuetsjarvi (Skrukkebukta, Ruskebukta <strong>and</strong> Vaggatem),<br />
which are characterized by less contam<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediment surface layers due to greater distance<br />
from <strong>the</strong> smelters. Station 1 <strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi st<strong>and</strong>s<br />
apart, probably because it is <strong>the</strong> deepest station <strong>and</strong><br />
specific physical chemical <strong>and</strong> geochemical peculiarities<br />
<strong>of</strong> this water area made a contribution to <strong>the</strong><br />
sediment chemical composition. This station is also<br />
characterized by <strong>the</strong> highest contam<strong>in</strong>ation degree<br />
among all <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestigated stations.<br />
Factor <strong>and</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
Contam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>of</strong> reservoirs can be estimated<br />
by compar<strong>in</strong>g heavy metal concentrations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
surface layer to <strong>the</strong> background values <strong>of</strong> sediments.<br />
Determ<strong>in</strong>ation methods <strong>of</strong> factor <strong>and</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
<strong>of</strong> water ecosystems by heavy metals <strong>in</strong><br />
sediments us<strong>in</strong>g C f<br />
<strong>and</strong> C d<br />
are described <strong>in</strong> Håkanson<br />
(1980, 1984). Determ<strong>in</strong>ation methods <strong>of</strong> sediment<br />
contam<strong>in</strong>ation by <strong>in</strong>dustrial enrichment factor are<br />
described <strong>in</strong> Alhonen (1986), Ouellet & Jones (1983)<br />
<strong>and</strong> Tolonen & Jaakkola (1983).<br />
Maximum values <strong>of</strong> C f<br />
(high contam<strong>in</strong>ation) for almost<br />
all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> studied heavy metals are observed <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> sediments <strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi. Only for Zn (except<br />
for station 3) <strong>and</strong> Pb <strong>the</strong> moderate <strong>and</strong> considerable<br />
contam<strong>in</strong>ation were observed. Stations 1 (Ni), 3 (Zn,<br />
Co <strong>and</strong> As), 4 (Cu), 5 (Cd, Pb <strong>and</strong> Hg) are characterized<br />
by <strong>the</strong> higher contam<strong>in</strong>ation factors. In general<br />
<strong>the</strong> highest value <strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ation degree was recorded<br />
at <strong>the</strong> station 1.<br />
Impact <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> waste water from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel<br />
as significant Ni contam<strong>in</strong>ation was also observed<br />
downstream <strong>in</strong> Lake Skrukkebukta. The C f<br />
values for<br />
Cu <strong>and</strong> Cd are on <strong>the</strong> borderl<strong>in</strong>e between moderate<br />
<strong>and</strong> considerable <strong>and</strong> moderate contam<strong>in</strong>ation is observed<br />
for <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r metals. Among <strong>the</strong> lakes situated<br />
upstream from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel Company <strong>the</strong> high<br />
Hg contam<strong>in</strong>ation is found <strong>in</strong> Lake Ruskebukta. Low<br />
<strong>and</strong> moderate values <strong>of</strong> C f<br />
are observed for o<strong>the</strong>r metals<br />
<strong>in</strong> lakes Ruskebukta <strong>and</strong> Vaggatem.<br />
In general, Lake Kuetsjarvi (high value <strong>of</strong> C d<br />
) is<br />
characterized by <strong>the</strong> maximum contam<strong>in</strong>ation by all<br />
<strong>the</strong> studied contam<strong>in</strong>ants. Lake Skrukkebukta has C d<br />
value on <strong>the</strong> boundary between low <strong>and</strong> moderate<br />
<strong>and</strong> low values <strong>of</strong> C d<br />
are recorded <strong>in</strong> lakes Vaggatem<br />
<strong>and</strong> Ruskebukta.<br />
Persistent organic pollutants <strong>in</strong> sediments<br />
Previous screen<strong>in</strong>g studies <strong>of</strong> persistent organic pollutants<br />
(POPs) <strong>in</strong> bottom sediments revealed higher<br />
levels <strong>of</strong> several environmental contam<strong>in</strong>ants <strong>in</strong> Lake<br />
Kuetsjarvi compared to o<strong>the</strong>r lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
(Christensen et al. 2007).<br />
The highest concentrations <strong>of</strong> ∑PCB were measured<br />
<strong>in</strong> sediments from Lake Kuetsjarvi downstream<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Nikel city (Figure 1). The levels <strong>of</strong> ∑PCB <strong>in</strong><br />
lake sediments from Vaggatem <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta were<br />
comparable. The levels <strong>in</strong> surface sediment (0–1<br />
cm) were approximately 4 times higher <strong>in</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi<br />
compared to Vaggatem <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta. The<br />
highest concentrations <strong>of</strong> PCB were detected <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
2–3 cm layer from Lake Kuetsjarvi. These results are<br />
comparable with previous study from <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
(Christensen et al. 2007) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> concentrations <strong>of</strong><br />
∑PCB <strong>in</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi are elevated compared to<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r lakes <strong>in</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn <strong>Norway</strong> (Skotvold et al. 1997,<br />
Christensen et al. 2008).<br />
The highest concentrations <strong>of</strong> ∑DDT were measured<br />
<strong>in</strong> sediments from Skrukkebukta (Figure 2). DDT<br />
was also detected <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface sample from Vaggatem.<br />
The concentrations <strong>of</strong> DDT <strong>in</strong> all <strong>the</strong> sediment<br />
samples from Lake Kuetsjarvi were below <strong>the</strong> detection<br />
limit. There are no known sources <strong>of</strong> DDT <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
area. However, DDT was previously used as pesticide<br />
<strong>in</strong> agriculture but tit was banned <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early 1970s. In<br />
a previous study <strong>the</strong> highest levels <strong>of</strong> DDT were detected<br />
<strong>in</strong> sediments from Lake Kuetsjarvi (Christensen<br />
et al. 2007).<br />
Polybrom<strong>in</strong>ated diphenyl e<strong>the</strong>rs (PBDE) were only<br />
detected <strong>in</strong> sediments from Skrukkebukta <strong>and</strong> Vaggatem<br />
(Christensen et al. 2015).<br />
Based on <strong>the</strong> results from this study <strong>the</strong>re is no<br />
clear time trend <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> historical development <strong>of</strong> POPs<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments from <strong>the</strong>se lakes. It is recommended<br />
that a more extensive sediment survey be carried out<br />
with dat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments, which will give detailed<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation about historical trends for POPs <strong>and</strong> heavy<br />
metals.<br />
The higher levels <strong>of</strong> PCB <strong>and</strong> mercury <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> analysed<br />
sediment samples downstream from Nikel compared<br />
to upstream clearly <strong>in</strong>dicate emissions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
compounds from Nikel. The source might be related to<br />
<strong>the</strong> activity <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> metallurgical smelter or o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />
activity, contam<strong>in</strong>ated areas <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> city or l<strong>and</strong>fills.<br />
56
The results from this sediment study <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> results<br />
from <strong>the</strong> study <strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ants <strong>in</strong> fish are comparable<br />
<strong>in</strong> that sense that <strong>the</strong> highest levels <strong>of</strong> POPs<br />
are found downstream from Nikel. However <strong>the</strong>re are<br />
several very <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g questions that need fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigations: <strong>the</strong> time-trends for PCB, DDT, PBDE<br />
<strong>and</strong> mercury <strong>and</strong> where <strong>the</strong> sources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nikel city<br />
are, for example.<br />
PCB<br />
20<br />
18<br />
16<br />
14<br />
ng/g dw<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
0-1 cm<br />
1-2 cm<br />
2-3 cm<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
Vaggatem Kuetsjärvi Skrukkebukta<br />
Figure 1. Levels <strong>of</strong> ∑PCB (ng/g dw) <strong>in</strong> three layer (0–1 cm blue bars, 1–2 cm red bars, 2–3 cm green bars) <strong>of</strong> bottom<br />
sediments from lakes Vaggatem, Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta.<br />
4<br />
3,5<br />
3<br />
DDT<br />
ng/g dw<br />
2,5<br />
2<br />
1,5<br />
0-1 cm<br />
1-2 cm<br />
2-3 cm<br />
1<br />
0,5<br />
0<br />
Vaggatem Kuetsjärvi Skrukkebukta<br />
Figure 2. Levels <strong>of</strong> ∑DDT (ng/g dw) <strong>in</strong> three layer (0–1 cm blue bars, 1–2 cm red bars, 2–3 cm green bars) <strong>of</strong> bottom<br />
sediments from lakes Vaggatem, Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta.<br />
57
Conclusions<br />
The highest background concentrations <strong>of</strong> most <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> heavy metals (Ni, Zn, Co, Cd, Hg <strong>and</strong> As) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
sediments are observed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn part <strong>of</strong> Lake<br />
Kuetsjarvi, which is accounted for by <strong>the</strong> geochemical<br />
<strong>and</strong> morphometric peculiarities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake <strong>and</strong> its<br />
catchment area. In general <strong>the</strong> average background<br />
concentrations <strong>of</strong> almost all <strong>the</strong> heavy metals (except<br />
Cd) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> catchment reservoirs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
are higher than <strong>the</strong> average background concentrations<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> North-West <strong>of</strong> Murmansk Region <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
border territories.<br />
The Pechenganikel emissions result <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> maximum<br />
concentrations <strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestigated heavy<br />
metals <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface layers <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments <strong>of</strong> Lake<br />
Kuetsjarvi. Almost all heavy metals have surface<br />
maximum <strong>and</strong> despite <strong>the</strong> reduction <strong>of</strong> discharge <strong>in</strong>to<br />
Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> atmospheric emissions by <strong>the</strong><br />
Pechenganikel <strong>the</strong>re is no observable decrease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
content. Downstream from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel <strong>in</strong> Lake<br />
Skrukkebukta maximum concentrations <strong>of</strong> Ni, Cu,<br />
Co, Cd, <strong>and</strong> Pb are found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> upper 1 cm layer <strong>of</strong><br />
sediments <strong>and</strong> large <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> heavy metal concentrations<br />
<strong>in</strong> comparison to <strong>the</strong> background is dist<strong>in</strong>guished<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> upper 3 cm <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments.<br />
In lakes Vaggatem <strong>and</strong> Ruskebukta upstream from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel no great changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> vertical<br />
distribution <strong>of</strong> Ni, Cu, Co <strong>and</strong> Zn concentrations are<br />
found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments, although <strong>the</strong>re is a slight <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
<strong>of</strong> Ni <strong>and</strong> Cu concentrations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> upper 4 cm<br />
<strong>in</strong> Lake Vaggatem. However, a slight <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> concentration<br />
<strong>of</strong> chalcophile elements was discovered <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> surface layers <strong>of</strong> lakes Ruskebukta <strong>and</strong> Vaggatem<br />
<strong>in</strong> comparison to <strong>the</strong> background content. The largest<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease is observed <strong>in</strong> Lake Ruskebukta for Hg.<br />
In general Lake Kuetsjarvi (high value <strong>of</strong> C d<br />
contam<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
degree) is characterized by maximum contam<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
by all <strong>the</strong> studied contam<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g elements.<br />
Lake Skrukkebukta has <strong>the</strong> C d<br />
value on <strong>the</strong> boundary<br />
between low <strong>and</strong> moderate. Low values <strong>of</strong> C d<br />
are<br />
found <strong>in</strong> lakes Vaggatem <strong>and</strong> Ruskebukta, which are<br />
<strong>the</strong> least polluted <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> studied lakes.<br />
Industry is <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> source <strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ants <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik region. Photo: Sergey S<strong>and</strong>imirov<br />
58
References<br />
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geographical problems <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kola North: 114–129. Kola Science Center RAS. Apatity. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
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Dauvalter V.А. 2002: Chemical composition <strong>of</strong> subarctic lake sediments under <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> metallurgical activities<br />
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Shaw J.F.H., Prepas E.E. 1990: Relationships between phosphorus <strong>in</strong> shallow sediments <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> trophogenic zone <strong>of</strong><br />
seven Alberta lakes. Water Research 24(5): 551–556.<br />
Skotvold, T., Wartena, E.M.M., Rognerud, S. 1997: Heavy metals <strong>and</strong> persistent organic pollutants <strong>in</strong> sediments <strong>and</strong> fish<br />
from lakes <strong>in</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn <strong>and</strong> Arctic regions <strong>of</strong> <strong>Norway</strong>. Statlig program for forurensn<strong>in</strong>gsovervåkn<strong>in</strong>g, SFT rapport 688/97.<br />
98 p.<br />
Tenhola M., Lummaa M. 1979: Regional distribution <strong>of</strong> z<strong>in</strong>c <strong>in</strong> lake sediments from eastern F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>. Symposium on Economic<br />
Geology, Dubl<strong>in</strong>, Irel<strong>and</strong>, 26–29 August: 67–73.<br />
Tolonen K., Jaakkola T. 1983: History <strong>of</strong> lake acidification <strong>and</strong> air pollution studied on sediments <strong>in</strong> South F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>. Annales<br />
Botanici Fennici 20: 57–78.<br />
59
4 Plankton communities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
River<br />
DMITRII DENISOV<br />
Phytoplankton<br />
Phytoplankton communities are an <strong>in</strong>tegral part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
status assesment <strong>of</strong> water bodies <strong>in</strong> subarctic regions.<br />
Phytoplankton algae play an important role <strong>in</strong> primary<br />
production <strong>of</strong> aquatic ecosystems. Various <strong>in</strong>dicators<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> status <strong>of</strong> algae communities are successfully<br />
used <strong>in</strong> assessment <strong>of</strong> water trophic status, level <strong>of</strong><br />
organic pollution <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>of</strong> eutrophication processes.<br />
The structure <strong>and</strong> taxonomic composition <strong>of</strong><br />
phytoplankton communities <strong>in</strong> lake-<strong>and</strong>-river systems<br />
<strong>in</strong> different seasons are necessary for build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
improvement <strong>of</strong> bio<strong>in</strong>dication systems <strong>and</strong> expansion<br />
<strong>of</strong> underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> diversity <strong>of</strong> conditions with<strong>in</strong><br />
one water body depend<strong>in</strong>g on environment <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />
load. Data on <strong>the</strong> composition <strong>of</strong> communities<br />
is important also for identify<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> crucial factors <strong>of</strong><br />
water bodies’ development <strong>in</strong> high-latitude regions <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> local <strong>and</strong> global changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> natural<br />
environment. Special <strong>in</strong>terest is held by <strong>the</strong> study <strong>of</strong><br />
annual phytoplankton dynamics <strong>in</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g longterm<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrial pollution <strong>and</strong> changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> climate<br />
system dynamics.<br />
Materials <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
Different areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse traditionally<br />
used for assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> water quality <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
aquatic ecosystem status were sampled. The sampled<br />
water bodies were Rajakoski, Vaggatem, Ruskebukta,<br />
Tjerebukta, Skrukkebukta <strong>and</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi<br />
(Introduction, Figure 1).<br />
Sampl<strong>in</strong>g for assessment <strong>of</strong> species composition,<br />
abundance <strong>and</strong> biomass <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton was performed<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2012 <strong>in</strong> July <strong>and</strong> August; additional samples<br />
from Lake Kuetsjarvi were taken <strong>in</strong> June for assessment<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> seasonal dynamics <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton <strong>in</strong>dicators.<br />
Sampl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> analysis <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton samples<br />
was performed accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ards GOST<br />
17.1.3.07-82 (RF) with <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> recommended<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard methods accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> scheme adopted<br />
at INEP KSC RAS. Species composition was identified<br />
accord<strong>in</strong>g to several field guides (Krammer 2000,<br />
2002, 2003, Lange-Bertalot 2001, Tikkanen 1986, Bar<strong>in</strong>ova<br />
& Medvedeva 1996, Krammer & Lange-Bertalot<br />
1986, 1988, 1991а, 1991b). The taxonomic diversity<br />
was assessed with Shannon-Weaver <strong>in</strong>dex (1949).<br />
Phytoplankton pigments were determ<strong>in</strong>ed to assess<br />
<strong>the</strong> algae photosyn<strong>the</strong>tic activity. The chlorophyll<br />
a concentration <strong>and</strong> phytoplankton biomass <strong>in</strong> a water<br />
body reflect its trophic status accurately enough accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to Kitaev’s trophic scale (Table 1).<br />
Table 1. Kitaev’s trophic scale (1984)<br />
Oligotrophic Мesotrophic Eutrophic Hypereutrophic<br />
α β α β α β<br />
Chlorophyll а, mg/m 3 48<br />
Phytoplankton biomass, g/m 3 16<br />
Table 2. Water quality classification accord<strong>in</strong>g to saprobity <strong>in</strong>dex S (GOST 17.1.3.07-82)<br />
Saprobity <strong>in</strong>dex Water quality class Pollution range<br />
4.00 VI Highly polluted<br />
60
Based on <strong>the</strong> taxonomic composition <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton,<br />
assessment <strong>of</strong> water quality class was made<br />
on <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> saprobity <strong>in</strong>dex (S) us<strong>in</strong>g Pantle-<br />
Buck method modified by Sladecek. (Pantle & Buck<br />
1955, Sladecek 1967). Saprobity is <strong>the</strong> pollution <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> water body with organic substances. Water quality<br />
classification accord<strong>in</strong>g to GOST 17.1.3.07-82 (RF) is<br />
presented <strong>in</strong> Table 2.<br />
Results <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
Species composition <strong>and</strong> structure <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton<br />
communities<br />
Totally 95 algae taxa one order lower than genus<br />
from seven systematic groups were identified <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
phytoplankton composition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik river-<strong>and</strong>lake<br />
system: Cyanophyceae – 9, Chlorophyta – 25,<br />
Charophyceae – 8, Chrysophyceae – 5, D<strong>in</strong>ophyta –<br />
8, Bacillariophyceae – 37, Euglenophyceae – 1. The<br />
number <strong>of</strong> taxa at each station is presented <strong>in</strong> Table 3.<br />
The species abundance (number <strong>of</strong> discovered taxa)<br />
was <strong>the</strong> highest close to Lake Kuetsjarvi (Salmijarvi,<br />
52 taxa) as a result <strong>of</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> different type<br />
water masses <strong>and</strong> a current. Species abundances <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> sampl<strong>in</strong>g place were variable, second highest was<br />
31 taxa <strong>in</strong> Rajakoski <strong>and</strong> third highest 27 taxa <strong>in</strong> Ruskebukta.<br />
Lowest abundances were <strong>in</strong> Tjerebukta (11),<br />
Vaggatem (18) <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta (19).<br />
In different parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River <strong>the</strong> structure<br />
<strong>of</strong> communities, species composition <strong>and</strong> quantitative<br />
parameters <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton show considerable<br />
differences (Figures 1 <strong>and</strong> 2). Diatoms, blue-green<br />
algae <strong>and</strong> yellow-green algae were found <strong>the</strong> most<br />
abundant; green algae accounted for a large portion<br />
(up to 51 %) <strong>in</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi. Perid<strong>in</strong>iales (5 %) <strong>and</strong><br />
charophytes (< 1%) were rare at all <strong>the</strong> stations.<br />
In Ruskebukta <strong>the</strong> phytoplankton abundance is two<br />
orders higher than <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r sections. The cause was a<br />
mass occurrence <strong>of</strong> diatom Urosolenia eriensis, which<br />
is a typical benthic species, <strong>and</strong> its transition to planktonic<br />
state confirms eutrophication. This correlates<br />
with <strong>the</strong> hydrochemical analysis results as Ruskebukta<br />
has <strong>the</strong> highest concentrations <strong>of</strong> nutrients (primarily<br />
nitrates <strong>and</strong> phosphates) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River.<br />
Blue-green algae were <strong>the</strong> most abundant (up to 52<br />
%) <strong>in</strong> Rajakoski, mostly due to abundance <strong>of</strong> Oscillatoria<br />
tenuis, which is ano<strong>the</strong>r sign <strong>of</strong> eutrophication.<br />
Abundance <strong>of</strong> green algae separates Lake Kuetsjarvi<br />
from <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r stations. The phytoplankton communities<br />
are considerably different <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn <strong>and</strong><br />
nor<strong>the</strong>rn parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake. In <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn part yellowgreen<br />
algae, diatoms <strong>and</strong> green algae are abundant;<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn part, where <strong>the</strong> polluted wastewater<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel plant is discharged, bluegreen<br />
algae were actively develop<strong>in</strong>g (Figure 1b). At<br />
<strong>the</strong> outflow, where Lake Kuetsjarvi is connected to <strong>the</strong><br />
Figure 1. Phytoplankton communities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River <strong>in</strong> August-September 2012: а) all stations; b) Lake Kuetsjarvi.<br />
61
Figure 2. Total phytoplankton abundance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River <strong>in</strong> August–September 2012, mln.cells/m 3 : а) differences<br />
between Ruskebukta <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r stations; b) differences between o<strong>the</strong>r stations.<br />
Figure 3.Trophic status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> different parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River accord<strong>in</strong>g to Kitaev (1984): a) phytoplankton<br />
photosyn<strong>the</strong>tic pigments, mg/m 3 ; b) phytoplankton biomass, g/m 3 .<br />
Pasvik River, <strong>the</strong> algae abundance was found to be<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imal while <strong>the</strong> range <strong>of</strong> species was large. This is<br />
possibly a result <strong>of</strong> mix<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> hydro-chemically different<br />
water masses, which creates suitable conditions<br />
for development <strong>of</strong> various phytoplankton species.<br />
The highest <strong>in</strong>dicators Shannon-Weaver <strong>in</strong>dex was<br />
found at <strong>the</strong> stations Golfstream <strong>and</strong> Salmijarvi <strong>in</strong><br />
Lake Kuetsjarvi, which might be due to mix<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> different<br />
water masses. The permanent presence <strong>of</strong> nutrients<br />
along with <strong>in</strong>creased m<strong>in</strong>eralization (amount <strong>of</strong><br />
all ions determ<strong>in</strong>ed dur<strong>in</strong>g water analysis (mg/l)) supports<br />
development <strong>of</strong> non-typical subarctic plankton<br />
communities with a large portion <strong>of</strong> green algae. The<br />
lowest species diversity was found <strong>in</strong> Ruskebukta associated<br />
with <strong>the</strong> absolute dom<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> Urosolenia<br />
eriensis.<br />
The amount <strong>of</strong> photosyn<strong>the</strong>tic pigments <strong>in</strong> phytoplankton<br />
is used <strong>in</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> status, natural<br />
seasonal processes, anthropogenic impact <strong>and</strong> pollution<br />
level <strong>of</strong> water bodies <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrially developed regions<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula (Sharov 2004). It<br />
is used as an <strong>in</strong>dicator for assessment <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton<br />
productivity <strong>and</strong> biomass (V<strong>in</strong>berg 1960).<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to chlorophyll a concentration <strong>the</strong> trophic<br />
status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River areas under study ranges<br />
from α-oligotrophic (Skrukkebukta) to β-mesotrophic<br />
(Kuetsjarvi, Kolosjoki) (Figure 3a). The highest concentrations<br />
<strong>of</strong> chlorophyll a <strong>in</strong> 2012 were <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> eutrophied<br />
areas <strong>of</strong> Ruskebukta <strong>and</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi; <strong>the</strong>se<br />
data correlate well with <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton<br />
abundance <strong>and</strong> hydrochemical analysis results.<br />
The concentrations <strong>of</strong> phaeopigments <strong>and</strong> carotenoids<br />
were <strong>the</strong> highest <strong>in</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> Raja-<br />
62
koski, which is a sign <strong>of</strong> a higher detritus concentration<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> water column or presence <strong>of</strong> ag<strong>in</strong>g plankton<br />
populations with a slowed-down photosyn<strong>the</strong>tic activity.<br />
Ruskebukta had <strong>the</strong> lowest concentration <strong>of</strong> carotenoids,<br />
which confirms active development <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton<br />
<strong>and</strong> its high photosyn<strong>the</strong>tic activity.<br />
In 2012 <strong>the</strong> phytoplankton biomass <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
river-<strong>and</strong>-lake system varied from 0.23 (Skrukkebukta)<br />
to 2.94 g/m 3 (Lake Kuetsjarvi, Kolosjoki). The highest<br />
biomass levels were typical <strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong><br />
Ruskebukta <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir trophic status may be regarded<br />
as α- <strong>and</strong> β-mesotrophic; <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r water bodies have<br />
reta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>the</strong>ir oligotrophic status (Figure 3b). The average<br />
biomass level <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study<br />
lakes did not exceed <strong>the</strong> biomass level <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kola<br />
Pen<strong>in</strong>sula lakes: 0.6–2.5 g/m 3 for <strong>the</strong> tundra <strong>and</strong> forest<br />
tundra lakes <strong>and</strong> 0.56–2.96 g/m 3 for <strong>the</strong> north taiga<br />
lakes (Letanskaya 1974, Kupetzkaya et al.1976).<br />
Seasonal dynamics <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton<br />
The seasonal dynamics <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton communities<br />
were studied <strong>in</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi (station Golfstream).<br />
The phytoplankton abundance is comparatively high<br />
already <strong>in</strong> June with green algae be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> most abundant,<br />
<strong>the</strong> portion <strong>of</strong> diatoms is also large <strong>and</strong> d<strong>in</strong>ophytes<br />
<strong>and</strong> yellow-green algae are develop<strong>in</strong>g. In July<br />
<strong>the</strong> total algae abundance rema<strong>in</strong>s at <strong>the</strong> same level<br />
as <strong>in</strong> June but blue-green algae develop. Also <strong>the</strong> proportion<br />
<strong>of</strong> green algae <strong>in</strong>creases, diatoms decrease,<br />
d<strong>in</strong>ophytes virtually disappear <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> abundance <strong>of</strong><br />
yellow-green algae also decreases considerably. Later<br />
by August <strong>the</strong> total phytoplankton abundance decreases,<br />
mostly because <strong>the</strong> growth <strong>of</strong> green algae slowed<br />
down; yellow-green algae disappear entirely, <strong>the</strong><br />
portion <strong>of</strong> blue-green algae decreas <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> abundance<br />
<strong>of</strong> diatoms rema<strong>in</strong>ed at <strong>the</strong> same level.<br />
The seasonal dynamics <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton <strong>in</strong> Lake<br />
Kuetsjarvi are not typical for subarctic lakes due to<br />
<strong>in</strong>tensive development <strong>of</strong> green algae, which start<br />
active growth already <strong>in</strong> June. At <strong>the</strong> same time, <strong>the</strong><br />
abundance <strong>of</strong> diatoms <strong>and</strong> yellow-green algae, <strong>the</strong> typical<br />
<strong>in</strong>habitants <strong>of</strong> subarctic, is relatively low.<br />
Saprobity <strong>in</strong>dex <strong>and</strong> water quality<br />
Saprobity <strong>in</strong>dex was estimated for assessment <strong>of</strong> organic<br />
pollution level for each research area. At <strong>the</strong> time<br />
<strong>of</strong> study <strong>the</strong> saprobity <strong>in</strong>dex <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> water bodies<br />
varied with<strong>in</strong> 1.2–1.89, which correlates with a relatively<br />
low pollution level (GOST 17.1.3.07-82). The<br />
lowest saprobity <strong>in</strong>dex was <strong>in</strong> Tjerebukta <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
highest <strong>in</strong> Ruskebukta, where <strong>the</strong>re was massive development<br />
<strong>of</strong> Urosolenia eriensis. Saprobity <strong>in</strong>dices<br />
were relatively high <strong>in</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi: at <strong>the</strong> stations<br />
Belyi kamen, Salmijarvi, <strong>and</strong> Kolosjoki <strong>the</strong> water quality<br />
class was III whereas <strong>the</strong> stations Golfstream <strong>and</strong><br />
Shuonijoki are <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> class II. This may be <strong>in</strong>terpreted<br />
as ano<strong>the</strong>r pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> different conditions with<strong>in</strong> this water<br />
body.<br />
Long-term dynamics <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton<br />
Assessment <strong>of</strong> many-year dynamics <strong>of</strong> quantitative<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton, especially biomass, is<br />
important for underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> long-term changes<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ecosystem <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse. A grow-<br />
Figure 4. Long-term phytoplankton biomass dynamics (g/m 3 ): a) Lake Kuetsjarvi; b) O<strong>the</strong>r water bodies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Pasvik River system.<br />
63
<strong>in</strong>g trend <strong>in</strong> phytoplankton biomass was observed <strong>in</strong><br />
Lake Kuetsjarvi from 1994 to 2012 with all <strong>the</strong> values<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g mesotrophic state. In <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r water<br />
bodies <strong>the</strong> maximum values were observed <strong>in</strong> 1998<br />
<strong>and</strong> 2008 but <strong>in</strong> 2012 <strong>the</strong>re was a decrease. No clear<br />
trend has been determ<strong>in</strong>ed, which is due to <strong>the</strong> different<br />
conditions <strong>in</strong> each lake as well as to irregular<br />
sampl<strong>in</strong>g periods <strong>in</strong> different seasons. The average<br />
biomass values for Lake Kuetsjarvi were higher than<br />
those for <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r water bodies (Figure 4). The average<br />
biomass values for <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse system<br />
seem to confirm that its trophic status is chang<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from β-oligotrophic to β-mesotrophic.<br />
Considerable changes have taken place <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
phytoplankton species composition. In August 1994<br />
diatoms dom<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> different areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
River <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> portion <strong>of</strong> blue-green algae was <strong>in</strong>significant<br />
(Sharov 2004). In July 1996 several groups<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g green <strong>and</strong> yellow-green algae <strong>and</strong> diatoms<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ated. In September 2008 <strong>the</strong> same taxa dom<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
<strong>in</strong> many areas but blue-green algae abundance<br />
was <strong>in</strong>creased compared to <strong>the</strong> previous years, which<br />
may be associated with favorable meteorological factors,<br />
water temperatures etc. The high abundance <strong>of</strong><br />
blue-green algae also implies a possibility <strong>of</strong> massive<br />
phytoplankton development outbreaks that may take<br />
place <strong>in</strong> favorable conditions.<br />
In Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>the</strong> changes <strong>in</strong> phytoplankton<br />
species composition are more prom<strong>in</strong>ent still. Diatoms<br />
<strong>and</strong> yellow-green algae that dom<strong>in</strong>ated earlier are<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g gradually replaced by green <strong>and</strong> blue-green algae,<br />
especially <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> latest years. This may be regarded<br />
as an <strong>in</strong>dicator <strong>of</strong> a warm<strong>in</strong>g trend <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> climate<br />
change. Algae growth is also facilitated by reduction<br />
<strong>of</strong> toxic load <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> latest decade.<br />
Periphyton<br />
Study <strong>of</strong> periphyton <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River has not been<br />
conducted. However, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> rocky substrate <strong>in</strong> shallow<br />
waters near <strong>the</strong> Janiskoski reservoir outflow an unusual<br />
massive foul<strong>in</strong>g formed <strong>of</strong> diatom Didymosphenia<br />
gem<strong>in</strong>ata (Lyngb.) Schmidt colonies was discovered.<br />
This phenomenon is known as “Brown plague: Didymo”<br />
which has been a worldwide serious problem for<br />
stream<strong>in</strong>g water bodies with coldish conditions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
latest years (International…, 2013).<br />
The structure <strong>of</strong> colonies <strong>of</strong> D. gem<strong>in</strong>ata associated<br />
with o<strong>the</strong>r algae, ma<strong>in</strong>ly with diatoms, creates firm slimy<br />
algal mats on <strong>the</strong> rocky substrate cover<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> river<br />
bed. Massive development <strong>of</strong> D. gem<strong>in</strong>ata does<br />
not require a large amount <strong>of</strong> nutrients or higher water<br />
temperature. The species is widespread but it is only<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> latest decades that mass development outbreaks<br />
have been observed particularly <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> areas<br />
where <strong>the</strong>y were not common before (International…<br />
2013). The dense colonies disrupt <strong>the</strong> natural habitats<br />
<strong>of</strong> typical arctic water fauna, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g benthos<br />
<strong>and</strong> fish, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> changes affect potential spawn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
sites <strong>and</strong> trophic cha<strong>in</strong>s. Massive development <strong>of</strong> D.<br />
gem<strong>in</strong>ata def<strong>in</strong>itely poses a certa<strong>in</strong> threat to <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
River ecosystem function<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> occurrence<br />
could be regarded as a sign <strong>of</strong> global climate change<br />
(Lavery et al. 2014).<br />
Zooplankton<br />
Zooplankton is an <strong>in</strong>tegral component <strong>of</strong> aquatic<br />
ecosystems. In subarctic lakes <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> flows <strong>of</strong> organic<br />
substances <strong>and</strong> energy from producers to higher<br />
trophic levels go through <strong>the</strong> communities <strong>of</strong> Protozoa,<br />
Rotatoria <strong>and</strong> Crustacea. Zooplankton plays an<br />
important role <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> determ<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> resource potential<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes as it holds <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>termediate position<br />
between bacterioplankton, phytoplankton, benthos<br />
<strong>and</strong> fish. Prevalence <strong>of</strong> species need<strong>in</strong>g higher water<br />
quality is characteristic <strong>of</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn water bodies,<br />
which means higher sensitivity to <strong>in</strong>dustrial impact.<br />
The taxonomic structure <strong>of</strong> zooplankton community is<br />
a good <strong>in</strong>dicator <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pollution degree <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> water<br />
body.<br />
Zooplankton plays a significant role <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> determ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
<strong>of</strong> fishery productivity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> water body as it is<br />
one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> feed resources for fish. In terms <strong>of</strong> feed <strong>the</strong><br />
most valuable organisms should be considered <strong>the</strong><br />
crustacean genuses Daphnia, Bosm<strong>in</strong>a, Bythotrepes,<br />
Eudiaptomus, Heterocope <strong>and</strong> Cyclops.<br />
Materials <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
Zooplankton was sampled at <strong>the</strong> same stations as<br />
phytoplankton (Introduction, Figure 1). Quantitative<br />
samples were taken with a bathometer (<strong>of</strong> 2 l <strong>and</strong> 6 l)<br />
from <strong>the</strong> surface to <strong>the</strong> bottom every o<strong>the</strong>r meter with<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>guish<strong>in</strong>g layers: surface–2 m; 2–5 m, 5–10 m,<br />
10 m–bottom. All qualitative samples were taken with<br />
a qualitative Apste<strong>in</strong> net. Lugol’s solution was used as<br />
a fixative.<br />
Sampl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> required calculations were performed<br />
accord<strong>in</strong>g to st<strong>and</strong>ard practices <strong>of</strong> hydrobiological<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g (Abakumov 1992). The calculation<br />
64
Table 3. Structural <strong>and</strong> functional <strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>of</strong> zooplankton.<br />
Parameter Rajakoski Tjerebukta Ruskebukta Vaggatem Skrukkebukta<br />
Abundance (N), 10 3 <strong>in</strong>d./m 3 76.4 37.6 239.8 67.7 75.2<br />
Biomass (B), g wet weight/m 3 0.2 0.7 1.8 0.5 0.4<br />
N Rot<br />
: N Clad<br />
: N Cop<br />
, % 93.1:2.7:4.2 63.8:28.3:8.0 85.3:10.7:4.0 85.2:12.1:2.7 92.5:3.3:4.2<br />
B Rot<br />
: B Clad<br />
: B Cop<br />
, % 18.1:58.2:21.4 22.0:64.8:8.4 14.7:62.6:22.4 24.9:70.0:0.7 27.3:16.6:53.1<br />
B Crust<br />
/B Rot<br />
4.5 3.7 5.8 3 2.6<br />
N Clad<br />
/N Cop<br />
0.6 3.5 2.6 4.5 0.7<br />
B 3<br />
/B 2<br />
0.2 0.2 0.3 0.1 1.7<br />
Shannon <strong>in</strong>dex, bit/<strong>in</strong>d. 2.1 2.8 2.1 2.3 2.1<br />
w=B/N, mg 0.002 0.02 0.007 0.007 0.005<br />
Saprobity (water quality class) 1.8 (III) 1.7 (III) 2.1 (III) 1.7 (III) 1.9 (III)<br />
Trophic state (Kitaev, 1984) α-oligotrophic β-oligotrophic α-mesotrophic α-oligotrophic α-oligotrophic<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual mass <strong>of</strong> organisms was based on <strong>the</strong> ratio<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> length <strong>and</strong> body mass <strong>of</strong> planktonic Rotatoria<br />
<strong>and</strong> Crustacea (Ruttner-Kolisko 1977; Balushk<strong>in</strong>a<br />
& V<strong>in</strong>berg 1979). The calculations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> abundance<br />
<strong>and</strong> biomass were performed with a statistical programme<br />
package (Syarki 1996).<br />
Saprobity <strong>in</strong>dex (Pantle & Bukk <strong>in</strong> Sladecek modification)<br />
was calculated proceed<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
characteristics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> species saprobity accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard practices. Water quality was evaluated by<br />
hydrobiological <strong>in</strong>dicators: <strong>the</strong> total number <strong>of</strong> organisms<br />
(<strong>in</strong>dividuals/m 3 ), <strong>the</strong> total number <strong>of</strong> species, <strong>the</strong><br />
total <strong>of</strong> biomass (g/m 3 ), <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> groups<br />
(<strong>in</strong>dividuals/m 3 ), <strong>the</strong> biomass <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> groups (g/<br />
m 3 ), <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> group, <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> species<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> species <strong>in</strong>dicative <strong>of</strong> saprobity (description,<br />
% from <strong>the</strong> total number, saprobity).<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> classification <strong>of</strong> lakes on <strong>the</strong> Kitaev’s<br />
trophic scale (1984), <strong>the</strong> lakes with <strong>the</strong> biomass<br />
<strong>of</strong> zooplankton 16 g/m 3 to a very high class (hypertrophic).<br />
Results<br />
The species detected <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> zooplankton community<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse were typical for oligotrophic,<br />
cold lakes <strong>and</strong> rivers. The majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> zooplankton<br />
community <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sampl<strong>in</strong>g period was represented by<br />
rotifers. Cladoceran “f<strong>in</strong>e” filtrators Bosm<strong>in</strong>a sp. <strong>and</strong><br />
Daphnia sp. were detected. Also calanoids Eudiaptomus<br />
gracilis Sars <strong>and</strong> Eudiaptomus graciloides Lilljeborg,<br />
which are sensitive to pollution <strong>and</strong> valuable<br />
<strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> fish feed, were found <strong>in</strong> all studied lakes<br />
except <strong>in</strong> Skrukkebukta. The amount <strong>of</strong> zooplankton<br />
species varied from 12 to 14; at Skrukkebukta 8 taxa<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> species range were detected.<br />
The ratio <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> taxonomic groups (Rotatоria:<br />
Cladocera: Copepoda) (Table 3) <strong>of</strong> zooplankton community<br />
shows that when tak<strong>in</strong>g rotifers prevail <strong>in</strong> numers<br />
but cladocerans dom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong> biomass <strong>in</strong> all <strong>the</strong><br />
stations except <strong>in</strong> Skrukkebukta where copepods<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ate. Shannon species diversity <strong>in</strong>dex by number<br />
varied <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> range <strong>of</strong> 2.1–2.8 bit/<strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
highest value was obta<strong>in</strong>ed at <strong>the</strong> Tjerebukta station.<br />
The <strong>in</strong>dex value <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> average <strong>in</strong>dividual zooplankter<br />
mass <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> community varied with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> range <strong>of</strong><br />
0.002 mg (Rajakoski)–0.02 mg (Tjerebukta) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
mean was 0.008 mg.<br />
The highest abundance was noted at <strong>the</strong> Ruskebukta<br />
station (239.8 10 3 <strong>in</strong>d./m 3 ) where <strong>the</strong> biomass<br />
was 1.8 g wet weight/m 3 . At o<strong>the</strong>r sites <strong>the</strong> total abundance<br />
<strong>and</strong> biomass were not high <strong>and</strong> were characteristic<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> oligotrophic water bodies (37.6–76.4 10 3<br />
<strong>in</strong>d./m 3 <strong>and</strong> 0.2–0.7 g wet weight/m 3 ). Accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong><br />
saprobity <strong>in</strong>dex <strong>the</strong> water <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> studied sites characterized<br />
as α-mesosaprobic <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> III water quality<br />
class. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> Kitaev’s trophic scale <strong>the</strong> lakes<br />
are α-oligotrophic type except for Ruskebukta, which<br />
is α-mesotrophic type.<br />
65
Conclusions<br />
The phytoplankton species composition <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
watercourse is characterized by high diversity <strong>and</strong> it<br />
is different <strong>in</strong> different reaches. 95 algae taxa have<br />
been found at <strong>the</strong> level one order lower than genus.<br />
Relatively high species diversity is typical <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> border<br />
area conditions comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g water masses different<br />
<strong>in</strong> hydrodynamic <strong>and</strong> hydrochemical properties.<br />
Diatoms, blue-green <strong>and</strong> yellow-green algae were<br />
<strong>the</strong> most abundant taxonomic groups. Abundance <strong>of</strong><br />
green algae separates Lake Kuetsjarvi from o<strong>the</strong>r stations.<br />
In Ruskebukta a massive development <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
diatom Urosolenia eriensis was observed, which is a<br />
sign <strong>of</strong> eutrophication.<br />
The highest chlorophyll a concentrations <strong>in</strong> 2012<br />
were detected <strong>in</strong> Ruskebukta <strong>and</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi<br />
which correlates with <strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton<br />
abundance <strong>and</strong> hydrochemical analyses results. Accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to chlorophyll a concentration <strong>the</strong> trophic status<br />
<strong>of</strong> study areas ranges from α-oligotrophic (Skrukkebukta)<br />
to β-mesotrophic (Kuetsjarvi, Kolosjoki). The<br />
phytoplankton biomass <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River areas <strong>in</strong><br />
2012 was with<strong>in</strong> 0.23–2.94 g/m 3 which does not exceed<br />
<strong>the</strong> average values for <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula. The<br />
saprobity <strong>in</strong>dex calculated accord<strong>in</strong>g to phytoplankton<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicators was with<strong>in</strong> 1.27–1.89, which means a relatively<br />
low water pollution level (Water quality classes<br />
II <strong>and</strong> III).<br />
The many-year dynamics <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton biomass<br />
<strong>in</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi show an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend<br />
as a result <strong>of</strong> reduction <strong>of</strong> toxic load <strong>and</strong> anthropogenic<br />
eutrophication supported by climate warm<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
In o<strong>the</strong>r water bodies no <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> production has<br />
been found. However, analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> collected data<br />
is difficult because <strong>of</strong> different conditions <strong>in</strong> each station<br />
<strong>and</strong> irregular <strong>in</strong>tervals <strong>in</strong> sampl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> different seasons.<br />
Synchronization <strong>of</strong> sampl<strong>in</strong>g at each station is<br />
recommended for collection <strong>of</strong> representative data.<br />
The species composition <strong>and</strong> structure <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton<br />
communities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River has undergone<br />
a number <strong>of</strong> considerable changes. The previously<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g diatoms <strong>and</strong> yellow-green algae are<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g replaced by green <strong>and</strong> blue-green algae which<br />
confirms climate warm<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> eutrophication<br />
processes.<br />
The ratio <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> taxonomic groups <strong>of</strong> zooplankton<br />
<strong>in</strong> total number reflects <strong>the</strong> prevalence <strong>of</strong><br />
Rotatoria, <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> biomass <strong>the</strong> groups <strong>of</strong> “f<strong>in</strong>e” <strong>and</strong><br />
“coarse” filtrators, which are valuable fish feed. Shannon<br />
species diversity <strong>in</strong>dex by <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> zooplankton<br />
has a relatively high value, also characteristic<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> oligotrophic water bodies. It should be noted<br />
that low content <strong>of</strong> taxa <strong>and</strong> high quantitative values<br />
at some stations can be expla<strong>in</strong>ed by multifactorial impact<br />
<strong>and</strong> by <strong>the</strong> period <strong>of</strong> plankton sampl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Zooplankton can be used to evaluate <strong>the</strong> water<br />
quality. Based on <strong>the</strong> analysis <strong>of</strong> qualitative <strong>and</strong> quantitative<br />
structural <strong>and</strong> functional <strong>in</strong>dicators a conclusion<br />
can be made that <strong>the</strong> sites under study <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
river-<strong>and</strong>-lake system (Rajakoski, Tjerebukta, Ruskebukta,<br />
Vaggatem, Skrukkebukta) have an oligotrophic<br />
status <strong>and</strong> average saprobity <strong>of</strong> α-mesosaprobic.<br />
The water bodies belong <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> III water quality class,<br />
“slightly polluted.” They are <strong>of</strong> α-oligotrophic type except<br />
for Ruskebukta, which is α-mesotrophic type.<br />
Bloom <strong>of</strong> blue-green algae. Photo: Juha Riihimäki<br />
66
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Kitaev, S.P. 1984: Ecological basis <strong>of</strong> lakes bioproductivity <strong>in</strong> different natural zones. Nauka. Moscow. 207 p. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Kitaev, S.P. 1984: Ecological fundamentals <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> biological productivity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>of</strong> various natural zones. Nauka.<br />
Мoscow. 309 p. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Krammer, K. & Lange-Bertalot, H. 1986. Bacillariophyceae, volume 1: Naviculaceae. In: Ettl, H., Gerl<strong>of</strong>f, J., Heynig, H.<br />
& Mollenhauer D. (ed.): Süsswasserflora von Mitteleuropa, B<strong>and</strong> 2. Stuttgart, Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena. 876 p. (<strong>in</strong><br />
German)<br />
Krammer, K. & Lange-Bertalot, H. 1988. Bacillariophyceae, volume 2: Bacillariaceae, Epi<strong>the</strong>miaceae, Surirellaceae. In: Ettl,<br />
H., Gerl<strong>of</strong>f J., Heynig, H. & Mollenhauer, D. (ed.): Süsswasserflora von Mitteleuropa, B<strong>and</strong> 2. Stuttgart, Gustav Fischer<br />
Verlag, Jena. 596 p. (<strong>in</strong> German)<br />
Krammer, K. & Lange-Bertalot, H. 1991. Bacillariophyceae, volume 3: Centrales, Fragilariaceae, Eunotiaceae. In: Ettl, H.,<br />
Gerl<strong>of</strong>f, J., Heynig, H. & Mollenhauer, D. (ed.): Süsswasserflora von Mitteleuropa, B<strong>and</strong> 2. Stuttgart, Gustav Fischer<br />
Verlag, Jena. 576 p. (<strong>in</strong> German)<br />
Krammer, K. & Lange-Bertalot, H. 1991. Bacillariophyceae, volume 4: Achnanthaceae. Kritishce Ergänzungen zu Navicula<br />
(L<strong>in</strong>eolatae) und Gomphonema. In: Ettl, H., Gärtner, G., Gerl<strong>of</strong>f, J., Heynig, H. & Mollenhauer, D. (ed.): Süsswasserflora<br />
von Mitteleuropa, B<strong>and</strong> 2. Stuttgart, Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena. 437 p. Krammer K. 2000: The genus P<strong>in</strong>nularia. In: H.<br />
Lange-Bertalot (ed.), Diatoms <strong>of</strong> Europe. 1: A.R.G. Gantner Verlag K.G. Vaduz. 703 p. (<strong>in</strong> German)<br />
Krammer, K. 2000: P<strong>in</strong>nularia. In: Lange-Bertalot, H. (ed.): Diatoms <strong>of</strong> Europe, volume 1. A.R.G. Gantner Verlag K.G. Ruggell.<br />
703 p.<br />
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584 p.<br />
Krammer, K. 2003: Cymbopleura, Delicata, Navicymbula, Gomphocymbellopsis, Afrocymbella. In: Lange-Bertalot, H. (ed.):<br />
Diatoms <strong>of</strong> Europe, volume 4. A.R.G. Gantner Verlag K.G.. Ruggell. 530 p.<br />
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(<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
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recent Didymosphenia gem<strong>in</strong>ata proliferation <strong>in</strong> Gaspésie, Quebec, us<strong>in</strong>g paleolimnology – Canadian Journal <strong>of</strong> Fisheries<br />
<strong>and</strong> Aquatic Sciences 71(4): 616-626.<br />
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<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula. P.2: 143–179. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
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Ergebnisse der Limnologie 8: 71–78.<br />
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113 p. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
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Tikkanen, T: Kasviplanktonopas. Suomen luonnonsuojelun tuki. Forssa. 278 p. (<strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish)<br />
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67
5 Aquatic macrophytes <strong>of</strong> Lake Inarijärvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
JUHA RIIHIMÄKI, MARIT MJELDE, SEPPO HELLSTEN<br />
Regulation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> water level <strong>of</strong> Lake Inarijärvi <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Pasvik River due to hydropower production is probably<br />
<strong>the</strong> strongest human <strong>in</strong>duced pressure on aquatic<br />
ecosystem <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River bas<strong>in</strong>. The global climate<br />
change will also have several effects on hydrological<br />
cycle; chang<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> tim<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> high water levels <strong>and</strong><br />
discharges <strong>and</strong> thus affect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> habitat conditions<br />
<strong>of</strong> aquatic organisms (see Chapter 3, Climate change<br />
impacts on hydrology <strong>and</strong> water level fluctuation).<br />
Assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ecological status <strong>of</strong> Lake Inarijärvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River us<strong>in</strong>g aquatic macrophytes as<br />
biological elements is important.<br />
Materials <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
Macrophyte data was collected from lakes Inarijärvi,<br />
Muddusjärvi <strong>and</strong> Nitsijärvi <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River. Lakes<br />
Muddusjärvi <strong>and</strong> Nitsijärvi are unregulated lakes<br />
<strong>and</strong> are used as reference lakes. All lakes are classified<br />
as “large oligohumic lakes (North)” <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish lake<br />
typology (Aroviita et al. 2012). The lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
River are classified as low alkal<strong>in</strong>ity, clear lakes us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Norwegian typology (Direktoratsgruppa 2013).<br />
Field work on macrophyte sampl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes<br />
Inarijärvi, Muddusjärvi <strong>and</strong> Nitsijärvi was done 31.7.–<br />
15.8.2012. Macrophyte data was ga<strong>the</strong>red us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish “Ma<strong>in</strong> belt transect method” (Kuoppala et al.<br />
2008). Observations <strong>of</strong> macrophyte species were made<br />
along a 5 m wide transect perpendicular to shorel<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
Start<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t for <strong>the</strong> transects were at <strong>the</strong> upper<br />
eulittoral <strong>and</strong> extended to <strong>the</strong> outer depth limit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
macrophyte vegetation. All macrophyte species (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
helophytes <strong>and</strong> bryophytes) were recorded, <strong>and</strong><br />
frequency <strong>and</strong> abundance for each species was estimated<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g a cont<strong>in</strong>uous percentage scale.<br />
In Lake Inarijärvi 24 transects <strong>in</strong> 5 areas were surveyed.<br />
Lakes Muddusjärvi <strong>and</strong> Nitsijärvi had 25 evenly<br />
distributed transects. Total area surveyed differs<br />
among <strong>the</strong> lakes s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> length <strong>of</strong> transects are determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> outer limit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vegetation on transect.<br />
Total length <strong>of</strong> transects <strong>and</strong> hence also <strong>the</strong> total<br />
area was higher <strong>in</strong> Lake Nitsijärvi than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
two lakes.<br />
The macrophyte survey <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River took<br />
place 27.–30. August 2013. Here, <strong>the</strong> macrophyte<br />
data was collected us<strong>in</strong>g both <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Norwegian field methods. The Norwegian method<br />
(Mjelde 2013) <strong>in</strong>cludes only true aquatic macrophytes<br />
(i.e. isoetids, elodeids, nymphaeids, lemnids <strong>and</strong> charophytes).<br />
Helophytes, bryophytes <strong>and</strong> filamentous<br />
algae are excluded. Different habitats, from shore<br />
to maximum vegetation depth, are surveyed <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
species are recorded us<strong>in</strong>g an aquascope <strong>and</strong> collected<br />
by dredg<strong>in</strong>g from a boat. Species abundance<br />
is estimated us<strong>in</strong>g a semi-quantitative scale (1=rare,<br />
2=scattered, 3=common, 4=locally dom<strong>in</strong>ant <strong>and</strong><br />
5=dom<strong>in</strong>ant) <strong>and</strong> maximum depth distribution <strong>of</strong> vegetation<br />
is noted.<br />
The Norwegian field method was applied also <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
previous macrophyte study <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River (Moiseenko<br />
et al. 1993) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> same study sites on <strong>the</strong><br />
Norwegian side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> river were used <strong>in</strong> both surveys.<br />
A total <strong>of</strong> 15 sites us<strong>in</strong>g Norwegian method was<br />
visited. The F<strong>in</strong>nish field method was applied for 14 <strong>of</strong><br />
those sites, with one transect on each site.<br />
Ecological status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
was assessed us<strong>in</strong>g macrophytes accord<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> European<br />
Union Water Framework Directive. Assessment<br />
method for F<strong>in</strong>nish lake macrophytes was used for <strong>the</strong><br />
lakes <strong>and</strong> both F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> Norwegian methods were<br />
used for <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish assessment method is a multimetric <strong>in</strong>dex<br />
comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g results <strong>of</strong> three different metrics: Proportion<br />
<strong>of</strong> type specific taxa (TT50), Percent Model Aff<strong>in</strong>ity<br />
(PMA) <strong>and</strong> Trophic <strong>in</strong>dex (RI) (see Vuori et al. 2009,<br />
Aroviita et al. 2012). Observed metric values <strong>of</strong> studied<br />
lakes are divided by <strong>the</strong> average metric values <strong>of</strong><br />
reference lakes (expected values) to calculate Ecological<br />
Quality Ratio (EQR) for each metric. EQRs are<br />
scaled to common thresholds so that scaled EQR value<br />
0.8 is threshold for high/good status, 0,6 for good/<br />
moderate, 0.4 for moderate/poor <strong>and</strong> 0.2 for poor/bad.<br />
Norwegian assessment method (TIc <strong>in</strong>dex) is<br />
based on <strong>the</strong> relationship between <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> sensitive<br />
<strong>and</strong> tolerant species <strong>in</strong> relation to eutrophication<br />
(Mjelde 2013). EQR is calculated us<strong>in</strong>g observed TIc<br />
68
<strong>in</strong>dex <strong>and</strong> expected TIc <strong>in</strong>dex value obta<strong>in</strong>ed from <strong>the</strong><br />
reference lakes.<br />
Results<br />
Lakes Inarijärvi, Muddusjärvi <strong>and</strong> Nitsijärvi<br />
The total number <strong>of</strong> observed macrophyte species<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> studied lakes was 45, <strong>of</strong> which only 18 species<br />
were common to all three lakes, 12 species were<br />
common for two lakes <strong>and</strong> 15 species were observed<br />
only <strong>in</strong> one lake. However, <strong>the</strong> total number <strong>of</strong> observed<br />
species per lake was quite even: <strong>in</strong> Lake Inarijärvi<br />
<strong>the</strong>re were 33 species, <strong>in</strong> Lake Muddusjärvi 31 <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
Lake Nitsijärvi 29.<br />
Classification <strong>of</strong> true aquatic macrophytes (helophytes<br />
<strong>and</strong> bryophytes are omitted) accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir <strong>in</strong>dicator value related to sensitivity <strong>and</strong> tolerance<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st eutrophication (Penn<strong>in</strong>g 2008 a, b) showed<br />
very similar composition among <strong>the</strong> lakes. Eutrophication-tolerant<br />
species were totally miss<strong>in</strong>g from all<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> species pool was dom<strong>in</strong>ated by<br />
eutrophication-sensitive species with only few <strong>in</strong>different<br />
species per lake.<br />
Ecological status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Lake Inarijärvi was assessed<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g F<strong>in</strong>nish multimetric <strong>in</strong>dex for lake<br />
macrophytes. Macrophyte data from lakes Muddusjärvi,<br />
Nitsijärvi, Kitkajärvi <strong>and</strong> Yli-Kitka were used as<br />
reference data. Average EQR <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> three metrics was<br />
0.81, so Lake Inarijärvi was assessed to be slightly <strong>in</strong><br />
high ecological status based on aquatic macrophytes.<br />
For each separate metrics <strong>the</strong> EQR value was also<br />
clearly above good/moderate boundary.<br />
The Pasvik River<br />
Total number <strong>of</strong> macrophyte species, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g true<br />
aquatic macrophytes, bryophytes <strong>and</strong> helophytes, observed<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River sites was 47. 37 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m<br />
were observed us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish field method <strong>and</strong> 34<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Norwegian field method (only true aquatic<br />
macrophytes). The number <strong>of</strong> species per site was<br />
higher us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Norwegian method <strong>in</strong> all but one site<br />
(site 4). Average number <strong>of</strong> species per site us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish method <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Norwegian method were 11<br />
<strong>and</strong> 14 <strong>and</strong> range (m<strong>in</strong>–max) 5–17 <strong>and</strong> 4–22 species,<br />
respectively.<br />
There is a clear difference <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> field methods that<br />
affects <strong>the</strong> results. In <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish method also helophytes<br />
<strong>and</strong> bryids are observed <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong><br />
visited sites at <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River was different. When<br />
compar<strong>in</strong>g results us<strong>in</strong>g only common sites <strong>and</strong> common<br />
observed growth forms, <strong>the</strong> total number <strong>of</strong> observed<br />
plant species us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> Norwegian<br />
field method were 27 <strong>and</strong> 33 species, respectively.<br />
Number <strong>of</strong> species per site is clearly higher <strong>in</strong> all<br />
sites with <strong>the</strong> Norwegian method when comparison<br />
was made us<strong>in</strong>g only common sites <strong>and</strong> growth forms<br />
(Figure 1). In this comparison <strong>the</strong> average number<br />
Number <strong>of</strong> species<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
New 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 14 15 18 19<br />
Species per site FI<br />
Species per site NO<br />
Figure 1. Number <strong>of</strong> species per <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River macrophyte study site us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish field method (FI) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Norwegian field method (NO) with common<br />
growth forms <strong>and</strong> sites.<br />
69
Table 1. Ecological status assessment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River lakes us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> Norwegian status assessment methods. Numbers after<br />
lake names <strong>in</strong>dicate site codes. The F<strong>in</strong>nish method was not applied on site 16.<br />
Data<br />
The Pasvik River (all<br />
sites)<br />
RI TT50SO PMA Total (FI) TIc<br />
EQR Status EQR Status EQR Status EQR Status EQR Status<br />
0.72 Good 0.62 Good 0.66 Good 0.67 Good 0.90 Good<br />
Hestefoss (new) 0.60 Good 0.70 Good 0.12 Bad 0.47 Moderate 1.11 High<br />
Fjørevatnet (1) 0.65 Good 0.47 Moderate 0.06 Bad 0.39 Poor 0.88 Goog<br />
Vaggatem (2,3,4,5,6) 1.13 High 0.87 High 0.55 Moderate 0.85 High 0.89 Good<br />
Langvatn (7,8) 1.00 High 0.70 Good 0.75 Good 0.82 High 0.98 High<br />
Fuglebukta (9) 1.13 High 1.03 High 0.63 Good 0.93 High 1.00 High<br />
Svanvatn (14, 15, 16) 0.74 Good 0.70 Good 0.61 Good 0.68 Good 0.87 Good<br />
Björnvatn (18, 19) 1.13 High 0.70 Good 0.46 Moderate 0.76 Good 0.91 Good<br />
<strong>of</strong> species per site us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish method <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Norwegian method were 9 <strong>and</strong> 15 <strong>and</strong> range (m<strong>in</strong>–<br />
max) number <strong>of</strong> species 3–14 <strong>and</strong> 4–22 species, respectively.<br />
Ecological status assessment gave quite similar results<br />
when F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> Norwegian assessment methods<br />
were compared us<strong>in</strong>g RI <strong>in</strong>dex <strong>and</strong> TIc <strong>in</strong>dex,<br />
<strong>and</strong> all <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River lakes were classified to high<br />
or good status (Table 1). Also, when comb<strong>in</strong>ed F<strong>in</strong>nish<br />
multimetric <strong>in</strong>dex was used, most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes<br />
were classified to high or good status, except Hestefoss<br />
<strong>and</strong> Fjørevatnet where low number <strong>of</strong> sites made<br />
PMA <strong>in</strong>dex unstable <strong>and</strong> lowered status (Table 1). Results<br />
showed that relatively similar RI <strong>and</strong> TIc <strong>in</strong>dices<br />
gave exactly <strong>the</strong> same results show<strong>in</strong>g relatively high<br />
status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River lakes.<br />
Macrophyte composition was also assessed by<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g a water level regulation <strong>in</strong>dex developed by<br />
Mjelde et al. (2012). The <strong>in</strong>dex showed that all lakes<br />
except Hestefoss <strong>and</strong> Langvatn were <strong>in</strong> better than<br />
moderate status. However, this <strong>in</strong>dex is developed for<br />
lakes regulated for hydroelectric power with (more or<br />
less) considerable w<strong>in</strong>ter drawdown. The lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Pasvik River have different regulation regimes, with<br />
limited w<strong>in</strong>ter drawdown.<br />
Aquatic macrophyte diversity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River is<br />
significantly higher compared to o<strong>the</strong>r large rivers <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Norway</strong> (exclud<strong>in</strong>g River Glomma, which is situated<br />
<strong>in</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn <strong>Norway</strong> <strong>and</strong> represents naturally higher<br />
diversity gradients).<br />
Discussion<br />
The ecological status <strong>of</strong> Lake Inarijärvi based on<br />
aquatic macrophytes was high. Water level regulation<br />
for hydropower production is considered to be <strong>the</strong><br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ant human <strong>in</strong>duced pressure to Lake Inarijärvi<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce nutrient load<strong>in</strong>g due to human activity are estimated<br />
to be relatively low. Average water level fluctuation<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> period 2000–2009 has been about<br />
1.40 meters, which is about 0.30 meters larger than<br />
<strong>the</strong> natural water level fluctuation (Puro-Tahvana<strong>in</strong>en<br />
et. al. 2011). Water level regulation <strong>in</strong>duced effects<br />
on littoral areas at Lake Inarijärvi are limited <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
macrophyte communities are well adapted to <strong>the</strong> current<br />
conditions. However, it should be noted that vertical<br />
extension <strong>of</strong> sedges (Carex spp.) has decreased<br />
<strong>and</strong> also areas <strong>of</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g-flood depended vegetation<br />
are smaller.<br />
The macrophyte surveys <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River lakes<br />
showed similar high-good status <strong>in</strong> almost all lakes.<br />
Despite <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong> whole river has changed significantly<br />
<strong>and</strong> consists <strong>of</strong> cascades <strong>of</strong> hydropower<br />
reservoirs, macrophyte species composition resembles<br />
natural. It should be noted that water level <strong>of</strong> lakes<br />
is relatively stable <strong>and</strong> without significant w<strong>in</strong>ter<br />
drawdown. W<strong>in</strong>ter drawdown is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most significant<br />
factors negatively affect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> status <strong>of</strong> lake<br />
macrophytes, as shown <strong>in</strong> several studies (Mjelde et<br />
al. 2013, <strong>and</strong> references here<strong>in</strong>). On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>,<br />
more or less stable water levels (as <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
lakes) positively affect <strong>the</strong> abundance <strong>of</strong> several<br />
aquatic macrophyte species. However, abundance <strong>of</strong><br />
helophytes <strong>and</strong> especially sedges is much lower than<br />
70
<strong>in</strong> lakes with normal spr<strong>in</strong>g flood reflect<strong>in</strong>g decreased<br />
water level fluctuation.<br />
The Pasvik River water quality reflects largely <strong>the</strong><br />
outflow <strong>of</strong> Lake Inarijärvi, which <strong>in</strong> general is <strong>in</strong> good<br />
status. Therefore, <strong>the</strong> number species <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
eutrophication is low even <strong>in</strong> areas affected by <strong>the</strong><br />
Pechenganikel.<br />
Biological monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Lake Inarijärvi <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
River us<strong>in</strong>g macrophytes is well established <strong>and</strong><br />
usable <strong>in</strong> its current state. Both F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> Norwegian<br />
field methods <strong>and</strong> ecological status assessment<br />
show similar results regardless <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> obvious disparities<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> field methods. Aquatic macrophyte surveys<br />
are lack<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
bas<strong>in</strong>, hence we recommend sett<strong>in</strong>g up comparable<br />
macrophyte monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> apply<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> status assessment<br />
system also to <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n area <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> river<br />
bas<strong>in</strong>.<br />
Macrophyte studies <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River. Photos: Juha Riihimäki<br />
71
References<br />
Aroviita, J., Hellsten, S., Jyväsjärvi, J., Järvenpää, L., Järv<strong>in</strong>en, M., Karjala<strong>in</strong>en S. M., Kauppila, P., Keto, A., Kuoppala, M.,<br />
Manni, K., Mannio, J., Mitikka, S., Ol<strong>in</strong>, M., Perus, J., Pilke, A., Rask, M., Riihimäki, J., Ruuskanen, A., Siimes, K., Sutela,<br />
T., Vehanen, T., Vuori, K.-M. 2012: Ohje p<strong>in</strong>tavesien ekologisen ja kemiallisen tilan luokitteluun vuosille 2012–2013 −<br />
päivitetyt arvio<strong>in</strong>tiperusteet ja niiden soveltam<strong>in</strong>en. (Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for <strong>the</strong> ecological <strong>and</strong> chemical status classification <strong>of</strong><br />
surface waters for 2012–2013 – updated assessment criteria <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir application). Ympäristöhall<strong>in</strong>non ohjeita 7/2012,<br />
144 p. (<strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish)<br />
Kuoppala M., Hellsten S., Kann<strong>in</strong>en A. 2008: Sisävesien vesikasviseurantojen laadunvarmennus (Development <strong>of</strong> quality<br />
control <strong>in</strong> aquatic macrophyte monitor<strong>in</strong>g). Suomen ympäristö 36: 1–93.<br />
EEA 2008: European River Catchments. GIS database. http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-<strong>and</strong>-maps/data/european-rivercatchments-1<br />
Hellsten, S., Willby, N., Ecke, F., Mjelde, M., Phillips, G., Tierney, D., Poikane S. (ed.). 2014: Water Framework Directive<br />
Intercalibration Technical Report: Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Lake Macrophyte ecological assessment methods. JRC Technical Reports.<br />
Luxembourg: Publications Office <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> European Union., ISBN: 978-92-79-35470-0<br />
Lap<strong>in</strong> ympäristökeskus 2010: Tenon–Näätämöjoen–Paatsjoen vesienhoitoalueen vesienhoitosuunnitelma vuoteen 2015.<br />
(Teno – Näätämö – Paatsjoki River bas<strong>in</strong> management plan for 2015). 123 p. (<strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish)<br />
Mjelde, M. 2013. Vannplanter. I: Direktoratsgruppa 2013. Veileder 02:2013 Klassifiser<strong>in</strong>g av miljøtilst<strong>and</strong> i vann (<strong>in</strong> Norwegian).<br />
Mjelde, M., Hellsten, S., Ecke, F. 2013: A water level drawdown <strong>in</strong>dex for aquatic macrophytes <strong>in</strong> Nordic lakes. Hydrobiologia<br />
704: 141–151<br />
Moiseenko, T., Mjelde, M., Br<strong>and</strong>rud, T., Brettum, P., Dauvalter, V., Kagan, L., Kashul<strong>in</strong>, N., Kudriavtseva, L., Luk<strong>in</strong>, A., S<strong>and</strong>imirov,<br />
S., Traaen, T.S., V<strong>and</strong>ysh, O., Yakovlev, V. 1994: Pasvik River Watercourse, Barents Region: Pollution Impacts<br />
<strong>and</strong> Ecological Responses. Investigations <strong>in</strong> 1993. - Institute <strong>of</strong> North Industrial Ecology Problems (<strong>Russia</strong>), Norwegian<br />
Institute for Water Research (<strong>Norway</strong>). NIVA-report OR-3118. 87 p.<br />
Penn<strong>in</strong>g, W. E., Dudley, B., Mjelde, M., Hellsten, S., Hanganu, J., Kolada, A., van den Berg, M., Maemets, H., Poikane, S.,<br />
Phillips, G., Willby, N., Ecke, F. 2008a: Us<strong>in</strong>g aquatic macrophyte community <strong>in</strong>dices to def<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> ecological status <strong>of</strong><br />
European lakes. Aquatic Ecology 42: 253–264.<br />
Penn<strong>in</strong>g, W. E., Mjelde, M., Dudley, B., Hellsten, S., Hanganu, J., Kolada, A., van den Berg, M., Maemets, H., Poikane, S.,<br />
Phillips, G., Willby, N., Ecke, F. 2008b: Classify<strong>in</strong>g aquatic macrophytes as <strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>of</strong> eutrophication <strong>in</strong> European lakes.<br />
Aquatic Ecology 42: 237–251.<br />
Puro-Tahvana<strong>in</strong>en, A., Aroviita, J., Järv<strong>in</strong>en, E. A., Kuoppala, M., Marttunen, M., Nurmi, T., Riihimäki, J., Salonen, E. 2011:<br />
Inarijärven tilan kehittym<strong>in</strong>en vuos<strong>in</strong>a 1960–2009, (Development <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> status <strong>of</strong> Lake Inari between 1960 <strong>and</strong> 2009).<br />
Suomen ympäristö 19/2011, 89 p. (<strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish, with abstracts <strong>in</strong> Swefish <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> English)<br />
UNECE 2011: Second Assessment <strong>of</strong> transboundary rivers, lakes <strong>and</strong> groundwaters. EDE/MP.WAT/33, United Nations.<br />
Vuori, K., Mitikka, S., Vuoristo, H. 2009: P<strong>in</strong>tavesien ekologisen tilan luokittelu (Guidance on ecological classification <strong>of</strong> surface<br />
waters <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>. Part 1: Reference conditions <strong>and</strong> classification criteria, Part 2: <strong>Environmental</strong> impact assessment).<br />
Ympäristöopas 3/2009, 120 p. (<strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish)<br />
Tak<strong>in</strong>g a break <strong>in</strong> Lake Muddusjärvi. Photo: Juha Riihimäki<br />
72
6 Zoobenthos <strong>of</strong> Lake Inarijärvi <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Pasvik River<br />
MIKKO TOLKKINEN, EMMANUELA DAZA SECCO, JUKKA AROVIITA, SVETLANA VALKOVA<br />
Alteration <strong>of</strong> natural water level regime due to<br />
construction <strong>of</strong> dams <strong>and</strong> reservoirs for hydropower<br />
production <strong>and</strong> flood control is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> major<br />
anthropogenic disturbances <strong>in</strong> freshwater ecosystems<br />
(Dynesius & Nilsson 1994, Coops et al. 2003). The<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> effects <strong>of</strong> water level regulation are shore-l<strong>in</strong>e<br />
erosion caused by raised water level, changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
annual water dynamics <strong>and</strong> changes <strong>in</strong> mean open<br />
water level (Hellsten 1998). Water level modifications<br />
are likely to be exacerbated <strong>in</strong> future by global climate<br />
change because <strong>of</strong> greater frequency <strong>of</strong> floods <strong>and</strong><br />
droughts (Dudgeon et al. 2006). Altered variation <strong>of</strong><br />
water level impacts especially <strong>the</strong> littoral zone <strong>of</strong> lakes<br />
where organisms, both zoobenthos <strong>and</strong> fish, can<br />
be affected directly by desiccation <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>directly by<br />
a reduction <strong>in</strong> habitat availability <strong>and</strong> food resources<br />
(e.g. Gasith & Gafny 1990).<br />
Lake Inarijärvi belongs to <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River water<br />
system <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish Lapl<strong>and</strong>. Inarijärvi is a subarctic oligotrophic<br />
lake which has been regulated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
area for hydropower production s<strong>in</strong>ce 1941, with<br />
a yearly water level fluctuation <strong>of</strong> ~1.38 m (Palomäki<br />
& Hellsten 1996, Hellsten et al. 1997). Regulation<br />
activities have caused coastal erosion <strong>and</strong> structural<br />
changes <strong>in</strong> aquatic vegetation <strong>and</strong> zoobenthic <strong>and</strong><br />
fish communities (Hellsten et al. 1997).<br />
This report presents <strong>the</strong> status <strong>of</strong> zoobenthic communities<br />
<strong>of</strong> rocky shores <strong>and</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t bottom habitats <strong>in</strong><br />
Lake Inarijärvi <strong>in</strong> September 2012 <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
River 2013. Report also summarises <strong>the</strong> results from<br />
earlier monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same sites. In addition, unregulated<br />
nearby lakes Nitsijärvi <strong>and</strong> Muddusjärvi were<br />
sampled <strong>in</strong> 2012 for regional references to more accurately<br />
evaluate <strong>the</strong> status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> zoobenthic communities<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River catchment.<br />
Materials <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
Zoobenthos was sampled from lakes Inarijärvi, Nitsijärvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> Muddusjärvi <strong>in</strong> 2012 <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2013 (Introduction, Figure 1). Both s<strong>of</strong>t bottom <strong>and</strong><br />
rocky shore habitats were sampled. Samples were<br />
sieved through a mesh <strong>of</strong> 0.5 mm <strong>and</strong> preserved<br />
with 70 % ethanol. Zoobenthic animals were identified<br />
to genus or species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> laboratory; Oligochaeta,<br />
Nematoda, Hydracar<strong>in</strong>a <strong>and</strong> Chironomidae were<br />
counted but not identified.<br />
This report also <strong>in</strong>cludes <strong>the</strong> previous decades-old<br />
data from <strong>the</strong> same sites as a basel<strong>in</strong>e for temporal<br />
comparisons. Lakes Nitsijärvi <strong>and</strong> Muddusjärvi were<br />
chosen to reduce latitud<strong>in</strong>al variation <strong>in</strong> reference<br />
zoobenthic communities (Jacobsen et al. 1997, S<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong><br />
& Johnson 2000).<br />
Structural <strong>and</strong> functional <strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>of</strong> benthic communities<br />
are used as criteria for <strong>the</strong> evaluation <strong>of</strong> water<br />
quality as well as compar<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> states <strong>of</strong> communities<br />
<strong>and</strong> ecosystems with <strong>in</strong>dustrial <strong>in</strong>fluences (Makrush<strong>in</strong><br />
1984, Balushk<strong>in</strong>a 1987, Shitikov et al. 2003, Semenchenko<br />
2011, Z<strong>in</strong>chenko 2011). Zoobenthos is used to<br />
assess <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> state <strong>of</strong> aquatic ecosystems <strong>and</strong> water<br />
quality as it is <strong>the</strong> most long-lived component <strong>of</strong> community<br />
reflect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> state over a long period <strong>of</strong> time<br />
<strong>and</strong> describ<strong>in</strong>g its “average” regime. The most widely<br />
used <strong>in</strong>dicators are <strong>the</strong> total abundance (<strong>in</strong>d./m 2 ), <strong>the</strong><br />
total biomass (g/m 2 ), <strong>the</strong> total number <strong>of</strong> species, <strong>the</strong><br />
proportion <strong>of</strong> widespread species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> community,<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dicator species <strong>of</strong> saprobity, <strong>the</strong> abundance <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> groups (<strong>in</strong>d/m 2 ) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> biomass <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong><br />
groups (g/m 2 ). Kitaev’s trophic scale (1984) classifies<br />
types <strong>of</strong> lake ecosystems based on zoobenthic communities’<br />
quantitative <strong>in</strong>dicators (Table 1).<br />
Goodnight <strong>and</strong> Whitley oligochaetic <strong>in</strong>dex is based<br />
on <strong>the</strong> account<strong>in</strong>g ratio <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> oligochaetes<br />
<strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r zoobenthic animals. Woodiwiss biotic <strong>in</strong>dex<br />
values are determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> biotic <strong>in</strong>dices accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to a special table. Both <strong>in</strong>dicators are used to evaluate<br />
<strong>the</strong> water quality <strong>and</strong> to control <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> environmental<br />
compartments’ pollution (Table 2).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River <strong>and</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi both s<strong>of</strong>t<br />
bottom <strong>and</strong> rocky shore habitats were sampled <strong>in</strong><br />
August–September 2012–2013. Samples were fixed<br />
with 4 % formal<strong>in</strong> or 70–80 % alcohol. The analysis<br />
<strong>of</strong> benthic samples was performed <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>vertebrates<br />
73
Table 1. Kitaev’s trophic scale based on benthic biomass (1984).<br />
Characteristic<br />
Type <strong>of</strong> lake ecosystem<br />
Oligotrophic Mesotrophic Eutrophic<br />
Hypereutrophic<br />
α β α β α β<br />
Benthic biomass, g/m 2 < 1.25 1.2–2.5 2.5-5 5-10 10-20 20-40 > 40<br />
Table 2. Classification <strong>of</strong> water quality <strong>in</strong> ponds <strong>and</strong> streams <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> zoobenthos (GOST 17.1.3.07-82).<br />
Water quality<br />
class<br />
Degree <strong>of</strong> water pollution<br />
Goodnight <strong>and</strong> Whitley<br />
oligochaetic <strong>in</strong>dex, %<br />
Woodiwiss biotic<br />
<strong>in</strong>dex, scores<br />
The saprobity zone<br />
I Extremely clear 1 – 20 10 Oligosaprobic<br />
II Clear 21 – 35 7 – 9 Oligosaprobic<br />
III Moderately polluted 36 – 50 5 – 6 β-mesosaprobic<br />
IV Polluted 51 – 65 4 α-mesosaprobic<br />
V Extremely polluted 66 – 85 2 – 3 Polysaprobic<br />
Isoperla sp. Photo Mira Grönroos<br />
Micrasema gelium.<br />
Photo Mira Grönroos<br />
Benthic macro<strong>in</strong>vertebrate research.<br />
Photo Mirkka Hadzic<br />
74
were identified <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir biomass was calculated as<br />
wet weight.<br />
Community data is presented as total abundances<br />
(sum <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals/site) for rocky shore habitat <strong>and</strong><br />
as densities (<strong>in</strong>dividuals/m²) for s<strong>of</strong>t bottoms. To summarize<br />
<strong>the</strong> variability <strong>in</strong> community structure among<br />
<strong>the</strong> last three sampl<strong>in</strong>g years (2003, 2008, <strong>and</strong> 2012),<br />
a Non-metric Multidimensional Scal<strong>in</strong>g (NMS based<br />
on Sørensen´s distance) was performed for Lake Inari<br />
community data from both habitats. NMS was also<br />
used to summarize <strong>the</strong> variability <strong>in</strong> rocky shore<br />
community structure among regulated Lake Inarijärvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River <strong>and</strong> unregulated lakes Nitsijärvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> Muddusjärvi. Indicator species analysis (Dufrene<br />
& Legendre 1997) was done to dist<strong>in</strong>guish <strong>the</strong> species<br />
that best expla<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> possible difference between<br />
lake group<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
The community composition was evaluated with<br />
occurrence <strong>of</strong> Type-specific Taxa (TT; Aroviita et al.<br />
2008) <strong>and</strong> relative abundance was evaluated with<br />
<strong>the</strong> Percentage Model Aff<strong>in</strong>ity (PMA; Novak & Bode<br />
1992). Data from unregulated reference lakes Nitsijärvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> Muddusjärvi were used to def<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> reference<br />
communities <strong>and</strong> to calculate <strong>the</strong> expected values,<br />
<strong>and</strong> to fur<strong>the</strong>r calculate <strong>the</strong> Ecological Quality Ratio<br />
(EQR). The sampl<strong>in</strong>g effort <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reference lakes<br />
was st<strong>and</strong>ardized with Inarijärvi. Status class boundaries<br />
for each parameter were def<strong>in</strong>ed by us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
25 th percentile <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reference lakes’ EQR distribution<br />
as high-good quality class boundary. The lower quality<br />
classes good, moderate, poor <strong>and</strong> bad were <strong>the</strong>n<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ed between <strong>the</strong> high-good class boundary <strong>and</strong><br />
EQR = 0 at equal class widths.<br />
Results<br />
Taxa composition <strong>and</strong> abundance<br />
Rocky shore communities<br />
The number <strong>of</strong> taxa <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>in</strong> all samples <strong>in</strong><br />
Lake Inarijärvi was 42 <strong>and</strong> 2204 respectively. Highest<br />
taxa richness <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals’ abundance was found <strong>in</strong><br />
Lake Muddusjärvi (Table 3). In average taxa richness<br />
per site was higher <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes.<br />
After rarefaction to 71 <strong>in</strong>dividuals per site mean<br />
number <strong>of</strong> taxas per site was 10 <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River,<br />
8 <strong>in</strong> Inarijärvi, 9 <strong>in</strong> Nitsijärvi <strong>and</strong> 12 <strong>in</strong> Muddusjärvi. In<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River number <strong>of</strong> taxa varied between different<br />
river sections. Species richness was highest <strong>in</strong><br />
Vaggatem <strong>and</strong> Svanevatn (37, 25, respectively) <strong>and</strong><br />
lowest <strong>in</strong> Hestefossdammen <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta (19,<br />
both). The zoobenthos consisted ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>of</strong> Chironomidae<br />
<strong>and</strong> Oligochaeta <strong>in</strong> all sampled water bodies.<br />
There are some differences between study years<br />
(2003, 2008, 2012) <strong>in</strong> taxa richness <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals’<br />
abundance. Chironomidae <strong>and</strong> Oligochaeta were <strong>the</strong><br />
most abundant groups among <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vertebrate communities<br />
compris<strong>in</strong>g more than 50 % <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> total abundance.<br />
17 major groups were identified <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> three<br />
sampled years <strong>in</strong> rocky shores <strong>in</strong> Lake Inarijärvi. Zoobenthos<br />
abundance (<strong>in</strong>dividuals per 30 kicknet samples<br />
from 10 sites) was highest <strong>in</strong> 2008 <strong>and</strong> lowest <strong>in</strong><br />
2012.<br />
S<strong>of</strong>t bottom communities<br />
In 2012 32 identified taxa were collected from Lake<br />
Inarijärvi (2 m depth), with an estimated density <strong>of</strong><br />
1746 <strong>in</strong>d./m² <strong>and</strong> an average <strong>of</strong> 9 taxa/site (5–15). 13<br />
Table 3. Total, average (per sites <strong>and</strong> per sample) <strong>and</strong> range (m<strong>in</strong>–max) number <strong>of</strong> zoobenthic taxa <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>of</strong><br />
rocky shores from lakes Inarijärvi, Nitsijärvi <strong>and</strong> Muddusjärvi from September 2012.<br />
Total Average site Average sample<br />
Lake Taxa Individuals Taxa Individuals Taxa Individuals<br />
Inarijärvi 42 2204 13<br />
(8-24)<br />
200<br />
(76-435)<br />
8<br />
(3-13)<br />
73<br />
(26-177)<br />
Nitsijärvi 22 484 17<br />
(14-19)<br />
161<br />
(108-202)<br />
8<br />
(5-11)<br />
54<br />
(23-81)<br />
Muddusjärvi 34 835 19<br />
(14-24)<br />
278<br />
(221-370)<br />
11<br />
(4-20)<br />
93<br />
(24-253)<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River 64 3450 25<br />
(19-37)<br />
459<br />
(212-749)<br />
12<br />
(4-22)<br />
139<br />
(12-393)<br />
75
taxa were collected from Lake Nitsijärvi, where <strong>the</strong><br />
density was 773 <strong>in</strong>d./m² <strong>and</strong> an average <strong>of</strong> 7 taxa/site<br />
(4–19). In Muddusjärvi 19 identified taxa were found<br />
<strong>and</strong> on average density was <strong>of</strong> 925 <strong>in</strong>d./m² <strong>and</strong> 9 taxa/<br />
site. A total <strong>of</strong> 15 major groups were found. Chironomidae<br />
constituted more than 50 % <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> total community.<br />
All major groups were found <strong>in</strong> Inarijärvi while<br />
Isopoda, Plecoptera, <strong>and</strong> Heteroptera were not found<br />
<strong>in</strong> any <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reference lakes. Gastropoda densities<br />
were especially lower <strong>in</strong> Inarijärvi compared to those<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> reference lakes.<br />
The temporal follow-up <strong>of</strong> Lake Inarijärvi zoobenthic<br />
communities based on all available data from<br />
literature <strong>and</strong> this study showed that <strong>the</strong> highest densities<br />
<strong>in</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t bottoms were found <strong>in</strong> 1977 with 2217<br />
<strong>in</strong>d./m². In average <strong>the</strong> lowest densities were observed<br />
1965 <strong>and</strong> 1966 (217 <strong>in</strong>d./m²). Communities were<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly composed <strong>of</strong> chironomids <strong>and</strong> oligochaetes <strong>in</strong><br />
all studied years. Mean densities were lower for <strong>the</strong><br />
reference lakes. Sampl<strong>in</strong>g effort <strong>and</strong> method differences<br />
exist among <strong>the</strong> studies.<br />
Community structure <strong>and</strong> status<br />
In NMS ord<strong>in</strong>ation samples from <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
grouped separately from o<strong>the</strong>r lakes, <strong>and</strong> communities<br />
from different river sections <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
clustered toge<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong>-river variation. In<br />
Lake Nitsijärvi Chelifera spp. was <strong>the</strong> only significant<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicator species. In Lake Muddusjärvi Hydrachnellae,<br />
Tipula spp. <strong>and</strong> Oligochaeta were significant <strong>in</strong>dicator<br />
species whereas Asellus aquaticus was <strong>the</strong> only<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicator species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River. There were no<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicator species <strong>in</strong> Lake Inarijärvi.<br />
In NMS ord<strong>in</strong>ation samples <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> rocky shore community<br />
composition, year 2003 differed quite clearly<br />
from years 2008 <strong>and</strong> 2012. Communities <strong>in</strong> 2008 <strong>and</strong><br />
2012 appeared more widely distributed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ord<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
space, suggest<strong>in</strong>g larger differences among <strong>the</strong><br />
sites. In <strong>the</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t bottom communities none <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> years<br />
clustered clearly. In some cases, regardless <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
sampl<strong>in</strong>g year, sites closely located clustered <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
graph suggest<strong>in</strong>g a with<strong>in</strong> lake variation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> communities<br />
associated to <strong>the</strong> location <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sites. Generally<br />
no clear trend <strong>in</strong> time for ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> habitats<br />
was observed.<br />
Zoobenthic communities’ status <strong>in</strong> Lake Inarijärvi<br />
was calculated us<strong>in</strong>g subarctic lakes’ communities<br />
as reference. Status assessment <strong>of</strong> macro<strong>in</strong>vertebrate<br />
communities <strong>of</strong> Inarijärvi gave different results<br />
from <strong>the</strong> two parameters analysed. PMA <strong>in</strong>dicates<br />
that most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> communities from rocky shore <strong>and</strong><br />
s<strong>of</strong>t bottom from different years fall <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> moderate/<br />
poor class except for <strong>the</strong> rocky shore community from<br />
2012. Results from TT showed that community status<br />
class was good or moderate <strong>in</strong> most cases. TT <strong>in</strong>dex<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicated generally good status class, whereas PMA<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicated moderate status <strong>in</strong> most cases (Table 4).<br />
Table 4. Status <strong>of</strong> zoobenthic communities from Lake Inari based on reference data from unregulated lakes Nitsijärvi <strong>and</strong> Muddusjärvi.<br />
Lake Inarijärvi values were calculated us<strong>in</strong>g data from three r<strong>and</strong>omly selected sites (P1, K4, <strong>and</strong> L4). Community status was<br />
classified as: high (blue), good (green), <strong>and</strong> moderate (yellow). None <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dex values were found with<strong>in</strong> poor or bad class.<br />
Nitsijärvi <strong>and</strong> Muddusjärvi (n=2)<br />
Lake Habitat Year TT 0.4<br />
PMA EQRs (TT 0.4<br />
) EQRs (PMA)<br />
Inarijärvi Rocky shore 2003 18 0,38 0,64 0,52<br />
Rocky shore 2008 27 0,39 0,96 0,53<br />
Rocky shore 2012 21 0,45 0,75 0,61<br />
average 0,79 0,55<br />
S<strong>of</strong>t bottom 1977 7 0,37 0,44 0,49<br />
S<strong>of</strong>t bottom 2003 13 0,35 0,81 0,46<br />
S<strong>of</strong>t bottom 2008 10 0,34 0,63 0,45<br />
S<strong>of</strong>t bottom 2012 12 0,33 0,75 0,44<br />
average 0,66 0,46<br />
Nitsijärvi Rocky shore 2012 22 0,73 0,78 1,00<br />
S<strong>of</strong>t bottom 2012 12 0,75 0,81 1,00<br />
Muddusjärvi Rocky shore 2012 34 0,73 1,21 1,00<br />
S<strong>of</strong>t bottom 2012 19 0,75 1,18 1,00<br />
76
Status <strong>of</strong> zoobenthos <strong>of</strong> Lake<br />
Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
Zoobenthos <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> rocky littoral zone <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
River was <strong>in</strong>vestigated at Lake Kuetsjarvi, Vaggatem<br />
<strong>and</strong> Rajakoski. Amphibiotic <strong>in</strong>sects form <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong><br />
benthic communities <strong>of</strong> all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestigated stations,<br />
among which caddisflies <strong>and</strong> chironomids have <strong>the</strong><br />
highest species diversity. The taxonomic diversity <strong>of</strong><br />
benthos <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dicator groups <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
with distance from <strong>the</strong> source <strong>of</strong> pollution.<br />
The Shannon <strong>in</strong>dex (bit/<strong>in</strong>d) is 3.28 <strong>in</strong> Kuetsjarvi,<br />
1.92 <strong>in</strong> Vaggatem <strong>and</strong> 3.35 <strong>in</strong> Rajakoski. In terms <strong>of</strong><br />
saprobity Lake Kuetsjarvi is β-mesosaprobic whereas<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r lakes are oligosaprobic. Kuetsjarvi belongs<br />
to <strong>the</strong> III water quality class, “moderately polluted”,<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Woodiwiss <strong>in</strong>dex varies between 6–7. Vaggatem<br />
<strong>and</strong> Rajakoski belong <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> II class, “clear”, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Woodiwiss <strong>in</strong>dex values are 7 <strong>and</strong> 8, respectively.<br />
Variety <strong>of</strong> zoobenthos <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>undal s<strong>of</strong>t bottoms<br />
<strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River is low. 4<br />
systematic groups <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>vertebrates were identified <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> samples. Chironomids (predom<strong>in</strong>antly Procladius<br />
choreus gr.) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> oligochaetes dom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong> benthic<br />
communities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River at all stations. The o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
groups <strong>of</strong> zoobenthos (ma<strong>in</strong>ly bivalves <strong>and</strong> water<br />
mites) are rare. The quantitative <strong>in</strong>dicators are low at<br />
all stations (Table 5). The maximum benthos density<br />
was observed at Ruskebukta, which is mesotrophic<br />
whereas <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r stations are oligotrophic. The m<strong>in</strong>imum<br />
values <strong>of</strong> numbers <strong>and</strong> biomass were observed<br />
at Skrukkebukta station, possibly due to greater<br />
depths (> 20 m).<br />
In Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>undal zone is characterized<br />
by low taxonomic diversity. Oligochaetes, chironomids<br />
<strong>and</strong> bivalves form <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> communities<br />
<strong>and</strong> dipterous larvae, caddisflies <strong>and</strong> water mites<br />
are met sporadically. Quantitative <strong>in</strong>dicators are low.<br />
The number <strong>of</strong> benthos was on average 506.9 <strong>in</strong>d./<br />
m 2 <strong>and</strong> biomass 2.1 g/m 2 with considerable variation<br />
<strong>of</strong> both <strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> samples <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> different<br />
zones <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> water body. Shannon <strong>in</strong>dex values are<br />
less than 1 <strong>in</strong> all sampl<strong>in</strong>g stations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake, vary<strong>in</strong>g<br />
between 0.79–0.98 bit/<strong>in</strong>d. Oligochaetic <strong>in</strong>dex was 42<br />
%, “moderately polluted”, with a variation between <strong>the</strong><br />
samples from 20 % to 80 %. The trophic state <strong>of</strong> water<br />
is rated as oligotrophic, largely due to pollution with<br />
Pechenganikel <strong>in</strong>dustrial complex effluents promot<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> “oligotrophysation” processes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> water body<br />
(Yakovlev 2005).<br />
In Lake Kuetsjarvi 18 species <strong>of</strong> Chironomidae were<br />
identified. The basis <strong>of</strong> chironomid communities is<br />
formed <strong>of</strong> Procladius, Cricotopus <strong>and</strong> Chironomus,<br />
which are common <strong>in</strong> polluted lakes. 13 species are<br />
found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> deepwater zone <strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong><br />
three species account for > 70 % <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> total number<br />
<strong>of</strong> chironomids: Sergentia corac<strong>in</strong>a, a coldwater species<br />
widespread <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> deepwater zones <strong>of</strong> various lakes<br />
<strong>of</strong> Murmansk Region, <strong>and</strong> Chironomus c<strong>in</strong>gulatus<br />
<strong>and</strong> Prodiamesa olivacea, which are resistant to water<br />
pollution with heavy metals. 9 species <strong>of</strong> chironomids<br />
were found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> littoral zone <strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi: <strong>the</strong><br />
basis <strong>of</strong> communities is formed from <strong>the</strong> Orthocladi<strong>in</strong>ae<br />
subfamily members Cricotopus silvestris gr. <strong>and</strong><br />
Procladius choreus gr., which are commonly found <strong>in</strong><br />
polluted streams.<br />
Discussion<br />
Variation <strong>in</strong> environmental variables caused by lakes’<br />
geographical position (latitude) generally strongly <strong>in</strong>fluences<br />
community structure <strong>and</strong> composition (e.g.<br />
Jacobsen et al. 1997; S<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong> & Johnson 2000).<br />
Zoobenthic communities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> unregulated subarctic<br />
lakes (Nitsijärvi <strong>and</strong> Muddusjärvi) differ from<br />
those <strong>in</strong> unregulated more sou<strong>the</strong>rn lakes. For fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
biomonitor<strong>in</strong>g studies subarctic unregulated reference<br />
Table 5. Composition <strong>and</strong> quantitative <strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>of</strong> deepwater zones’ zoobenthos <strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> some stretches <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Pasvik River.<br />
Species Kuetsjarvi Ruskebukta Skrukkebukta Vaggatem Tjerebukta<br />
Mean values <strong>of</strong> number,<br />
<strong>in</strong>d./m 2 506.0 1211.0 103.8 553.6 276.8<br />
Mean values <strong>of</strong> biomass,<br />
g/m 2 2.1 4.8 0.4 2.2 1.1<br />
Shannon <strong>in</strong>dex,<br />
bit/<strong>in</strong>d.<br />
0.88 1.37 1.0 0.99 0.95<br />
Trophic state oligotrophic mesotrophic oligotrophic<br />
77
lakes should be sampled toge<strong>the</strong>r with Lake Inarijärvi<br />
to avoid bias caused by with<strong>in</strong>-year <strong>and</strong> biogeographical<br />
variability. Additionally, constant monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> a<br />
larger set <strong>of</strong> reference lakes would give more accurate<br />
results for assessment <strong>of</strong> community status.<br />
In 2012 number <strong>of</strong> taxa <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals from rocky<br />
shores from Lake Inarijärvi were on average lower<br />
than those <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> unregulated lakes. Littoral zone organisms<br />
are particularly affected by water level regulation<br />
both directly by desiccation <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>directly by a<br />
decrease <strong>in</strong> habitat availability <strong>and</strong> food resources<br />
(Gasith & Gafny 1990). Previous studies (Smith et al.<br />
1987, Aroviita & Hämälä<strong>in</strong>en 2008) have found that<br />
taxa richness decreases with <strong>in</strong>creased regulation<br />
<strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>and</strong> this effect might be stronger <strong>in</strong> boreal<br />
lakes due to <strong>the</strong> exposure <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> regulated zone to<br />
subzero temperatures <strong>and</strong> freez<strong>in</strong>g (Aroviita & Hämälä<strong>in</strong>en<br />
2008). Temporal follow-up <strong>of</strong> zoobenthic communities<br />
from rocky shores from Lake Inarijärvi showed<br />
an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> number <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals from 2003<br />
to 2008, however, numbers decreased aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> 2012.<br />
The small number <strong>of</strong> sampled years toge<strong>the</strong>r with natural<br />
variation makes it difficult to yet estimate any<br />
specific effect <strong>of</strong> water level regulation on rocky shore<br />
macro<strong>in</strong>vertebrate communities.<br />
In s<strong>of</strong>t bottom communities mean densities were<br />
higher <strong>in</strong> Lake Inarijärvi than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> unregulated lakes<br />
while average number <strong>of</strong> taxa did not differ greatly. In<br />
regulated lakes organic matter tends to accumulate<br />
immediately below <strong>the</strong> drawdown limit which <strong>in</strong> turn<br />
might <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong>dividuals’ abundance (Palomäki &<br />
Koskenniemi 1993, Furey et al. 2006). Density <strong>of</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t<br />
bottom zoobenthic communities from Lake Inarijärvi<br />
showed a reduction <strong>in</strong> 2003 <strong>and</strong> 2008. The stabilization<br />
<strong>of</strong> shores <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased sedimentation <strong>of</strong> organic<br />
matter that has followed water level regulation would<br />
be expected to raise <strong>the</strong> amount <strong>of</strong> specific groups<br />
such as Diptera <strong>and</strong> Oligochaeta, but it has not been<br />
<strong>the</strong> case <strong>in</strong> 2003 <strong>and</strong> 2008. This reduction <strong>in</strong> density<br />
can be attributed to natural among-year variation<br />
<strong>in</strong> environmental conditions such as <strong>the</strong> notably dry<br />
summer <strong>of</strong> 2003.<br />
The results from TT <strong>and</strong> PMA from rocky shores<br />
<strong>and</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t bottom habitats <strong>in</strong>dicate that <strong>the</strong> status <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> communities <strong>in</strong> Lake Inarijärvi falls between good/<br />
moderate <strong>and</strong> poor/moderate conditions respectively.<br />
The discrepancies found between <strong>the</strong> two <strong>in</strong>dices<br />
might be attributed to <strong>the</strong> small number <strong>of</strong> reference<br />
lakes which affects <strong>the</strong>ir accuracy. However, both <strong>in</strong>dices<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicate that communities are affected by water<br />
level regulation.<br />
The Pasvik River water bodies are regarded as<br />
oligotrophic except for mesotrophic Lake Kuetsjarvi.<br />
Saprobity <strong>in</strong>dex <strong>in</strong>dicated low pollution level, except<br />
for Lake Kuetsjarvi, which was β-mesosaprobic. Water<br />
quality classes were ei<strong>the</strong>r II or III for <strong>the</strong> studies<br />
lakes.<br />
Zoobenthic communities <strong>in</strong> unregulated subarctic<br />
lakes clearly differed from <strong>the</strong> regulated Pasvik River.<br />
Water level regulation <strong>and</strong> variation <strong>in</strong> environmental<br />
conditions caused by elevation may impact community<br />
structure, but <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River macro<strong>in</strong>vertebrate<br />
communities conta<strong>in</strong> typical river taxas <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>refore<br />
comparison to subarctic reference lakes may not be<br />
suitable.<br />
Despite water level regulation, species richness<br />
<strong>and</strong> abundance <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River was higher than<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> reference lakes. This can be expla<strong>in</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong><br />
water level changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River be<strong>in</strong>g ra<strong>the</strong>r<br />
moderate dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> year, as <strong>in</strong> some studies <strong>of</strong> regulated<br />
lakes <strong>the</strong> benthic macro<strong>in</strong>vertebrate taxa<br />
richness decreases only beyond 2.0 m amplitude disturbance<br />
level (White et al. 2011). Abundance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
most sensitive species to water level changes (e.g.<br />
Polycentropus flamoculatus, Sialis sp. <strong>and</strong> Caenis horaria<br />
(Ephemeroptera)) varied between sampl<strong>in</strong>g sites,<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that some parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River may<br />
be more sensitive to water lever changes than o<strong>the</strong>rs.<br />
M<strong>in</strong>imum water level fluctuation is recommended.<br />
78
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Z<strong>in</strong>chenko, T.D. 2011: Ecological <strong>and</strong> faunistic characteristics <strong>of</strong> chironomids (Diptera, Chironomidae) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> small rivers <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> middle <strong>and</strong> lower Volga (Atlas). Togliatti. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Rhyacophila nubila.<br />
Photo Mira Grönroos<br />
Asellus aquaticus.<br />
Photo Mira Grönroos<br />
79
7 Fish communities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
<strong>and</strong> long-term malformation tendencies<br />
PETR TERENTJEV, NIKOLAY KASHULIN, ELENA ZUBOVA, MIKKO TOLKKINEN<br />
Long-term changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> structure <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> community<br />
<strong>and</strong> changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> population <strong>and</strong> organisms were<br />
estimated tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account <strong>the</strong> anthropogenic load<br />
<strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>in</strong> different areas at different times. Data <strong>of</strong><br />
multiyear <strong>in</strong>vestigations cover<strong>in</strong>g a long period (from<br />
<strong>the</strong> early 1990s till <strong>the</strong> present) were analyzed. The<br />
researched water bodies (lakes) were Lake Kuetsjarvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> water storage reservoirs Rajakoski (<strong>Russia</strong>), Vaggatem<br />
<strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta (<strong>Norway</strong>). The fish fauna<br />
consists <strong>of</strong> representatives <strong>of</strong> 9 species belong<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
8 families: trout (Salmo trutta L.), European whitefish<br />
(Coregonus lavaretus L.), European vendace (Coregonus<br />
albula L.), European grayl<strong>in</strong>g (Thymallus thymallus<br />
L.), pike (Esox lucius L.), burbot (Lota lota L.),<br />
perch (Perca fluviatilis L.), Eurasian m<strong>in</strong>now (Phox<strong>in</strong>us<br />
phox<strong>in</strong>us) <strong>and</strong> n<strong>in</strong>e-sp<strong>in</strong>ed stickleback (Pungitius<br />
pungitius). The lakes form a gradient <strong>of</strong> anthropogenic<br />
load relative to <strong>the</strong>ir distance from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel<br />
smelter.<br />
Malformations are found <strong>in</strong> fish liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> polluted<br />
conditions <strong>and</strong> exposed to various chemical substances.<br />
Detected malformations <strong>in</strong>clude changes <strong>in</strong> external<br />
appearance (pigmentation <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegument, depigmentation<br />
<strong>of</strong> skull), sp<strong>in</strong>al curvature (i.e. scoliosis,<br />
ithykyphosis, lordosis), malformed gills (deformed, bifurcated<br />
<strong>and</strong> club-shaped rakers, irregular row or partial<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> rakers, onset <strong>of</strong> necrotic abnormalities <strong>in</strong><br />
gill filament tips (anaemic r<strong>in</strong>g)), malformed gonads<br />
(synchronic <strong>and</strong> asymmetric maturation, constriction<br />
<strong>and</strong> torsion <strong>of</strong> gonads), malformed liver (destruction <strong>of</strong><br />
tissue, hyperaemia, focal necrosis result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> change<br />
<strong>in</strong> color <strong>and</strong> elongation) <strong>and</strong> malformed kidneys (hyperemia,<br />
hemorrhages, progression <strong>of</strong> focal necrosis,<br />
dystrophic changes <strong>in</strong> tubule epi<strong>the</strong>lium, onset <strong>of</strong> granulosis).<br />
The most common kidney disorder is development<br />
<strong>of</strong> excess connective tissue.<br />
Material <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
Studies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fish communities were conducted along<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> four ma<strong>in</strong> localities. Aerial<br />
pollution, sewage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel enterprise<br />
<strong>and</strong> domestic sewage flow <strong>in</strong>to Lake Kuetsjarvi, located<br />
ca 5 km from <strong>the</strong> Pechanganikel <strong>and</strong> downstream<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River. Skrukkebukta is located 16 km northwards<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel smelter. Vaggatem is located<br />
upstream from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel as is Rajakoski,<br />
far<strong>the</strong>st away (Introduction, Figure 1).<br />
Sampl<strong>in</strong>g was done with a st<strong>and</strong>ard set <strong>of</strong> bottom<br />
nets. The nets were employed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> littoral zone one<br />
by one perpendicular to <strong>the</strong> coast <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>undal<br />
zone <strong>the</strong>re were ten ormore nets <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e. Age <strong>of</strong><br />
fishes was determ<strong>in</strong>ed from <strong>the</strong> operculum, cleithrum<br />
or scales (method <strong>of</strong> Pravd<strong>in</strong> 1960,1966). The rakers<br />
on <strong>the</strong> first gill arch <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> whitefishes were counted<br />
to isolate <strong>in</strong>traspecific forms (Pravd<strong>in</strong> 1966, Reshetnikov<br />
1980, Amundsen et al. 2004, Siwertsson et al.<br />
Figure 1. Rakers on<br />
<strong>the</strong> first gill arch <strong>of</strong> SR<br />
whitefish with 23 rakers<br />
(left) <strong>and</strong> DR whitefish<br />
with 34 rakers (right)<br />
<strong>in</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>in</strong><br />
2012–2013.<br />
80
2008) (Figure 1). Back-calculations <strong>of</strong> growth were<br />
carried out us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> formula <strong>of</strong> Lee (Chugunova<br />
1959, Bryuzg<strong>in</strong> 1969). The formula for back calculations<br />
<strong>of</strong> body length for sparsely-rakered (SR) whitefish<br />
<strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi was: lnL i<br />
= 71.38 + R i<br />
/ R ×<br />
(lnL n<br />
– 71.38) <strong>and</strong> for densely-rakered (DR) whitefish<br />
<strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi: lnL i<br />
= ln25.64 + lnR i<br />
/ lnR × (lnL n<br />
– ln26.64). The formula for back calculations <strong>of</strong> body<br />
length for hybrid whitefish <strong>of</strong> Rajakoski: lnL i<br />
= ln39.15<br />
+ lnR i<br />
/ lnR × (lnL n<br />
– ln39.15). The specific growth rate<br />
was calculated us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> formula <strong>of</strong> Schmalhausen-<br />
Brodie (Schmalhausen 1935, M<strong>in</strong>a & Klevezal 1976,<br />
Dgebuadze 2001).<br />
Heavy metals <strong>in</strong> skeletal muscle tissues, liver, kidney<br />
<strong>and</strong> gills 10–15 fish <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same size<br />
were analyzed. The metal concentration was expressed<br />
<strong>in</strong> mg/g dry weight.<br />
The Pasvik River littoral fish were sampled <strong>in</strong> September<br />
2013 by electr<strong>of</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g. Sampl<strong>in</strong>g sites were<br />
habitats that have shelters to fish (stony littoral or<br />
macrophytes). All captured fish were identified <strong>and</strong><br />
counted. Total length <strong>of</strong> every fish was measured <strong>and</strong><br />
pooled <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>of</strong> each species were weighted.<br />
Presented fish densities represent <strong>the</strong> catch <strong>of</strong> one<br />
electr<strong>of</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g run.<br />
Results<br />
Fish communities <strong>and</strong> population<br />
characteristics<br />
Lake Kuetsjarvi<br />
Despite <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensive <strong>in</strong>dustrial pollution all 9 fish species<br />
are present. The structure <strong>of</strong> fish population has<br />
not changed pr<strong>of</strong>oundly dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> last 20 years (Figure<br />
2). Predom<strong>in</strong>ant species are whitefish <strong>and</strong> perch;<br />
<strong>the</strong> rest composed less than 1 %. In <strong>the</strong> conditions<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> highest anthropogenic load <strong>and</strong> toxic environment<br />
<strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi whitefish is probably <strong>the</strong> most<br />
stable species capable <strong>of</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g relatively high<br />
population by early matur<strong>in</strong>g, change <strong>of</strong> life cycle strategy<br />
<strong>and</strong> polymorphism (Kashul<strong>in</strong> et al., 1999). The<br />
share <strong>of</strong> whitefish <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> samples changed from 75<br />
% to 96 %. The population <strong>of</strong> whitefish <strong>in</strong> Kuetsjarvi<br />
Lake was presented by two forms, sparsely rakered<br />
(SR) <strong>and</strong> densely rakered (DR), which was more numerous.<br />
Sparsely-rakered whitefish <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake can be<br />
divided <strong>in</strong>to fast-grow<strong>in</strong>g (large, LSR) <strong>and</strong> slow grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(small, SSR) forms. Ecological niches <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> whitefish do not <strong>in</strong>tercross. High water body<br />
trophicity creates favorable conditions for co-existence<br />
<strong>of</strong> several forms <strong>of</strong> whitefish. The vendace <strong>of</strong> Lake<br />
Kuetsjarvi are represented by one species.<br />
The average weight <strong>of</strong> DR whitefish dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
whole period <strong>of</strong> studies varied widely (23–82 g), <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> length varied from 12.1 to 18.7 cm. In some years<br />
<strong>the</strong> average values <strong>of</strong> size <strong>and</strong> weight <strong>in</strong>creased,<br />
which probably was caused by large fish migrat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to<br />
<strong>the</strong> water body from o<strong>the</strong>r parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River.<br />
Maximum age <strong>of</strong> DR whitefish was eight years (Figure<br />
7). Juvenile <strong>in</strong>dividuals composed 2.9 % <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> community.<br />
Extremely early matur<strong>in</strong>g (age 1+) <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
was registered <strong>in</strong> both DR <strong>and</strong> SR whitefish. The<br />
share <strong>of</strong> fish ready for spawn, overall <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> population<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pre-spawn<strong>in</strong>g period, varied from 20 % to 66<br />
%. M<strong>in</strong>imal size <strong>of</strong> DR whitefish spawn<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>the</strong> first<br />
time was <strong>the</strong> weight <strong>of</strong> 6 g <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> length <strong>of</strong> 9.5 cm.<br />
The average weight <strong>and</strong> length <strong>of</strong> SR whitefish<br />
varied from 38 to 140 g <strong>and</strong> from 14.7 to 20.5 cm.<br />
Length-weight parameters did not significantly change<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g more than 20 years. The largest <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
<strong>of</strong> SR whitefish were aged eleven years (Figure 7).<br />
Juvenile <strong>in</strong>dividuals composed < 8.5 % <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> community.<br />
SR whitefish reach maturity at <strong>the</strong> age 1+ with<br />
<strong>the</strong> weight 8 g <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> length 9.5 cm. Overall <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
population percentage <strong>of</strong> fish ready for spawn<strong>in</strong>g varied<br />
from 24 % to 49 %.<br />
Growth rates <strong>of</strong> both whitefish morphs have decreased,<br />
which can be expla<strong>in</strong>ed by persist<strong>in</strong>g anthropogenic<br />
load.<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
Whitefishes are predom<strong>in</strong>ant <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> community structure<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> proportion <strong>of</strong> whitefish <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> selection dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> whole study period varied from 64.2 to 77.5%<br />
(Figure 4). Proportions <strong>of</strong> vendace <strong>and</strong> perch were<br />
19–28 % <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> proportionst <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r species varied<br />
from 0.1 to 2.4 %. The proportion <strong>of</strong> perch <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> study.<br />
The average weight <strong>of</strong> DR whitefish was 18–42<br />
g <strong>and</strong> length 11.5–15.5 cm. Age composition <strong>of</strong> DR<br />
whitefish was dom<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>of</strong> fish <strong>of</strong> young age classes<br />
(0+–1+) (Figure 7) but <strong>in</strong> 2004 <strong>in</strong>dividuals aged 1+,2+<br />
<strong>and</strong> 4+ were represented almost <strong>in</strong> equal proportion.<br />
Size <strong>of</strong> DR whitefish spawn<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>the</strong> first time was<br />
less than 6 g <strong>and</strong> 8.9 cm. In all age groups <strong>the</strong>re was<br />
a high number <strong>of</strong> non-spawn<strong>in</strong>g fish.<br />
SR whitefish were presented by <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>of</strong> small<br />
size. The average weight <strong>and</strong> length were 50–150 g<br />
<strong>and</strong> 14.8–19.5 cm. The basis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> population was<br />
81
1990-1992<br />
1998<br />
2004<br />
perch<br />
10%<br />
pike<br />
11%<br />
burbot<br />
0,2%<br />
grayl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
0,2%<br />
perch 1% pike 1%<br />
burbot<br />
2%<br />
vendace<br />
6.5%<br />
perch<br />
9%<br />
pike<br />
2%<br />
grayl<strong>in</strong>g 0,2%<br />
trout<br />
1%<br />
whitefish 78%<br />
whitefish 96%<br />
whitefish 83%<br />
Figure 2. Proportion<br />
<strong>of</strong> fish species<br />
<strong>in</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi<br />
<strong>in</strong> different periods<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> research.<br />
2007<br />
2009<br />
2012-2013<br />
perch<br />
24%<br />
pike 0%<br />
burbot 5% vendace 1%<br />
perch 0.8%<br />
burbot 1%<br />
pike 3%<br />
perch 8%<br />
grayl<strong>in</strong>g 5%<br />
trout 1%<br />
trout<br />
0.8%<br />
whitefish 75%<br />
whitefish 93%<br />
whitefish 82%<br />
1990-th<br />
2000-th<br />
2010-th<br />
Figure 4. Proportion<br />
<strong>of</strong> fish species<br />
<strong>in</strong> Skrukkebukta <strong>in</strong><br />
different periods <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> research.<br />
pike 1.0%<br />
perch 7.1%<br />
burbot<br />
1.7%<br />
vendace<br />
11.9%<br />
trout<br />
0,1%<br />
whitefish 77%<br />
grayl<strong>in</strong>g 1.0%<br />
trout 0,1%<br />
grayl<strong>in</strong>g 1.8%<br />
pike 2.4%<br />
perch 9.3%<br />
burbot 2.1%<br />
vendace<br />
18.8%<br />
whitefish 64.2%<br />
pike 0.5%<br />
perch 16.7%<br />
burbot<br />
0.6%<br />
vendace<br />
9.0%<br />
trout 0,1%<br />
grayl<strong>in</strong>g 1.9%<br />
whitefish 70.5%<br />
1990-th<br />
2000-th<br />
2010-th<br />
Figure 5. Propotion<br />
<strong>of</strong> fish species <strong>in</strong><br />
Vaggatem <strong>in</strong> different<br />
periods <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
research.<br />
perch<br />
25%<br />
burbot<br />
1%<br />
pike 4%<br />
vendace<br />
33%<br />
whitefish<br />
37%<br />
perch<br />
30%<br />
burbot<br />
0.4%<br />
pike<br />
4.4%<br />
trout 0.2%<br />
grayl<strong>in</strong>g 0.2%<br />
whitefish<br />
28.1%<br />
vendace<br />
29.6%<br />
perch<br />
24.2%<br />
burbot<br />
0.1%<br />
pike 6.5%<br />
trout 0,1%<br />
grayl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
0.3%<br />
vendace<br />
32.4%<br />
whitefish<br />
36.4%<br />
2002<br />
2004<br />
2012<br />
Figure 6. Proportion<br />
<strong>of</strong> fish species<br />
<strong>in</strong> Rajakoski n different<br />
periods <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
research.<br />
pike 3%<br />
perch 4%<br />
burbot<br />
28%<br />
grayl<strong>in</strong>g 1%<br />
whitefish<br />
41%<br />
perch<br />
50%<br />
pike 6%<br />
grayl<strong>in</strong>g 1%<br />
whitefish<br />
41%<br />
pike 8%<br />
perch<br />
32%<br />
trout 4%<br />
grayl<strong>in</strong>g 2%<br />
whitefish<br />
47%<br />
82<br />
vendace<br />
23%<br />
vendace 1%<br />
burbot 1%<br />
burbot 6%<br />
vendace 1%
No <strong>of</strong> obs<br />
120<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
No <strong>of</strong> obs<br />
70<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
Kuetsjarvi<br />
0<br />
0+<br />
1+<br />
2+<br />
3+<br />
4+<br />
5+<br />
6+<br />
7+<br />
8+<br />
10+<br />
9+ 11+<br />
0<br />
0+<br />
1+<br />
2+<br />
3+<br />
4+<br />
5+<br />
6+<br />
7+<br />
8+<br />
9+<br />
10+<br />
11+<br />
No <strong>of</strong> obs<br />
40<br />
35<br />
30<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
30<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
0+ 2+ 4+ 6+ 8+ 10+ 12+ 14+<br />
1+ 3+ 5+ 7+ 9+ 11+ 13+<br />
No <strong>of</strong> obs<br />
35<br />
0+ 2+ 4+ 6+ 8+ 10+ 12+ 14+<br />
1+ 3+ 5+ 7+ 9+ 11+ 12+<br />
No <strong>of</strong> obs<br />
22<br />
20<br />
18<br />
16<br />
14<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
30<br />
28<br />
26<br />
24<br />
22<br />
20<br />
18<br />
16<br />
14<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
0+ 2+ 4+ 6+ 8+ 10+ 12+ 14+<br />
1+ 3+ 5+ 7+ 9+ 11+ 13+<br />
No <strong>of</strong> obs<br />
Vaggatem<br />
0+ 2+ 4+ 6+ 8+ 10+ 12+ 14+<br />
1+ 3+ 5+ 7+ 9+ 11+ 12+<br />
DR Whitefish<br />
SR Whitefish<br />
No <strong>of</strong> obs<br />
30<br />
28<br />
26<br />
Rajakoski<br />
24<br />
22<br />
20<br />
18<br />
16<br />
14<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
0+ 2+ 4+ 6+ 8+ 10+ 12+ 14+<br />
1+ 3+ 5+ 7+ 9+ 11+ 12+<br />
SR Whitefish<br />
Figure 7. The present age structure <strong>of</strong> DR <strong>and</strong> SR whitefish <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestigated reservoirs (blue = fish ready to spawn).<br />
83
formed by <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>of</strong> older age groups, which is<br />
more common <strong>in</strong> natural water bodies (Figure 7). It is<br />
obvious that <strong>in</strong> Skrukkebukta, despite its location <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> lower reaches <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River, <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> direct<br />
<strong>and</strong> aerial pollution is less <strong>in</strong>tensive compared to<br />
Kuetsjarvi Lake. However, early matur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> fish was<br />
observed here as well.<br />
SR whitefish aged fifteen years were encountered<br />
s<strong>in</strong>gly. Juvenile <strong>in</strong>dividuals (0+–3+) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> selection<br />
comprised from 10 % to 27.8 %. As for DR whitefish,<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imal sizes <strong>of</strong> matur<strong>in</strong>g fish were extremely small,<br />
<strong>the</strong> weight <strong>of</strong> 7 g <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> length <strong>of</strong> 9.4 cm, <strong>and</strong> maturation<br />
age did not exceed 1+. The percentage <strong>of</strong> mature<br />
fish ready for spawn was low <strong>and</strong> varied with<strong>in</strong><br />
13.8–32.3 % dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> whole period <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> study.<br />
Analyses <strong>of</strong> size-age parameters <strong>of</strong> SR whitefish <strong>of</strong><br />
Skrukkebukta showed that <strong>the</strong> growth rate <strong>of</strong> fish has<br />
decreased.<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Vaggatem is located ca 40 km upstream from <strong>the</strong><br />
Pechenganikel. Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> whole period <strong>of</strong> studies dom<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
<strong>of</strong> whitefish was observed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> structure <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> community. However, whitefish <strong>and</strong> vendace were<br />
encountered here almost <strong>in</strong> equal proportion. Perch is<br />
also <strong>of</strong> great importance <strong>and</strong> its share <strong>in</strong> samples may<br />
reach 30 % (Figure 5). The proportion <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r species<br />
does not exceed 5–7 %.<br />
The basis <strong>of</strong> DR whitefish population was formed<br />
by <strong>in</strong>dividuals with weight up to 100 g <strong>and</strong> length <strong>of</strong><br />
5–18 cm. The age structure <strong>of</strong> DR whitefish was dom<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
by age classes 2+– 4+ <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> largest<br />
fish did not exceed ten years (Figure 7). Juvenile<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals were encountered only <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> samples <strong>of</strong><br />
2002 (8 %). Early matur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> whitefish is also dist<strong>in</strong>ctive<br />
<strong>of</strong> Vaggatem: <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> age 2+, <strong>the</strong> weight<br />
<strong>of</strong> 28 g <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> length 15.4 cm can be mature. Generally<br />
percentage <strong>of</strong> fish ready for spawn<strong>in</strong>g comprised<br />
46.5 % <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mature population.<br />
The average weight <strong>of</strong> SR whitefish was 200-420 g<br />
<strong>and</strong> length 23–31 cm. There were two peaks <strong>in</strong> length<br />
distribution <strong>of</strong> fish: 15–25 cm <strong>and</strong> 30–35 cm. A generally<br />
uniform age distribution <strong>of</strong> all classes from 1+ to<br />
10+ was seen <strong>and</strong> larger <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>of</strong> fifteen years<br />
were registered s<strong>in</strong>gly (Figure 7). SR whitefish beg<strong>in</strong><br />
to spawn <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> 2+ with <strong>the</strong> weight 34 g <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
length 15.3 cm. Quite high percentage (up to 67 % <strong>in</strong><br />
2+ or older fish) skips <strong>the</strong> spawn.<br />
There seems to be an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend <strong>in</strong> growth<br />
rate <strong>of</strong> both whitefish morphs, which is <strong>the</strong> opposite<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> situation <strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta.<br />
Rajakoski<br />
Rajakoski is located ca 65 km upstream from <strong>the</strong><br />
Pechenganikel. Whitefish dom<strong>in</strong>ates <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fish community<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> share <strong>of</strong> vendace has significantly<br />
reduced. The proportion <strong>of</strong> perch varies but <strong>the</strong>re is<br />
generally an <strong>in</strong>crease (Figure 6).<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> research DR whitefish differed by sizeweight<br />
parameters: variation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> weight was 7–548<br />
g <strong>and</strong> lenght 9.2–36.0 cm. In 2002 <strong>the</strong> basis was formed<br />
by fish <strong>of</strong> age 0+ <strong>and</strong> later <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
<strong>of</strong> older age still gradually reduced. There are<br />
no conditions for reproduction <strong>in</strong> Rajakoski <strong>and</strong> DR<br />
whitefish may be migrants from <strong>the</strong> upper reach <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> river <strong>and</strong> from Lake Inari. Mature <strong>in</strong>dividuals were<br />
aged 2+ <strong>and</strong> m<strong>in</strong>imal maturation weight was 36 g <strong>and</strong><br />
length 15.8 cm.<br />
The average weight <strong>and</strong> length <strong>of</strong> SR whitefish<br />
grew dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> study: <strong>in</strong> 2002 <strong>the</strong>y were 43 g <strong>and</strong><br />
12.4 cm, <strong>in</strong> 2004 180 g <strong>and</strong> 22.9 cm <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 2012 585<br />
g <strong>and</strong> 35.1 cm. The age distribution <strong>of</strong> SR whitefish<br />
differed greatly between <strong>the</strong> study years. In 2002 fish<br />
aged 0+ comprised more than 65 % <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> population<br />
while fish <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r age classes encountered s<strong>in</strong>gly but<br />
later <strong>the</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g age class changed. This may be<br />
connected to migration <strong>of</strong> large <strong>in</strong>dividuals from <strong>the</strong><br />
upper reach <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> river as <strong>in</strong> this area <strong>the</strong>re are no<br />
conditions for reproduction. The percentage <strong>of</strong> nonspawn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
whitefish is very high. Maturity <strong>of</strong> SR whitefish<br />
comes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> 2+ when <strong>the</strong> weight is 31 g<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> length 14.7 cm.<br />
Rajakoski water reservoir has <strong>the</strong> highest density<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>troduced vendace <strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong> studied water bodies.<br />
Vendace actively force DR whitefish out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pelagic<br />
region. They are forced to look for new food items<br />
<strong>and</strong> habitats <strong>in</strong>trud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ecological niche <strong>of</strong> SR whitefish.<br />
This contributes to hybridization <strong>of</strong> SR <strong>and</strong> DR<br />
whitefish. In <strong>the</strong> early 2000’s <strong>the</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ance <strong>of</strong> vendace<br />
was significantly lower <strong>and</strong> segregation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> whitefish was more <strong>in</strong>tense.<br />
Fish community <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> littoral zone<br />
6 fish species were caught with electr<strong>of</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Pasvik River (Figure 8). Rocky shore fish densities<br />
varied between <strong>the</strong> river sections from 0 to 55 <strong>in</strong>dividuals/100<br />
m 2 . M<strong>in</strong>nows (Phox<strong>in</strong>us phox<strong>in</strong>us) were<br />
abundant <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> only species <strong>in</strong> Skrukkebukta <strong>and</strong><br />
Skogmo sites, which also had <strong>the</strong> highest fish density.<br />
No fish were caught <strong>in</strong> Vaggatem-Hauge <strong>and</strong> Hessefoss.<br />
84
Malformations<br />
Major malformations observed <strong>in</strong> fish <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> studied<br />
lakes are shown <strong>in</strong> Figures 9–11.<br />
Lake Kuetsjarvi<br />
The most severe malformations are found <strong>in</strong> Lake<br />
Kuetsjarvi whitefish. The fish have specific kidney<br />
malformations described as progression <strong>of</strong> nephrolithiasis<br />
(nephrocalc<strong>in</strong>osis) <strong>in</strong> response to nickel <strong>in</strong>toxication.<br />
In some years 100 % <strong>of</strong> sampled fish had liver<br />
<strong>and</strong> kidney malformations. Despite lower<strong>in</strong>g anthropogenic<br />
stress <strong>the</strong>re is still no substantial improvement<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> status <strong>of</strong> fish population <strong>in</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi (Figure<br />
12) <strong>and</strong> whitefish liver <strong>and</strong> kidney malformation<br />
frequency <strong>and</strong> rate rema<strong>in</strong>s at 75–86 %.<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
Svanevatn<br />
Melkefoss<br />
Skogmo<br />
Vaggatem -Hauge<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Noatun<br />
Hessefoss<br />
0<br />
20 40 60<br />
Lota lota Phox<strong>in</strong>us phox<strong>in</strong>us Esox lucius<br />
Salmo trutta Thymallus thymallus Pungitius pungitius<br />
Figure 8. Rocky littoral<br />
shore electr<strong>of</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g fish<br />
densities/100m 2 .<br />
Figure 9. Depigmentation <strong>of</strong> whitefish skull (left) <strong>and</strong> segmentation <strong>of</strong> gonads <strong>of</strong> male <strong>and</strong> female whitefish due to fibrogenesis (right).<br />
Figure 10. Term<strong>in</strong>al stage <strong>of</strong> fibrogenesis <strong>in</strong> whitefish kidney (left) <strong>and</strong> whitefish kidney stones (right).<br />
85
Vaggatem <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta<br />
Changes <strong>in</strong> whitefish liver structure, color <strong>and</strong> shape<br />
were <strong>the</strong> most common malformation noted <strong>in</strong> Vaggatem<br />
<strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r storage reservoirs <strong>in</strong> early 1990s. Kidney<br />
<strong>and</strong> gonad-related abnormalities came <strong>in</strong> second<br />
by frequency <strong>of</strong> occurrence (Kashul<strong>in</strong> et al. 1999).<br />
Later <strong>the</strong> frequency <strong>of</strong> gonad-, gill- <strong>and</strong> liver-related<br />
malformations decreased <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> frequency <strong>of</strong> kidney<br />
malformations <strong>in</strong>creased.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> observation period <strong>of</strong> 2003–2005 <strong>the</strong> number<br />
<strong>of</strong> fish with affected kidneys decreased <strong>and</strong> affected<br />
liver <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> Vaggatem, <strong>and</strong> similar trends were<br />
seen <strong>in</strong> Skrukkebukta. The rate <strong>of</strong> affected gills <strong>and</strong><br />
gonads stayed lower. The frequency <strong>of</strong> malformations<br />
<strong>in</strong> whitefish <strong>in</strong> Vaggatem <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta, as <strong>in</strong> Lake<br />
Kuetsjarvi, rema<strong>in</strong>s almost <strong>the</strong> same <strong>in</strong> 2008 as <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> 90s, when <strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>of</strong> stress on <strong>the</strong> waterways<br />
was at <strong>the</strong> peak level.<br />
Rajakoski<br />
Similar fish malformations are identified <strong>in</strong> Rajakoski,<br />
far<strong>the</strong>st from <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial pollution source. The<br />
transformation <strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>in</strong> whitefish organs <strong>and</strong> tissues<br />
was considerably less, <strong>and</strong> generally <strong>the</strong> liver<br />
<strong>and</strong> kidney malformations <strong>in</strong> whitefish are <strong>in</strong>cipient <strong>in</strong><br />
nature. However, <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> fish with such transformations<br />
has not decreased dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> decade <strong>of</strong><br />
observations (Figure 13).<br />
Malformations <strong>in</strong> fish <strong>and</strong><br />
anthropogenic stress<br />
Nickel <strong>and</strong> copper are predom<strong>in</strong>ant contam<strong>in</strong>ants <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> area <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> cause <strong>of</strong> high malformation rate <strong>of</strong><br />
fish. Accumulation <strong>of</strong> nickel <strong>in</strong> organs is <strong>in</strong> direct correlation<br />
to proximity <strong>of</strong> a water body to <strong>the</strong> Pecheng-<br />
Figure 11. Extreme degree <strong>of</strong> malformations <strong>of</strong> whitefish organs <strong>in</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi.<br />
%<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
1992 2004 2007 2009 2012 2013<br />
changes <strong>of</strong> gonads stones <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> kidney<br />
changes <strong>of</strong> kidneys changes <strong>of</strong> liver<br />
changes <strong>of</strong> gills<br />
external changes<br />
frequency occurance, %<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
2002<br />
2004 2012<br />
changes <strong>of</strong> gonads changes <strong>of</strong> liver<br />
changes <strong>of</strong> kidneys changes <strong>of</strong> gills<br />
Figure 12. Long-term malformations <strong>of</strong> whitefish organs <strong>in</strong><br />
Lake Kuetsjarvi.<br />
Figure 13. Long-term malformations <strong>of</strong> whitefish organs <strong>in</strong><br />
Rajakoski.<br />
86
anikel (Figure 14). Nickel <strong>and</strong> copper accumulation <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> bottom sediments <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes correlates strongly<br />
(r=0.85–0.90) with <strong>the</strong> malformation frequency <strong>in</strong><br />
whitefish liver <strong>and</strong> kidneys (Figure 15). Whitefish is a<br />
bottom feeder <strong>and</strong> this forag<strong>in</strong>g strategy contributes<br />
to high rates <strong>of</strong> heavy metal accumulation which may<br />
have an effect on <strong>the</strong>se organs. The most commonly<br />
encountered change is <strong>the</strong> enlargement <strong>of</strong> connective<br />
tissues <strong>of</strong> kidneys, which may be <strong>in</strong>dicative <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> persist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
nickel load <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes.<br />
No considerable improvement <strong>of</strong> condition <strong>of</strong> fish<br />
can be expected under <strong>the</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g levels <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
anthropogenic stress. Also <strong>the</strong> climate change processes<br />
may cause community-level transformations<br />
<strong>in</strong> some water bodies, which may result <strong>in</strong> a decrease<br />
<strong>in</strong> valued commercial species. This, <strong>in</strong> turn, leads to<br />
decrease <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> resource potential <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ecosystem<br />
as such.<br />
Discussion<br />
The analysis <strong>of</strong> long-term observations <strong>of</strong> fish community<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River bas<strong>in</strong> revealed changes,<br />
which are associated with natural variability <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> basic<br />
biological characteristics <strong>of</strong> fish <strong>and</strong> negative consequences<br />
<strong>of</strong> anthropogenic processes. Dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g<br />
fish community structure complexes shift from salmon-whitefish<br />
family to perch, smelt <strong>and</strong> cypr<strong>in</strong>id families<br />
due to chang<strong>in</strong>g climate <strong>and</strong> persist<strong>in</strong>g anthropogenic<br />
stress (Kashul<strong>in</strong> et al. 2012). Such processes<br />
were identified specifically <strong>in</strong> Vaggatem, Skrukkebuk-<br />
Ni concentrations (μg / g d.w.)<br />
8<br />
a) Liver<br />
6<br />
Ni concentrations (μg / g d.w.)<br />
15<br />
b) Gills<br />
10<br />
4<br />
2<br />
5<br />
0<br />
20<br />
10<br />
0<br />
0<br />
Ku Sk Va Ra Ku Sk Va Ra<br />
Ni concentrations (μg / g d.w.)<br />
30<br />
c) Kidney<br />
Ni concentrations (μg / g d.w.)<br />
2,0<br />
d) Muscle<br />
0,0<br />
Ku Sk Va Ra Ku Sk Va Ra<br />
Lake locality<br />
Lake locality<br />
frequency <strong>of</strong> occurance<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Kuetsjarvi<br />
DR whitefish<br />
1,5<br />
1,0<br />
0,5<br />
SR whitefish<br />
Ku - Kuetsjarvi, Sk - Skrukkebukta, Va - Vaggatem, Ra - Rajakoski<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
Ni<br />
changes <strong>in</strong> kidneys<br />
Ni <strong>in</strong> sediments<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Ni <strong>in</strong> sediments<br />
Rajakoski<br />
3500<br />
3000<br />
2500<br />
2000<br />
1500<br />
1000<br />
500<br />
0<br />
frequency <strong>of</strong> occurance<br />
80<br />
Figure 14. Nickel accumulation<br />
levels <strong>in</strong> organs<br />
<strong>of</strong> SR & DR whitefish <strong>of</strong><br />
studied lakes.<br />
Figure 15. Correlation <strong>of</strong> whitefish liver <strong>and</strong> kidney malformation occurrence <strong>and</strong> nickel <strong>and</strong> copper accumulation <strong>in</strong> sediment<br />
beds (µg/g dryweight<br />
) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> studied lakes.<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Kuetsjarvi<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
Cu<br />
Cu <strong>in</strong> sediments<br />
800<br />
changes <strong>in</strong> liver<br />
700<br />
Cu <strong>in</strong> sediments<br />
600<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Rajakoski<br />
500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
200<br />
100<br />
0<br />
87
ta <strong>and</strong> Rajakosk. Increase <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> share <strong>of</strong> perch <strong>and</strong><br />
pike was noted as well as <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir size <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> weight. At <strong>the</strong> same time <strong>in</strong> polluted Lake Kuetsjarvi<br />
<strong>the</strong>re were no major changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fish community<br />
structure with whitefish be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> most stable<br />
family, as it is able to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> relatively high population<br />
due to early maturity, changes <strong>in</strong> life cycle strategy<br />
<strong>and</strong> polymorphism (Kashul<strong>in</strong> et al. 1999). DR <strong>and</strong><br />
SSR forms <strong>of</strong> whitefish <strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi have <strong>the</strong><br />
lowest values <strong>of</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ear growth <strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong> studied reservoirs<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River system. In <strong>the</strong>se forms<br />
unique early matur<strong>in</strong>g with a m<strong>in</strong>imal size (at <strong>the</strong> age<br />
<strong>of</strong> 1+ with length 6–9 cm, weight 10 g) was observed,<br />
which is considered as one <strong>of</strong> adaptations to survive<br />
<strong>in</strong> heavily polluted waters.<br />
Decrease <strong>in</strong> age, size <strong>and</strong> maturity classes <strong>of</strong> fish<br />
populations <strong>in</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ated waters may serve as a<br />
water quality criterion. In <strong>the</strong> whitefish populations<br />
miss<strong>in</strong>g age classes, large proportion <strong>of</strong> young fish,<br />
maturation <strong>of</strong> extremely young fish <strong>and</strong> large percentage<br />
<strong>of</strong> fish skipp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> spawn<strong>in</strong>g season were noted.<br />
Anthropogenic stress is directly l<strong>in</strong>ked to fish growth<br />
processes. The average length <strong>and</strong> weight <strong>of</strong> whitefish,<br />
pike <strong>and</strong> perch seem to <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> proportion to<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g distance from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel.<br />
Assessment <strong>of</strong> fish communities revealed that even<br />
though anthropogenic stress is decreas<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>the</strong> condition<br />
<strong>of</strong> fish rema<strong>in</strong>s without considerable improvement<br />
at <strong>the</strong> level <strong>of</strong> communities, populations <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
organisms. The exam<strong>in</strong>ed areas are located at different<br />
distances from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel plant <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>y<br />
are most representative <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> long-term assessment<br />
<strong>of</strong> status <strong>of</strong> fish communities.<br />
Fish species sensitive to water level regulation<br />
(m<strong>in</strong>now, Phox<strong>in</strong>us phox<strong>in</strong>us) were found only <strong>in</strong><br />
Skrukkebukta <strong>and</strong> Skogmo sites, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that water<br />
level regulation may have effect on littoral fish communities<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River. Fish densities <strong>and</strong> species<br />
richness varied between <strong>the</strong> sites <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that<br />
effect <strong>of</strong> water level regulation may differ <strong>in</strong> different<br />
river sections depend<strong>in</strong>g on littoral morphological characteristics.<br />
The Pasvik River bas<strong>in</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g programme<br />
should fur<strong>the</strong>r focus on more comprehensive research<br />
on fish species composition <strong>and</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> condition<br />
<strong>of</strong> whitefish, vendace, pike <strong>and</strong> perch populations.<br />
Length, weight <strong>and</strong> age structure, growth, reproduction<br />
<strong>and</strong> feed<strong>in</strong>g characteristics <strong>of</strong> fish should be <strong>the</strong><br />
ma<strong>in</strong> fish population <strong>in</strong>dicators. Whitefish should be<br />
used to assess <strong>the</strong> level <strong>of</strong> malformations <strong>in</strong> fish at <strong>the</strong><br />
organism level under <strong>the</strong> anthropogenic stress: status<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> kidneys (excretory system) is a critical parameter.<br />
Identification <strong>of</strong> relations between <strong>the</strong> stress <strong>in</strong>tensity<br />
<strong>and</strong> negative biological responses <strong>of</strong> fish requires<br />
an <strong>in</strong>tegrated approach tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account both pathology<br />
components <strong>and</strong> levels <strong>of</strong> heavy metal accumulation<br />
<strong>in</strong> fish organs <strong>and</strong> tissues <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> sediments.<br />
Nickel <strong>and</strong> copper should be <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> heavy metals<br />
used <strong>in</strong> determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> anthropogenic stress on <strong>the</strong><br />
ecosystems <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area. Observations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fish fauna <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes should be carried<br />
out once every three years.<br />
88<br />
Gett<strong>in</strong>g electr<strong>of</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g equipment ready<br />
Photo: Jukka Ylikörkkö.
References<br />
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lavaretus) morphs. Annales Zoologici Fennici 41: 291–300.<br />
Bryuzg<strong>in</strong> V.L. 1969: Methods <strong>of</strong> study <strong>of</strong> fish growth by scales, bones <strong>and</strong> otoliths. Naukova Dumka. Kiev. 188 p.<br />
Chugunova N.I. 1959: Fish age <strong>and</strong> growth study guide. Publisher <strong>of</strong> USSR Academy <strong>of</strong> Science. 164 p. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Dgebuadze Y.Y. 2001: Ecological regularities <strong>of</strong> fish growth variability. Nauka. 276 p. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Fevolden S-E., Amundsen P-A. 2013: Ecological speciation <strong>in</strong> postglacial European whitefish: rapid adaptive radiations <strong>in</strong>to<br />
<strong>the</strong> littoral, pelagic, <strong>and</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>undal lake habitats. Ecology <strong>and</strong> Evolution 3(15): 4970–86.<br />
Kashul<strong>in</strong>, N.N., Luk<strong>in</strong>, A.A. & Amundsen, P.-A. 1999. Fish <strong>of</strong> subarctic freshwater systems as bio<strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial pollution.<br />
Kola Science Centre, <strong>Russia</strong>n Academy <strong>of</strong> Sciences. Monograph. 170 p. (In <strong>Russia</strong>n with an English summary)<br />
M<strong>in</strong>a М.V., Klevezal G.А. 1976: Growth <strong>of</strong> animals. Nauka. 291 p. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Pravd<strong>in</strong>, I.F. 1960: Methods o fish studies. Moscow 376 p. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Pravd<strong>in</strong>, I.F. 1966: H<strong>and</strong>book on <strong>the</strong> techniques <strong>of</strong> fish studies. Pischevaya Promyshlennost’. Moscow. 376 p.<br />
(<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Reshetnikov, Yu 1980: Ecology <strong>and</strong> systematics <strong>of</strong> coregonid fish. Nauka. Moscow. 300 p. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Schmalhausen, I.I. 1935, Def<strong>in</strong>itions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Basic Conceptions <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Technique <strong>of</strong> Growth Investigation, Growth <strong>of</strong> Animals.<br />
Biomedgiz. Moscow. p. 8–60. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Siwertsson A., Knudsen R., Amundsen P.-A. 2008: Temporal stability <strong>in</strong> gill raker numbers <strong>of</strong> subarctic European whitefish<br />
populations. Advances <strong>in</strong> Limnology 63: 229–240.<br />
Electr<strong>of</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g catch. Photo: Jukka Ylikörkkö.<br />
89
8 Long-term effects <strong>of</strong> metal<br />
contam<strong>in</strong>ation, water regulation, species<br />
<strong>in</strong>vasion <strong>and</strong> climate change on <strong>the</strong> fish<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
PER-ARNE AMUNDSEN<br />
Fish community composition<br />
Altoge<strong>the</strong>r 15 different fish species have been recorded<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse, which is ma<strong>in</strong>ly formed<br />
<strong>of</strong> lakes <strong>and</strong> reservoirs due to hydropower stations.<br />
The most important fish species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se lacustr<strong>in</strong>e<br />
systems <strong>in</strong>clude whitefish, vendace, perch, pike, burbot,<br />
n<strong>in</strong>e-sp<strong>in</strong>ed stickleback, brown trout <strong>and</strong> grayl<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Vendace <strong>in</strong>vaded <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse around<br />
1990, after be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>troduced to Lake Inarijärvi <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
1960’s (Amundsen et al. 1999, 2012; Præbel et al.<br />
2013) <strong>and</strong> has now become <strong>the</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ant pelagic<br />
species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> watercourse (Bøhn et al. 2008; S<strong>and</strong>lund<br />
et al. 2013). Whitefish has been <strong>the</strong> most numerous<br />
fish species, occupy<strong>in</strong>g all major lake habitats <strong>in</strong><br />
high numbers (Amundsen et al. 1999). The whitefish<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> watercourse is polymorphic, consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> three<br />
different morphs, differentiated <strong>in</strong> particular by <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
morphology <strong>and</strong> number <strong>of</strong> gill rakers, <strong>and</strong> referred<br />
to as small sparsely-rakered (SSR), large sparselyrakered<br />
(LSR) <strong>and</strong> densely-rakered (DR) whitefish<br />
(Siwertsson et al. 2010). The three morphs have large<br />
ecological differences; <strong>the</strong> LSR morph predom<strong>in</strong>antly<br />
resid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> littoral zone feed<strong>in</strong>g on littoral zoobenthos,<br />
<strong>the</strong> DR morph <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pelagic habitat feed<strong>in</strong>g<br />
on zooplankton, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> SSR morph <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>undal<br />
utiliz<strong>in</strong>g typical pr<strong>of</strong>undal prey (Kahila<strong>in</strong>en et al. 2011).<br />
Perch is also numerous <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> watercourse, ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
resid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> littoral zone <strong>and</strong> to some extent also<br />
utiliz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>undal. The diet <strong>of</strong> perch <strong>in</strong>cludes several<br />
ontogenetic niche shifts (Amundsen et al. 2003).<br />
Pike is typically found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> shallow littoral, but has<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> latest years also more frequently been caught<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pelagic habitat. Also pike goes through ontogenetic<br />
niche shifts. Burbot is a benthic dwell<strong>in</strong>g fish<br />
species, <strong>the</strong> abundance <strong>of</strong> which is low relative to e.g.<br />
perch <strong>and</strong> pike. N<strong>in</strong>e-sp<strong>in</strong>ed stickleback has a key<br />
role <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> food web <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lacustr<strong>in</strong>e ecosystems <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> watercourse, be<strong>in</strong>g a dom<strong>in</strong>ant prey for <strong>the</strong> small<br />
to <strong>in</strong>termediate sized predatory fishes, <strong>in</strong> particular<br />
perch <strong>and</strong> burbot (Figure 1; Amundsen et al. 2003).<br />
Brown trout<br />
Pike<br />
Perch<br />
Burbot<br />
Figure 1. Summary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> basic<br />
food web structure <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lacustr<strong>in</strong>e<br />
fish communities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse<br />
(l<strong>in</strong>e thickness <strong>in</strong>dicates<br />
<strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> different l<strong>in</strong>ks.<br />
Stippled l<strong>in</strong>es represent unconfirmed<br />
l<strong>in</strong>ks).<br />
Vendace<br />
Pelagic<br />
DR whitefish<br />
9-sp. st.b.<br />
Benthic<br />
LSR whitefish<br />
90
The brown trout <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse is a fastgrow<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
typically piscivorous form, which ma<strong>in</strong>ly feed<br />
on coregonid prey (vendace <strong>and</strong> DR whitefish) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
pelagic (Jensen et al. 2004, 2008). The water level regulations<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse have chiefly reduced<br />
<strong>the</strong> spawn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> nursery areas for brown trout,<br />
<strong>and</strong> annual stock<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> brown trout is carried out to<br />
compensate for <strong>the</strong> reduced reproduction <strong>and</strong> recruitment<br />
possibilities. Also grayl<strong>in</strong>g has suffered from <strong>the</strong><br />
hydropower stations due to <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> stretches with<br />
runn<strong>in</strong>g water.<br />
Food web structure <strong>and</strong><br />
stable isotopes<br />
The food web <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake ecosystems <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> watercourse<br />
consist <strong>of</strong> two ma<strong>in</strong> compartments orig<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from <strong>the</strong> pelagic <strong>and</strong> benthic primary production,<br />
respectively (Figure 1). In <strong>the</strong> native ecological community,<br />
<strong>the</strong> two most common whitefish morphs, DR<br />
<strong>and</strong> LSR whitefish, have central roles <strong>in</strong> each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
compartments; <strong>the</strong> DR morph utiliz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> zooplankton<br />
resources <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> LSR morph <strong>the</strong> benthic<br />
<strong>in</strong>vertebrates ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> littoral zone (additionally<br />
<strong>the</strong> less abundant SSR morph is utiliz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> benthic<br />
<strong>in</strong>vertebrates <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>undal). Vendace has now become<br />
<strong>the</strong> key zooplankton predator <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ant<br />
fish species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pelagic habitat. Brown trout is <strong>the</strong><br />
key top predator <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pelagic compartment, feed<strong>in</strong>g<br />
predom<strong>in</strong>antly on vendace <strong>and</strong> DR whitefish. In <strong>the</strong><br />
benthic part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> trophic network, adult perch, burbot<br />
<strong>and</strong> pike are piscivorous species utiliz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> particular<br />
n<strong>in</strong>e-sp<strong>in</strong>ed stickleback <strong>and</strong> whitefish as prey. Pike<br />
constitutes <strong>the</strong> apex predator <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> whole aquatic<br />
network <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse (Figure 1). Pike,<br />
<strong>and</strong> more recently also perch <strong>and</strong> burbot, have started<br />
to <strong>in</strong>clude vendace <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir diet, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> separation <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> pelagic <strong>and</strong> benthic food-web compartments has<br />
<strong>the</strong>refore become less pronounced after <strong>the</strong> vendace<br />
<strong>in</strong>vasion <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> watercourse.<br />
Stable isotope analysis provides long-term <strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation about <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> nutritional sources,<br />
<strong>the</strong>reby constitut<strong>in</strong>g a cost-effective tool to explore<br />
<strong>the</strong> trophic ecology <strong>of</strong> freshwater organisms <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
food-web structure <strong>of</strong> aquatic ecosystems (Boecklen<br />
et al. 2011, Layman et al. 2012). The carbon <strong>and</strong> nitrogen<br />
stable isotope ratios (expressed as δ 13 C <strong>and</strong><br />
δ 15 N, respectively) can dist<strong>in</strong>guish between resources<br />
from <strong>the</strong> three pr<strong>in</strong>cipal lake habitats; littoral, pelagic<br />
<strong>and</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>undal (V<strong>and</strong>er Z<strong>and</strong>en & Rasmussen 1999,<br />
Syväranta et al. 2006).<br />
A summary plot <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mean carbon <strong>and</strong> nitrogen<br />
stable isotope ratios for key taxa <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik lakes<br />
food webs reveals a dist<strong>in</strong>ct pattern <strong>of</strong> trophic levels<br />
<strong>and</strong> resource utilization (Figure 2), chiefly reflect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> trophic network established from habitat use <strong>and</strong><br />
stomach contents data (Figure 1). Along <strong>the</strong> δ 15 N-<br />
axis, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vertebrates are positioned at lower values,<br />
which reflect <strong>the</strong>ir low positions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> trophic network.<br />
The pr<strong>of</strong>undal <strong>in</strong>vertebrates (chironomids) show elevated<br />
δ 15 N-levels typical for <strong>the</strong>m as compared to <strong>the</strong><br />
δ 15 N<br />
12<br />
Brown trout<br />
Pike<br />
10<br />
SSR whitefish<br />
Perch<br />
8<br />
Vendace<br />
9-sp. stickleback<br />
DR whitefish<br />
LSR whitefish<br />
6<br />
Chironomids ( pr<strong>of</strong>undal )<br />
4<br />
Zooplankton<br />
Chironomids (littoral)<br />
2<br />
0<br />
Snails<br />
-35 -30 -25 -20 -15<br />
δ 13 C<br />
Figure 2. Mean stable isotopes<br />
ratios (δ 13 C <strong>and</strong> δ 15 N) <strong>of</strong> important<br />
taxa <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lacustr<strong>in</strong>e food<br />
webs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse<br />
(data ma<strong>in</strong>ly from Vaggatem).<br />
91
littoral <strong>and</strong> pelagic <strong>in</strong>vertebrates, a pattern that is also<br />
reflected <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> relatively high δ 15 N-levels <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>undal<br />
dwell<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>vertebrate-feed<strong>in</strong>g SSR whitefish.<br />
Invertebrate-feed<strong>in</strong>g fish species from <strong>the</strong> pelagic<br />
<strong>and</strong> littoral habitats dom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>termediate δ 15 N-<br />
levels whereas piscivorous species are positioned at<br />
<strong>the</strong> highest trophic levels as <strong>in</strong>dicated by <strong>the</strong>ir high<br />
δ 15 N-values (Figure 2). Perch is positioned <strong>in</strong>termediate<br />
to <strong>the</strong> coregonids <strong>and</strong> pike, reflect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir more<br />
omnivorous diet consist<strong>in</strong>g both <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>vertebrate <strong>and</strong><br />
fish prey. Along <strong>the</strong> δ 13 C-axis <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>undal <strong>and</strong> pelagic<br />
<strong>in</strong>vertebrates have lower values than <strong>the</strong> littoral<br />
<strong>in</strong>vertebrates. Similarly <strong>the</strong> coregonid species utiliz<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pelagic <strong>and</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>undal resources are positioned towards<br />
lower δ 13 C-values than <strong>the</strong> predom<strong>in</strong>antly littoral<br />
dwell<strong>in</strong>g LSR whitefish. Among <strong>the</strong> top predators,<br />
brown trout, which typically feed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pelagic habitat,<br />
had somewhat lower δ 13 C-values than pike (Figure 2).<br />
Anthropogenic impacts<br />
The Pasvik watercourse suffers from a multitude <strong>of</strong><br />
stressors that encompass chemical, physical <strong>and</strong> biological<br />
factors, <strong>in</strong> particular represented by large pollution<br />
outputs from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel extensive water<br />
level regulations, <strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>vasion <strong>of</strong> non-native<br />
species, compensatory fish stock<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>and</strong> unregulated<br />
<strong>and</strong> unrecorded fish exploitation. Over <strong>the</strong> latest<br />
decades, global warm<strong>in</strong>g scenario has become<br />
an additional stressor. In relation to <strong>the</strong>se extant threats<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> order to enhance <strong>the</strong> general knowledge<br />
<strong>of</strong> subarctic freshwater ecosystems <strong>in</strong> this region, <strong>the</strong><br />
fish communities <strong>of</strong> lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse<br />
have been subject to extensive long-term biological<br />
studies with annual sampl<strong>in</strong>g s<strong>in</strong>ce 1991.<br />
Heavy metal contam<strong>in</strong>ations <strong>in</strong> fish<br />
Several heavy metals have been analyzed <strong>in</strong> different<br />
tissues from six fish species <strong>and</strong> at three different sites,<br />
cover<strong>in</strong>g four sampl<strong>in</strong>g periods (Period 1: 1991–<br />
1992, Period 2: 2002–2005, Period 3: 2007–2008, Period<br />
4: 2012–2013). The studied lakes are Kuetsjarvi,<br />
Skrukkebukta <strong>and</strong> Vaggatem. Some additional samples<br />
are also available from Rajakoski (Period 2 <strong>and</strong><br />
4) <strong>and</strong> Lake Inarijärvi (Period 2). Studied fish species<br />
are DR <strong>and</strong> LSR whitefish, perch, pike, brown trout<br />
<strong>and</strong> vendace, <strong>and</strong> tissue samples have been retrieved<br />
from muscle, liver, gills, kidney <strong>and</strong> skeleton. Elements<br />
exam<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> all sampl<strong>in</strong>g periods <strong>in</strong>clude nickel<br />
(Ni), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), z<strong>in</strong>c<br />
(Zn) <strong>and</strong> mercury (Hg).<br />
A temporal analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ni contents <strong>in</strong> different<br />
tissues <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> DR <strong>and</strong> LSR whitefish morphs revealed<br />
no dist<strong>in</strong>ct variations throughout <strong>the</strong> four time periods<br />
from 1991 to 2013. A pr<strong>of</strong>ound <strong>and</strong> significant decl<strong>in</strong>e<br />
<strong>in</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ation levels with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g distance from<br />
<strong>the</strong> smelters (i.e. from Kuetsjarvi to Skrukkebukta to<br />
Vaggatem) was, however, evident for all <strong>the</strong> exam<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
time periods. This could also be seen for <strong>the</strong> Ni<br />
contents <strong>in</strong> different tissues <strong>of</strong> perch <strong>and</strong> pike. Similar<br />
patterns were also revealed for Cu <strong>and</strong> Cd. Also for<br />
<strong>the</strong> tissue contents <strong>of</strong> Cr <strong>and</strong> Zn <strong>the</strong>re were no dist<strong>in</strong>ct<br />
variations through time. Hence, no major changes<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ation levels <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se elements <strong>in</strong> fish<br />
tissue appear to have occurred over <strong>the</strong> time period<br />
<strong>of</strong> 1991–2013.<br />
In contrast, a dist<strong>in</strong>ct temporal pattern was evident<br />
for <strong>the</strong> mercury (Hg) contents <strong>in</strong> fish tissues. Both <strong>in</strong><br />
Kuetsjarvi (Figure 3a) <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta & Vaggatem<br />
(Figure 3b) <strong>the</strong>re was a significant <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hg<br />
contents <strong>in</strong> muscle tissue <strong>of</strong> most fish species over<br />
<strong>the</strong> four sampl<strong>in</strong>g periods from 1991 to 2013. The <strong>in</strong>c-<br />
Hg contents <strong>in</strong> muscle tissue<br />
( μg g - 1 fish dry weight)<br />
2,0<br />
a) Kuetsjarvi<br />
2,0<br />
b) Vaggatem & Skrukkebukta<br />
Hg contents <strong>in</strong> muscle tissue<br />
( μg g - 1 fish dry weight)<br />
1,5<br />
1,5<br />
1,0<br />
1,0<br />
Figure 3. Temporal changes <strong>in</strong> Hg levels <strong>in</strong> muscle<br />
tissue <strong>of</strong> fish from a) Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> b) Skrukkebukta<br />
& Vaggatem (samples from <strong>the</strong>se two lakes were<br />
comb<strong>in</strong>ed to streng<strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> observation numbers as<br />
no large differences <strong>in</strong> Hg levels were evident between<br />
<strong>the</strong>se two localities). Time periods 1: 1991–<br />
1992, 2: 2002–2005, 3: 2007–2008, 4: 2012–2013<br />
0,5<br />
0,0<br />
1 2 3 4<br />
Time period<br />
DR whitefish SR whitefish<br />
0,5<br />
0,0<br />
Vendace<br />
1 2 3 4<br />
Time period<br />
Perch Pike Brown trout<br />
92
ease <strong>in</strong> Hg contam<strong>in</strong>ation over <strong>the</strong> study period was<br />
particularly large for <strong>the</strong> predatory species <strong>and</strong> was<br />
most dist<strong>in</strong>ct <strong>in</strong> Skrukkebukta & Vaggatem. The generally<br />
higher contam<strong>in</strong>ation levels <strong>in</strong> predatory species<br />
than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> coregonids are to be expected as Hg is an<br />
element that accumulates <strong>in</strong> organisms <strong>and</strong> thus typically<br />
<strong>in</strong>creases with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trophic levels with<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> food webs. Similarly, <strong>the</strong> Hg contents <strong>in</strong> fish also<br />
tend to <strong>in</strong>crease with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g fish size, which could<br />
be seen for brown trout, perch, pike, <strong>and</strong> LSR whitefish<br />
but was not evident for DR whitefish <strong>and</strong> vendace<br />
which have more narrow size ranges.<br />
The observed <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hg levels <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> predatory<br />
fishes may be related to <strong>the</strong> recent ecological<br />
changes follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> vendace <strong>in</strong>vasion <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> watercourse,<br />
as pelagic pathways are known to be <strong>of</strong> large<br />
importance <strong>in</strong> bioaccumulation <strong>and</strong> magnification<br />
<strong>of</strong> Hg <strong>in</strong> subarctic lake food webs. Ano<strong>the</strong>r plausible<br />
explanation for <strong>the</strong> high levels <strong>of</strong> Hg <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> dist<strong>in</strong>ct<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> Hg levels <strong>in</strong> fish over <strong>the</strong> latest decade<br />
is related to <strong>the</strong> ongo<strong>in</strong>g global climate changes.<br />
Increased temperatures <strong>and</strong> a higher run-<strong>of</strong>f due to<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased precipitation have already been demonstrated<br />
for <strong>the</strong> watercourse (Chapter 1). This has likely<br />
resulted <strong>in</strong> a more extensive wash-out <strong>of</strong> pollutants<br />
from <strong>the</strong> large catchment area <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> watercourse,<br />
where biomagnification <strong>and</strong> accumulation <strong>of</strong> Hg<br />
through <strong>the</strong> food web rapidly may result <strong>in</strong> elevated<br />
contam<strong>in</strong>ation levels <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> top predators (conf. e.g.<br />
Harris et al. 2007).<br />
Water regulations<br />
Follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> establishment <strong>of</strong> seven hydropower stations<br />
along <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse <strong>the</strong>re have been<br />
large changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> physical characteristics: large<br />
areas were flooded, previous rapids <strong>and</strong> waterfalls<br />
disappeared, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> former river system is now dom<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
by consecutive lakes <strong>and</strong> reservoirs. Pr<strong>in</strong>cipal<br />
spawn<strong>in</strong>g, nursery <strong>and</strong> feed<strong>in</strong>g areas for brown<br />
trout <strong>and</strong> grayl<strong>in</strong>g were severely degraded <strong>and</strong> reduced<br />
due to <strong>the</strong> disappearance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> river<strong>in</strong>e stretches<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> watercourse, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> strong decl<strong>in</strong>es<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> abundance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se species (Krist<strong>of</strong>fersen<br />
1984, Arnesen 1987). The large physical changes <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> watercourse have benefitted typical lake-dwell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
fish species like whitefish, perch <strong>and</strong> pike, especially<br />
through <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> large reservoirs. The<br />
dam constructions have resulted <strong>in</strong> a fragmentation <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> watercourse, mak<strong>in</strong>g upstream fish migration impossible<br />
<strong>and</strong> downstream migration <strong>in</strong>feasible. For <strong>the</strong><br />
fish populations <strong>the</strong> fragmentation <strong>and</strong> migration limitations<br />
may have resulted <strong>in</strong> some genetic constra<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
for some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fish populations, but this has yet not<br />
been explored.<br />
Brown trout stock<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> vendace <strong>in</strong>vasion<br />
The Pasvik brown trout recruitment potential suffers<br />
from <strong>the</strong> hydropower plants <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River <strong>and</strong><br />
due to this <strong>the</strong> local Norwegian hydropower company<br />
is carry<strong>in</strong>g out an imposed annual stock<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
5000 large-sized trout. The stock<strong>in</strong>gs are important<br />
for <strong>the</strong> present brown trout population as stocked fish<br />
comprise >80 % <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> total catches. From 1998 to<br />
2008, <strong>the</strong> contribution <strong>of</strong> stocked fish <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> catches<br />
has dist<strong>in</strong>ctly decreased, which suggests that <strong>the</strong> natural<br />
production <strong>of</strong> brown trout may have slightly improved,<br />
possibly as a result <strong>of</strong> a larger spawn<strong>in</strong>g population<br />
due to <strong>the</strong> contribution <strong>of</strong> stocked fish. Vendace<br />
has been <strong>the</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ant prey over this time period, with<br />
an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g dietary contribution from around 75 %<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1998 to nearly 100 % <strong>in</strong> 2008. Hence, <strong>the</strong> vendace<br />
<strong>in</strong>vasion <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> establishment <strong>of</strong> a high population<br />
abundance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vader have provided a new prey<br />
source for <strong>the</strong> piscivorous trout, <strong>and</strong> may thus have<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased <strong>the</strong> production potential <strong>of</strong> brown trout <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> watercourse.<br />
The strategy for <strong>the</strong> stock<strong>in</strong>g programme appears<br />
good, especially <strong>in</strong> respect to <strong>the</strong> exclusive use <strong>of</strong><br />
brood fish from <strong>the</strong> local trout population. However,<br />
artificial selection may occur dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> collection <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> brood stock <strong>and</strong> subsequently <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> breed<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
rear<strong>in</strong>g facilities, potentially lead<strong>in</strong>g to a reduced or<br />
altered genetic diversity. Fur<strong>the</strong>r studies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> brown<br />
trout population should <strong>the</strong>refore be implemented,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g a genetic survey. Moreover, <strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
spawn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> nursery areas for brown trout <strong>in</strong> tributary<br />
streams need particular attention <strong>and</strong> protection,<br />
especially s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> trout has an obligate role <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
lifecycle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> red-listed freshwater pearl mussel Margaritifera<br />
margaritifera (e.g. Aspholm 2013).<br />
The vendace <strong>in</strong>vasion started from Lake Inarijärvi,<br />
where <strong>the</strong> species was <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> headwaters<br />
on two occasions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1950s <strong>and</strong> -60s (Mutenia &<br />
Salonen 1992), <strong>and</strong> by 1995 it was apparently present<br />
along <strong>the</strong> whole watercourse (Amundsen et al.<br />
1999). With<strong>in</strong> few years <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vader became an important<br />
pelagic fish species <strong>in</strong> lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse<br />
(Amundsen et al. 1999, Bøhn et al. 2004,<br />
2008). However, <strong>the</strong> vendace population also entered<br />
a typical fluctuat<strong>in</strong>g ‘boom-<strong>and</strong>-bust’ development<br />
with large variations <strong>in</strong> population density (Salonen et<br />
al. 2007, S<strong>and</strong>lund et al. 2013), result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a highly<br />
93
variable <strong>and</strong> unpredictable ecological situation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
watercourse.<br />
In Vaggatem <strong>the</strong> vendace population rapidly <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
<strong>in</strong> abundance after its arrival <strong>in</strong> 1991 <strong>and</strong> had<br />
by 1998 atta<strong>in</strong>ed a peak density <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pelagic habitat.<br />
However, over <strong>the</strong> next couple <strong>of</strong> years <strong>the</strong>re was an<br />
abrupt decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> vendace density, which stayed<br />
low until 2003. Later, <strong>the</strong> vendace density has shown<br />
large fluctuations with ma<strong>in</strong>ly three years <strong>in</strong>tervals<br />
between peaks.<br />
The <strong>in</strong>vasion <strong>and</strong> rapid population <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> vendace<br />
<strong>in</strong> Vaggatem had an immediate <strong>and</strong> dramatic effect<br />
on <strong>the</strong> DR whitefish population. Over <strong>the</strong> first 3-4<br />
years <strong>the</strong> total density <strong>of</strong> DR whitefish rema<strong>in</strong>ed at a<br />
constant level. However, only one year after <strong>the</strong> arrival<br />
<strong>of</strong> vendace a major behavioral shift occurred, where<br />
most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> DR whitefish population disappeared<br />
from <strong>the</strong> pelagic, <strong>and</strong> was relegated <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> littoral<br />
<strong>and</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>undal habitats. This situation was ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
for a few years, but after 1995 a dramatic decl<strong>in</strong>e occurred<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> DR whitefish abundance. Even dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> period from 2000 to 2003 when <strong>the</strong> vendace density<br />
seem<strong>in</strong>gly was at low levels, no apparent rebuild<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> DR whitefish population occurred.<br />
Vendace can utilize zooplankton more efficiently<br />
than DR whitefish (Bøhn & Amundsen 2001) which<br />
can be seen from <strong>the</strong> long-term changes <strong>in</strong> zooplankton<br />
density, which decreased follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> vendace<br />
<strong>in</strong>vasion. The zooplankton resource appears to be<br />
<strong>in</strong>accessible as a significant dietary source for DR<br />
whitefish when vendace is present <strong>in</strong> high densities.<br />
Assumedly <strong>the</strong> differences <strong>in</strong> vendace populations<br />
between localities (Figure 4) are related to a variable<br />
resistance towards <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vad<strong>in</strong>g species between sites<br />
<strong>and</strong> among fish communities <strong>of</strong> different structure<br />
<strong>and</strong> dynamics. In particular, <strong>the</strong> DR whitefish populations<br />
<strong>in</strong> Skrukkebukta <strong>and</strong> Kuetsjarvi consist <strong>of</strong> smaller-sized<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>and</strong> have a shorter generation<br />
time than <strong>in</strong> Vaggatem, which may make <strong>the</strong>m more<br />
capable <strong>of</strong> respond<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> competitive impacts <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vad<strong>in</strong>g vendace. In Kuetsjarvi, local adaptations<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> whitefish populations to <strong>the</strong> heavy pollution may<br />
also have made it more difficult for <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vad<strong>in</strong>g vendace<br />
to get an upper h<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> competition <strong>and</strong> to establish<br />
<strong>in</strong> high densities. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, at <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vasion <strong>the</strong> propagule pressure was likely much<br />
larger <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> upper parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> watercourse, which<br />
may have led to an abrupt shift <strong>in</strong> competitive <strong>and</strong> numerical<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ance <strong>in</strong> favor <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vendace.<br />
Vendace <strong>and</strong> whitefish belong to <strong>the</strong> same genus<br />
(Coregonus) <strong>and</strong> hybridization between <strong>the</strong> two species<br />
is plausible even though it has not been documented<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse. In contrast, a breakdown<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reproductive isolation between <strong>the</strong> LSR<br />
<strong>and</strong> DR whitefish morphs is documented to have occurred<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vasion <strong>of</strong> vendace (Bhat et al.<br />
2014). It was revealed that <strong>the</strong> frequency <strong>of</strong> hybrids<br />
had <strong>in</strong>creased from 34 % <strong>in</strong> 1993 to nearly 100 % by<br />
2008. The extensive hybridization between this morph-pair<br />
appears to reflect a situation <strong>of</strong> “speciation <strong>in</strong><br />
reverse”, where <strong>the</strong> vendace <strong>in</strong>vasion has reversed<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>cipient speciation process that has led to <strong>the</strong> formation<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> whitefish morphs, collaps<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se <strong>in</strong>to<br />
a hybrid swarm <strong>and</strong> creat<strong>in</strong>g a situation which potentially<br />
may have large consequences for <strong>the</strong> biodiversity<br />
<strong>and</strong> function<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se ecosystems.<br />
Climate change impacts<br />
Three key objectives have been addressed: 1. Are<br />
<strong>the</strong>re any significant changes to be seen <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> temperature<br />
regime <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> watercourse; 2. Are <strong>the</strong>re any<br />
evidence <strong>of</strong> temperature effects on fish growth (juve-<br />
% vendace <strong>in</strong> pelagic catches<br />
100<br />
80<br />
Vaggatem<br />
60<br />
40<br />
Skrukke -<br />
bukta<br />
Figure 4. The contribution <strong>of</strong> vendace<br />
<strong>in</strong> pelagic fish catches <strong>in</strong> Vaggatem,<br />
Skrukkebukta <strong>and</strong> Kuetsjarvi <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> period<br />
from 1991 to 2013.<br />
20<br />
Kuetsjarvi<br />
0<br />
-90 -92 -94 -96 -98 -00 -02 -04 -06 -08 -10 -12 -14<br />
Year (19 -/20 -)<br />
94
nile coregonids); 3. Are <strong>the</strong>re any changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fish<br />
community composition that can be related to temperature-<strong>in</strong>duced<br />
changes <strong>in</strong> species <strong>in</strong>teractions?<br />
The water temperatures <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse<br />
have been monitored on a daily basis s<strong>in</strong>ce 1991,<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> water temperatures between 1975 <strong>and</strong> 1991<br />
have fur<strong>the</strong>rmore been estimated from a model<strong>in</strong>g effort<br />
based on measured air temperatures (Gjell<strong>and</strong> et<br />
al. 2013). We found that average summer water temperature<br />
(i.e. July–September) <strong>in</strong>creased significantly<br />
from 1975 to 2013 with on average 0.05 °C/year. Over<br />
<strong>the</strong> 38 years, <strong>the</strong> average summer water temperature<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased from 11.89 °C to 13.84 °C, i.e. an <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
<strong>of</strong> 1.95 °C for <strong>the</strong> total period, equivalent to a mean<br />
temperature <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> 0.51 °C per decade.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to modelled temperature, precipitation<br />
<strong>and</strong> run<strong>of</strong>f predictions for <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse, <strong>the</strong><br />
water temperature <strong>and</strong> length <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ice-free season<br />
will cont<strong>in</strong>ue to <strong>in</strong>crease throughout <strong>the</strong> 21 century<br />
(Gjell<strong>and</strong> et al. 2013), as will also <strong>the</strong> annual precipitation<br />
<strong>and</strong> run<strong>of</strong>f. This sets <strong>the</strong> scene for potential<br />
large ecological changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> watercourse.<br />
Changes <strong>in</strong> summer water temperatures may affect<br />
<strong>the</strong> juvenile growth <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> coregonids <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
watercourse. It is suggested that coregonid larval<br />
growth is primarily controlled by temperature <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>reafter by food availability. Hence, a slight shift <strong>in</strong><br />
temperature regime may potentially have a dramatic<br />
effect on growth <strong>of</strong> larval <strong>and</strong> juvenile coregonids<br />
(Eckmann <strong>and</strong> Rösch 1998; Perrier et al. 2012). To<br />
explore this, <strong>the</strong> back-calculated length at age 1+ (<strong>and</strong><br />
thus <strong>the</strong> growth performance dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> first year <strong>of</strong><br />
life) <strong>of</strong> vendace <strong>and</strong> DR <strong>and</strong> LSR whitefish from Vaggatem<br />
<strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta were matched to <strong>the</strong> correspond<strong>in</strong>g<br />
summer water temperatures to explore<br />
possible climate <strong>and</strong> temperature effects on juvenile<br />
coregonid growth over an approx. 20 year time period.<br />
The study revealed that an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> temperature<br />
evidently will <strong>in</strong>crease larval <strong>and</strong> juvenile growth. The<br />
present temperature regime <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse<br />
may be favorable for <strong>the</strong> juvenile growth rate <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
LSR whitefish morph but <strong>the</strong> expected future <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
<strong>in</strong> temperatures will likely shift <strong>the</strong> favorability towards<br />
vendace. Hence, as vendace <strong>and</strong> DR whitefish compete<br />
strongly for <strong>the</strong> pelagic resources <strong>and</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce a<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> water temperatures likely will be<br />
favorable for <strong>the</strong> vendace, <strong>the</strong> outcome may be an<br />
even stronger negative effect on <strong>the</strong> DR whitefish population.<br />
Climate warm<strong>in</strong>g is expected to <strong>in</strong>duce complex<br />
changes <strong>in</strong> fish community structure (Jeppesen et al.<br />
2010). Whitefish is a cold-water steno<strong>the</strong>rmic species<br />
with optimum growth at 18 o C (Siikavuopio et<br />
al. 2013), whereas perch is a cool-water eury<strong>the</strong>rmic<br />
species with optimum growth at 23 o C (Fiogbe & Kestemont<br />
2003). Hence, perch is considered as <strong>the</strong> species<br />
that most likely will benefit from <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g temperatures<br />
at <strong>the</strong> expense <strong>of</strong> e.g. whitefish (Graham &<br />
Harrod 2009, Hayden et al. 2014).<br />
Our long-term data set has been analyzed <strong>in</strong> respect<br />
to <strong>the</strong> contribution <strong>of</strong> perch <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> littoral habitat<br />
(Figure 5). In Vaggatem, a significant <strong>in</strong>crease occurred<br />
over <strong>the</strong> first part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> study period from a contribution<br />
<strong>of</strong> ca. 20 % <strong>in</strong> 1991 to 50–60 % around 2003.<br />
In Skrukkebukta, <strong>the</strong> development pattern <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> littoral<br />
fish community was very clear-cut with a dist<strong>in</strong>ct<br />
<strong>and</strong> significant <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> perch contribution from<br />
1993 to 2013, from around 5 % <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> start to nearly<br />
50 % at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> study period. These f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
% perch <strong>in</strong> littoral catches<br />
90<br />
80<br />
70<br />
60<br />
Vaggatem<br />
50<br />
Skrukke -<br />
40<br />
bukta<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
0<br />
-90 -92 -94 -96 -98 -00 -02 -04 -06 -08 -10 -12 -14<br />
Year (19-/20-)<br />
Figure 5. The contribution <strong>of</strong> perch (with<br />
fitted trend l<strong>in</strong>es) <strong>in</strong> littoral samples<br />
from Vaggatem <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> time period from 1991 to 2013.<br />
95
strongly suggest that perch have benefitted from <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g temperatures.<br />
The present f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs demonstrate that climate<br />
change impacts already are <strong>in</strong> effect <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse,<br />
hav<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>duced a significant <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
mean summer water temperatures over <strong>the</strong> last decades<br />
<strong>and</strong> seem<strong>in</strong>gly also <strong>in</strong>duced important ecological<br />
responses <strong>and</strong> effects. In particular, it has been demonstrated<br />
that <strong>the</strong> juvenile growth <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> coregonids<br />
is significantly affected by <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased water temperatures,<br />
which potentially may affect <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>in</strong>terspecific<br />
<strong>in</strong>teractions. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, a change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fish community<br />
composition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> littoral zone is also evident,<br />
with an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> contribution <strong>of</strong> perch. Additionally,<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> levels <strong>of</strong> Hg <strong>in</strong> fish over <strong>the</strong><br />
latest years may suggestively be a climate change<br />
consequence related to <strong>in</strong>creased precipitation <strong>and</strong><br />
run<strong>of</strong>f. The multitude <strong>of</strong> stressors affect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
watercourse may enhance potential climate change<br />
impacts <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> watercourse, mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ecosystems<br />
less resistant <strong>and</strong> thus more vulnerable to <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>duced<br />
changes.<br />
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Gjell<strong>and</strong>, K.Ø., F<strong>in</strong>stad, A.G., Amundsen, P.-A., Christensen, G., Jensen, H. 2013: Limnosystem Pasvik (LIPA) observation<br />
system – report from <strong>the</strong> 2012 pilot project. NINA M<strong>in</strong>irapport 429. 24 p.<br />
Graham, C. T., Harrod, C. 2009: Implications <strong>of</strong> climate change for <strong>the</strong> fishes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> British Isles. Journal <strong>of</strong> Fish Biology 74:<br />
1143–1205.<br />
Harris, R.C., Rudd, J.W.M., Amyot, M., Babiarz, C.L., Beaty, K.G., Blanchfield, P.J., Bodaly, RA., Branfireun, B.A., Gilmour.<br />
CC, Graydon, J.A., Heyes, A., H<strong>in</strong>telmann, H., Hurley, J.P., Kelly, Ca., Krabbenh<strong>of</strong>t, D.P., L<strong>in</strong>dberg, S.E, Mason, R.P.,<br />
Paterson, MJ., Podemski, C.L., Rob<strong>in</strong>son, A., S<strong>and</strong>il<strong>and</strong>s, K.A, Southworth, G.R., St Louis, V.L., Tate, M.T. 2007: Whole<br />
ecosystem study shows rapid fish-mercury response to changes <strong>in</strong> mercury deposition. Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> National Academy<br />
<strong>of</strong> Sciences <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> United States <strong>of</strong> America 104: 16586–16591.<br />
Hayden, B., Harrod, C., Kahila<strong>in</strong>en, K. 2014: Lake morphometry <strong>and</strong> resource polymorphism determ<strong>in</strong>e niche segregation<br />
between cool- <strong>and</strong> cold-water-adapted fish. Ecology 95: 538–552.<br />
Jensen, H., Bøhn, T., Amundsen, P.-A., Aspholm, P.E. 2004: Feed<strong>in</strong>g ecology <strong>of</strong> piscivorous brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) <strong>in</strong> a<br />
subarctic watercourse. Annales Zoologici Fennici 41: 319–328.<br />
Jensen, H., Kahila<strong>in</strong>en, K.K., Amundsen, P.-A., Gjell<strong>and</strong>, K.Ø., Tuomaala, A., Mal<strong>in</strong>en, T., Bøhn, T. 2008: Predation by brown<br />
trout (Salmo trutta) along a diversify<strong>in</strong>g prey community gradient. Canadian Journal <strong>of</strong> Fisheries <strong>and</strong> Aquatic Sciences 65:<br />
1831–1841.<br />
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Søndergaard, M., Lauridsen, T.L., Bjerr<strong>in</strong>g, R., Conde-Porcuna, J.M., Mazzeo, N., Iglesias, C., Reizenste<strong>in</strong>, M., Malmquist,<br />
H.J., Liu, Z, Balayla, D., Lazzaro, X. 2010: Impacts <strong>of</strong> climate warm<strong>in</strong>g on lake fish community structure <strong>and</strong> potential<br />
effects on ecosystem function. Hydrobiologia 646: 73–90.<br />
Kahila<strong>in</strong>en, K., Siwertsson, A., Gjell<strong>and</strong>, K.Ø., Knudsen, R., Bøhn, T., Amundsen, P.-A. 2011: The role <strong>of</strong> gill raker number<br />
variability <strong>in</strong> adaptive radiation <strong>of</strong> coregonid fish. Evolutionary Ecology 25: 573–588.<br />
Krist<strong>of</strong>fersen, K. 1984: Fiskeribiologiske registrer<strong>in</strong>ger i Pasvikvassdraget sommeren 1982. Fylkesmannen i F<strong>in</strong>nmark,<br />
Miljøvernavdel<strong>in</strong>gen. Rapport nr. 5. 66 p. (In Norwegian)<br />
Layman, C.A., Araújo, M.S., Boucek, R., Hammerschlag-Peyer, C.M., Harrison, E., Jud, Z.R., Matich, P., Rosenblatt, A.S.,<br />
Vaudo, J.J., Yeager, L.A., Post, D.M., Bearhop, S. 2012: Apply<strong>in</strong>g stable isotope to exam<strong>in</strong>e food-web structure: an overview<br />
<strong>of</strong> analytical tools. Biological Reviews 87: 545–532.<br />
Mutenia, A., Salonen, E. 1992: The vendace (Coregonus albula L.), a new species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fish community <strong>and</strong> fisheries <strong>of</strong><br />
Lake Inari. Polskie Archiwum Hydrobiologii 39: 797805.<br />
Perrier, C., Mol<strong>in</strong>ero, J. C., Gerdeaux, D., Anneville, O. 2012: Effects <strong>of</strong> temperature <strong>and</strong> food supply on <strong>the</strong> growth <strong>of</strong> whitefish<br />
Coregonus lavaretus larvae <strong>in</strong> an oligotrophic peri-alp<strong>in</strong>e lake. Journal <strong>of</strong> Fish Biology 81: 1501–1513.<br />
Præbel, K., Gjell<strong>and</strong>, K.-Ø., Salonen, E., Amundsen, P.-A. 2013: Invasion genetics <strong>of</strong> vendace (Coregonus albula (L.)) <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Inari-Pasvik watercourse: reveal<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> expansion pattern <strong>of</strong> a rapid colonization event. Ecology <strong>and</strong> Evolution<br />
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Salonen, E., Amundsen, P-A., Bøhn, T. 2007: Invasion, boom <strong>and</strong> bust by vendace (Coregonus albula) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> subarctic<br />
Lake Inari, F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse, <strong>Norway</strong>. Advances <strong>in</strong> Limnology 60: 331–342.<br />
S<strong>and</strong>lund, O.T., Gjell<strong>and</strong>, K.Ø., Bøhn, T., Knudsen, R., Amundsen, P.-A. 2013: Contrast<strong>in</strong>g life history responses <strong>of</strong> a young<br />
morph-pair <strong>of</strong> European whitefish to <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vasion <strong>of</strong> a specialised coregonid competitor, vendace. PLOS One 8 (7),<br />
e68156.<br />
Siikavuopio, S.I., Knudsen, R., Amundsen, P.-A., Sæ<strong>the</strong>r, B.S., James, P. 2013: Effects <strong>of</strong> high temperature on <strong>the</strong> growth<br />
<strong>of</strong> European whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus L.). Aquaculture Research 44: 8–12.<br />
Siwertsson, A., Knudsen, R., Kahila<strong>in</strong>en, K.K., Præbel, K., Primicerio, R., Amundsen, P.-A. 2010: Sympatric diversification<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluenced by ecological opportunity <strong>and</strong> historical cont<strong>in</strong>gency <strong>in</strong> a young species l<strong>in</strong>eage <strong>of</strong> whitefish. Evolutionary<br />
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Ecology 80: 1395–1404.<br />
Photo: Juha Riihimäki<br />
Tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> water temperature at fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
site. Photo: Jukka Ylikörkkö.<br />
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9 Contam<strong>in</strong>ants <strong>in</strong> fish <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
GUTTORM N. CHRISTENSEN, HELÉN JOHANNE ANDERSEN, GEIR DAHL-HANSEN, NIKOLAY KASHULIN, PETR<br />
TERENTJEV, DMITRII DENISOV<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ant sources to aquatic <strong>and</strong> terrestrial<br />
environments <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area are <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> metallurgical company’s smelter <strong>in</strong> Nikel<br />
<strong>and</strong> roast<strong>in</strong>g plant <strong>in</strong> Zapolyarny. In addition to this,<br />
<strong>the</strong> area is also exposed to long-range airborne pollutants.<br />
The area has been identified by <strong>the</strong> Arctic Monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>and</strong> Assessment Programme (AMAP 2000) as<br />
a “Key monitor<strong>in</strong>g area,” where pollution, emissions<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir effects are to be monitored.<br />
Studies carried out <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early 1990s revealed numerous<br />
acidified <strong>and</strong> heavy metal polluted lakes <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> border area (Traaen et al. 1991, 1992, Moiseenko<br />
1994, Dauvalter <strong>and</strong> Rognerud 2001). Water quality<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g has shown that <strong>the</strong> heavy metal concentrations<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>in</strong> this area have been <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce 2004. Heavy metal levels <strong>in</strong> fish are well studied<br />
by <strong>Russia</strong>n <strong>and</strong> Norwegian scientists (Amundsen et<br />
al. 1993, 1997, Arnesen et al. 1996, Kashul<strong>in</strong>a & Kashul<strong>in</strong><br />
1997, Moiseenko et al. 1995, Luk<strong>in</strong> et al. 2003).<br />
Previous screen<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ants demonstrated<br />
elevated levels <strong>of</strong> persistent organic pollutants<br />
(POPs) <strong>in</strong> different fish species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River<br />
(Stebel et al. 2007, Christensen et al. 2007, Christensen<br />
2008). In previous screen<strong>in</strong>g studies, <strong>the</strong> highest<br />
levels <strong>of</strong> POPs were found <strong>in</strong> fish from Lake Kuetsjarvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> it was a tendency <strong>of</strong> decreas<strong>in</strong>g levels <strong>of</strong> POPs<br />
with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g distance to <strong>the</strong> smelter.<br />
The aims <strong>of</strong> this study were to follow up <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> previous project, “State <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> environment <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Norwegian, F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n border area” that<br />
was carried out dur<strong>in</strong>g 2003–2006 (Stebel et al. 2007).<br />
Based on <strong>the</strong> previous studies <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ants<br />
<strong>in</strong> fish are mercury, polychlor<strong>in</strong>ated biphenyls(PCBs),<br />
pesticides <strong>and</strong> polybrom<strong>in</strong>ated diphenyl e<strong>the</strong>rs (PB-<br />
DEs). Fish from <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River is an important food<br />
source for <strong>the</strong> people <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area. There are more than<br />
15 species <strong>of</strong> freshwater fish <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Lake Inarijärvi <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River watercourse. The fish community is<br />
a mixture <strong>of</strong> eastern, western <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>troduced species.<br />
The most important fish species for food consumption<br />
are whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus), trout (Salmo<br />
trutta), perch (Perca fluviatilis) <strong>and</strong> pike (Esox lucius).<br />
The results from this study can be used to evaluate<br />
<strong>the</strong> levels <strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ants related to food safety.<br />
The most dist<strong>in</strong>ct contam<strong>in</strong>ants <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area<br />
Mercury (Hg) occurs naturally <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> environment <strong>and</strong><br />
has been used <strong>in</strong> numerous medic<strong>in</strong>al, commercial<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial applications. Today mercury presents<br />
risks to Arctic wildlife <strong>and</strong> human populations (Arctic<br />
Monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Assessment Programme, AMAP<br />
2011). Mercury is also one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> prioritized substances<br />
under The EU Water Framework Directive (WFD)<br />
<strong>and</strong> it is <strong>in</strong>cluded on <strong>Norway</strong>’s priority list <strong>of</strong> hazardous<br />
substances. It is <strong>of</strong> particular concern that mercury<br />
levels are cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g to rise <strong>in</strong> parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic, despite<br />
reductions <strong>in</strong> anthropogenic emissions. There are<br />
several reasons for this: <strong>in</strong>creased emissions <strong>in</strong> Asia,<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased river<strong>in</strong>e discharge, thaw<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> permafrost<br />
<strong>and</strong> local-scale climate change (AMAP 2011).<br />
Mercury enters <strong>the</strong> Arctic environment via long-range<br />
transport from human sources at lower latitudes.<br />
The European limits for allowable levels <strong>of</strong> mercury<br />
<strong>in</strong> fish are 0.5 mg/kg ww. The documented elevated<br />
levels <strong>of</strong> mercury <strong>and</strong> especially <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trends<br />
<strong>of</strong> mercury <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> environment are <strong>of</strong> a great concern<br />
for <strong>the</strong> Arctic countries (AMAP 2011).<br />
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are a group<br />
<strong>of</strong> chemicals which persist <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> environment, may<br />
bioaccumulate <strong>in</strong> human <strong>and</strong> animal tissues <strong>and</strong> are<br />
toxic. They also have <strong>the</strong> potential to be transported<br />
long distances <strong>and</strong> be deposited far away from <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
place <strong>of</strong> release.<br />
Polychlor<strong>in</strong>ated biphenyls (PCBs) were first manufactured<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1929 <strong>and</strong> produced <strong>in</strong> many countries.<br />
PCBs have been used extensively <strong>in</strong> a variety <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />
products <strong>and</strong> as plasticisers. In <strong>Russia</strong>, production<br />
<strong>of</strong> PCBs was term<strong>in</strong>ated between 1987 <strong>and</strong><br />
1993 <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>y are listed as carc<strong>in</strong>ogenic. The International<br />
Agency for Research on Cancer ranks PCBs as<br />
a probable human carc<strong>in</strong>ogen. Chronic low-level exposure<br />
to PCBs can cause liver damage, reproductive<br />
abnormalities, immune suppression, neurological <strong>and</strong><br />
endocr<strong>in</strong>e system disorders, delayed <strong>in</strong>fant development<br />
<strong>and</strong> stunted <strong>in</strong>tellectual function.<br />
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was widely<br />
used as a pesticide <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>secticide, but has s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong><br />
early 1970s been banned <strong>in</strong> North America, Europe<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> former USSR. However, it cont<strong>in</strong>ues to be us-<br />
98
ed <strong>in</strong> Asia, Africa, Central <strong>and</strong> South America (Voldner<br />
<strong>and</strong> Li 1995), result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a cont<strong>in</strong>ued global source.<br />
Total DDT is <strong>the</strong> sum <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> DDT structural analogs<br />
<strong>and</strong> breakdown products. DDT has been shown to<br />
be a hormone-disrupt<strong>in</strong>g chemical that can affect <strong>the</strong><br />
reproductive <strong>and</strong> nervous systems.<br />
Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) has been used as a<br />
fungicide, solvent <strong>and</strong> as a manufactur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>termediate<br />
or additive. Production <strong>and</strong> use has ceased <strong>in</strong><br />
many countries. HCB cont<strong>in</strong>ues to be created as a<br />
by-product <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> manufacture <strong>of</strong> many chlor<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
solvents <strong>and</strong> pesticides <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r chlor<strong>in</strong>ated processes.<br />
It is also released <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> burn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> municipal<br />
waste, dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>complete combustion. In <strong>Russia</strong>, HCB<br />
was used until 1990, <strong>and</strong> was banned <strong>in</strong> 1997. HCB is<br />
toxic <strong>and</strong> can damage <strong>the</strong> liver, thyroid <strong>and</strong> kidneys,<br />
as well as <strong>the</strong> endocr<strong>in</strong>e, immune, reproductive <strong>and</strong><br />
nervous systems.<br />
Chlordane is a versatile, broad-spectrum contact<br />
<strong>in</strong>secticide used ma<strong>in</strong>ly for non-agricultural purposes.<br />
Recently, <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> chlordane has been restricted <strong>in</strong><br />
many countries, due to its toxic effects <strong>and</strong> capacity to<br />
persist <strong>and</strong> bioaccumulate. It is banned <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong> (de<br />
March et al. 1989). Chlordane exposure has been l<strong>in</strong>ked<br />
to liver <strong>and</strong> blood disorders, severe neurological<br />
effects <strong>and</strong> damage to <strong>the</strong> endocr<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> reproductive<br />
systems.<br />
Different mixtures <strong>of</strong> polybrom<strong>in</strong>ated diphenyl e<strong>the</strong>rs<br />
(PBDEs) are used as additive flame retardants<br />
<strong>in</strong> plastics <strong>and</strong> textiles. (Bergman 1989). There is evidence<br />
that some PBDEs bioaccumulate <strong>and</strong> cause<br />
toxic effects at low levels. The United States <strong>Environmental</strong><br />
Protection Agency (EPA) has classified decabromodiphenyl<br />
e<strong>the</strong>r as a possible human carc<strong>in</strong>ogen.<br />
PBDEs are also endocr<strong>in</strong>e disrupters.<br />
Study area <strong>and</strong> sampl<strong>in</strong>g locations<br />
The Pasvik River catchment area is <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> freshwater<br />
system <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region, cover<strong>in</strong>g an area <strong>of</strong> approximately<br />
1250 km 2 . It has a catchment area <strong>of</strong> 18 404<br />
km 2, <strong>of</strong> which approximately 70 % belongs to F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>,<br />
25 % to <strong>Russia</strong> <strong>and</strong> 5 % to <strong>Norway</strong>. The watercourse<br />
constitutes a subarctic system with high biodiversity<br />
<strong>and</strong> production <strong>of</strong> fish <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r aquatic organisms.<br />
The fish populations are important food resources for<br />
<strong>the</strong> locals <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>re is a long tradition to utilize <strong>the</strong><br />
resources both for commercial <strong>and</strong> recreational fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(Aspholm 2004, Aspholm 1996). Detailed descriptions<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> study area are given <strong>in</strong> numerous report<br />
<strong>and</strong> publications (e.g. Arnesen et al. 1996, Moiseenko<br />
et al. 1995, Amundsen et al. 1993, 1997, Luk<strong>in</strong> et al.<br />
2003, Stebel et al. 2007).<br />
Sampl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> fish was carried out <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> September<br />
2012 <strong>and</strong> September 2013. The follow<strong>in</strong>g lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Pasvik River were sampled: Vaggatem (Tjerebukta<br />
<strong>and</strong> Ruskebukta), Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta<br />
(Table 1, Chapter 3, Introduction, Figure 1).<br />
Sampl<strong>in</strong>g procedure<br />
Fish sampl<strong>in</strong>g was performed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> littoral (< 8 m),<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>undal (> 10 m) <strong>and</strong> pelagic habitats (0–6 m) us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
gillnets. In all studied lakes, <strong>the</strong> whitefish is represented<br />
by two different morphs, differentiated by <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
number <strong>and</strong> morphology <strong>of</strong> gill rakers <strong>and</strong> referred to<br />
as sparsely-rakered (SR) <strong>and</strong> densely-rakered (DR)<br />
whitefish (Amundsen et al. 2004). The two whitefish<br />
morphs exhibit dist<strong>in</strong>ct genetic <strong>and</strong> ecological differences<br />
(Amundsen 1988, Amundsen et al. 2004), <strong>and</strong><br />
are treated as functional species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> analysis <strong>and</strong><br />
presentation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> results. Fish were identified to <strong>the</strong><br />
species level.<br />
The follow<strong>in</strong>g fish species were collected for contam<strong>in</strong>ant<br />
analyses dur<strong>in</strong>g 2012–2013: pike, perch, whitefish<br />
<strong>and</strong> trout.<br />
Each fish was measured for fork length <strong>and</strong> weight,<br />
sex <strong>and</strong> stage <strong>of</strong> maturation were recorded. Otoliths<br />
were sampled from whitefish <strong>and</strong> opercula from perch<br />
for age determ<strong>in</strong>ations. The tissue samples (muscle<br />
<strong>and</strong> liver, weight 5–20 g) were ei<strong>the</strong>r packed <strong>in</strong> preburned<br />
alum<strong>in</strong>ium foil for POPs samples or plastic<br />
zip-lock bags for metal analysis. Samples were stored<br />
frozen (-20 °C) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> field <strong>and</strong> transported frozen to<br />
<strong>the</strong> laboratory for analyses.<br />
Materials <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
Analyses<br />
Muscle tissue from pike, perch, SR whitefish, DR whitefish<br />
<strong>and</strong> trout were selected for POPs (55 fish) <strong>and</strong><br />
heavy metal analyses (97 fish) (Table 2).<br />
Persistent organic pollutants analyses carried out<br />
<strong>in</strong> this project were chlor<strong>in</strong>ated pesticides, polychlor<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
biphenyls (PCBs), planar <strong>and</strong> non-orthosubstituted<br />
congeners <strong>of</strong> PCBs <strong>and</strong> brom<strong>in</strong>ated flame retardants<br />
(PBDEs).<br />
Analysed heavy metals were mercury (Hg), arsenic<br />
(As), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), cobolt<br />
(Co), z<strong>in</strong>c (Zn), lithium (Li), nickel (Ni), iron (Fe) <strong>and</strong><br />
magnesium (Mn). Also lipids were analyzed.<br />
Analyses were carried out at Typhoon analytical laboratory<br />
(Obn<strong>in</strong>sk, <strong>Russia</strong>). Detailed descriptions <strong>of</strong><br />
99
analytical methods used for determ<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> environmental<br />
contam<strong>in</strong>ants, along with <strong>in</strong>formation on QC/<br />
QA, are given <strong>in</strong> Christensen et al. 2015.<br />
The follow<strong>in</strong>g persistent pollutants were determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> biological samples:<br />
• chlor<strong>in</strong>ated pesticides <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial organochlor<strong>in</strong>es:<br />
DDT-group, HCH, hexachlorobenzene (HCB),<br />
chlordanes, mirex, endr<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> dieldr<strong>in</strong>.<br />
• ortho-substituted congeners <strong>of</strong> polychlor<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
biphenyls.<br />
• planar <strong>and</strong> non-ortho-substituted congeners <strong>of</strong><br />
PCBs<br />
• brom<strong>in</strong>ated flame-retardants<br />
Results <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
The analysed material was a selection <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> collected<br />
material from 2012 <strong>and</strong> 2013. The aim was to analyse<br />
<strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> species from <strong>the</strong> three sites, Vaggatem<br />
(Ruskebukta <strong>and</strong> Tjerebukta), Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong><br />
Skrukkebukta. The ma<strong>in</strong> fish species <strong>in</strong> all <strong>the</strong> localities<br />
analysed were pike, perch <strong>and</strong> large sparsely-rakered<br />
whitefish (LSR whitefish). In addition, also densely-rakered<br />
whitefish (DS whitefish) from Vaggatem<br />
<strong>and</strong> brown trout from Skrukkebukta were analysed.<br />
There were some differences <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fish material regard<strong>in</strong>g<br />
size <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> different species from <strong>the</strong> different<br />
sites (Table 3). In general, pike, perch <strong>and</strong> LSR whitefish<br />
were larger <strong>in</strong> lake Vaggatem than <strong>in</strong> lakes Kuetsjarvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta. In average <strong>the</strong> pike, perch<br />
<strong>and</strong> LSR whitefish were smallest <strong>in</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi.<br />
For detailed <strong>in</strong>formation about this study, see Christensen<br />
et al. 2015.<br />
Table 1. Study localities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River.<br />
Lake Country Approx. distance<br />
from <strong>the</strong> smelters<br />
Fish species<br />
Vaggatem <strong>Norway</strong> 40 km, upstream pike, perch, SR whitefish, DR whitefish<br />
Kuetsjarvi <strong>Russia</strong> 5 km, downstream pike, perch, SR whitefish<br />
Skrukkebukta <strong>Norway</strong> 5 km, downstream pike,perch, SR whitefish, trout<br />
Table 2. Analysed fish material from lakes Vaggatem, Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta.<br />
Lake Species Number <strong>of</strong> analysed POPs Number <strong>of</strong> analysed metals<br />
Vaggatem pike 5 13<br />
perch 5 10<br />
SR whitefish 5 10<br />
DR whitefish 5 10<br />
Kuetsjarvi pike 5 5<br />
perch 5 9<br />
SR whitefish 5 10<br />
Skrukkebukta pike 5 5<br />
perch 5 10<br />
SR whitefish 5 10<br />
trout 5 5<br />
100
Table 3. Summary <strong>of</strong> weight <strong>and</strong> length (max, m<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> std) <strong>and</strong> average concentrations <strong>of</strong> ΣPCB, ΣDDT, PBDE, Hg, Ni <strong>and</strong> Cu <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> analysed fish material from Vaggatem, Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta.<br />
Component<br />
Pike<br />
Vaggatem (n = 10) Kuetsjarvi (n = 5) Skrukkebukta (n = 5)<br />
Average Max M<strong>in</strong> Std Average Max M<strong>in</strong> Std Average Max M<strong>in</strong> Std<br />
weight (g) 1907 3440 823 738 590 1215 256 372 1335 3697 568 1337<br />
length (cm) 66.7 81.4 49.9 8.79 39.8 50.8 33.0 6.61 51.2 73.5 40.9 13.5<br />
Σ PCB (ng/g ww) 2.57 4.47 1.33 1.17 6.15 7.85 5.18 1.03 4.95 9.73 3.28 2.71<br />
Σ DDT (ng/g ww) 0.304 0.460 0.190 0.112 1.26 1.61 0.960 0.255 0.700 1.58 0.260 0.522<br />
PBDE (ng/kg ww) 25.6 43.4 9.33 14.9 41.0 50.6 29.1 8.51 66.2 120.2 35.4 33.5<br />
Hg (mg/kg ww) 0.274 0.486 0.096 0.105 0.078 0.119 0.051 0.026 0.312 0.851 0.118 0.306<br />
Ni (mg/kg ww) 0.211 0.290 0.180 0.033 0.320 0.410 0.230 0.065 0.372 0.710 0.180 0.205<br />
Cu (mg/kg ww) 0.202 0.250 0.170 0.025 0.312 0.470 0.190 0.118 0.242 0.280 0.160 0.048<br />
Component<br />
PERCH<br />
Vaggatem (n = 13) Kuetsjarvi (n = 9) Skrukkebukta (n = 10)<br />
Average Max M<strong>in</strong> Std Average Max M<strong>in</strong> Std Average Max M<strong>in</strong> Std<br />
Weight (g) 311 409 251 49.6 192 440 104 109 251 425 144 113<br />
Length (mm) 28.2 31.0 26.5 1.47 22.4 29.0 19.0 3.34 25.9 32.2 22.0 3.70<br />
Σ PCB (ng/g ww) 0.342 0.680 0.020 0.304 3.95 7.65 0.140 3.50 7.48 13.1 4.97 3.36<br />
Σ DDT (ng/g ww) 0.198 0.280 0.160 0.056 0.503 0.950 0.060 0.374 1.35 2.95 0.850 0.904<br />
PBDE (ng/kg ww) 1.44 2.67 1.00 0.722 16.5 25.0 2.75 11.0 154 482 47.3 184<br />
Hg (mg/kg ww) 0.144 0.21 0.102 0.033 0.068 0.126 0.038 0.027 0.438 1.49 0.076 0.436<br />
Ni (mg/kg ww) 0.229 0.270 0.210 0.022 0.283 0.340 0.220 0.039 0.470 0.670 0.370 0.083<br />
Cu (mg/kg ww) 0.193 0.270 0.130 0.038 0.214 0.260 0.160 0.032 0.151 0.390 0.110 0.085<br />
Component<br />
LSR WHITEFISH<br />
Vaggatem (n = 10) Kuetsjarvi (n = 10) Skrukkebukta (n = 10)<br />
Average Max M<strong>in</strong> Std Average Max M<strong>in</strong> Std Average Max M<strong>in</strong> Std<br />
Weight (g) 1109 1937 523 420 323 981 156 246 381 767 217 171<br />
Length (mm) 43.0 49.8 35.3 4.81 28.2 38.5 24.2 4.38 32.0 40.3 26.7 4.05<br />
Σ PCB (ng/g ww) 0.052 0.140 0.020 0.052 6.69 10.2 4.93 2.39 5.75 13.06 1.94 4.60<br />
Σ DDT (ng/g ww) 0.220 0.330 0.160 0.070 1.69 2.30 0.940 0.6157 1.30 3.38 0.430 1.21<br />
PBDE (ng/kg ww) 1.43 2.80 1.00 0.781 44.2 60.4 25.0 15.2 51.1 83.5 26.9 25.3<br />
Hg (mg/kg ww) 0.036 0.051 0.022 0.009 0.018 0.033 0.011 0.007 0.041 0.055 0.024 0.010<br />
Ni (mg/kg ww) 0.241 0.290 0.190 0.031 0.254 0.330 0.210 0.039 0.297 0.360 0.250 0.033<br />
Cu (mg/kg ww) 0.185 0.270 0.140 0.044 0.300 0.370 0.240 0.045 0.210 0.240 0.190 0.016<br />
Component<br />
DR WHITEFISH<br />
Component<br />
TROUT<br />
Vaggatem (n = 10)<br />
Average Max M<strong>in</strong> Std<br />
Weight (g) 143.9 310.0 91.0 65.8<br />
Length (mm) 23.1 29.6 20.3 2.8<br />
Σ PCB (ng/g ww) 0.8 3.0 0.2 1.2<br />
Σ DDT (ng/g ww) 0.10 0.21 0.03 0.09<br />
PBDE (ng/kg ww) 2.58 5.49 1.00 2.07<br />
Hg (mg/kg ww) 0.05 0.09 0.03 0.02<br />
Ni (mg/kg ww) 0.251 0.31 0.17 0.043<br />
Cu (mg/kg ww) 0.184 0.22 0.15 0.025<br />
Skrukkebukta (n = 5)<br />
Average Max M<strong>in</strong> Std<br />
Weight (g) 1544 3657 435 1464<br />
Length (mm) 46.5 67.2 34.0 14.7<br />
Σ PCB (ng/g ww) 10.6 14.9 5.99 3.79<br />
Σ DDT (ng/g ww) 1.99 3.12 0.81 1.079<br />
PBDE (ng/kg ww) 149.3 270.0 1.00 108.9<br />
Hg (mg/kg ww) 0.161 0.273 0.099 0.071<br />
Ni (mg/kg ww) 0.552 0.870 0.430 0.180<br />
Cu (mg/kg ww) 0.148 0.170 0.120 0.022<br />
101
Mercury<br />
The highest average concentrations <strong>of</strong> mercury were<br />
measured <strong>in</strong> perch (0.44 mg/kg ww) <strong>and</strong> pike (0.31<br />
mg/ww) from Skrukkebukta (Figure 1). The highest<br />
concentration measured <strong>in</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle perch from Skrukkebukta<br />
was 1.49 mg/kg ww. The average levels <strong>of</strong><br />
mercury <strong>in</strong> perch from Skrukkebukta are close to <strong>the</strong><br />
European limits for allowable levels <strong>of</strong> mercury <strong>in</strong> fish<br />
(0.5 mg/kg ww). The levels <strong>of</strong> mercury <strong>in</strong> Kuetsjarvi<br />
were significantly lower <strong>in</strong> pike, perch <strong>and</strong> whitefish<br />
compared to Vaggatem <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta. However,<br />
<strong>the</strong> levels <strong>of</strong> mercury <strong>in</strong> sediments are considerably<br />
higher <strong>in</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi compared to o<strong>the</strong>r sites <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River. The reason for this is not clear but<br />
is probably both related to smaller fish (Figure 1) <strong>in</strong><br />
Lake Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong> levels <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
contam<strong>in</strong>ants are so high that this limits <strong>the</strong> methylation<br />
<strong>of</strong> mercury <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments. The levels <strong>of</strong> mercury<br />
<strong>in</strong> whitefish are, as assumed, low, compared to <strong>the</strong><br />
predatory fish species (pike, perch <strong>and</strong> trout). The levels<br />
<strong>of</strong> mercury <strong>in</strong> this study are comparable with <strong>the</strong><br />
results from 2008 (Christensen 2008) but <strong>the</strong> levels <strong>in</strong><br />
Skrukkebukta <strong>and</strong> Vaggatem are higher compared to<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r lakes <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nmark (Fjeld et al. 2010, Christensen<br />
et al. 2008).<br />
Copper <strong>and</strong> nickel<br />
The highest average concentration <strong>of</strong> copper <strong>and</strong><br />
nickel <strong>in</strong> muscle tissue was measured <strong>in</strong> fish from Lake<br />
Kuetsjarvi (Figure 2). There was no clear difference<br />
between <strong>the</strong> levels <strong>in</strong> fish from Skrukkebukta <strong>and</strong><br />
Vaggatem. The nickel levels <strong>in</strong> almost all <strong>the</strong> samples<br />
from this study are higher than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> samples from<br />
2008 (Christensen 2008).<br />
Polychlor<strong>in</strong>ated biphenyls (PCBs)<br />
The highest average concentrations <strong>of</strong> ∑PCB were<br />
measured <strong>in</strong> fish from lakes Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta<br />
downstream from Nikel (Figure 3). The levels<br />
<strong>in</strong> Vaggatem were significantly lower for all <strong>the</strong> analysed<br />
fish species compared to lakes Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong><br />
Skrukkebukta. The highest levels were measured <strong>in</strong><br />
trout (14.9 ng/g ww) from Skrukkebukta. The levels <strong>of</strong><br />
PCBs <strong>in</strong> fish from Skrukkebukta from <strong>the</strong> present study<br />
are higher compared to <strong>the</strong> results from <strong>the</strong> same<br />
fish species <strong>in</strong> Skrukkebukta <strong>in</strong> 2008 (Christensen<br />
2008). The reason for this <strong>in</strong>crease is not known.<br />
The levels <strong>of</strong> PCBs <strong>in</strong> fish from lakes Kuetsjarvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> Vaggatem are elevated compared to o<strong>the</strong>r studies<br />
from Nor<strong>the</strong>rn <strong>Norway</strong> (Christensen et al. 2008).<br />
The higher levels <strong>of</strong> PCBs <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> analysed samples<br />
from fish downstream from Nikel compared to<br />
upstream clearly <strong>in</strong>dicate emissions <strong>of</strong> PCBs from Nikel.<br />
The PCBs’ source might be related to <strong>the</strong> activity<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> metallurgical smelter or <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nikel city. PCBs<br />
have historically been used as an <strong>in</strong>sulat<strong>in</strong>g material<br />
<strong>in</strong> electric equipment, such as transformers <strong>and</strong> capacitors,<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> fluids, lubricants, pa<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>and</strong> plasticizers.<br />
One possible source is l<strong>and</strong>fills with PCB-conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
products that are leak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> environment.<br />
Pesticides<br />
The results for ∑DDT were very similar to <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
for ∑PCB with <strong>the</strong> highest average concentrations<br />
<strong>in</strong> fish from lakes Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta<br />
downstream from Nikel (Figure 4). The levels <strong>in</strong> Vaggatem<br />
were significantly lower for all <strong>the</strong> analysed fish<br />
species compared to lakes Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta.<br />
The highest levels were measured <strong>in</strong> whitefish<br />
(3.38 ng/g ww) <strong>and</strong> trout (3.12 ng/g ww) from Skrukkebukta.<br />
The levels <strong>of</strong> DDT <strong>in</strong> fish from Skrukkebukta<br />
from <strong>the</strong> present study are higher compared to <strong>the</strong><br />
results from <strong>the</strong> same fish species from 2004 <strong>and</strong><br />
2008 (Christensen et al. 2007, Christensen 2008).<br />
The reason for this <strong>in</strong>crease is not known but might<br />
be related to small sample size <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> previous studies.<br />
The levels <strong>of</strong> DDT <strong>in</strong> fish from lakes Kuetsjarvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta are considerably higher compared<br />
to o<strong>the</strong>r studies from Nor<strong>the</strong>rn <strong>Norway</strong>, while <strong>the</strong> levels<br />
<strong>in</strong> Vaggatem are similar (Christensen et al. 2008,<br />
Skotvold et al. 1997).<br />
The concentrations <strong>of</strong> hexachlorobenzene (HCB),<br />
hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) <strong>and</strong> chlordanes were<br />
slightly higher <strong>in</strong> fish downstream from Nikel but <strong>the</strong><br />
levels was comparable with o<strong>the</strong>r studies from Nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
<strong>Norway</strong> (Christensen et al. 2008).<br />
Polybrom<strong>in</strong>ated diphenyl e<strong>the</strong>rs (PBDEs)<br />
The results for PBDEs were different from <strong>the</strong> results<br />
for PCBs <strong>and</strong> DDT with <strong>the</strong> highest average concentrations<br />
for PBDEs <strong>in</strong> perch (154 ng/kg ww) <strong>and</strong> trout<br />
(149 ng/kg ww) from Skrukkebukta (Figure 5). The levels<br />
<strong>in</strong> fish from this lake were considerably higher<br />
compared to fish from Vaggatem. The levels <strong>of</strong> PBDE<br />
<strong>in</strong> perch from Skrukkebukta were 10 times higher than<br />
<strong>in</strong> Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> 100 times higher than <strong>in</strong> Vaggatem.<br />
The concentration <strong>of</strong> PBDEs <strong>in</strong> fish from Skrukkebukta<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> present study is higher compared to <strong>the</strong><br />
results from <strong>the</strong> same fish species <strong>in</strong> Skrukkebukta<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2004 <strong>and</strong> 2008 (Christensen et al. 2008, Christensen<br />
2008). The reason for this <strong>in</strong>crease is not known<br />
102
ut might be related to small sample size <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> previous<br />
studies. The levels <strong>of</strong> PBDE <strong>in</strong> fish from lakes<br />
Skrukkebukta <strong>and</strong> Kuetsjarvi are higher compared to<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r studies from Nor<strong>the</strong>rn <strong>Norway</strong> (Christensen et<br />
al. 2008).<br />
0,6<br />
Pasvik River, Hg<br />
0,5<br />
mg/kg ww<br />
0,4<br />
0,3<br />
0,2<br />
0,1<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Kuetsjavri<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
0,0<br />
Pike Perch SR DR<br />
whitefish whitefish<br />
Trout<br />
mg/kg ww<br />
Mercury <strong>in</strong> perch<br />
1,6<br />
1,4<br />
1,2<br />
1<br />
0,8<br />
0,6<br />
0,4<br />
0,2<br />
0<br />
10 15 20 25 30 35<br />
Length (cm)<br />
Kuetsjarvi<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Figure 1. Upper: Levels <strong>of</strong> mercury (mg/kg ww) <strong>in</strong> fish tissue from Vaggatem<br />
(Ruskebukta <strong>and</strong> Tjerebukta, blue bars), Lake Kuetsjarvi (yellow bars) <strong>and</strong><br />
Skrukkebukta (red bars). Lower: Levels <strong>of</strong> mercury (mg/kg ww) related to fish<br />
length (cm) <strong>in</strong> fish tissue from Vaggatem (Ruskebukta <strong>and</strong> Tjerebukta, blue<br />
dots), Lake Kuetsjarvi (yellow dots) <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta (red dots).<br />
0,6<br />
Nickel (Ni)<br />
0,6<br />
Copper (Cu)<br />
0,5<br />
0,5<br />
mg/kg ww<br />
0,4<br />
0,3<br />
0,2<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Kuetsjavri<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
mg/kg ww<br />
0,4<br />
0,3<br />
0,2<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Kuetsjavri<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
0,1<br />
0,1<br />
0,0<br />
Pike Perch SR DR<br />
whitefish whitefish<br />
Trout<br />
0,0<br />
Pike Perch SR DR<br />
whitefish whitefish<br />
Trout<br />
Figure 2. Levels <strong>of</strong> nickel <strong>and</strong> copper (mg/kg ww) <strong>in</strong> fish tissue from Vaggatem (Ruskebukta <strong>and</strong> Tjerebukta, blue bars), Lake<br />
Kuetsjarvi (yellow bars) <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta (red bars).<br />
103
12<br />
Total PCB<br />
10<br />
8<br />
Figure 3. Levels <strong>of</strong> ∑PCB (ng/g ww) <strong>in</strong> fish tissue<br />
from Vaggatem (Ruskebukta <strong>and</strong> Tjerebukta,<br />
blue bars), Lake Kuetsjarvi (yellow bars) <strong>and</strong><br />
Skrukkebukta (red bars).<br />
ng/g ww<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
Pike Perch SR DR<br />
whitefish whitefish<br />
Trout<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Kuetsjavri<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
DDT<br />
2,5<br />
2,0<br />
Figure 4. Levels <strong>of</strong> ∑DDT (ng/g ww) <strong>in</strong> fish tissue<br />
from Vaggatem (Ruskebukta <strong>and</strong> Tjerebukta,<br />
blue bars), Lake Kuetsjarvi (yellow bars) <strong>and</strong><br />
Skrukkebukta (red bars).<br />
ng/g ww<br />
1,5<br />
1,0<br />
0,5<br />
0,0<br />
Pike Perch SR DR<br />
whitefish whitefish<br />
Trout<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Kuetsjavri<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
PBDE<br />
160<br />
140<br />
120<br />
Figure 5. Levels <strong>of</strong> ∑PBDE (ng/kg ww) <strong>in</strong> fish<br />
tissue from Vaggatem (Ruskebukta <strong>and</strong> Tjerebukta,<br />
blue bars), Lake Kuetsjarvi (yellow bars)<br />
<strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta (red bars).<br />
ng/kg ww<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Pike Perch SR DR<br />
whitefish whitefish<br />
Trout<br />
Vaggatem<br />
Kuetsjavri<br />
Skrukkebukta<br />
Conclusions <strong>and</strong> recommendations<br />
• The highest levels <strong>of</strong> all detected legacy POPs were found <strong>in</strong> fish downstream from <strong>the</strong> Nikel city <strong>in</strong> lakes<br />
Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta.<br />
• The highest concentrations <strong>of</strong> mercury were found <strong>in</strong> perch <strong>and</strong> pike from Skrukkebukta. The lowest levels<br />
were found <strong>in</strong> fish from Lake Kuetsjarvi.<br />
• The levels <strong>of</strong> POPs are considered to be elevated <strong>in</strong> lakes Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta compared to o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region.<br />
• The higher levels <strong>of</strong> POPs <strong>and</strong> mercury <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> analysed samples from fish downstream from Nikel compared<br />
to upstream clearly <strong>in</strong>dicate emissions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se compounds from Nikel. The source might be related to<br />
<strong>the</strong> activity <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> metallurgical smelter or to o<strong>the</strong>r activities or l<strong>and</strong>fills <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nikel city.<br />
• There seems to be an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> concentrations <strong>of</strong> mercury, PCB, DDT <strong>and</strong> PBDE <strong>in</strong> fish from lakes Kuetsjarvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> Skrukkebukta s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> previous studies <strong>in</strong> 2008.<br />
• It is recommended that POPs <strong>and</strong> mercury are <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> a future adaptive monitor<strong>in</strong>g programme for <strong>the</strong><br />
Pasvik River.<br />
104
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<strong>Norway</strong>. xiv+193 p.<br />
Amundsen, P.-A., Staldvik, F., Luk<strong>in</strong>, A., Kashul<strong>in</strong>, N., Reshetnikov, Y.S., Popova, O. 1993: Ecology <strong>and</strong> heavy metal contam<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fish communities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River system. Report. Norwegian College <strong>of</strong> Fishery Science, University <strong>of</strong><br />
Tromsø, <strong>Norway</strong>. 29p.<br />
Amundsen, P.-A., Bøhn, T., Våga, G.H. 2004: Gill raker morphology <strong>and</strong> feed<strong>in</strong>g ecology <strong>of</strong> two sympatric whitefish (Coregonus<br />
lavaretus) morphs. Annales Zoologici Fennici 41: 291–300.<br />
Amundsen, P.-A., Staldvik, F.J., Luk<strong>in</strong>, A., Kashul<strong>in</strong>, N., Popova, O., Reshetnikov, Yu. 1997: Heavy metal contam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>in</strong><br />
freshwater fish from <strong>the</strong> border region between <strong>Norway</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>. Science <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Total Environment 201: 211–224.<br />
Arnesen, R., Traaen, T., Moiseenko, T., Kudravtseva, L., Mokrotovarova, O. 1996: Heavy metals from Nikel area. NIVA-<br />
Report SNO 3526 – 96. Oslo: 37 p.<br />
Aspholm, P. E. 2004: Fish <strong>and</strong> fishery resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Inari-Pasvik water system. Conference on <strong>in</strong>tegrated water management<br />
<strong>of</strong> transboundary catchments: a contribution from transact 24–26 March 2004.<br />
Aspholm, P.E., 1996: The Pasvik River. Barentswatch: 12–17.<br />
Christensen, G., A. Evenset, S. Rognerud, B.L. Skjelkvåle, R. Palerud, E. Fjeld, O. Røyset 2008: National lake survey<br />
2004–2006, PART III: AMAP. Status <strong>of</strong> metals <strong>and</strong> environmental pollutants <strong>in</strong> lakes <strong>and</strong> fish from <strong>the</strong> Norwegian part <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> AMAP region. Akvaplan-niva rapport 3613.01. SFT TA 2363-2008.<br />
Christensen, G. 2008: Miljøgifter i fisk fra Pasvikvassdraget – nye undersøkelser fra 2008. Akvaplan-niva report 4732.01. (<strong>in</strong><br />
Norwegian)<br />
Christensen, G.N., Andersen, H.J., Dahl-Hansen, G. 2015: Contam<strong>in</strong>ants <strong>in</strong> fish from <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River. Akvaplan-niva<br />
report. 6390.01.<br />
Dauvalter, V. 1994: Heavy metals <strong>in</strong> lake sediments <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula. Science <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Total Environment 158: 51–61.<br />
Dauvalter, V., Rognerud, S. 2001: Heavy metal pollution <strong>in</strong> sediments <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River dra<strong>in</strong>age. Chemosphere 42: 9–18.<br />
de March, B.G.E, de Wit, C.A., Muir, D.C.G. 1998: Persistent organic pollutants. In: AMAP Assessment Report: Arctic Pollution<br />
Issues. Arctic Monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Assessment Programme (AMAP). Oslo. <strong>Norway</strong>. 183–372.<br />
Fjeld, E., Rognerud, S., Christensen, G., Dahl-Hansen, G., Veiteberg Braaten, H.–F. 2010: Miljøovervåk<strong>in</strong>g av kvikksølv i<br />
abbor, 2010. NIVA rapport LNR 6090-2010. (<strong>in</strong> Norwegian)<br />
Kashul<strong>in</strong>a, T.G., Kashul<strong>in</strong> N.A. 1997: Accumulation <strong>and</strong> distribution <strong>of</strong> Ni, Cu, <strong>and</strong> Zn <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> organs <strong>and</strong> tissues <strong>of</strong> fishes <strong>in</strong><br />
subarctic waters. <strong>Environmental</strong> Pollution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic. Tromso. <strong>Norway</strong>. 210–212.<br />
Luk<strong>in</strong>, A., Dauvalter V., Kashul<strong>in</strong>, N., Yakovlev, V., Sharov, A., V<strong>and</strong>ysh, O. 2003: Assessment <strong>of</strong> copper-nickel <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
impact on a subarctic lake ecosystem. Science <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Total Environment 306: 73–83.<br />
Moiseenko T.I. 1994: Acidification <strong>and</strong> critical loads <strong>in</strong> Surface Waters; Kola, Nor<strong>the</strong>rn <strong>Russia</strong>. Ambio, 23(7): 418–424.<br />
Moiseenko T.I., Kudryavtseva, L.P., Rodushk<strong>in</strong>, I.V., Luk<strong>in</strong>, A.A., Kashul<strong>in</strong>, N.A., Dauvalter, V.A. 1995: Airborne contam<strong>in</strong>ants<br />
heavy metals <strong>and</strong> alum<strong>in</strong>ium <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> freshwater ecosystems on <strong>the</strong> Kola subarctic region, <strong>Russia</strong>. Science <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Total Environment 160–161: 715–727.<br />
Skotvold, T., Wartena, E.M.M., Rognerud, S. 1997: Heavy metals <strong>and</strong> persistent organic pollutants <strong>in</strong> sediments <strong>and</strong> fish<br />
from lakes <strong>in</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn <strong>and</strong> Arctic regions <strong>of</strong> <strong>Norway</strong>. Statlig program for forurensn<strong>in</strong>gsovervåkn<strong>in</strong>g, SFT rapport 688/97.<br />
98p.<br />
Stebel, K, Christensen, G. Derome, J., Grekelä, I. 2007: State <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> environment <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Norwegian, F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n<br />
border area. Report. The F<strong>in</strong>nish Environment 6/2007.<br />
Traaen, T.S., Henriksen, A., Moiseenko, T., Wright, R.F. 1992: Lake Monitor<strong>in</strong>g, critical load <strong>of</strong> sulphur <strong>and</strong> modell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
future acidity for several sulphur reduction scenarios <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Norwegian-<strong>Russia</strong>n border areas. Symposium on <strong>the</strong> State <strong>of</strong><br />
Environment <strong>and</strong> <strong>Environmental</strong> Monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Fennosc<strong>and</strong>ia <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula. Arctic Centre Publications<br />
No 4, 161–164. University <strong>of</strong> Lapl<strong>and</strong>, Rovaniemi.<br />
Traaen, T.S., Moiseenko, T., Dauvalter, V., Rognerud, S., Henriksen, A., Kudryavtseva L. 1991: Acidification <strong>of</strong> Surface<br />
Waters, Nickel <strong>and</strong> Copper <strong>in</strong> Water <strong>and</strong> Lake Sediments <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n-Norwegian <strong>Border</strong> <strong>Area</strong>s. Progress Report for<br />
1989–1990. Work<strong>in</strong>g Group for Water <strong>and</strong> <strong>Environmental</strong> Problems under <strong>the</strong> Norwegian-Soviet <strong>Environmental</strong> Protection<br />
Commission. Oslo <strong>and</strong> Apatity.<br />
105
106
Chapter 4: Evaluation <strong>and</strong> development<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake monitor<strong>in</strong>g network<br />
Photo: Helén Johanne Andersen<br />
107
1 Introduction<br />
The fifth activity dealt with <strong>the</strong> Pasvik area small lake<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g network, first presented <strong>in</strong> Stebel et<br />
al. (2007). Water quality <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> small lakes was last<br />
reported <strong>in</strong> Ylikörkkö et al. (2014). Previously regular<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g has focused predom<strong>in</strong>antly on chemical<br />
quality. For 13 selected lakes, additional biological<br />
elements are <strong>in</strong>troduced here: phytoplankton,<br />
periphytic diatoms, zoobenthos <strong>and</strong> fish. Uniform <strong>and</strong><br />
concurrent sampl<strong>in</strong>g between <strong>the</strong> three countries was<br />
<strong>in</strong>tended. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, to <strong>in</strong>crease underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ations <strong>and</strong> paleolimnology <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> area, also sediment was analysed.<br />
Sediment sampl<strong>in</strong>g, chemical <strong>and</strong> biological monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
was conducted <strong>in</strong> 2012–2013 <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> result<strong>in</strong>g<br />
data was used <strong>in</strong> assessment <strong>of</strong> variables <strong>in</strong> terms<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir reliability, cost-effectiveness <strong>and</strong> sensitivity to<br />
changes <strong>in</strong> climate <strong>and</strong> harmful substances. The Pasvik<br />
area small lakes monitor<strong>in</strong>g programme was updated<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> light <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> new <strong>in</strong>formation.<br />
In analysis <strong>of</strong> chemical <strong>and</strong> biological state <strong>the</strong> lakes<br />
were grouped <strong>in</strong>to three geographical regions:<br />
Vätsäri west <strong>of</strong> Nikel <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>, ‘sou<strong>the</strong>rn’ south <strong>of</strong> Nikel<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong> <strong>and</strong> Jarfjord area <strong>in</strong> <strong>Norway</strong>. Lake Sierramjärvi<br />
west <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> actual Vätsäri area was <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> biological monitor<strong>in</strong>g programme. On <strong>Russia</strong>n<br />
side <strong>the</strong> lakes for biological sampl<strong>in</strong>g lie ma<strong>in</strong>ly south<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jarfjord area is north-east<br />
<strong>of</strong> Nikel.<br />
1 Lampi 222<br />
2 Harrijärvi<br />
3 Pitkä-Surnujärvi<br />
4 Sierramjärvi<br />
5 Pikkujarvi<br />
Näätämö<br />
!(<br />
Kirkenes<br />
!(<br />
"J<br />
18<br />
13 14<br />
"J "J<br />
15<br />
"J<br />
16<br />
"J<br />
17<br />
"J<br />
6 Shuonijaur<br />
7 Ala-Nautsijarvi<br />
8 Ilja-Nautsijarvi<br />
9 Toartesjaur<br />
10 Virtuovoshjaur<br />
4<br />
"J<br />
2<br />
"J<br />
"J<br />
3<br />
1<br />
"J<br />
River Pasvik<br />
ZAPOLYARNY<br />
5<br />
!(<br />
"J<br />
!(<br />
NIKEL<br />
6<br />
"J<br />
11 Riuttikjaure<br />
12 Kochejaur<br />
13 Holmvatn<br />
14 Gardsjøen<br />
15 Rabbvatn<br />
16 Durvatn<br />
17 Børsevatn<br />
Inari<br />
!(<br />
Ivalo<br />
!(<br />
!(<br />
Nellim<br />
9 "J<br />
10<br />
"J<br />
11<br />
"J<br />
12<br />
"J<br />
7<br />
"J "J<br />
8<br />
18 Rundvatn<br />
0 50<br />
km<br />
© Maanmittauslaitos, lupa nro 7/MML/14<br />
Figure 1. Location <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes under study (2012–2013). Lakes 1–4 are F<strong>in</strong>nish , 5–12 <strong>Russia</strong>n <strong>and</strong> 13–18 Norwegian.<br />
108
2 Water quality<br />
JUKKA YLIKÖRKKÖ, GUTTORM N. CHRISTENSEN, HELÉN JOHANNE ANDERSEN<br />
Methods<br />
Water samples were taken between June <strong>and</strong> September<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2012 <strong>and</strong> 2013 (Table 1). The analysis <strong>of</strong><br />
water quality served as a background for <strong>the</strong> biological<br />
variables <strong>and</strong> sediment analysis. Specific chemical<br />
analysis methods for each country are <strong>in</strong>troduced<br />
<strong>in</strong> Puro-Tahvana<strong>in</strong>en et al. (2008). When available,<br />
previous data from <strong>the</strong> same area was <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong><br />
analysis for more reliable <strong>in</strong>terpretation. Jarfjord area<br />
samples were all from 1 meter. For <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r regions,<br />
average total nutrient content (tot. N, tot. P), total organic<br />
carbon (TOC) content <strong>and</strong> alkal<strong>in</strong>ity concern<br />
1–10 m water column. Sal<strong>in</strong>ity balance <strong>and</strong> metal<br />
concentrations were calculated from samples from<br />
<strong>the</strong> whole water column. Values below <strong>the</strong> reliable detection<br />
limit were calculated as half <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> limit value.<br />
Results <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
Nitrogen <strong>and</strong> phosphorus<br />
Total phosphorus was on average below <strong>the</strong> reliable<br />
detection limit (2 µg/l) or up to 3 µg/l <strong>in</strong> Vätsäri, 3–9<br />
µg/l <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes <strong>and</strong> 3 µg/l <strong>in</strong> Jarfjord (Figure<br />
1). The sou<strong>the</strong>rnmost lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong> differed from<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rs with <strong>the</strong> highest total phosphorus content.<br />
Total nitrogen concentrations varied greatly with<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> areas (Figure 2). On average nitrogen concentrations<br />
were 90–170 µg/l <strong>in</strong> Vätsäri, 135–208 µg/l <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
sou<strong>the</strong>rn lakes <strong>and</strong> 94–180 µg/l <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jarfjord lakes.<br />
Sou<strong>the</strong>rn lakes stood out with slightly higher average<br />
nitrogen content.<br />
The observed nutrient concentrations are typical<br />
for <strong>the</strong> lakes, consider<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir location. The Vätsäri<br />
<strong>and</strong> Jarfjord lakes are <strong>the</strong> poorest <strong>in</strong> nutrients. The<br />
more sou<strong>the</strong>rn lakes lie on lower altitude, deeper <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> forest zone, where <strong>the</strong>re are thicker, more organic<br />
soils, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> typically higher trophic status <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
lakes. The previous results from <strong>the</strong> lakes or regions<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicate <strong>the</strong> same nutrient levels (Puro-Tahvana<strong>in</strong>en<br />
et al. 2011, Kashul<strong>in</strong> et al. 2008).<br />
Table 1. Lake area (km 2 ), altitude (masl) <strong>and</strong> number <strong>of</strong> water<br />
samples (N) dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> years with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> project time frame <strong>and</strong><br />
previous data used <strong>in</strong> analysis.<br />
Lake km 2 masl Years N<br />
F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> Lampi 222 0.2 222 2013 3<br />
2012–2000 3<br />
Harrijärvi 1.0 127 2013 2<br />
2012–2000 2<br />
Pitkä-Surnujärvi 0.7 126 2013 2<br />
Sierramjärvi 1.1 254 2013 4<br />
2012–2000 10<br />
<strong>Russia</strong> Pikkujärvi<br />
Shuonijaur 11.3 180 2012–2013 6<br />
2011–2000 4<br />
Ilja-Nautsijarvi<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi 3.2 133 2012 1<br />
Toartesjaur 0.6 195 2013 2<br />
Virtuovoshjaur 1.3 182 2012–2013 6<br />
2011–2000 3<br />
Riuttikjaure 0.9 190 2013 1<br />
Kochejaur 18.5 159 2011–2000 9<br />
<strong>Norway</strong> Gardsjøen 0.7 82 2013 1<br />
2012–1995 3<br />
Holmvatn 0.8 156 2013 1<br />
2012–2000 2<br />
Rabbvatn 0.4 83 2013 1<br />
2012–2000 2<br />
Durvatn 0.4 231 2013 1<br />
2012–1993 2<br />
Børsevatn 0.4 178 2013 1<br />
Rundvatn<br />
109
P tot. µg/l<br />
14<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
P tot. µg/l<br />
14<br />
12<br />
10<br />
Vätsäri<br />
8<br />
Jarfjord<br />
6<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Jarfjord<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Figure 1. Average total phosphorus concentration <strong>and</strong> its st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation for each lake <strong>and</strong> area.<br />
300<br />
250<br />
300<br />
250<br />
N tot. µg/l<br />
200<br />
200<br />
150<br />
150<br />
Vätsäri<br />
100<br />
Jarfjord 100<br />
50 <strong>Russia</strong><br />
50<br />
N tot. µg/l<br />
0<br />
0<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Jarfjord<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Figure 2. Average total nitrogen concentration <strong>and</strong> its st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation for each lake <strong>and</strong> area.<br />
TOC mg/l<br />
8<br />
7<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
TOC mg/l<br />
8<br />
7<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Jarfjord 3<br />
<strong>Russia</strong> 2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Jarfjord<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Figure 3. Average concentration <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation <strong>of</strong> total organic carbon for each lake <strong>and</strong> area.<br />
110
Organic matter<br />
Total organic carbon (TOC) followed similar pattern<br />
across <strong>the</strong> regions as nutrients. It was <strong>the</strong> lowest <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Vätsäri <strong>and</strong> Jarfjord lakes: on average 1.3–2.3<br />
mg/l <strong>and</strong> 1.3–3.3 mg/l, respectively (Figure 3). Among<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes, TOC varied widely from 4.0 to 6.4<br />
on average, depend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake. TOC content <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Russia</strong>n lakes was clearly higher than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r two<br />
regions, <strong>and</strong> Lake Virtuovoshjaur st<strong>and</strong>s out with <strong>the</strong><br />
highest measured values (Figure 3).<br />
Alkal<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>and</strong> pH<br />
Alkal<strong>in</strong>ity average was <strong>the</strong> lowest 68 µeq/l <strong>in</strong> Lampi<br />
222 <strong>in</strong> Vätsäri <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> highest 217 µeq/l <strong>in</strong> Kochejaur,<br />
<strong>Russia</strong> (Figure 4). Generally <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>in</strong> Vätsäri,<br />
exclud<strong>in</strong>g Sierramjärvi, were <strong>the</strong> least alkal<strong>in</strong>e. The<br />
more sou<strong>the</strong>rn lakes were slightly more alkal<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
There was little variation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake’s pH values:<br />
<strong>the</strong> lowest 6.6 were measured <strong>in</strong> Pitkä-Surnujärvi<br />
(Vätsäri) <strong>and</strong> Holmvatn (Jarfjord) <strong>and</strong> highest 7.2 <strong>in</strong><br />
Kochejaur <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong> (Figure 5). On regional level Vätsäri<br />
<strong>and</strong> Jarfjord had average pH just below 6.8, only<br />
slightly lower than sou<strong>the</strong>rn region (Figure 5).<br />
Alkal<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>and</strong> pH were with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> same range as<br />
reported earlier for Vätsäri (Puro-Tahvana<strong>in</strong>en et al.<br />
2011) <strong>and</strong> some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes (Kashul<strong>in</strong> et al.<br />
2008). The selected Jarfjord lakes appeared to have<br />
more neutral water compared to some o<strong>the</strong>r small lakes<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area described <strong>in</strong> Puro-Tahvana<strong>in</strong>en et al.<br />
(2011). No clear <strong>in</strong>dication <strong>of</strong> acidification was observed<br />
<strong>in</strong> water samples <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> studied lakes. All <strong>the</strong> regions<br />
have ra<strong>the</strong>r low alkal<strong>in</strong>ity naturally.<br />
250<br />
250<br />
200<br />
200<br />
Alk. µeq /l<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
Alk. µeq /l<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Jarfjord<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
0<br />
0<br />
Figure 4. Average alkal<strong>in</strong>ity for each lake <strong>and</strong> for each area with st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation.<br />
pH<br />
7,6<br />
7,4<br />
7,2<br />
7,0<br />
6,8<br />
6,6<br />
6,4<br />
pH<br />
7,6<br />
7,4<br />
7,2<br />
7,0<br />
6,8<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Jarfjord<br />
6,2<br />
6,0<br />
5,8<br />
6,6<br />
6,4<br />
6,2<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
6,0<br />
Figure 5. Average pH <strong>and</strong> its st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation for each lake <strong>and</strong> area.<br />
111
Sal<strong>in</strong>ity balance<br />
Cation content tended to be low <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Vätsäri lakes<br />
(Table 2, Figure 6). Lake Shuonijaur, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> vic<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong><br />
Nikel, st<strong>and</strong>s out with higher calcium (2.0 mg/l) <strong>and</strong><br />
magnesium (0.8 mg/l) concentrations. The sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong> had mostly higher cation contents <strong>and</strong><br />
greater variance between <strong>the</strong> lakes. Jarfjord lakes were<br />
roughly on <strong>the</strong> same level with calcium (Ca), magnesium<br />
(Mg) <strong>and</strong> potassium (K), but sodium (Na) content<br />
was much higher.<br />
Average sulphate ranged 1.9–2.1 mg/l <strong>in</strong> Vätsäri,<br />
1.8–3.3 <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes, <strong>and</strong> on notably higher<br />
level 2.1–4.7 <strong>in</strong> Jarfjord (Figure 7). The greatest difference<br />
was between Vätsäri <strong>and</strong> Jarfjord lake sulphate<br />
levels. Chloride content did not differ much between<br />
Vätsäri (0.8–1.4 mg/l) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes (0.9–1.7<br />
mg/l) (Figure 8). Chloride was much higher <strong>in</strong> Jarfjord<br />
compared to <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r two regions.<br />
Be<strong>in</strong>g closest to <strong>the</strong> ocean, <strong>the</strong> Jarfjord lakes receive<br />
more mar<strong>in</strong>e salts, which shows <strong>in</strong> higher sodium<br />
<strong>and</strong> chloride contents <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area. Sulphate concentrations<br />
<strong>in</strong> Jarfjord are elevated also by sulphur deposition<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel. These ions contribute<br />
to sal<strong>in</strong>ity, <strong>and</strong> due to more salts <strong>the</strong> conductivity is<br />
notably higher <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jarfjord region (Figure 9).<br />
Table 2. Average range <strong>and</strong> regional means for ma<strong>in</strong> cations (mg/l) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>of</strong> three regions.<br />
Ca (mg/l) Na (mg/l) Mg (mg/l) K (mg/l)<br />
range mean range mean range mean range mean<br />
Vätsäri 1.2–2.0 1.4 1.4–1.5 1.5 0.3–0.8 0.5 0.2–0.3 0.2<br />
South 1.8–3.1 2.3 1.2–1.5 1.4 0.9–1.1 0.9 0.4–0.6 0.5<br />
Jarfjord 1.6–2.7 2.0 2.8–3.9 3.3 0.8–1.1 0.9 0.3–0.4 0.4<br />
3<br />
4<br />
Ca mg/l<br />
2,5<br />
2<br />
1,5<br />
1<br />
0,5<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Jarfjord<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Na mg/l<br />
3,5<br />
3<br />
2,5<br />
2<br />
1,5<br />
1<br />
0,5<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Jarfjord<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
0<br />
0<br />
1,2<br />
0,6<br />
1<br />
0,5<br />
Mg mg/l<br />
0,8<br />
0,6<br />
0,4<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Jarfjord<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
K mg/l<br />
0,4<br />
0,3<br />
0,2<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Jarfjord<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
0,2<br />
0,1<br />
0<br />
0<br />
Figure 6. Regional average values <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard deviations for calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg) <strong>and</strong> potassium (K).<br />
112
SO 4 mg/l<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
4 mg/l<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
Vätsäri<br />
2<br />
Jarfjord<br />
SO 43<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
1<br />
0<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Jarfjord<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Figure 7. Average concentration <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation <strong>of</strong> sulphate for each lake <strong>and</strong> area.<br />
7<br />
5,0<br />
Cl mg/l<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Jarfjord<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Conductivity mS/m<br />
4,0<br />
3,0<br />
2,0<br />
1,0<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Jarfjord<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
0<br />
0,0<br />
Figure 8. Regional average values <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard deviations for<br />
chloride<br />
Figure 9. Regional average values <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard deviations for<br />
conductivity.<br />
Metals<br />
Average nickel concentration was <strong>the</strong> lowest <strong>in</strong> Vätsäri:<br />
0.4–1 µg/l (Figure 10). In <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes it<br />
was roughly on <strong>the</strong> same level (0.5–1 µg/l), exclud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Lake Shuonijaur close to Nikel, where average nickel<br />
concentration was 8.8 µg/l. Jarfjord region had <strong>the</strong><br />
highest nickel concentrations vary<strong>in</strong>g (4.9–16.7 µg/l).<br />
Copper concentrations followed a similar pattern<br />
(Figure 11). Average copper <strong>in</strong> Vätsäri <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n<br />
lakes varied 0.5–1.3 µg/l, exclud<strong>in</strong>g Shuonijaur<br />
(4.9 µg/l). Also <strong>the</strong> copper levels were <strong>the</strong> highest <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Jarfjord lakes: 2.5–9.2 µg/l.<br />
Copper <strong>and</strong> nickel deposition from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel<br />
show <strong>in</strong> Shuonijaur close to Nikel, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Jarfjord lakes directly downw<strong>in</strong>d from <strong>the</strong> smelter.<br />
Both metals have notably elevated concentrations <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>se lakes. Metal pollution is on <strong>the</strong> same level <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>se Jarfjord lakes as reported for o<strong>the</strong>r lakes earlier<br />
<strong>in</strong> Puro-Tahvana<strong>in</strong>en et al. (2011). First time sampled<br />
Børsevatn appears to be <strong>the</strong> most polluted <strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong><br />
lakes.<br />
Cadmium concentrations were low <strong>in</strong> all <strong>the</strong> lakes.<br />
In Vätsäri area measured cadmium was below <strong>the</strong> reliable<br />
detection limit 0.01 µg/l <strong>and</strong> on <strong>the</strong> same level<br />
<strong>in</strong> Jarfjord lakes, exclud<strong>in</strong>g Rabbvatn (0.02 µg/). Average<br />
cadmium <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n sou<strong>the</strong>rn lakes was only<br />
slightly more: 0.03–0.05 µg/l.<br />
Lead concentrations <strong>in</strong> Vätsäri lakes varied between<br />
0.02–0.04 µg/l, on average. The o<strong>the</strong>r regions<br />
had significantly higher lead content: <strong>in</strong> Jarfjord <strong>the</strong><br />
correspond<strong>in</strong>g range was 0.02–0.52 µg/l, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
sou<strong>the</strong>rn lakes 0.13–0.23 µg/l.<br />
Average iron concentrations varied widely: 4–11<br />
µg/l <strong>in</strong> Vätsäri, 12–284 µg/l <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn lakes <strong>and</strong><br />
10–49 <strong>in</strong> Jarfjord. Relative to <strong>the</strong> average, <strong>the</strong> measured<br />
iron contents varied highly with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sampl<strong>in</strong>g period.<br />
113
Ni µg/l<br />
18<br />
17<br />
16<br />
10<br />
9<br />
8<br />
7<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
Ni µg/l<br />
10<br />
9<br />
8<br />
7<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
Vätsäri<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Jarfjord<br />
Figure 10. Average nickel concentration <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation for each lake <strong>and</strong> area.<br />
Cu µg/l<br />
10<br />
9<br />
8<br />
7<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
Cu µg/l<br />
10<br />
9<br />
8<br />
7<br />
6<br />
5<br />
Vätsäri 4<br />
Jarfjord<br />
3<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Jarfjord<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Figure 11. Average copper concentration <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard deviation for each lake <strong>and</strong> area.<br />
References<br />
Kashul<strong>in</strong>, N.A., Dauvalter, V.A., S<strong>and</strong>imirov, S.S., Terentjev, P.M., Koroleva, I.M. 2008: Catalogue <strong>of</strong> lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n,<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> Norwegian border area. 141 p.<br />
Puro-Tahvana<strong>in</strong>en, A., Zueva, M., Kashul<strong>in</strong>, N., S<strong>and</strong>imirov, S.,Christensen, G.N., Grekelä, I. 2011 Pasvik Water Quality<br />
Report <strong>Environmental</strong> Monitor<strong>in</strong>g Programme <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Norwegian, F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n <strong>Border</strong> <strong>Area</strong>. Centre for Economic<br />
Development, Transport <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Environment for Lapl<strong>and</strong>, Publications 7/2011. 52 p.<br />
Puro-Tahvana<strong>in</strong>en, A., Grekelä, I., Derome, J., Stebel, K. (ed) 2008: <strong>Environmental</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g programme <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Norwegian,<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n border area – Implementation guidel<strong>in</strong>es. 51 p.<br />
Stebel, K., Christensen, G., Derome, J., Grekelä, I. (ed) 2007: State <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> nvironment <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Norwegian, F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n<br />
<strong>Border</strong> <strong>Area</strong>. The F<strong>in</strong>nish Environment 6/2007. 98 p.<br />
Ylikörkkö, J., Zueva, M., Kashul<strong>in</strong>, N., Kashul<strong>in</strong>a, T., S<strong>and</strong>imirov, S., Christensen, G., Jelkänen, E. 2014: Pasvik Water<br />
Quality until 2013 – <strong>Environmental</strong> Monitor<strong>in</strong>g Programme <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Norwegian, F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n <strong>Border</strong> <strong>Area</strong>. Centre for<br />
Economic Development, Transport <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Environment for Lapl<strong>and</strong>, Publications 96/2014. 43 p.<br />
114
Jarfjord mounta<strong>in</strong>. Photo:Helén Andersen<br />
Go<strong>in</strong>g to sampl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Vätsäri. Photo: Jouni Satokangas<br />
115
3 Sediments <strong>and</strong> paleolimnology<br />
VLADIMIR DAUVALTER, DMITRII DENISOV<br />
The border area between <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>Norway</strong>, <strong>and</strong> F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />
is exposed to serious <strong>in</strong>dustrial impact. Lake<br />
Kuetsjarvi <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> lower watercourse <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
River receive wastewater from smelt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> by-processes<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel Company. The river,<br />
as well as lakes <strong>and</strong> rivers <strong>of</strong> this area not part <strong>the</strong><br />
Pasvik watercourse, is also exposed to pollution via<br />
atmospheric deposition. The major pollutants <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
sulfur compounds <strong>and</strong> heavy metals (Ni, Cu, Cd, Cr,<br />
Zn, As, Hg, etc.), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons<br />
(PAHs), <strong>and</strong> persistant organic pollutants (POPs).<br />
Sulfur dioxide emissions cause acidification <strong>and</strong> pollution<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface water due to <strong>in</strong>tensification <strong>of</strong> rock<br />
wea<strong>the</strong>r<strong>in</strong>g processes. Dust, nitrogen oxides <strong>and</strong> carbon<br />
dioxides are also part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> emissions from <strong>the</strong><br />
Pechenganikel.<br />
The history <strong>of</strong> ecosystems’ development <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
range <strong>of</strong> natural fluctuation <strong>of</strong> biological parameters<br />
are needed to identify <strong>the</strong> reasons for various current<br />
changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik watercourse. Information about<br />
specific past environmental features allows identification<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> climate change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ecosystems’<br />
transformations, which is especially important <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial impact on <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn areas.<br />
In this context <strong>the</strong> small lakes <strong>of</strong> glacial orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
river’s catchment area are most suitable for obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
paleoecological <strong>in</strong>formation for reconstruction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
historical dynamics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> environment <strong>and</strong> climate.<br />
Layer-by-layer analysis <strong>of</strong> sediments provides data<br />
on global <strong>and</strong> local climate changes, fluxes <strong>of</strong> various<br />
substances <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> environment etc., which can be<br />
<strong>in</strong>terrelated with absolute time scale. Paleoecological<br />
research <strong>and</strong> restor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> water ecosystems’ development<br />
history is impossible without correct estimation<br />
<strong>of</strong> sedimentation rate allow<strong>in</strong>g to determ<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong><br />
studied sediments. Radionuclides are widely used for<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> sedimentation rate <strong>in</strong> natural water<br />
reservoirs. 210 Pb is applicable for studies <strong>of</strong> contemporary<br />
sedimentation rates (from 100 to 150 years)<br />
which <strong>in</strong> turn can be used to estimate <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> sediments.<br />
210 Pb-dat<strong>in</strong>g is <strong>of</strong>ten used for chronological<br />
reconstructions <strong>of</strong> anthropogenic pollution by radionuclides,<br />
heavy metals <strong>and</strong> organochlorides.<br />
Materials <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
Sediment cores from <strong>the</strong> deepest areas were sampled<br />
from <strong>the</strong> 16 lakes (Introduction, Figure 1). Heavy<br />
metal concentrations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments were analyzed<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> level <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial load on <strong>the</strong> lakes’ ecosystems<br />
was determ<strong>in</strong>ed accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> estimated pollution<br />
factor (C f<br />
) for each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> priority heavy metal<br />
contam<strong>in</strong>ant (method <strong>of</strong> Håkanson, 1980). The contam<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
degree (C d<br />
) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> bottom sediment was<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong> sum <strong>of</strong> all C f<br />
values for eight ma<strong>in</strong><br />
heavy metals <strong>in</strong> a particular lake.<br />
Three lakes were selected for <strong>the</strong> study <strong>of</strong> diatom<br />
complexes <strong>of</strong> bottom sediments (Harrijärvi, F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>,<br />
Rabbvatnet, <strong>Norway</strong>, <strong>and</strong> Shuonijaur, <strong>Russia</strong>) (Introduction,<br />
Figure 1). The selected lakes are characterized<br />
by depths sufficient for formation <strong>of</strong> un<strong>in</strong>terrupted<br />
sequence <strong>of</strong> layers <strong>of</strong> bottom sediments.<br />
Diatom analysis was carried out accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong><br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard generally accepted method (Zhuze et al.<br />
1949, Davydova 1985, Denisov et al. 2006). All diatom<br />
valves were identified, if possible, to <strong>in</strong>traspecific taxonomic<br />
categories (Krammer & Lange-Bertalot 1988–<br />
2003). Fur<strong>the</strong>r analysis <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong>vestigation <strong>of</strong> taxonomic<br />
structure <strong>of</strong> diatom complexes, dynamics <strong>of</strong><br />
relative abundance (%) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> predom<strong>in</strong>ant species<br />
<strong>and</strong> estimation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> total amount <strong>of</strong> valves <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediment.<br />
Species diversity was estimated accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
Shannon-Weaver <strong>in</strong>dex (H’ bit/ex.). The total amount<br />
<strong>of</strong> valves was counted <strong>in</strong> each <strong>in</strong>vestigated layer (mln.<br />
ex./g).<br />
Tolerance analysis <strong>in</strong> relation to pH was made for<br />
<strong>the</strong> discovered taxa <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegral pH value for each<br />
layer was calculated us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> equation (Moiseenko<br />
& Razumovsky 2009): pH = ∑ph i<br />
k / ∑k, where ph i<br />
is<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual numerocal value <strong>of</strong> each <strong>in</strong>dicator taxon<br />
<strong>and</strong> k is <strong>the</strong> relative abundance <strong>of</strong> this taxon.<br />
In relation to pH values <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g plankton<br />
groups were identified: neutr<strong>of</strong>ilic with developmental<br />
optimum at pH 7.0, <strong>in</strong>different capable <strong>of</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> a relatively wide range <strong>of</strong> pH around 7, alkalifilic<br />
preferr<strong>in</strong>g pH> 7.0, alkalibiont preferr<strong>in</strong>g pH 7.6 <strong>and</strong><br />
above, acid<strong>of</strong>ilic preferr<strong>in</strong>g pH< 7.0 <strong>and</strong> acidobiont develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
at relatively low pH 6.4 <strong>and</strong> below.<br />
116
Ecological groups <strong>of</strong> diatoms <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir proportions<br />
<strong>in</strong> each sediment layer were analyzed to reconstruct<br />
<strong>the</strong> conditions <strong>in</strong> each lake. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to preferred habitat<br />
phytoplakton was divided <strong>in</strong>to planktic, benthic<br />
<strong>and</strong> plankto-benthic forms. The relation to water sal<strong>in</strong>ity<br />
(chloride concentration) was also considered:<br />
halophob (growth is <strong>in</strong>hibited by sal<strong>in</strong>ity), <strong>in</strong>different<br />
(tolerates different sal<strong>in</strong>ities), oligohalob (tolerates some<br />
sal<strong>in</strong>ity), hal<strong>of</strong>ilic (growth is stimulated by sal<strong>in</strong>ity)<br />
<strong>and</strong> mesohalob (grows <strong>in</strong> water with medium sal<strong>in</strong>ity,<br />
for example <strong>in</strong> brackish water) groups were identified.<br />
Last ecological group was formed accord<strong>in</strong>g to biogeographical<br />
association (cosmopolitan, arctic-alp<strong>in</strong>e,<br />
boreal, holarctic).<br />
Saprobity <strong>in</strong>dex (S) was calculated for each analyzed<br />
layer as an <strong>in</strong>dicator <strong>of</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> nutrients <strong>and</strong><br />
also as an <strong>in</strong>direct <strong>in</strong>dicator <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes’ trophic status<br />
(Sladecek 1967, Bar<strong>in</strong>ova et al. 2006). Data <strong>of</strong> ecology<br />
<strong>of</strong> specific algae taxa, <strong>in</strong>dividual saprobity <strong>in</strong>dicators<br />
<strong>and</strong> reaction to pH from <strong>the</strong> updated database on<br />
algae ecology (Bar<strong>in</strong>ova et al. 1996, 2006) were used<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> analysis.<br />
Results <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
Sediments<br />
Lead-based method <strong>of</strong> sedimentation rate determ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
Sediment cores’ ages were determ<strong>in</strong>ed accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
210<br />
Pb chronology <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> sedimentation rates (Table<br />
1). The average rate <strong>of</strong> sedimentation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> latest<br />
hundred <strong>and</strong> fifty years <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes was fairly stable,<br />
with<strong>in</strong> 0.3–0.6 mm/year. The lowest sedimentation rates<br />
are typical for <strong>the</strong> oligotrophic lakes Rabbvatnet,<br />
Virtuovoshjaur <strong>and</strong> Shuonijaur. Rabbvatnet had <strong>the</strong><br />
longest sediment column <strong>and</strong> oldest sediment, which<br />
allows <strong>the</strong> study <strong>of</strong> environmental <strong>and</strong> climate changes<br />
prior to active <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> catchment area <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Pasvik River.<br />
Background concentrations <strong>of</strong> elements <strong>in</strong> bottom<br />
sediments<br />
Background heavy metal concentrations are found<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> deepest layers <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediment cores (usually<br />
>20 cm) which were formed over two hundred years<br />
ago, i.e. before <strong>in</strong>dustrial development <strong>of</strong> North Fennosc<strong>and</strong>ia<br />
(Norton et al. 1992, 1996, Rognerud et al.<br />
1993). The background heavy metal concentrations<br />
reflect <strong>the</strong> geochemical peculiarities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> catchment<br />
<strong>and</strong> provide quantitative <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>of</strong> water bodies’<br />
pollution degree <strong>and</strong> help determ<strong>in</strong>e anomalies<br />
<strong>in</strong> search <strong>of</strong> m<strong>in</strong>eral resources (Tenhola & Lummaa<br />
1979).<br />
The maximum background heavy metal concentrations<br />
<strong>in</strong> sediment were found <strong>in</strong> different lakes: Cu <strong>and</strong><br />
Hg <strong>in</strong> Lake Lampi 222, Zn <strong>and</strong> Cd <strong>in</strong> Lake Ala-Nautsijarvi,<br />
Co <strong>in</strong> Lake Ilja-Nautsijarvi, Ni <strong>in</strong> Lake Pikkujarvi,<br />
Pb <strong>in</strong> Lake Holmvatnet, <strong>and</strong> As <strong>in</strong> Lake Gardsjøen.<br />
Factor analysis was used to identify <strong>the</strong> factors hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> greatest impact on <strong>the</strong> chemical composition <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> lakes’ sediment. Analysis confirmed <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />
<strong>of</strong> geochemical composition <strong>of</strong> bedrock on <strong>the</strong> formation<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediment background layers’ chemical<br />
composition.<br />
Cluster analysis identified three groups <strong>of</strong> water<br />
bodies: <strong>the</strong> first group <strong>in</strong>cludes <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish lakes (Pitkä-Surnujärvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> Sierramjärvi) <strong>and</strong> a similar <strong>Russia</strong>n<br />
lake Ilja-Nautsijarvi, <strong>the</strong> second group <strong>in</strong>cludes <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Russia</strong>n lakes Shuonijaur <strong>and</strong> Virtuovoshjaur <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Norwegian lake Rabbvatnet, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> third group <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes Toartesjaur, Kochejaur <strong>and</strong><br />
Riuttikjaure. The lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> groups are believed to<br />
be similar <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> natural conditions <strong>of</strong> sediment<br />
chemistry formation. A large number <strong>of</strong> lakes not<br />
belong<strong>in</strong>g to any <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> three groups shows <strong>the</strong> large<br />
diversity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se conditions, which is reflected by a<br />
considerable range <strong>of</strong> background concentrations <strong>in</strong><br />
Table 1. The lengths <strong>of</strong> sediment cores, sedimentation rates <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> ages <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> bottom sediments <strong>of</strong> some lakes.<br />
Lake<br />
core length<br />
(cm)<br />
sedimentation rate<br />
(mm/year)<br />
Approx. age <strong>of</strong> bottom sediment<br />
(years)<br />
Rabbvatnet 44 0.65 687<br />
Harrijarvi 30 1.3 240<br />
Shuonijaur 14 0.7 210<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi 17,5 1.6 106<br />
Virtuovoshjaur 18 0.7 257<br />
Kochejaur 16 1.5 106<br />
117
sediments. It was also established that <strong>the</strong> average<br />
background concentrations <strong>in</strong> sediments are similar<br />
to average concentrations <strong>of</strong> chemical elements <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> crust <strong>of</strong> earth (percentage abundance) <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
rocks <strong>and</strong> soils.<br />
Changes <strong>of</strong> elements’ concentration <strong>in</strong> sediments<br />
over time<br />
Increased concentrations <strong>and</strong> sedimentation rates <strong>of</strong><br />
Ni, Cu, <strong>and</strong> Co <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments dated back to 20 th<br />
century were observed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Norwegian lakes (Norton<br />
et al. 1992, 1996, Rognerud et al. 1993). Higher<br />
concentrations <strong>of</strong> Pb <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments, generally, are<br />
not related to <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel’s emissions s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
<strong>the</strong>y date back to <strong>the</strong> time too early to be related to<br />
any <strong>in</strong>dustrial activities <strong>in</strong> this area. Ni, Cu, Co <strong>and</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r heavy metals enter <strong>the</strong> atmosphere from <strong>the</strong><br />
Pechenganikel but growth <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> concentrations <strong>and</strong><br />
accumulation rates dates back one decade prior to<br />
<strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial activities.<br />
Vertical distribution <strong>of</strong> heavy metal concentrations<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments was studyied to f<strong>in</strong>d out <strong>the</strong> anthropogenic<br />
load <strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>of</strong> lakes located at different<br />
distances from smelters. The most polluted with Cu<br />
<strong>and</strong> Ni are <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes (Pikkujarvi, Shuonijaur),<br />
located close to <strong>the</strong> emission source as well as all<br />
Norwegian lakes <strong>of</strong> Jarfjord, exposed to <strong>in</strong>tensive atmospheric<br />
pollution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrated plant (Figure1).<br />
Growth <strong>of</strong> Cu <strong>and</strong> Ni content <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface layers <strong>of</strong><br />
sediment was also recorded <strong>in</strong> lakes Ilja-Nautsijarvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> Virtuovoshjaur, located 80 <strong>and</strong> 90 km from <strong>the</strong><br />
smelters respectively.<br />
Increas<strong>in</strong>g Cu <strong>and</strong> Ni content <strong>in</strong> sediment cores<br />
was recorded ma<strong>in</strong>ly near <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrated plant (Shuonijaur).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Norwegian lake Rabbvatnet <strong>the</strong> first<br />
noticeable growth <strong>of</strong> Cu <strong>and</strong> Ni content was observed<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> middle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 17 th century, which is probably associated<br />
with <strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial revolution<br />
<strong>in</strong> Europe <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> heavy metal emissions <strong>in</strong>to<br />
<strong>the</strong> environment <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir air transport <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> direction<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arctic (Figure 2).<br />
The next noticeable growth <strong>of</strong> Cu content was observed<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 19 th century, which may be attributed to<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrialization. S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> Cu concentration<br />
has kept grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensive growth <strong>of</strong> Cu content<br />
is associated with <strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> copper <strong>and</strong><br />
nickel production <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pechenga area. In <strong>the</strong> last<br />
two decades <strong>the</strong> production dropped after <strong>the</strong> collapse<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> USSR, but <strong>the</strong> concentrations <strong>of</strong> Cu <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
sediment <strong>of</strong> Lake Rabbvatnet (as well as <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n<br />
lakes Shuonijaur <strong>and</strong> Virtuovoshjaur) have only been<br />
grow<strong>in</strong>g, which can be expla<strong>in</strong>ed by heavy metal accumulation<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> catchment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes (Dauvalter<br />
et al. 2012).<br />
No <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> Zn concentrations have been noted<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface layers except for Lake Pikkujarvi. In <strong>the</strong><br />
majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>the</strong>re is a tendency <strong>of</strong> Zn decrease.Chalcophile<br />
high-toxic heavy metals Cd <strong>and</strong> Pb<br />
have been considered a global pollution element by<br />
many ecologists <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> last decades (for example Pacyna<br />
& Pacyna 2001). Significant growth <strong>of</strong> Cd <strong>and</strong> Pb<br />
concentrations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> dated sediment was recorded <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 20 th century associated with <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>tensive <strong>in</strong>dustrial development after World War II,<br />
metallurgical production at <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
grow<strong>in</strong>g use <strong>of</strong> leaded petrol <strong>in</strong> case <strong>of</strong> Pb. In <strong>the</strong> majority<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>the</strong>re is a tendency to both Cd <strong>and</strong><br />
Pb content growth towards <strong>the</strong> sediment surface, <strong>and</strong><br />
at <strong>the</strong> same time a decrease occurs <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> very top<br />
layer <strong>in</strong> about half <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes. Cd <strong>and</strong> Pb content reduction<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface layer dated to one-two decades<br />
may be associated with <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong> collapse <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> USSR<br />
or with <strong>the</strong> reduction <strong>of</strong> global emission <strong>of</strong> Cd over <strong>the</strong><br />
last decades. Possibly <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> reason for decrease<br />
<strong>of</strong> Pb <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> latest decades is <strong>the</strong> prohibition <strong>of</strong> leaded<br />
petrol. However, <strong>in</strong> some lakes maximum heavy metal<br />
contents are noted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface layer.<br />
In majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes growth <strong>of</strong> chalcophile hightoxic<br />
As <strong>and</strong> Hg content is noted towards <strong>the</strong>ir surface.<br />
Especially noticeable growth <strong>of</strong> As <strong>and</strong> Hg occurred<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> middle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> latest century associated with<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial development after World War II, grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
use <strong>of</strong> As <strong>and</strong> coal high <strong>in</strong> Hg <strong>in</strong> metallurgy <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
at <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel Company. In <strong>the</strong> very top layer<br />
<strong>of</strong> sediment (1–3 cm) <strong>of</strong> a few lakes a reduction <strong>of</strong> As<br />
<strong>and</strong> Hg occurs, which is suggestive <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> consequences<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> global emission reduction. The reduction<br />
may be associated with <strong>the</strong> collapse <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> USSR <strong>and</strong><br />
reductions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> global emissions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> latest decades<br />
due to use prohibitions <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> recycl<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Growth <strong>of</strong> Co concentrations was found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface<br />
layers <strong>of</strong> all Norwegian lakes, <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes located<br />
close to Pechenganikel (Pikkujarvi <strong>and</strong> Shuonijaur)<br />
<strong>and</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish Lake Lampi 222, which is <strong>the</strong> closest<br />
to <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel among all <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish lakes. O<strong>the</strong>r<br />
studied lakes show <strong>the</strong> tendency <strong>of</strong> Co content<br />
reduction towards <strong>the</strong> sediment surface. Co concentrations<br />
reached maximum values <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> 21 st century <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong>y drop towards <strong>the</strong> sediment<br />
surface probably due to <strong>the</strong> reduction <strong>of</strong> production<br />
<strong>of</strong> heavy metals.<br />
118
Cu<br />
0 100 200<br />
0<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30<br />
40 Lampi<br />
Cu<br />
0 10 20 30<br />
0<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30<br />
40 Harrijarvi<br />
Cu<br />
0 20 40 60<br />
0<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30<br />
40 Pitkasurnujarvi<br />
Cu 0 10 20 Ni 0 20 40 60<br />
0<br />
0<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30<br />
Ni<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30<br />
0 20 40 Ni 0 20 40 60 Ni 0 20 40<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0<br />
40 Sierramjarvi 40<br />
Lampi 40 Harrijarvi 40 Pitkasurnujarvi 40 Sierramjarvi<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30<br />
Cu<br />
Cu<br />
Cu<br />
0 20 40 60<br />
0<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30 Shuonijaur<br />
0 10 20 30<br />
0<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30 Toartesjaur<br />
0 100 200 300<br />
0<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30<br />
40<br />
50<br />
Ref<br />
Gardsjøen<br />
Cu 0 20 40 60 Cu 0 10 20 30 Cu 0 100 200 300 Ni 0 40 80<br />
0<br />
Cu<br />
0<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30<br />
AlaNautsijarvi<br />
0 10 20 30 Cu<br />
0<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30 Virtuovoshjaur<br />
Cu 0 100 200<br />
0<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30<br />
40<br />
Ref<br />
Cu<br />
0<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30 IlaNautsijarvi<br />
0 10 20 30<br />
0<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30 Riuttikijaure<br />
0 100 200 300<br />
0<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30<br />
40<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30<br />
Cu<br />
30<br />
Cu<br />
50 Holmvatn 50 Rabbvatnnet 50<br />
10<br />
20<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30<br />
40<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0<br />
Pikkujarvi<br />
0 10 20<br />
Kochejaur<br />
0 200 400<br />
Ref<br />
Durvatn<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Ni<br />
Ni<br />
10<br />
20<br />
Ni<br />
10<br />
20<br />
0 20 40 60<br />
0<br />
0 20 40<br />
0<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30 Shuonijaur 30 AlaNautsijarvi 30 IlaNautsijarvi 30 Pikkujarvi<br />
0 10 20<br />
0<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30 Toartesjaur<br />
0 100 200<br />
0<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30<br />
40<br />
Ref<br />
Ni<br />
10<br />
20<br />
0 20 40<br />
0<br />
Ni<br />
Ni<br />
10<br />
20<br />
Ni<br />
10<br />
20<br />
0 200 400<br />
0<br />
0 20 40 60 Ni 0 20 40<br />
0<br />
0<br />
30 Virtuovoshjaur 30 Riuttikijaure 30 Kochejaur<br />
Ni 0 100 200 Ni 0 100 200 Ni 0 200 400 600<br />
0<br />
10<br />
20 30<br />
40<br />
Ref 0<br />
10<br />
20<br />
30<br />
40<br />
0<br />
10<br />
20 30<br />
40<br />
Ref<br />
50 Gardsjøen 50 Holmvatn 50 Rabbvatnnet 50 Durvatn<br />
10<br />
20<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Sediment depth, cm<br />
Figure 1. Vertical distribution <strong>of</strong> Cu <strong>and</strong> Ni concentrations (µg/g <strong>of</strong> dry weight) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> studied lakes. In this <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r figures <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish lakes are colored <strong>in</strong> blue, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes <strong>in</strong><br />
red <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Norwegian lakes <strong>in</strong> green.<br />
119
Cu 0 20 40 60 Cu 0 100 200 300 Cu 0 10 20 30 Ni 0 40 80<br />
2050<br />
2000<br />
1950<br />
1900<br />
1850<br />
1800<br />
1750<br />
1700<br />
1650<br />
1600<br />
1550<br />
1500<br />
1450<br />
1400<br />
1350<br />
1300<br />
Shuonijaur<br />
2050<br />
2000<br />
1950<br />
1900<br />
1850<br />
1800<br />
1750<br />
1700<br />
1650<br />
1600<br />
1550<br />
1500<br />
1450<br />
1400<br />
1350<br />
1300<br />
2050<br />
2000<br />
1950<br />
1900<br />
1850<br />
1800<br />
1750<br />
1700<br />
1650<br />
1600<br />
1550<br />
1500<br />
1450<br />
1400<br />
1350<br />
Rabbvatnnet 1300<br />
Harrijarvi<br />
2050<br />
2000<br />
1950<br />
1900<br />
1850<br />
1800<br />
1750<br />
1700<br />
1650<br />
1600<br />
1550<br />
1500<br />
1450<br />
1400<br />
1350<br />
1300<br />
Shuonijaur<br />
Cu 0 20 40 60 Cu 0 10 20 30 Cu 0 10 20 Ni 0 20 40 60<br />
2050<br />
2000<br />
1950<br />
1900<br />
1850<br />
1800<br />
1750<br />
1700<br />
1650<br />
1600<br />
1550<br />
1500<br />
1450<br />
1400<br />
1350<br />
1300 AlaNautsijarvi<br />
2050<br />
2000<br />
1950<br />
1900<br />
1850<br />
1800<br />
1750<br />
1700<br />
1650<br />
1600<br />
1550<br />
1500<br />
1450<br />
1400<br />
1350<br />
1300 Virtuovoshjaur<br />
2050<br />
2000<br />
1950<br />
1900<br />
1850<br />
1800<br />
1750<br />
1700<br />
1650<br />
1600<br />
1550<br />
1500<br />
1450<br />
1400<br />
1350<br />
1300<br />
Kochejaur<br />
2050<br />
2000<br />
1950<br />
1900<br />
1850<br />
1800<br />
1750<br />
1700<br />
1650<br />
1600<br />
1550<br />
1500<br />
1450<br />
1400<br />
1350<br />
1300 AlaNautsijarvi<br />
Figure 2. Vertical distribution <strong>of</strong> Cu <strong>and</strong> Ni concentrations (µg/g <strong>of</strong> dry weight) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> dated sediment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> studied lakes.<br />
Ni<br />
2050<br />
2000<br />
1950<br />
1900<br />
1850<br />
1800<br />
1750<br />
1700<br />
1650<br />
1600<br />
1550<br />
1500<br />
1450<br />
1400<br />
1350<br />
1300<br />
Ni<br />
2050<br />
2000<br />
1950<br />
1900<br />
1850<br />
1800<br />
1750<br />
1700<br />
1650<br />
1600<br />
1550<br />
1500<br />
1450<br />
1400<br />
1350<br />
1300<br />
0 100 200<br />
Rabbvatnnet<br />
0 20 40<br />
Virtuovoshjaur<br />
Ni<br />
2050<br />
2000<br />
1950<br />
1900<br />
1850<br />
1800<br />
1750<br />
1700<br />
1650<br />
1600<br />
1550<br />
1500<br />
1450<br />
1400<br />
1350<br />
1300<br />
Ni<br />
2050<br />
2000<br />
1950<br />
1900<br />
1850<br />
1800<br />
1750<br />
1700<br />
1650<br />
1600<br />
1550<br />
1500<br />
1450<br />
1400<br />
1350<br />
1300<br />
0 20 40<br />
Harrijarvi<br />
0 20 40<br />
Kochejaur<br />
120
Territorial distribution <strong>of</strong> elements <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> bottom sediments<br />
Long-term anthropogenic load on <strong>the</strong> catchments <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> lakes has led to alteration <strong>of</strong> natural conditions <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> formation <strong>of</strong> sediment chemical composition <strong>and</strong><br />
to growth <strong>of</strong> heavy metal concentrations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface<br />
sediment layers. The ma<strong>in</strong> reason for high concentrations<br />
<strong>of</strong> heavy metals (Ni, Cu, Co) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface<br />
layers are <strong>the</strong> atmospheric emissions from <strong>the</strong><br />
smelters <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel especially near <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />
plant. The majority <strong>of</strong> heavy metals from <strong>the</strong><br />
emissions <strong>and</strong> waste water are tied to <strong>and</strong> stay <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
sediments.<br />
The most polluted lakes are located <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> immediate<br />
proximity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> smelters <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Jarfjord <strong>in</strong>side<br />
20–40 km zone from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel. The highest<br />
concentrations <strong>of</strong> Ni, Cu <strong>and</strong> Co, exceed<strong>in</strong>g background<br />
values by 5–25 times, were noted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes<br />
at a distance up to 40 –50 km from <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrated plant<br />
(Figure 3). Fur<strong>the</strong>r away at 60–100 km <strong>the</strong> reduction<br />
<strong>of</strong> concentrations (first <strong>of</strong> all <strong>of</strong> Ni <strong>and</strong> Cu) is noted. A<br />
similar pattern is observed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> distribution <strong>of</strong> Cd,<br />
As, <strong>and</strong> Hg: <strong>the</strong> same area up to 50 km is polluted<br />
most <strong>in</strong>tensively (concentrations exceed background<br />
values by 2–8 times) <strong>and</strong> at distance <strong>of</strong> >50 km <strong>the</strong><br />
concentrations are reduced to 1–3 times <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> background<br />
values. However, pollution with chalcophile elements<br />
(especially Pb) is quite serious <strong>the</strong>re.<br />
The contents <strong>of</strong> Zn <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments exceed <strong>the</strong><br />
background values <strong>in</strong>significantly (up to 1.4 times <strong>in</strong><br />
Lake Pikkujarvi); <strong>the</strong>refore this element can be regarded<br />
as non-pollut<strong>in</strong>g. In <strong>the</strong> distribution <strong>of</strong> Pb no<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g tendency <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface layers was noted<br />
approach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel (<strong>the</strong> largest Pb concentrations<br />
were recorded <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Norwegian territory),<br />
which testifies that <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel is not <strong>the</strong> major<br />
source <strong>of</strong> Pb pollution.<br />
A close relationship between <strong>the</strong> content <strong>of</strong> alkal<strong>in</strong>e<br />
<strong>and</strong> alkal<strong>in</strong>e-earth metals (first <strong>of</strong> all K, Na <strong>and</strong> Mg) <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> sediment surface <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> distance from <strong>the</strong> source<br />
<strong>of</strong> pollution was also noted: concentrations grow<br />
clos to <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel. This means that along with<br />
<strong>the</strong> emissions <strong>of</strong> heavy metals, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrated plant also<br />
releases <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> atmosphere alkal<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> alkal<strong>in</strong>eearth<br />
metals, which are <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ore-host<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> stripp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
rocks conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g m<strong>in</strong>erals with large content <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>se elements.<br />
Factor analysis confirmed <strong>the</strong> contribution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Pechenganikel <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> emissions <strong>of</strong> Cu, Ni, chalcophile<br />
elements <strong>and</strong> alkal<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> alkal<strong>in</strong>e-earth metals that<br />
greatly <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>the</strong> chemical composition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments.<br />
Chalcophile elements are delivered also via<br />
atmospheric transboundary transport. Physical <strong>and</strong><br />
chemical conditions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes also <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>the</strong> sediments<br />
as does <strong>the</strong> water level <strong>in</strong> lakes above sea<br />
level.<br />
Cluster analysis clearly identified three groups <strong>of</strong><br />
water bodies: lakes Harrijärvi, Ilja-Nautsijarvi <strong>and</strong> Virtuovoshjaur<br />
with relatively small contents <strong>of</strong> priority<br />
pollutant heavy metals (Ni, Cu), lakes Shuonijaur <strong>and</strong><br />
Rabbvatnet with relatively high concentrations <strong>of</strong> Ni<br />
<strong>and</strong> Cu <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r heavy metals <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes Toartesjaur,<br />
Riuttikjaure <strong>and</strong> Kochejaur, located close to<br />
each o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>and</strong> far from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel <strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />
plant (>80 km) <strong>and</strong> characterized by relatively small<br />
contents <strong>of</strong> Ni <strong>and</strong> Cu as well as o<strong>the</strong>r heavy metals,<br />
except for Pb <strong>and</strong> Hg <strong>in</strong> Lake Riuttikjaure. Probably<br />
<strong>the</strong>se clusters are similar by natural <strong>and</strong> anthropogenic<br />
conditions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments’ chemical composition<br />
formation. The unclustered lakes suggest a great<br />
variety <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se conditions, which <strong>in</strong> itself reflects <strong>the</strong><br />
wide range <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> elements’ contents <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediment<br />
surface <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> studied lakes.<br />
Factor <strong>and</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
To assess <strong>the</strong> geoecological condition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface<br />
waters <strong>the</strong> factor <strong>and</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ation were<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ed with <strong>the</strong> method <strong>of</strong> Håkanson (1980).<br />
The contam<strong>in</strong>ation factor (C fi<br />
) was calculated as <strong>the</strong><br />
quotient by divisid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> element (or compound) concentration<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface 1 centimeter layer by <strong>the</strong><br />
background value. The contam<strong>in</strong>ation degree (C d<br />
)<br />
was determ<strong>in</strong>ed as <strong>the</strong> sum <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pollution factors for<br />
all eight <strong>in</strong>vestigated pollution elements.<br />
The follow<strong>in</strong>g classification <strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ation factor<br />
was used: C fi<br />
C f<br />
value for Cd (3.1 – ‘significant’) was noted <strong>in</strong> Lake<br />
Durvatn. The largest C f<br />
values for Pb were also noted<br />
<strong>in</strong> Norwegian lakes Rabbvatnet <strong>and</strong> Durvatn (14.3<br />
<strong>and</strong> 13.0, respectively). Maximum C f<br />
values for As<br />
<strong>and</strong> Hg were recorded <strong>in</strong> lakes Sierramjärvi <strong>and</strong> Durvatn,<br />
respectively (9.6 <strong>and</strong> 8.3). The pollution factors<br />
for Pb, As <strong>and</strong> Hg refer to high degree <strong>of</strong> pollution. In<br />
general <strong>the</strong> high pollution factors for Ni <strong>and</strong> Cu are<br />
observed near <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel smelters. Chalcophile<br />
Pb, As <strong>and</strong> Hg are also recorded at a significant<br />
distance from <strong>the</strong> smelters, which confirms <strong>the</strong> conclusions<br />
regard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> global nature <strong>of</strong> pollution with<br />
<strong>the</strong>se high-toxic elements.<br />
600<br />
Ni, µg/g<br />
600<br />
Cu, µg/g<br />
400<br />
400<br />
200<br />
y = 4285x -1.0041<br />
R 2 = 0.621<br />
200<br />
y = 6014.5x -1.174<br />
R 2 = 0.5823<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0<br />
40 80 120 0 40 80 120<br />
Distance from Nikel, km<br />
Distance from Nikel, km<br />
Cd, µg/g<br />
Pb, µg/g<br />
0.8<br />
y = 0.3188x 0.0617<br />
R 2 = 0.0069<br />
60<br />
40<br />
y = 20x 0.0581<br />
R 2 = 0.0082<br />
0.4<br />
20<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0 40 80 120 0 40 80 120<br />
Distance from Nikel, km<br />
Distance from Nikel, km<br />
As, µg/g<br />
Hg, µg/g<br />
30<br />
20<br />
y = 23.808x -0.343<br />
R 2 = 0.0868<br />
0.4<br />
y = 0.3414x -0.2014<br />
R 2 = 0.0373<br />
10<br />
0.2<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0 40 80 120 0 40 80 120<br />
Distance from Nikel, km<br />
Distance from Nikel, km<br />
Figure 3. Distribution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
concentrations <strong>of</strong> key pollution<br />
elements (µg/g) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface<br />
layer (0–1 cm) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediment <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> studiedlakes depend<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>the</strong><br />
distance from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrated plant.<br />
200<br />
100<br />
Zn, µg/g<br />
y = 98.869x -0.0272<br />
R 2 = 0.0037<br />
-0.56 86<br />
y = 151.67x<br />
R 2 = 0.1392<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0 40 80 120 0 40 80 120<br />
Distance from Nikel, km<br />
Distance from Nikel, km<br />
120<br />
80<br />
40<br />
Co, µg/g<br />
122
Sediment sampl<strong>in</strong>g. Photo: Guttorm Christensen<br />
123
Paleolimnology<br />
Lake Shuonijaur<br />
In Lake Shuonijaur <strong>the</strong> diatom complexes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> top<br />
layer <strong>of</strong> sediments (<strong>in</strong>terval 0.5–1 cm) <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> bottom<br />
part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> column (13–14 cm) were analyzed.<br />
Top layer reflects <strong>the</strong> present-day status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake<br />
ecosystem <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> bottom layer <strong>the</strong> status before<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensive <strong>in</strong>dustrial transformations (ca. 200 years<br />
ago). Lake Shuonijaur is a subarctic lake with low<br />
sal<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>and</strong> oligotrophic status. Diatom periphyton is<br />
found on <strong>the</strong> numerous shallow-water areas on littoral<br />
rocks <strong>and</strong> rocky bottom down to 2.5–3 m depth, which<br />
illustrates high transparency <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> water.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> present-day plankton <strong>the</strong> typical species<br />
are Aulacoseira alpigena (Grun.) Kramm., A. distans<br />
(Ehrb.) Simons., Cyclotella schumannii (Grun.) Håk.,<br />
C. rossii Håk. <strong>and</strong> Tabellaria flocculosa (Roth) Kütz<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> same diatoms were found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> top layer. In<br />
<strong>the</strong> bottom layer <strong>the</strong> same species are complemented<br />
by Cyclotella michiganiana Skvortzov 1937, C. bodanica<br />
var. lemanica (O. Müll. ex Schröter) Bachm. <strong>and</strong><br />
Pseudostaurosira brevistriata (Grun.) D.M. Williams<br />
& Round. The presence <strong>of</strong> P. brevistriata is a sign <strong>of</strong><br />
previously more favorable trophic conditions for algae<br />
development. The ratios between <strong>the</strong> biogeographic<br />
groups have not changed much over <strong>the</strong> latest 200<br />
years. The <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> boreal <strong>and</strong> holarctic species<br />
may be regarded as an <strong>in</strong>direct <strong>in</strong>dicator <strong>of</strong> a certa<strong>in</strong><br />
climate change towards warm<strong>in</strong>g (Figure 5d); at<br />
<strong>the</strong> same time <strong>the</strong> portion <strong>of</strong> arctic-alp<strong>in</strong>e species rema<strong>in</strong>s<br />
<strong>the</strong> same.<br />
The present typical subarctic conditions are similar<br />
to those that existed 200 years ago <strong>and</strong> no radical<br />
changes have taken place <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake over this period.<br />
A certa<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> total abundance <strong>of</strong> diatoms<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> modern sediments along with a decrease <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> species diversity was observed <strong>and</strong> it may have<br />
resulted from climate change toward warm<strong>in</strong>g. The<br />
modern conditions are also characterized by lower values<br />
<strong>of</strong> pH <strong>and</strong> saprobity (Figure 4). The decrease <strong>in</strong><br />
saprobity <strong>in</strong>dex is a consequence <strong>of</strong> a certa<strong>in</strong> shift <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> lake’s trophic status towards oligotrophy.<br />
There have been no significant changes <strong>in</strong> ecological<br />
conditions (Figure 5). The proportions <strong>of</strong> diatoms<br />
tolerat<strong>in</strong>g different pH-values have not changed except<br />
for some decrease <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> alkalifilic diatoms. Sal<strong>in</strong>ity<br />
also rema<strong>in</strong>ed at <strong>the</strong> same level <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> halophobs<br />
<strong>and</strong> oligohalob-<strong>in</strong>differents dom<strong>in</strong>ate, which<br />
is typical <strong>of</strong> low-m<strong>in</strong>eralized waters. The water level<br />
<strong>and</strong> volume have not changed significantly as <strong>the</strong> proportions<br />
<strong>of</strong> planktic forms have rema<strong>in</strong>ed at <strong>the</strong> same<br />
level. Decrease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> amount <strong>of</strong> plankto-benthic<br />
diatoms along with <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> benthic diatoms may<br />
be a sign <strong>of</strong> changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> shorel<strong>in</strong>e or development<br />
<strong>of</strong> new type <strong>of</strong> bottom <strong>and</strong> substrate, which supports<br />
<strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> richer benthic communities.<br />
124
Figure 4. Diatom complexes <strong>of</strong> Lake Shuonijaur: total abundance (N(tot), mln.ex./g),<br />
species diversity (H’, bit/ex.), pH recontructed from diatoms (pH(diatom)) <strong>and</strong> saprobe<br />
<strong>in</strong>dex (S).<br />
Figure 5. Ecological characteristics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> diatom complexes <strong>in</strong> Lake Shuonijaur: a) pH-tolerance groups;<br />
b) habitat groups; c) sal<strong>in</strong>ity groups; d) biogeographic groups.<br />
125
Lake Harrijärvi<br />
In Lake Harrijärvi <strong>the</strong> top layer <strong>of</strong> sediments (<strong>in</strong>terval<br />
0–1 cm) <strong>and</strong> different parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> column (<strong>in</strong>tervals<br />
5–6, 11–12, 15–16, 18–19 <strong>and</strong> 29–30 cm), which have<br />
formed <strong>in</strong> different periods, were analyzed. The<br />
age <strong>of</strong> bottom sediments was 240 years. Lake Harrijarvi<br />
is a typical subarctic lake with low sal<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>and</strong> an<br />
oligotrophic status<br />
Brachysira brebissonii Ross, B. vitrea (Grun.) Ross<strong>in</strong><br />
Hartley <strong>and</strong> Frustulia saxonica Rabenh form a large<br />
proportion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> present-day periphyton. Typical<br />
species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> top sediment layers were <strong>the</strong> same<br />
supplemented with Cyclotella comensis Grunow <strong>in</strong><br />
van Heurck 1882. In <strong>the</strong> older layers <strong>the</strong> diatom complexes<br />
also <strong>in</strong>cluded C. kuetz<strong>in</strong>giana Thwaites <strong>and</strong> A.<br />
alpigena. No dramatic differences were found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
species composition for <strong>the</strong> different periods.<br />
Total abundance (N) <strong>in</strong>creases gradually from<br />
<strong>the</strong> lower sediment layers <strong>and</strong> reaches <strong>the</strong> maximal<br />
values <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediment layer 15–16 cm, which is<br />
130 years old (Figure 6). Benthic species preferr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pH
Figure 6. Diatom complexes <strong>of</strong> Lake Harrijarvi: total abundance (N(tot), mln.ex./g),<br />
species diversity (H’, bit/ex.), pH recontructed from diatoms (pH(diatom)) <strong>and</strong> saprobe<br />
<strong>in</strong>dex (S).<br />
Figure 7. Ecological characteristics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> diatom complexes <strong>in</strong> Lake Harrijarvi: a) pH-tolerance<br />
groups; b) habitat groups; c) sal<strong>in</strong>ity groups; d) biogeographic groups.<br />
127
Lake Rabbvatnet<br />
In Lake Rabbvatnet <strong>the</strong> diatom complexes were analyzed<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> top layer <strong>of</strong> sediments (<strong>in</strong>terval 0–1 cm)<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> different parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> column (<strong>in</strong>tervals 1–1.5,<br />
4–4.5, 6–6.5, 10–11, 20–21, 30–31, 42–43, <strong>and</strong> 43–<br />
44 cm). The total age <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments is 680 years.<br />
Lake Rabbvatnet is a typical subarctic lake with an<br />
oligotrophic status.<br />
Typically subarctic diatom flora dom<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
lake phytoplankton throughout <strong>the</strong> whole study period:<br />
arctic-alp<strong>in</strong>e phytoplankton formed a significant<br />
portion (up to 18 %) while <strong>the</strong> boreal portion was <strong>in</strong>significant.<br />
The typical diatoms <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> top layer were<br />
A. alpigena, P. brevistriata, Cyclotella ocellata Pant.,<br />
C. bodanica Eulenste<strong>in</strong>. <strong>and</strong> Staurosira construens<br />
Ehrb. In <strong>the</strong> middle part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> column <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> species<br />
were T. flocculosa, Denticula tenuis var. tenuis<br />
Kütz., C. rossii, C. bodanica var. lemanica <strong>and</strong> C.<br />
schumannii. In <strong>the</strong> oldest layers Fragilariforma virescens<br />
(Ralfs) D.M.Williams & Round <strong>and</strong> C. michiganiana<br />
were <strong>the</strong> most abundant species.<br />
Diatom complexes are characterized by significant<br />
changes both <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> quantitative characteristics <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> dynamics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ecological structure. The total<br />
abundance (N) is characterized by gradual growth as<br />
time passes <strong>and</strong> it grows almost by 10 times (Figure<br />
8). The primary productivity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake has also gradually<br />
grown. Two maximums <strong>in</strong> abundance can be<br />
seen: 4–6.5 cm (70–100 years old) <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> present-day<br />
layer 0–0.5 cm. The turn <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 20 th century<br />
was <strong>the</strong> time for <strong>the</strong> most significant changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
lake ecosystem <strong>and</strong> many ecological <strong>in</strong>dicators are<br />
characterized by extreme values. Presumably some<br />
transformation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> trophic structure <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> communities<br />
occurred, which caused <strong>the</strong> maximum value <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> saprobity <strong>in</strong>dex <strong>in</strong> 1900 (Figure 8). The same was<br />
also observed <strong>in</strong> Lake Harrijarvi (Figure 6).<br />
The species diversity <strong>of</strong> diatoms has also changed:<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is a gradual <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Shannon-Weaver<br />
species diversity <strong>in</strong>dex (H’) start<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> ancient<br />
layers up to 10-11 cm (1830’s) where <strong>the</strong> maximum<br />
diversity was observed. This process is probably <strong>the</strong><br />
due to end<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Little Ice Age. Fur<strong>the</strong>r warm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
early <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 20 th century led to reduction <strong>of</strong> species<br />
diversity along with <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> abundance (Figure 9).<br />
The species diversity grows aga<strong>in</strong> towards present<br />
due to climatic changes towards warm<strong>in</strong>g along with<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrial impact.<br />
Reconstruction <strong>of</strong> pH from diatom complexes showed<br />
that throughout <strong>the</strong> whole period <strong>the</strong> lake water<br />
was characterized by near-neutral values <strong>and</strong> fluctuations<br />
were <strong>in</strong>significant. No fundamental changes were<br />
detected <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> pH tolerance groups’ proportions.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> 14 th century <strong>the</strong> lake was characterized<br />
by more acidic conditions with pH< 7.0, which was<br />
caused by <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Little Ice Age. Closer to<br />
<strong>the</strong> 16 th century pH grew <strong>and</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong>n it has never<br />
dropped below 7.0. The maximum values were characteristic<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> early 20 th century <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> present.<br />
These particular periods are also described as <strong>the</strong><br />
warmest. Reduction <strong>of</strong> pH <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> middle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 20 th<br />
century is a direct consequence <strong>of</strong> deposition <strong>of</strong> acidify<strong>in</strong>g<br />
compounds from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel though<br />
this reduction does not exceed natural fluctuations <strong>of</strong><br />
pH (Figure 8). Reduced pH allowed development <strong>of</strong><br />
diatoms preferr<strong>in</strong>g more acidic water.<br />
Changes were also noted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ecological structure<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> diatom complexes (Figure 9). Changes<br />
<strong>in</strong> water sal<strong>in</strong>ity were <strong>in</strong>significant: only <strong>the</strong> proportion<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>different diatoms <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> hal<strong>of</strong>ilous<br />
diatoms decreased. Presumably <strong>the</strong> ratio <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
groups reflects primarily <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensiveness <strong>of</strong> erosion<br />
processes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake’s catchment area. The sal<strong>in</strong>ity<br />
was highest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Little Ice Age when catchment was<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imal. Throughout <strong>the</strong> whole time typical halophob<br />
diatoms characteristic <strong>of</strong> arctic <strong>and</strong> subarctic freshwater<br />
ecosystems were present <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake.<br />
Gradual reduction <strong>of</strong> planktic forms <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> period<br />
from <strong>the</strong> 14 th century through late 18 th century illustrates<br />
reduction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> water quantity <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> Little Ice Age. At <strong>the</strong> same time <strong>the</strong> proportion <strong>of</strong><br />
benthic <strong>and</strong> plankto-benthic algae grows which is a<br />
sign that <strong>the</strong> lake has become shallow. Climate warm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
early <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 20 th century aga<strong>in</strong> caused <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
<strong>of</strong> water level <strong>and</strong> development <strong>of</strong> planktonic diatoms.<br />
Evidently <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1930’s <strong>the</strong> lake had more water than<br />
today.<br />
The present-day diatom complexes confirm <strong>the</strong><br />
reduction <strong>of</strong> pollution as well as <strong>the</strong> more favorable<br />
climatic conditions for development <strong>of</strong> diatoms, which<br />
shows <strong>in</strong> a dramatic <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> quantitative parameters.<br />
128
Figure 8. Diatom complexes <strong>of</strong> Lake Rabbvatnet: total abundance (N(tot), mln.ex./g),<br />
species diversity (H’, bit/ex.), pH recontructed from diatoms (pH(diatom)) <strong>and</strong> saprobe<br />
<strong>in</strong>dex (S).<br />
Figure 9. Ecological characteristics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> diatom complexes <strong>in</strong> Lake Rabbvatnet: a) pH-tolerance groups;<br />
b) habitat groups; c) sal<strong>in</strong>ity groups; d) biogeographic groups.<br />
129
Conclusions<br />
The accumulation <strong>and</strong> distribution <strong>of</strong> elements, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
heavy metals, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> bottom sediments <strong>of</strong> lakes<br />
were thoroughly assessed. Four aspects were reviewed:<br />
1) background contents, 2) vertical distribution<br />
<strong>of</strong> elements, 3) concentrations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface layers<br />
<strong>of</strong> sediments, 4) determ<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> anthropogenic load<br />
<strong>in</strong>tensity by <strong>the</strong> factor <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> pollution,<br />
caused by <strong>the</strong> heavy metals accumulated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments.<br />
It was established that <strong>the</strong> largest background concentrations<br />
<strong>of</strong> heavy metals <strong>in</strong> bottom sediments were<br />
noted <strong>in</strong> different lakes, which is caused by geochemical<br />
<strong>and</strong> morphometric peculiarities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> catchment<br />
territory <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake itself. Growth <strong>of</strong> Ni, Cu <strong>and</strong><br />
Co content <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sediments dates back to <strong>the</strong> 1920s<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1930s <strong>and</strong> maximum values are reached <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
1970s–1980s as a result <strong>of</strong> metallurgical activities.<br />
Emissions <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> atmosphere from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel<br />
are <strong>the</strong> major source <strong>of</strong> high concentrations <strong>of</strong><br />
Ni, Сu <strong>and</strong> Co at <strong>the</strong> distance up to 40–50 km. Similar<br />
pattern is observed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> distribution <strong>of</strong> alkal<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong><br />
alkal<strong>in</strong>e-earth metals. In <strong>the</strong> more distant lakes <strong>the</strong><br />
ma<strong>in</strong> pollution elements are <strong>the</strong> chalcophile Pb, Hg<br />
<strong>and</strong> As, which <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> latest decades have obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>the</strong><br />
status <strong>of</strong> global pollution elements. The area up to 50<br />
km is <strong>the</strong> most <strong>in</strong>tensively polluted.<br />
Diatom complexes <strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong> lakes testify <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
changes occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir ecosystems over <strong>the</strong> studied<br />
historical periods. The impact <strong>of</strong> natural processes<br />
associated with <strong>the</strong> dynamics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> climatic<br />
system <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial processes associated with <strong>the</strong><br />
Pechenganikel have been detected. However no fundamental<br />
changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ecosystems <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes have<br />
been detected; <strong>the</strong>y all correspond to typical subarctic<br />
oligotrophic lakes with low sal<strong>in</strong>ity.<br />
The most important climatic events <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> development<br />
<strong>of</strong> lakes were 1) <strong>the</strong> Little Ice Age (14 th –19 th<br />
centuries) when low temperatures contributed to acidification,<br />
reduction <strong>of</strong> water quantity <strong>and</strong> decrease<br />
<strong>of</strong> production <strong>and</strong> 2) warm<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 20 th century, <strong>the</strong><br />
maximums <strong>of</strong> which fell on <strong>the</strong> period 1900s through<br />
1930s <strong>and</strong> on <strong>the</strong> two latest decades (Figure 10). In<br />
between <strong>the</strong>se events <strong>the</strong> ecosystems <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes<br />
were affected by <strong>in</strong>dustrial load, primarily by acidification<br />
caused by deposition from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel. At<br />
present <strong>the</strong> consequences <strong>of</strong> production decrease are<br />
show<strong>in</strong>g. It is impossible to draw a decisive conclusion<br />
regard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> dramatic climate changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> latest<br />
decades; warm<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early 20 th century turned<br />
out to be more significant for <strong>the</strong> studied lakes. At <strong>the</strong><br />
same time, <strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g level <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial load evidently<br />
impedes <strong>the</strong> analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> consequences <strong>of</strong><br />
climatic changes.<br />
Figure 10. The diatom abundance reaction on <strong>the</strong> cool<strong>in</strong>g-warm<strong>in</strong>g periods: 1. Lake<br />
Rabbvatnet <strong>and</strong> 2. Lake Harrijarvi. LIA=Little Ice Age.<br />
130
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131
4 Biology<br />
DMITRII DENISOV, SVETLANA VALKOVA, JUKKA YLIKÖRKKÖ<br />
4.1 Phytoplankton<br />
Phytoplankton are used to monitor nutrient enrichment.<br />
Phytoplankton biomass <strong>and</strong> water chlorophyll<br />
content are proven to correlate with concentrations<br />
<strong>of</strong> nutrients, especially phosphorus, <strong>in</strong> lakes<br />
(eg. Sch<strong>in</strong>dler 1978). Phytoplankton quality also <strong>in</strong>dicates<br />
<strong>the</strong> lake trophic level. The amount <strong>of</strong> cyanobacteria<br />
(blue-green algae) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> assemblage is scarce<br />
<strong>in</strong> oligotrophic lakes but tends to grow with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
phosphorus content, especially <strong>in</strong> relation to nitrogen<br />
(eg. Smith 1983). Climatic factors affect plankton assemblage<br />
directly as temperature <strong>and</strong> through various<br />
<strong>in</strong>direct ways through nutrient flux.<br />
Toxicity <strong>of</strong> copper to freshwater phytoplankton varies<br />
widely depend<strong>in</strong>g on taxa sensitivity <strong>and</strong> specific<br />
water chemistry. The bioavailable fraction <strong>of</strong> metals<br />
present depends on <strong>the</strong> amount <strong>of</strong> dissolved organic<br />
carbon, among o<strong>the</strong>r factors. Photosyn<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
<strong>and</strong> growth <strong>of</strong> sensitive green algae may be <strong>in</strong>hibited<br />
roughly at >10 μg Cu/l (USEPA 2007). Algae appears<br />
ra<strong>the</strong>r resilient to nickel (USEPA 1980) <strong>and</strong> at <strong>the</strong> measured<br />
levels <strong>of</strong> nickel no growth-<strong>in</strong>hibition should be<br />
evident.<br />
In an earlier study <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jarfjord <strong>and</strong> Pechenga regions<br />
phytoplankton density was found to be <strong>the</strong> lowest<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> most acidified lake (Nøst et al. 1997).<br />
Materials <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
16 lakes were selected for phytoplankton sampl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>and</strong> analysis <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> project area (Introduction, Figure<br />
1). Small lakes previously <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
projects were studied, as well as new potential lakes<br />
for <strong>the</strong> future monitor<strong>in</strong>g network. On <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n side,<br />
attento<strong>in</strong> was paid not only to typical small lakes<br />
but also to relatively large water bodies (lakes Ilja-<br />
Nautsijarvi <strong>and</strong> Ala-Nautsijarvi), which gives a better<br />
underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River catchment area.<br />
Phytoplankton sampl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> field followed national<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ards. Samples were collected monthly dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
June–September. All lakes were sampled at least <strong>in</strong><br />
August. Tube sampler was used to collect <strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />
samples. Samples were taken from 0–2 m column <strong>in</strong><br />
Total <strong>of</strong> 117 taxa <strong>of</strong> algae on species or variety level<br />
from seven systematic groups were found: Cyanophyceae<br />
22, Chlorophyta 22, Charophyceae 19,<br />
Chrysophyceae 5, D<strong>in</strong>ophyta 6, Bacillariophyceae 42<br />
<strong>and</strong> Cryptophyceae 1 taxon. The number <strong>of</strong> species <strong>in</strong><br />
each lake is shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 1.<br />
The highest species diversity was found <strong>in</strong> Lake<br />
Virtuovoshjaur. This is likely because <strong>the</strong>re are favo-<br />
F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>, from 0–2 m, 2–5 m <strong>and</strong> 5–10 m columns <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Russia</strong> <strong>and</strong> from 0–10 m column <strong>in</strong> <strong>Norway</strong>. <strong>Russia</strong>n<br />
<strong>and</strong> Norwegian samples were filtered through 20 µm<br />
plankton net. F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> Norwegian <strong>in</strong>tegrated samples<br />
were taken from composite that represents <strong>the</strong><br />
average phytoplankton density <strong>of</strong> sampled depths. All<br />
samples were preserved <strong>in</strong> Lugol’s solution.<br />
Laboratory procedures <strong>in</strong>cluded identification <strong>and</strong><br />
enumeration <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton taxa. Taxa densities<br />
were estimated.<br />
Floristic analysis based on similarity coefficient<br />
(Sørensen 1948, Czekanowski 1909) was performed<br />
to classify <strong>the</strong> lakes accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong>ir phytoplankton<br />
species structure. Sørensen’s similarity coefficient:<br />
K s<br />
= 2c / a+b<br />
where а is number <strong>of</strong> taxa <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> one site, b is number<br />
<strong>of</strong> taxa <strong>of</strong> ano<strong>the</strong>r site <strong>and</strong> с is number <strong>of</strong> taxa<br />
common to both sites. Sørensen-Czekanowski’s similarity<br />
coefficient (consider<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> quantitative values):<br />
K<br />
N<br />
∑<br />
i<br />
i=<br />
1<br />
s<br />
=<br />
N N<br />
∑<br />
i=<br />
1<br />
m<strong>in</strong>(A ,B )<br />
∑<br />
i=<br />
1<br />
where A i<br />
<strong>and</strong> B i<br />
are abundance values <strong>of</strong> species i<br />
<strong>in</strong> lakes A <strong>and</strong> B, <strong>and</strong> N is <strong>the</strong> total number <strong>of</strong> species.<br />
The analysis was performed with <strong>the</strong> help <strong>of</strong> s<strong>of</strong>tware<br />
module Graphs (Novakovsky 2004).<br />
Results <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
A<br />
i<br />
+<br />
i<br />
B<br />
i<br />
132
Gardsjøen<br />
Holmvatnet<br />
Rabbvatnet<br />
Durvatn<br />
average<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50 60<br />
6<br />
4<br />
5<br />
7<br />
5,5<br />
Lampi 222<br />
Harrijärvi<br />
Pitkä-Surnujärvi<br />
Sierramjärvi<br />
average<br />
6<br />
12<br />
13<br />
12<br />
17<br />
Pikkujarvi<br />
34<br />
20<br />
19<br />
Shuonijaur<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi<br />
Ila-Nautsijarvi<br />
Toartesjaur<br />
Virtuovoshjaur<br />
Riuttikjaure<br />
Kochejaur<br />
average<br />
11<br />
16<br />
30<br />
31<br />
26,375<br />
Jarfjord Vätsäri <strong>Russia</strong><br />
50<br />
Figure 1. The number <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton taxa<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> monitored lakes.<br />
Figure 2. Phytoplankton<br />
communities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
monitored lakes<br />
133
Figure 3. Lakes’ classification by floristic analysis based on<br />
Sørensen’s similarity coefficient.<br />
Figure 4. Lakes’ classification by floristic analysis based on<br />
Sørensen-Czekanowski’s similarity coefficient.<br />
rable conditions for algal growth especially <strong>in</strong> terms<br />
<strong>of</strong> nutrients (see Chapter 4, Water Quality). The lakes<br />
<strong>in</strong> Jarfjord area were found to have <strong>the</strong> lowest diversity,<br />
a difference which was not statistically significant<br />
(see Chapter 2). The Jarfjord lakes have higher<br />
sulphate, nickel <strong>and</strong> copper concentrations. However,<br />
<strong>the</strong> catchment areas <strong>in</strong> Jarfjord tend to be smaller <strong>and</strong><br />
soil layer th<strong>in</strong>ner compared to <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r regions, which<br />
also might expla<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> result.<br />
The phytoplankton species composition <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g taxa were variable with<strong>in</strong> regions <strong>and</strong> lake<br />
types (Figure 2). The most abundant phytoplankton<br />
groups were diatoms (Bacillariophyceae, at most 64<br />
%), blue-green (Cyanophyceae, 94 %), yellow-green<br />
(Chrysophyceae, 89 %) <strong>and</strong> green algae (Chlorophyta,<br />
97 %). D<strong>in</strong>ophytes (at most 9 %) <strong>and</strong> Charophytes<br />
(
ure 5). One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> groups <strong>in</strong>cluded all <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n<br />
lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik catchment bas<strong>in</strong>;<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r group comprised <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> Norwegian<br />
lakes. Lakes Pikkujarvi <strong>and</strong> Gardsjøen were<br />
found to be <strong>the</strong> most different. This can be expla<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> high pollution <strong>of</strong> Lake Pikkujarvi, closest to <strong>the</strong><br />
Pechenganikel, <strong>and</strong> also by <strong>the</strong> nutrients it receives<br />
from agricultural l<strong>and</strong>s on its shores. Lake Gardsjøen<br />
differs from <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r lakes because it has species not<br />
found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>m: for example, green-algae Raphidocelis<br />
subcapitata <strong>and</strong> diatom Amphora ovalis. Accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to <strong>the</strong> hydrochemical analysis, <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>of</strong> Jarfjord<br />
are <strong>the</strong> most polluted with heavy metals. Copper<br />
<strong>and</strong> nickel concentrations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> bottom sediment are<br />
also high. Industrial pollution <strong>and</strong> a short distance to<br />
<strong>the</strong> sea are <strong>the</strong> possible reasons for communities with<br />
a large proportion <strong>of</strong> green algae which is not common<br />
<strong>in</strong> subarctic. At <strong>the</strong> same time, <strong>the</strong> most specific<br />
plankton develops <strong>in</strong> Lake Gardsjøen, which may result<br />
from <strong>the</strong> peculiarities <strong>of</strong> morphometry, nutrition regime<br />
<strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r local factors.<br />
Identify<strong>in</strong>g groups by phytoplankton species composition<br />
is to describe <strong>the</strong> regional characteristics <strong>and</strong><br />
lake conditions. The division <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>in</strong>to groups<br />
was primarily def<strong>in</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong> hydrochemical conditions.<br />
The largest differences were found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> water<br />
bodies exposed to <strong>in</strong>dustrial impact. Jarfjord lakes<br />
deviated with higher contents <strong>of</strong> suphates, certa<strong>in</strong><br />
metals <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> more mar<strong>in</strong>e chlorides.<br />
The <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes were rich <strong>in</strong> nutrients, which was<br />
reflected <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> phytoplankton composition.<br />
Chlorophyll a content <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Vätsäri lakes were low,<br />
all less than 2 µg/l, which <strong>in</strong>dicates oligotrophic status.<br />
Assessment <strong>of</strong> photosyn<strong>the</strong>tic pigments <strong>and</strong> biomass<br />
for <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes to evaluate <strong>the</strong>ir trophic status<br />
is presented <strong>in</strong> Figure 6. The highest concentration<br />
<strong>of</strong> chlorophyll a <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> highest phytoplankton biomass<br />
was found <strong>in</strong> Lake Pikkujarvi, which is exposed<br />
to anthropogenic eutrophication <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> trophic status<br />
<strong>of</strong> which is eutrophic. The o<strong>the</strong>r lakes were classified<br />
as oligotrophic, based on chlorophyll a <strong>and</strong> phytoplankton<br />
biomass (Kitaev 1984). Among <strong>the</strong> oligotrophic<br />
lakes, <strong>the</strong> highest concentrations <strong>of</strong> chlorophyll<br />
a were found <strong>in</strong> lakes Toartesjaur <strong>and</strong> Ilja-Nautsijarvi,<br />
which is probably associated with <strong>in</strong>tensive development<br />
<strong>of</strong> blue-green algae: Anabaena sp., Dolichospermum<br />
lemmermannii <strong>and</strong> Chroococcus dispersus.<br />
In favorable conditions <strong>the</strong>se species may cause algal<br />
blooms. In <strong>the</strong> same lakes carotenoid concentrations<br />
were relatively high: this is an <strong>in</strong>direct <strong>in</strong>dicator <strong>of</strong> detritus<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> water column, as well as <strong>of</strong> “ag<strong>in</strong>g” groups<br />
<strong>of</strong> phytoplankton. The blue-green algae <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> samples<br />
were <strong>of</strong>ten associated with detritus.<br />
In all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> study lakes, except <strong>in</strong> Lake Pikkujarvi,<br />
<strong>the</strong> average plankton biomass dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> study period<br />
(2012–2013) did not exceed <strong>the</strong> average <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kola<br />
Pen<strong>in</strong>sula lakes: 0.6–2.5 g/m 3 <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> tundra <strong>and</strong> forest<br />
tundra lakes <strong>and</strong> 0.56–2.96 g/m 3 <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> north taiga lakes<br />
(Letanskaya, 1974, Kupetzkaya et al. 1976).<br />
Pr<strong>in</strong>cipal component analysis was performed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
s<strong>in</strong>gle factor space comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g hydrochemical parameters<br />
<strong>and</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> functional characteristics <strong>of</strong> phytop-<br />
Figure 5. Lakes classification: association<br />
by <strong>the</strong> strongest relations based on<br />
Sørensen similarity coefficient.<br />
135
Figure 6. Photosyn<strong>the</strong>tic pigment content, total biomass <strong>and</strong> trophic state <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phytoplankton (<strong>Russia</strong>n lakes): a) photosyn<strong>the</strong>tic<br />
pigments (mg/m 3 ), b) biomass (g/m 3 ), c) photosyn<strong>the</strong>tic pigments (mg/m 3 ) exclud<strong>in</strong>g Lake Pikkujarvi, d) biomass (g/m 3 ) exclud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Lake Pikkujarvi<br />
lankton to assess <strong>the</strong> factors <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton development<br />
conditions. Nutrients, <strong>in</strong> particular nitrates<br />
<strong>and</strong> phosphates, do not seem play an important role<br />
<strong>in</strong> phytoplankton development <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study lakes, i.e.<br />
a large part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> assemblages are consistent with<br />
oligotrophic status <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>re are species that do not<br />
require large amounts <strong>of</strong> nutrition.<br />
Sal<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>and</strong> water color were found to be <strong>the</strong> most<br />
important hydrochemical factors that have a positive<br />
impact on phytoplankton development. This is confirmed<br />
by positive relation <strong>of</strong> chlorophyll a <strong>and</strong> plankton<br />
biomass. Possibly, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> conditions <strong>of</strong> relatively low<br />
sal<strong>in</strong>ity, m<strong>in</strong>eral components <strong>and</strong> humic acids com<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from <strong>the</strong> catchment area become important for <strong>the</strong><br />
plankton. The results <strong>in</strong>dicate that organic compounds<br />
<strong>in</strong> water are associated with plankton vitality. There<br />
is a positive relation between phytoplankton biomass<br />
<strong>and</strong> copper <strong>and</strong> nickel, which confirms <strong>the</strong> absence<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir negative impact; <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> current concentrations<br />
<strong>the</strong>se elements only contribute to general sal<strong>in</strong>ity.<br />
Similar groups <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> phytoplankton communities<br />
<strong>and</strong> hydrochemical <strong>in</strong>dicators were identified.<br />
Lake Pikkujarvi differed most from <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r lakes:<br />
specific hydrochemical conditions are formed <strong>the</strong>re<br />
because <strong>of</strong> eutrophication <strong>and</strong> pollution result<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from <strong>the</strong> proximity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel. This has an<br />
impact on phytoplankton development characterized<br />
by <strong>the</strong> largest quantitative parameters (biomass <strong>and</strong><br />
chlorophyll a concentration) among <strong>the</strong> studied lakes.<br />
Lake Pikkujarvi is <strong>the</strong> most transformed by human activities,<br />
which makes it an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g lake for <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />
environmental monitor<strong>in</strong>g network.<br />
Also Lake Toartesjaur was different from <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
lakes: <strong>the</strong> phytoplankton communities are characterized<br />
by high concentration <strong>of</strong> chlorophyll b. Lake Toartesjaur<br />
has a higher concentration <strong>of</strong> z<strong>in</strong>c than <strong>the</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r lakes which may have had a stimulat<strong>in</strong>g effect<br />
on development <strong>of</strong> algae conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g this pigment.<br />
The o<strong>the</strong>r lakes reflect background conditions <strong>of</strong><br />
water quality <strong>and</strong> plankton assemblages. In this group<br />
<strong>the</strong> most accessible lakes, Shuonijaur <strong>and</strong> Vuirtuovoshjaur,<br />
may be selected for future monitor<strong>in</strong>g. It<br />
would be reasonable to sample phytoplankton <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r lakes less frequently.<br />
136
Conclusions<br />
The phytoplankton assemblages <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> project area<br />
lakes were found to be variable, show<strong>in</strong>g no regional<br />
concordance. In general <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes, which were<br />
larger <strong>and</strong> more sou<strong>the</strong>rn, had <strong>the</strong> highest species<br />
diversity <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jarfjord lakes <strong>the</strong> lowest.<br />
Diatoms, blue-green, green, <strong>and</strong> yellow-green algae<br />
formed <strong>the</strong> most abundant algal groups. Green<br />
algae were found to <strong>in</strong>crease from south to north <strong>and</strong><br />
to be <strong>the</strong> highest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>of</strong> Jarfjord, as well as <strong>in</strong><br />
lakes Pikkujarvi (<strong>Russia</strong>) <strong>and</strong> Sierramjärvi (F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>).<br />
The Pechenganikel seems to have an impact on <strong>the</strong><br />
species composition, as <strong>the</strong> results are consistent<br />
with <strong>the</strong> data on Lake Kuetsjarvi, which is exposed to<br />
direct pollution with copper <strong>and</strong> nickel production process<br />
discharge, <strong>and</strong> where <strong>the</strong> portion <strong>of</strong> green algae<br />
is also large.<br />
The floristic analysis divided <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>in</strong>to three<br />
groups, ma<strong>in</strong>ly accord<strong>in</strong>g to geographic territorial areas.<br />
Lakes Pikkujarvi <strong>and</strong> Harrijärvi, as well as Lake<br />
Toartesjaur, were found to be <strong>the</strong> most different from<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs, because <strong>of</strong> specific local conditions <strong>and</strong><br />
hydrochemical parameters. The largest differences<br />
were found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes under anthropogenic impact,<br />
which is to some extent consistent with <strong>the</strong> hydrochemical<br />
data: <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes are rich <strong>in</strong> nutrients <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>of</strong> Jarfjord are dramatically different because<br />
<strong>of</strong> high concentration <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e ions as well as sulfates<br />
<strong>and</strong> metals orig<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> Pechanganikel.<br />
The lakes also have different-sized catchments: generally<br />
<strong>the</strong> largest <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong> <strong>and</strong> smallest <strong>in</strong> Jarfjord.<br />
Among <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes Lake Pikkujarvi is notably<br />
higher <strong>in</strong> phytoplankton biomass <strong>and</strong> photosyn<strong>the</strong>tic<br />
pigments because <strong>of</strong> anthropogenic eutrophication.<br />
The o<strong>the</strong>r lakes are regarded as oligotrophic accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to <strong>the</strong>ir chlorophyll a concentration <strong>and</strong> phytoplankton<br />
biomass, which both represent typical levels<br />
for <strong>the</strong> region.<br />
The pr<strong>in</strong>cipal component analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n<br />
lakes established that water sal<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>and</strong> color are <strong>the</strong><br />
most important hydrochemical factors hav<strong>in</strong>g a positive<br />
impact on phytoplankton development. M<strong>in</strong>eral<br />
components <strong>and</strong> humic acids are important for <strong>the</strong> algae<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> conditions <strong>of</strong> relatively low sal<strong>in</strong>ity. No significant<br />
impact by contam<strong>in</strong>ants, copper <strong>and</strong> nickel <strong>in</strong><br />
particular, on phytoplankton quantitative parameters<br />
was found. Lake Pikkujarvi exposed to eutrophication<br />
<strong>and</strong> pollution was found to be <strong>the</strong> most different from<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r lakes.<br />
References<br />
Novakovsky, A.B. 2004: Capacity <strong>and</strong> operational pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> s<strong>of</strong>tware module Graphs. Automation <strong>of</strong> scientific research.<br />
Komi Science Center UrO RAS. Syktyvkar. 27 p. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Czekanowski, J. 1909: Zur differential Diagnose der Ne<strong>and</strong>ertalgruppe. Korresp<strong>in</strong>denz-Blatt der Deutschen Gesellschaft für<br />
Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte 40: 44–47. (<strong>in</strong> German)<br />
Kupetzkaya, G.K., Velikoretzkaya, I.I., Zenus, B.G. et al. 1976: Large lakes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula. Nauka .349 p. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Letanskaya G. I. 1974: Phytoplankton <strong>and</strong> primary production <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula. In: Lakes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> differentl<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula. T.2: 78–19. Nauka. Len<strong>in</strong>grad. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Nøst, T., Anatoli, L., Schartau, A.K., Kashul<strong>in</strong>, N., Berger, H.M., Yakolev, V., Sharov, A., Dauvalter, V. 1997: Impacts <strong>of</strong> pollution<br />
on freshwater communities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border region between <strong>Russia</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Norway</strong> III. Results <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1990-96 monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
programme. NINA Norsk <strong>in</strong>stitutt for naturforskn<strong>in</strong>g. 37 p.<br />
Sch<strong>in</strong>dler, D.W. 1978: Factors regulat<strong>in</strong>g phytoplankton production <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g crop <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> world’s freshwaters. Limnology<br />
<strong>and</strong> Oceanography 23(3): 478–486.<br />
Smith, V.H. 1983: Low nitrogen to phosphorus ratios favor dom<strong>in</strong>ance by blue-green algae <strong>in</strong> lake phytoplankton. Science<br />
221(4611): 669–671.<br />
Sørensen T. A. 1948: Method <strong>of</strong> establish<strong>in</strong>g groups <strong>of</strong> equal amplitude <strong>in</strong> plant sociology based on similarity <strong>of</strong> species<br />
content. Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. Biologiske Skrifter 5(4): 1–34.<br />
USEPA. 1980. Ambient water quality criteria for copper. U.S. <strong>Environmental</strong> Protection Agency. 84 p.<br />
USEPA. 1986. Ambient aquatic life water quality criteria for nickel. U.S. <strong>Environmental</strong> Protection Agency. 93 p.<br />
137
4.2 Periphyton<br />
Epilithic diatoms on stone substrate are studied here<br />
as periphyton. In terms <strong>of</strong> chemical factors, <strong>the</strong> diatom<br />
communities are primarily a result <strong>of</strong> water trophic state,<br />
organic matter <strong>and</strong> acidity. The growth substrate<br />
quality affects <strong>the</strong> periphyton especially <strong>in</strong> lake habitats.<br />
Diatom communities are used <strong>in</strong> assess<strong>in</strong>g several<br />
environment variables.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to So<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>en et al. (2004) phosphorus<br />
content is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> major environmental factor affect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
diatom communities. The lakes studied <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> project<br />
are oligo- or mesotrophic. As all biota <strong>in</strong> nutrientpoor<br />
habitat, periphyton can be expected to react to<br />
even small changes <strong>in</strong> available m<strong>in</strong>eral nutrients.<br />
Diatom communities <strong>in</strong> water courses have been<br />
observed to react to nutrient <strong>in</strong>crease by <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
numbers <strong>of</strong> eutrophy-associated species, such as those<br />
<strong>in</strong> Nitzschia-genus (Eloranta et al. 2007). Epilithic<br />
diatoms take <strong>in</strong> all nutrients from <strong>the</strong> water <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>refore<br />
express <strong>the</strong> prevail<strong>in</strong>g nutrient status well.<br />
Traditionally diatom communities are also used <strong>in</strong><br />
assess<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> organic pollution (<strong>the</strong> saprobic level)<br />
(e.g. Sladecek 1973).<br />
Similar to o<strong>the</strong>r biota, acidity generally decreases<br />
diatom species richness: sensitive species disappear<br />
<strong>and</strong> few tolerant species <strong>in</strong>crease (Patrick 1977).<br />
Diatom taxa can be categorized by <strong>the</strong>ir tolerance to<br />
acidity (Van Dam et al. 2004). However, many species<br />
tolerate changes <strong>in</strong> pH ra<strong>the</strong>r well <strong>and</strong> acid<strong>of</strong>il taxa is<br />
found also <strong>in</strong> neutral water, but <strong>in</strong> less extent compared<br />
to acidified waters (Eloranta 1990).<br />
There is some experimental data regard<strong>in</strong>g diatom<br />
responses to heavy metals. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to USEPA<br />
(2007) freshwater Nitzschia palea growth is <strong>in</strong>hibited<br />
at copper concentration <strong>of</strong> 5 µg/l. This gives a rough<br />
reference to possible pollution-related effects <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
most sensitive diatom taxa. There is less accurate <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
about nickel compounds’ toxicity to diatoms.<br />
Patrick et al. (1975) reported nickel to cause dom<strong>in</strong>ance<br />
<strong>of</strong> green <strong>and</strong> blue-green algae over diatoms.<br />
Materials <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
Samples were collected by scrap<strong>in</strong>g rocks (roughly<br />
fist-sized) from c. 20 cm depth <strong>in</strong> littoral zone <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
lakes. Detached periphyton was collected <strong>and</strong> preserved<br />
<strong>in</strong> ethanol <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>, formaldehyde <strong>in</strong> <strong>Norway</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> Lugol’s solution <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>. In F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> samples<br />
were collected from 5 stones <strong>in</strong> 2–3 different littoral<br />
stations <strong>in</strong> September; <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Norway</strong> 10 rocks<br />
from one location <strong>in</strong> August 2013.<br />
Diatom slides for <strong>the</strong> microscope analyses were<br />
prepared us<strong>in</strong>g st<strong>and</strong>ard traditional methods (Zhuze<br />
et al. 1949, Davydova 1985, Denisov 2007). The organic<br />
matter was elim<strong>in</strong>ated by hydrogen peroxide,<br />
<strong>the</strong>n diatom valves were separated from o<strong>the</strong>r m<strong>in</strong>eral<br />
components by <strong>the</strong> difference <strong>in</strong> sedimentation velocity.<br />
All diatoms have been identified, if possible, to<br />
<strong>in</strong>traspecific taxa (Krammer & Lange-Bertalot 1986-<br />
1991). Diatom taxa identification <strong>and</strong> enumeration followed<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>in</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard EN 14407:2004.<br />
A nutrient status analysis was done us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
Diatom Assessment <strong>of</strong> Lake Ecological Status (DA-<br />
LES), which is based on average score per taxon method<br />
(UKTAG 2008).<br />
The diatom-<strong>in</strong>ferred value <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pH has been calculated<br />
accord<strong>in</strong>g to method <strong>of</strong> Moiseenko & Razumovsky<br />
(2009) with <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g formula:<br />
pH = Σphi⋅k / Σk,<br />
where phi – <strong>in</strong>dividual numeric value <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> each taxa<strong>in</strong>dicator;<br />
k – abundance value (quantity).<br />
Periphyton groups were determ<strong>in</strong>ed accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir preferred pH: neutrophils with pH-optimum at<br />
pH 7.0, circumneutrophils with a range <strong>of</strong> pH close to<br />
neutral, <strong>in</strong>different capable <strong>of</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g at a relatively<br />
wide range <strong>of</strong> pH, alkaliphils preferr<strong>in</strong>g pH > 7.0,<br />
alkalibionts preferr<strong>in</strong>g pH 7.6 <strong>and</strong> above, acidophiles<br />
preferr<strong>in</strong>g pH
Results <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
Sampled lakes had diatom communities typical <strong>of</strong><br />
nutrient-poor north boreal lakes. There were differences<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> species <strong>and</strong> species composition<br />
between <strong>the</strong> areas (Figure 9). The diatom communities<br />
reflected <strong>the</strong> lakes’ humic <strong>and</strong> nutrient content.<br />
DALES <strong>in</strong>dicated low nutrient status for all <strong>and</strong> saprobic<br />
<strong>in</strong>dex oligosaprobia for most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes (Table<br />
3). Tabellaria flocculosa is considered acidophilous,<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly occurr<strong>in</strong>g at pH less than 7 (Van Dam et al.<br />
1994). It is a common species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> research areas,<br />
which are naturally low alkal<strong>in</strong>e. pH estimated through<br />
diatom communities was quite neutral <strong>and</strong> corresponded<br />
to <strong>the</strong> measured pH values.<br />
Vätsäri area had <strong>the</strong> highest species diversity: on<br />
average 59 littoral diatom species. The lakes were<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ated ma<strong>in</strong>ly by Brachysira vitraea, Tabellaria<br />
flocculosa <strong>and</strong> Frustulia rhomboides. These taxa are<br />
associated with low nutrient concentrations (UKTAG<br />
2008, Kelly et al. 2001), <strong>and</strong> also considered sensitive<br />
to organic pollution (Cemagref 1982). Diatom communities<br />
were oligosaprobic.<br />
Gardsjøen<br />
Holmvatnet<br />
Rabbvatnet<br />
Durvatn<br />
Lampi 222<br />
Harrijärvi<br />
Pitkä-Surnujärvi<br />
Sierramjärvi<br />
Shuonijaur<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi<br />
Toartesjaur<br />
Virtuovoshjaur<br />
Riuttikjaure<br />
23<br />
22<br />
31<br />
34<br />
22<br />
30<br />
50.7<br />
37.5<br />
46<br />
46<br />
56<br />
Figure 9. The number <strong>of</strong> periphytic diatom species <strong>in</strong> each lake.<br />
Vätsäri values are averages from 3 sub-samples.<br />
67<br />
83.3<br />
0 20 40 60 80 100<br />
Jarfjord Vätsäri <strong>Russia</strong><br />
Table 3. DALES <strong>in</strong>dex values <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir respective ecological quality ratios (EQR) (all values represent high status class EQR ≥<br />
0.8), <strong>the</strong> diatom-<strong>in</strong>ferred saprobe <strong>in</strong>dex (S) <strong>and</strong> saprobe zone <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> diatom-<strong>in</strong>ferred <strong>and</strong> measured pH <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestigated lakes.<br />
DALES<br />
Class<br />
(EQR)<br />
S Saprobe zone pH (diatom) pH (measured)<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Lampi 222 14 high (>1) 1.16 α-oligosaprobic 6.8 6.7<br />
Harrijärvi 6 high (>1) 1.25 α-oligosaprobic 6.7 6.7<br />
Pitkä-Surnujärvi 20 high (1.0) 1.22 α-oligosaprobic 6.9 6.7<br />
Sierramjärvi 26 high (0.9) 1.44 α-oligosaprobic 7.0 6.8<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Shuonijaur 26 high (0.9) 1.63 β-mesosaprobic 6.8 6.8<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi 27 high (0.9) 1.57 α-oligosaprobic 7.3 7.0<br />
Toartesjaur 28 high (0.9) 1.46 α-oligosaprobic 7.0 6.9<br />
Virtuovoshjaur 21 high (1.0) 1.39 α-oligosaprobic 7.0 6.9<br />
Riuttikjaure 36 high (0.8) 1.42 α-oligosaprobic 7.2 7.1<br />
Jarfjord<br />
Gardsjøen 20 high (1.0) 1.55 α-oligosaprobic 6.9 6.8<br />
Holmvatnet 12 high (>1) 1.34 α-oligosaprobic 6.9 6.8<br />
Rabbvatnet 19 high (>1) 1.45 α-oligosaprobic 7.0 7.0<br />
Durvatn 23 high (0.9) 1.22 α-oligosaprobic 7.0 7.0<br />
139
In <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>, <strong>the</strong>re were, on average,<br />
40 species <strong>in</strong> a lake. Tabellaria flocculosa was<br />
also dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se lakes. Taxa <strong>of</strong> slightly higher<br />
nutrient level is more common <strong>the</strong>re, such as Denticula<br />
tenuis <strong>in</strong> Ala-Nautsijarvi. In Riuttikjaure <strong>the</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g<br />
species was Epi<strong>the</strong>mia sorex, which is considered<br />
taxa <strong>of</strong> moderate nutrient level (UKTAG 2008) <strong>and</strong><br />
tolerant to mild organic pollution (Cemagref 1982).<br />
Saprobic <strong>in</strong>dex <strong>in</strong>dicated oligosaprobia for <strong>the</strong> lakes,<br />
exclud<strong>in</strong>g Shuonijaur that was on mesosaprobic level.<br />
The number <strong>of</strong> diatom species <strong>in</strong> Shuonijaur was low,<br />
22 species, which was similar to Jarfjord. Shuonijaur<br />
copper concentration has, at times, exceeded <strong>the</strong> potentially<br />
toxic levels to diatom growth.<br />
Jarfjord lakes had <strong>the</strong> lowest species diversity: on<br />
average 27 species. The difference <strong>in</strong> species diversity<br />
<strong>in</strong> relation to Vätsäri is statistically significant (see<br />
Chapter 2). Tabellaria flocculosa or similarly oligotrophic<br />
Brachysira styriaca dom<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> Jarfjord lakes.<br />
All <strong>the</strong> lakes were oligosaprobic by saprobic <strong>in</strong>dex.<br />
The Jarfjord lakes all had elevated sulphate levels<br />
(see Chapter 4, Water quality). This <strong>in</strong>dicates that <strong>the</strong><br />
lakes might have experienced some degree <strong>of</strong> acidification<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> past. As a result diatom community would<br />
have suffered a loss <strong>of</strong> species. Moreover, all <strong>the</strong> lakes<br />
had copper <strong>and</strong> nickel concentrations higher than<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r regions. Biological impact is <strong>the</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
effect <strong>of</strong> both metal pollution <strong>and</strong> acid deposition.<br />
It should be noted that catchment structure or soil<br />
quality was not controlled <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study. Sampl<strong>in</strong>g differences,<br />
catchment size <strong>and</strong> soil quality <strong>and</strong> thickness<br />
may also expla<strong>in</strong> species diversity. In addition,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Jarfjord lakes are slightly more north compared to<br />
Vätsäri, which could also contribute to <strong>the</strong> result.<br />
Conclusions<br />
There were fewer species <strong>in</strong> Jarfjord lakes compared<br />
to <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r two regions. The ma<strong>in</strong> chemical differences<br />
to o<strong>the</strong>r lakes are elevated levels <strong>of</strong> sulphate <strong>and</strong><br />
heavy metals. Chemical quality <strong>in</strong> Jarfjord does not<br />
imply acidification, but heavy metal pollution <strong>and</strong> past<br />
changes <strong>in</strong> alkal<strong>in</strong>ity may expla<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> difference. Similarly<br />
Lake Shuonijaur <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> vic<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> Nikel has notably<br />
low diatom species diversity <strong>and</strong> elevated levels <strong>of</strong><br />
copper <strong>and</strong> nickel.<br />
Periphytic diatoms are quick <strong>and</strong> straightforward to<br />
sample. It is found to be a relatively effective monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
target for <strong>the</strong> current environmental impacts <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>refore recommended for future monitor<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
References<br />
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Cemagref 1982: Etude des méthodes biologiques d´appréciation quantitative de la qualité des eaux., Rapport Q.E. Lyon-<br />
A.F.Bassion Rhône-Méditeranée-Corse: 218 p. (<strong>in</strong> French)<br />
Davydova, N.N. 1985: Diatom algae – <strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> natural conditions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> reservous <strong>in</strong> Holocene. Nauka. Len<strong>in</strong>grad.<br />
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Denisov, D. 2007: Changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> hydrochemical composition <strong>and</strong> diatomic flora <strong>of</strong> bottom sediments <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> zone <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />
<strong>of</strong> metal m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g production (Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula). Water Resources 34(6): 682-692.<br />
Gaiser, E. 2010: Diatoms as <strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>in</strong> wetl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> peatl<strong>and</strong>s. In Gaiser, E., Rühl<strong>and</strong>, K.: The Diatoms: Applications for<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Environmental</strong> <strong>and</strong> Earth Sciences. 2 nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 473-496.<br />
Eloranta, P. 1990: Periphytic diatoms <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> acidification project lakes. In Kauppi, P., Anttila, P. & Kenttämies, K. (eds.).<br />
Acidification <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>. Spr<strong>in</strong>ger Verlag. Berl<strong>in</strong>. 1237 p.<br />
Eloranta, P., Karjala<strong>in</strong>en, S.M., Vuori, K-M. 2007: Piileväyhteisöt jokivesien ekologisen tilan luokittelussa ja seurannassa:<br />
menetelmäohjeet. 58 p. (<strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish with an abstract <strong>in</strong> English)<br />
Kelly, M.G., Adams, C., Graves, A.C., Jamieson, J., Krokowski, J., Lycett, E.B., Murray-Bligh, J., Pritchard, S., Wilk<strong>in</strong>s, C.<br />
2001: The trophic diatom <strong>in</strong>dex: a user’s manual. Revised edition. Research & Development, Technical report E2/TR2.<br />
135 p. http://botany.natur.cuni.cz/neustupa/trophic-diatom-<strong>in</strong>dex.pdf [accessed 6.3.2014]<br />
Krammer, K. & Lange-Bertalot, H. 1986. Bacillariophyceae, volume 1: Naviculaceae. In: Ettl, H., Gerl<strong>of</strong>f, J., Heynig, H.<br />
& Mollenhauer D. (ed.). Süsswasserflora von Mitteleuropa, B<strong>and</strong> 2. Stuttgart, Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena. 876 p. (<strong>in</strong><br />
German)<br />
Krammer, K. & Lange-Bertalot, H. 1988. Bacillariophyceae, volume 2: Bacillariaceae, Epi<strong>the</strong>miaceae, Surirellaceae. In: Ettl,<br />
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H., Gerl<strong>of</strong>f J., Heynig, H. & Mollenhauer, D. (ed.). Süsswasserflora von Mitteleuropa, B<strong>and</strong> 2. Stuttgart, Gustav Fischer<br />
Verlag, Jena. 596 p. (<strong>in</strong> German)<br />
Krammer, K. & Lange-Bertalot, H. 1991. Bacillariophyceae, volume 3: Centrales, Fragilariaceae, Eunotiaceae. In: Ettl, H.,<br />
Gerl<strong>of</strong>f, J., Heynig, H. & Mollenhauer, D. (ed.), Süsswasserflora von Mitteleuropa, B<strong>and</strong> 2. Stuttgart, Gustav Fischer<br />
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Krammer, K. & Lange-Bertalot, H. 1991. Bacillariophyceae, volume 4: Achnanthaceae. Kritishce Ergänzungen zu Navicula<br />
(L<strong>in</strong>eolatae) und Gomphonema. In: Ettl, H., Gärtner, G., Gerl<strong>of</strong>f, J., Heynig, H. & Mollenhauer, D. (ed.), Süsswasserflora<br />
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<strong>of</strong> California Press. Berkeley. p. 284–332.<br />
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Limnologie 7: 1-128.<br />
So<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>en, J., Paavola, R., Muotka, T. 2004: Benthic diatom communities <strong>in</strong> boreal streams: community structure <strong>in</strong> relation<br />
to environmental <strong>and</strong> spatial gradients. Ecography 27(3): 330-342.<br />
USEPA. 1986: Ambient aquatic life water quality criteria for nickel. U.S. <strong>Environmental</strong> Protection Agency. 93 p.<br />
USEPA. 1980: Ambient water quality criteria for copper. U.S. <strong>Environmental</strong> Protection Agency. 84 p.<br />
Van Dam, H., Mertens, A., S<strong>in</strong>keldam, J. 1994: A coded checklist <strong>and</strong> ecological <strong>in</strong>dicator values <strong>of</strong> freshwater diatoms from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rl<strong>and</strong>s. Ne<strong>the</strong>rl<strong>and</strong>s Journal <strong>of</strong> Aquatic Ecology 28(1): 117–133.<br />
Zhuze, A.P., Proshk<strong>in</strong>a-Lavrenko, A.I., Sheshukova, V.S. 1949: Diatom analyses, volume 1. Len<strong>in</strong>grad. 240 p. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Zhuze, A.P., Kiselev, A.I., Poretsky, V.S., Proshk<strong>in</strong>a-Lavrenko, A.I., Sheshukova, V.S 1949: Diatom analyses, volume 2.<br />
Len<strong>in</strong>grad. 238 p. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Photo: Helén Andersen<br />
141
4.3 Zoobenthos<br />
Zoobenthos, or benthic macro<strong>in</strong>vertebrates, were<br />
studied <strong>in</strong> littoral <strong>and</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>undal zones. Littoral zoobenthos<br />
responds to multiple environmental pressures<br />
due its community’s diverse feed<strong>in</strong>g adaptations<br />
<strong>and</strong> life cycles. North boreal streams are much studied<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>y have been reported to susta<strong>in</strong> lower<br />
species richness <strong>and</strong> abundance relative to south<br />
boreal region (eg. S<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong> & Johnson 2000). This is<br />
expected to be true also for lake habitats. Indicator<br />
taxa for eutrophication, organic pollution (saproby)<br />
<strong>and</strong> acidification may be recognized <strong>in</strong> zoobenthos<br />
communities. <strong>Environmental</strong> changes are reflected to<br />
species diversity, abundance <strong>and</strong> community composition.<br />
The pr<strong>of</strong>undal zoobenthos is most <strong>of</strong> all prone<br />
to oxygen depletion, which is similarly studied through<br />
community metrics.<br />
The effect <strong>of</strong> sulphate on <strong>in</strong>vertebrate biota depends<br />
on <strong>the</strong> compound it is bound to. Water alkal<strong>in</strong>ity<br />
<strong>and</strong> chloride content alleviate sulphate toxicity (Meays<br />
& Nord<strong>in</strong> 2013). The level <strong>of</strong> sulphate measured <strong>in</strong><br />
project lakes is not high enough to necessarily cause<br />
direct effects <strong>in</strong> zoobenthos but it may <strong>in</strong>directly alter<br />
<strong>the</strong> communities through acidification.<br />
Invertebrate sensitivity to heavy metals is specific<br />
to each group <strong>and</strong> life-stage. The nickel <strong>and</strong> copper<br />
concentrations that can directly affect <strong>in</strong>vertebrate viability<br />
are higher than what was measured <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study<br />
lakes (USEPA 2007, 1980). The bioavailable fraction<br />
<strong>of</strong> a metal <strong>in</strong> nature depends primarily on <strong>the</strong> dissolved<br />
organic carbon content. In a previous study <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
project area (Nøst et al. 1997) sensitive Ephemeroptera,<br />
Trichoptera <strong>and</strong> Plecoptera species were fewer<br />
or altoge<strong>the</strong>r miss<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> most acidified <strong>and</strong> heavily<br />
polluted lakes (Nøst et al. 1997).<br />
Materials <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
Littoral zoobenthos was collected us<strong>in</strong>g a kick-net on<br />
rocky bottom substrate ca. 20–40 cm deep. Kick-net<br />
samples were sieved with 0.5 mm mesh. Each lake<br />
was sampled once between August <strong>and</strong> October <strong>in</strong><br />
2012 <strong>and</strong> 2013. Sampl<strong>in</strong>g procedures are summarized<br />
<strong>in</strong> Table 5. The F<strong>in</strong>nish method is described <strong>in</strong><br />
detail <strong>in</strong> Meissner et al. (2013, <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish) <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n<br />
method <strong>in</strong> state st<strong>and</strong>ard (GOST 17.1.3.07-82). Norwegian<br />
sampl<strong>in</strong>g time is 20 seconds per 1 m <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
net is emptied after 1 m<strong>in</strong> sampl<strong>in</strong>g time. Total kick<strong>in</strong>g<br />
time is 3 m<strong>in</strong>, dur<strong>in</strong>g which a total <strong>of</strong> 9 m is moved.<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>undal zoobenthos was collected us<strong>in</strong>g a st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
Ekman grab from <strong>the</strong> deepest bas<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> each lake.<br />
Samples were sieved with 0.5 mm mesh. Pr<strong>of</strong>undal<br />
sampl<strong>in</strong>g was conducted at <strong>the</strong> same time with littoral<br />
sampl<strong>in</strong>g. Sampl<strong>in</strong>g procedures are summarized<br />
<strong>in</strong> Table 6.<br />
Table 5. Littoral zoobenthos sampl<strong>in</strong>g month <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> sampled stations <strong>and</strong><br />
replicates.<br />
Month Sampl<strong>in</strong>g time (s.) Stations Replicates<br />
F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> September-October 20 3* 2<br />
<strong>Russia</strong> August 10-15 3 1<br />
<strong>Norway</strong> September-November 20 3 2<br />
* Harrijärvi has 2 stations <strong>and</strong> 3 replicates.<br />
Table 6. Pr<strong>of</strong>undal zoobenthos sampl<strong>in</strong>g time <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
number <strong>of</strong> replicate Ekman grab samples.<br />
Month<br />
Replicates<br />
F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> September-October 6<br />
<strong>Russia</strong> August 2<br />
<strong>Norway</strong> August 6<br />
142
Results <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
Littoral community<br />
The observed littoral macrozoobenthos represented<br />
typical taxa for nutrient-poor, clear-watered lakes <strong>in</strong><br />
cold climate.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes <strong>the</strong>re were altoge<strong>the</strong>r 34 species.<br />
In Vätsäri <strong>and</strong> Jarfjord lakes were total <strong>of</strong> 36 <strong>and</strong><br />
23 species, respectively. Chironomid species were<br />
<strong>the</strong> most numerous <strong>in</strong> all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> regions. The number<br />
<strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong> recorded families was consistently lower <strong>in</strong><br />
Jarfjord (Figure 10). The difference between Jarfjord<br />
lakes’ number <strong>of</strong> families <strong>in</strong> contrast to <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r two<br />
regions was found statistically significant (See Chapter<br />
2).<br />
0 5 10 15 20<br />
Jarfjord<br />
Gardsjøen<br />
Holmvatnet<br />
Rabbvatnet<br />
0<br />
1<br />
3<br />
4<br />
5<br />
8<br />
lighter = total number<br />
<strong>of</strong> families<br />
darker = EPT families<br />
Durvatn<br />
4<br />
9<br />
Lampi 222<br />
2<br />
11<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Harrijärvi<br />
Pitkä-Surnujärvi<br />
4<br />
5<br />
10<br />
12<br />
Sierramjärvi<br />
6<br />
16<br />
Shuonijaur<br />
2<br />
8<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi<br />
3<br />
11<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Toartesjaur<br />
Virtuovoshjaur<br />
Riuttikjaure<br />
Kochejaur<br />
5<br />
5<br />
6<br />
9<br />
10<br />
10<br />
13<br />
18<br />
Figure 10. The number <strong>of</strong> littoral zoobenthic<br />
families (lighter color) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> number Ephemeroptera,<br />
Plecoptera <strong>and</strong> Trichoptera families<br />
(darker color) <strong>in</strong> each lake <strong>and</strong> region.<br />
Table 7. The number <strong>of</strong> species, Woodiwiss biotic <strong>in</strong>dex <strong>and</strong> Shannon diversity <strong>in</strong>dex values for <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n,<br />
Vätsäri <strong>and</strong> Jarfjord lake’s littoral zoobenthos communities. The consequent ecological state is assessed by<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n state st<strong>and</strong>ard limit values.<br />
Lake Number <strong>of</strong> species Woodiwiss <strong>in</strong>dex Shannon <strong>in</strong>dex Ecological state<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Virtuovoshjaur 22 10 3.81 clean<br />
Kochejaur 25 10 4.01 clean<br />
Ilja-Nautsijarvi 19 8 3.55 clean<br />
Shuonijaur 12 7 2.54 clean<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi 14 8 3.34 clean<br />
Toartesjaur 13 8 3.21 clean<br />
Pikkujärvi 17 7 3.31 clean<br />
Riuttikjaure 16 8 3.40 clean<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Pitkä-Surnujärvi 24 9 2.61 clean<br />
Sierramjärvi 23 9 2.64 clean<br />
Harrijärvi 17 9 2.84 clean<br />
Lampi 222 13 9 2.86 clean<br />
Jarfjord<br />
Holmvatn 3 4 1.50 polluted<br />
Durvatn 10 6 2.04 moderately polluted<br />
Gardsjøen 7 3 0.60 dirty<br />
Rabbvatn 14 8 2.16 clean<br />
143
The Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera <strong>and</strong> Trichoptera<br />
(so called ‘EPT’) families are considered pollutionsensitive<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>refore specifically <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>ir families is used as an <strong>in</strong>dicator <strong>of</strong> environmental<br />
status. The EPT families were aga<strong>in</strong> fewer <strong>in</strong> Jarfjord<br />
lakes, but <strong>the</strong> difference was not significant at 95 %<br />
confidence level.<br />
Analysis <strong>of</strong> ecological state us<strong>in</strong>g Woodiwiss biotic<br />
<strong>in</strong>dex for organic pollution <strong>and</strong> Shannon diversity<br />
<strong>in</strong>dex aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n state limit values (GOST<br />
17.1.3.07-82) is summarized <strong>in</strong> Table 7. All <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n<br />
<strong>and</strong> Vätsäri littoral zoobenthos communities yield<br />
clean water status. Three Jarfjord lakes classify as<br />
polluted at some degree. The three polluted lakes have<br />
notably few taxa <strong>of</strong> zoobenthos. No chemical factor<br />
separates <strong>the</strong> three from o<strong>the</strong>r lakes <strong>in</strong> Jarfjord.<br />
It is assumable that <strong>the</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ed effect <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />
pollution, namely sulphate, copper <strong>and</strong> nickel, play<br />
a role <strong>in</strong> shap<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Jarfjord littoral zoobenthic communities<br />
<strong>and</strong> lower <strong>the</strong>ir diversity. In comparison to<br />
Vätsäri <strong>the</strong> lakes have <strong>the</strong> same trophic state <strong>and</strong> thus<br />
should not express significant differences. However,<br />
<strong>the</strong> latitude <strong>and</strong> catchment characteristics were not<br />
controlled <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study: <strong>the</strong> Jarfjord lakes are generally<br />
more north <strong>and</strong> tend to have smaller catchments<br />
with th<strong>in</strong>ner soils, both <strong>of</strong> which could have negative<br />
impact on diversity.<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>undal community<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>undal macrozoobenthos densities <strong>and</strong> biomasses<br />
were found to be low. In <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes <strong>the</strong>re was<br />
high variance from no zoobenthos (Virtuovoshjaur,<br />
Kochejaur) to 1938 <strong>in</strong>dividuals/m 2 (Toartesjaur) (Table<br />
8). The lakes <strong>in</strong> Vätsäri <strong>and</strong> Jarfjord had lower densities<br />
<strong>of</strong> zoobenthos: 0–329 <strong>in</strong>d./m 2 <strong>and</strong> 52–456 <strong>in</strong>d./<br />
m 2 , respectively (Table 8). The cause <strong>of</strong> empty samples<br />
is probably <strong>the</strong> naturally sparse distribution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals. Chironomidae <strong>and</strong> Oligochaeta comprise<br />
majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake pr<strong>of</strong>undal taxa.<br />
The <strong>Russia</strong>n pr<strong>of</strong>undal zoobenthos communities<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong>dicate oligotrophy or mesotrophy on Kitaev’s<br />
(2007) trophic scale based on zoobenthos biomass.<br />
Lake Toartesjaur classified as eutrophic because more<br />
than 70 % <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> community was composed <strong>of</strong> eutrophy<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicator chironomid Limnochironomus gr. tritomus.<br />
Vätsäri communities <strong>in</strong>dicate oligotrophy. Jarfjord<br />
communities <strong>in</strong>dicate oligotrophy, apart from Lake<br />
Durvatn, where <strong>the</strong> benthos made up mostly by Mic-<br />
Table 8. The mean values <strong>of</strong> number <strong>and</strong> biomass, Shannon diversity <strong>in</strong>dex values, trophic states accord<strong>in</strong>g to Kitaev (2007) <strong>and</strong><br />
status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> community based on F<strong>in</strong>nish national zoobenthos metrics (PMA, PICM) for <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n, Vätsäri <strong>and</strong> Jarfjord lake’s<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>undal zoobenthos communities. Some lakes could not be classified due to low abundance <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>vertebrates.<br />
Lake<br />
Mean values <strong>of</strong><br />
number (<strong>in</strong>d./m 2 )<br />
Mean values <strong>of</strong><br />
biomass (g/m 2 )<br />
Shannon<br />
<strong>in</strong>dex<br />
Trophic state<br />
Community status<br />
(PMA, PICM)<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Virtuovoshjaur - - - - -<br />
Kochejaur - - - - -<br />
Ilja-Nautsijarvi 190.1 1.0 1.87 oligotrophy -<br />
Shuonijaur 576.7 2.9 2.76 mesotrophy high<br />
Ala-Nautsijarvi 415.2 2.1 2.42 oligotrophy high<br />
Toartesjaur 1937.6 9.7 1.12 eutrophy high<br />
Pikkujärvi 622.8 3.1 3.08 mesotrophy -<br />
Riuttikjaure 692.0 3.5 2.50 mesotrophy high<br />
Vätsäri<br />
Pitkä-Surnujärvi 155.7 1.3 2.60 oligotrophy good<br />
Sierramjärvi 328.7 2.7 1.50 oligotrophy high<br />
Harrijärvi 196.1 1.6 3.00 oligotrophy good<br />
Lampi 222 - - - - -<br />
Jarfjord<br />
Holmvatn 103.8 0.9 3.09 oligotrophy -<br />
Durvatn 455.6 3.8 1.93 mesotrophy -<br />
Gardsjøen 184.5 1.5 1.92 oligotrophy high<br />
Rabbvatn 51.9 0.4 1.89 oligotrophy high<br />
144
asema sp. (Trichoptera) <strong>and</strong> mussel Pisidium (Euglesa)<br />
sp.<br />
The F<strong>in</strong>nish community metrics faced difficulties<br />
with low abundance <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>vertebrates. Some lakes had<br />
so few taxa that PMA (Percent Model Aff<strong>in</strong>ity) would<br />
have been 0, which is not a useful result. Pr<strong>of</strong>undal Invertebrate<br />
Community Metric (PICM) requires certa<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dicator Chironomidae <strong>and</strong> Oligochaeta on species<br />
level to assess benthos status. Lakes that were possible<br />
to classify, ga<strong>in</strong>ed at least good status class. The<br />
presence <strong>of</strong> relatively sensitive Sergentia <strong>and</strong> Cladotanytarsus<br />
resulted <strong>in</strong> mostly high status class for<br />
PICM. PMA gave variable results from poor to high.<br />
The <strong>in</strong>dex reacted to low <strong>in</strong>vertebrate density, which<br />
is considered natural <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> nutrient-poor, cold lakes.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>al pr<strong>of</strong>undal status was classified as good or high.<br />
Dendrogram analysis<br />
In relatively deep water bodies (e.g. Shuonijaur, 15-<br />
20 m) <strong>the</strong> psychrophilic, oligo-mesotrophic larvae <strong>of</strong><br />
Sergentia corac<strong>in</strong>a (Chironom<strong>in</strong>ae) dom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
structure <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>undal communities <strong>and</strong> cold water<br />
oligotrophic Arctopelopia sp. (Tanypod<strong>in</strong>ae) dom<strong>in</strong>ate<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> littoral area. Chironomidae Procladius choreus<br />
gr. (Tanypod<strong>in</strong>ae), widely spread <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Palearctic, are<br />
encountered everywhere. The portion <strong>of</strong> Cricotopus<br />
silvestris gr. (Orthocladi<strong>in</strong>ae) is <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> shallow,<br />
quickly warm<strong>in</strong>g water bodies with well developed<br />
aquatic vegetation <strong>and</strong> periphyton cover. Increase <strong>of</strong><br />
anthropogenic impact leads to <strong>the</strong> reduction <strong>of</strong> relative<br />
density <strong>of</strong> oligotrophic species <strong>and</strong> to <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
<strong>of</strong> eurybiontic larvae <strong>of</strong> Chironomus spp.<br />
Four isolated groups were dist<strong>in</strong>guished by similarity<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>undal macrozoobenthos. Eutrophic<br />
Lake Toartesjaur is separate from <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs, as is<br />
Lake Riuttikjaure, where Oligochaeta dom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> benthos fauna. Lakes Virtuovoshjaur <strong>and</strong> Kochejaur,<br />
characterized by <strong>the</strong> lowest diversity <strong>in</strong>dicators<br />
<strong>and</strong> zoobenthos density, form a group <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir own. A<br />
separate cluster unites lakes Gardsjøen, Shuonijaur,<br />
Sierramjärvi <strong>and</strong> Durvatn: <strong>the</strong> common feature is <strong>the</strong><br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> one group <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>vertebrates <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>undal<br />
zoobenthos composition: for example, larvae<br />
<strong>of</strong> Micrasema genus (Trichoptera) dom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong> Lake<br />
Durvatn whereas <strong>in</strong> Lake Shuonijaur Chironomidae<br />
were <strong>the</strong> most abundant.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> littoral macrozoobenthos <strong>the</strong> clusters were<br />
somewhat different (Figure 11). Lakes Harrijarvi, Sierramjarvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> Pitkä-Surnujärvi, where various species<br />
<strong>of</strong> Chironomidae dom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> macrozoobenthos,<br />
form one cluster <strong>and</strong> Holmvatn <strong>and</strong> Durvatn o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
cluster. O<strong>the</strong>r water bodies are positioned on <strong>the</strong> dendrogram<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> order <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g biodiversity <strong>of</strong> littoral<br />
macrozoobenthos.<br />
Figure 11. The dendrogram <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> similarity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> macrozoobenthos <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> studied lakes. (littoral<br />
benthic communities, method: S<strong>in</strong>gle L<strong>in</strong>kage, Euclidean distance).<br />
145
Conclusions<br />
The results from macrozoobenthos littoral communities<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicate mostly natural ecological status with<br />
sensitive taxa present <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong> <strong>and</strong> Vätsäri, F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>.<br />
However, certa<strong>in</strong> lakes <strong>in</strong> Jarfjord <strong>in</strong>dicate pollution <strong>of</strong><br />
moderate or high degree. In addition <strong>the</strong>re were differences<br />
<strong>in</strong> biodiversity between <strong>the</strong> areas so that Jarfjord<br />
lakes expressed consistently <strong>the</strong> lowest diversity.<br />
The pr<strong>of</strong>undal communities had low density <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
but <strong>the</strong> community <strong>in</strong>dices gave normal results<br />
when <strong>the</strong>re were zoobenthos <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> samples.<br />
Littoral zoobenthos is recommended for future monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
due to long history <strong>of</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> feasibility<br />
as pollution <strong>in</strong>dicator. Pr<strong>of</strong>undal benthic community<br />
assessment was troubled by empty samples <strong>and</strong> naturally<br />
very low densities <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>refore pr<strong>of</strong>undal monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
should not be placed high priority <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> future.<br />
References<br />
Kitaev, S. P. 2007: Foundations <strong>of</strong> Limnology for Hydrobiology <strong>and</strong> Ichthyology. Karelian Research Center RAS. Petrozavodsk. 395<br />
p. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Meays, C., Nord<strong>in</strong>, R. 2013: Ambient Water Quality Guidel<strong>in</strong>es For Sulphate. Technical Appendix. British Columbia M<strong>in</strong>istry<br />
<strong>of</strong> Environment. 55p.<br />
Nøst, T., Anatoli, L., Schartau, A.K., Kashul<strong>in</strong>, N., Berger, H.M., Yakolev, V., Sharov, A., Dauvalter, V. 1997: Impacts <strong>of</strong> pollution<br />
on freshwater communities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border region between <strong>Russia</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Norway</strong> III. Results <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1990-96 monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
programme. NINA Norsk <strong>in</strong>stitutt for naturforskn<strong>in</strong>g. 37p.<br />
S<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>, L., Johnson, R.K. 2000: Ecoregions <strong>and</strong> benthic macro<strong>in</strong>vertebrate assemblages <strong>of</strong> Swedish streams. Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> North American Benthological Society 19(3):462-474.<br />
USEPA 1980: Ambient aquatic life water quality criteria for nickel. U.S. <strong>Environmental</strong> Protection Agency. 93 p. http://water.<br />
epa.gov/scitech/swguidance/st<strong>and</strong>ards/criteria/upload/AWQC-for-Nickel_1986.pdf.<br />
USEPA 2007: Aquatic life ambient freshwater quality criteria - copper. 2007 revision. U.S. <strong>Environmental</strong> Protection Agency.<br />
204 p. http://water.epa.gov/scitech/swguidance/st<strong>and</strong>ards/criteria/aqlife/copper/upload/2009_04_27_criteria_copper_2007_criteria-full.pdf<br />
Kick-net sampl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> zoobenthos. Photo: Jukka<br />
Ylikörkkö<br />
146
4.4 Fish<br />
PETR TERENTJEV, HELÉN ANDERSEN, GUTTORM CHRISTENSEN, GEIR DAHL-HANSEN, KATJA MÄÄTTÄNEN,<br />
MARTTI RASK, JUKKA RUUHIJÄRVI, SAMULI SAIRANEN, ERNO SALONEN, ARI SAVIKKO<br />
Fish communities <strong>of</strong> small border area lakes <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>,<br />
<strong>Russia</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Norway</strong> were studied <strong>in</strong> 2013 <strong>and</strong><br />
2014 <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> ecological status was evaluated based<br />
on fish community variables. The f<strong>in</strong>al aim was to<br />
evaluate <strong>the</strong> usefulness <strong>of</strong> fish community variables<br />
(community structure, growth rate, maturation age,<br />
longevity) <strong>in</strong> assessment <strong>of</strong> impacts <strong>of</strong> climate change<br />
<strong>and</strong> hazardous substance deposition <strong>and</strong> possible<br />
effects <strong>of</strong> acidification on fish communities <strong>of</strong> survey<br />
lakes.<br />
There are several possible methods for collect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation for do<strong>in</strong>g a classification depend<strong>in</strong>g on type<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> river or lake system. The ma<strong>in</strong> methods for<br />
lakes are <strong>in</strong>terviews with locals, historical data, gillnet<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g, mapp<strong>in</strong>g by echo sound<strong>in</strong>g or electr<strong>of</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border region all potentially <strong>in</strong>fluenced<br />
by acidification. Gillnet fish<strong>in</strong>g was carried out accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
EU st<strong>and</strong>ards <strong>in</strong> order to evaluate <strong>the</strong> status<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fish populations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish lakes Harrijärvi <strong>and</strong> Pitkä Surnujärvi were<br />
test fished <strong>in</strong> summer 2013. <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes Shuonijaur,<br />
Ilja-Nautsijarvi, Virtuovoshjaur, Riuttikjaure <strong>and</strong><br />
Toartesjaur were also test fished <strong>in</strong> summer 2013 but<br />
also additional, older data from previous years was<br />
used <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> some lakes to determ<strong>in</strong>e changes<br />
<strong>in</strong> fish community structure. Also some results<br />
from Lake Kochejaur, which has been a subject <strong>of</strong> fish<br />
community research for decades, are <strong>in</strong>cluded here.<br />
The Norwegian lakes Durvatn, Gardsjøen, Holmvatn<br />
<strong>and</strong> Rabbvatn were test fished <strong>in</strong> August 2013 <strong>and</strong><br />
Rundvatn <strong>in</strong> August 2014.<br />
Materials <strong>and</strong> methods<br />
Test fish<strong>in</strong>g was carried out with us<strong>in</strong>g a stratified r<strong>and</strong>om<br />
sampl<strong>in</strong>g method <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> littoral, sub-littoral <strong>and</strong><br />
pr<strong>of</strong>undal zones (Kurkilahti 1999, CEN 2005). The<br />
sampl<strong>in</strong>g was carried out by us<strong>in</strong>g st<strong>and</strong>ard NOR-<br />
DIC multimesh gillnets (30 x 1.5 m) with 12 different<br />
mesh size between 5–55 mm (mesh sizes 5, 6.25, 8,<br />
10, 12.5, 15.5, 19.5, 24, 29, 35, 43 <strong>and</strong> 55 mm). The<br />
NORDIC multimesh gillnet is <strong>the</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard method <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> EU Water Framework Directive. The number <strong>of</strong><br />
gillnets that are recommended accord<strong>in</strong>g to EU st<strong>and</strong>ards<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> survey depends on size <strong>and</strong> depth <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
lake (Table 1). The lake size varied from 0.4 km 2 to 8.5<br />
km 2 <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> depth from 10 to 25 meters which lead to<br />
different numbers <strong>of</strong> gillnets used (Table 2).<br />
The nets were set <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> even<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> hauled <strong>the</strong><br />
next morn<strong>in</strong>g after a catch<strong>in</strong>g period <strong>of</strong> 12–15 hours.<br />
All lakes were sampled dur<strong>in</strong>g one night. The catch <strong>of</strong><br />
each net was h<strong>and</strong>led separately by mesh size <strong>and</strong><br />
sorted by species, counted <strong>and</strong> weighted.<br />
Total catches, catches <strong>of</strong> species groups <strong>and</strong><br />
catches <strong>of</strong> each fish species were calculated as catch<br />
per unit effort (CPUE, g/net <strong>and</strong> CPUE, number/net).<br />
The catch <strong>of</strong> each net was h<strong>and</strong>led separately <strong>and</strong><br />
by mesh size. Each catch was sorted by species <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>n counted <strong>and</strong> weighed. For size distributions, <strong>the</strong><br />
total length <strong>of</strong> every fish was measured at 1 cm accuracy<br />
<strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Norway</strong> <strong>the</strong> fork<br />
length was measured at 1 mm accuracy. Also <strong>the</strong> total<br />
number <strong>and</strong> weight <strong>of</strong> potentially piscivorous perch<br />
(Perca fluviatilis) (≥ 15 cm) was calculated separately<br />
for <strong>the</strong> proportion <strong>of</strong> predatory fishes.<br />
Hectares I II III IV<br />
< 20 6 10 16 24<br />
21–50 10 16 25 37<br />
51–100 15 21 30 42<br />
101–250 20 26 35 47<br />
251–500 24 30 39 51<br />
501–1000 28 36 48 64<br />
> 1000 32 40 52 68<br />
Table 1. Recommended number <strong>of</strong> gillnets accord<strong>in</strong>g to size<br />
<strong>and</strong> depth <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake. Depth is divided <strong>in</strong>to four categories<br />
(I–IV). Category I <strong>in</strong>cludes lakes with a maximum depth <strong>of</strong><br />
3 m <strong>and</strong> one depth zone (0–3 m). category II <strong>in</strong>cludes lakes<br />
with a maximum depth <strong>of</strong> 10 m <strong>and</strong> two depth zones (0–3<br />
m, 3–10 m), category III <strong>in</strong>cludes lakes with a maximum<br />
depth <strong>of</strong> 20 m <strong>and</strong> three depth zones (0–3 m, 3–10 m,<br />
10–20 m) <strong>and</strong> category IV <strong>in</strong>cludes lakes with a maximum<br />
depth <strong>of</strong> > 20 m <strong>and</strong> four depth zones (0–3 m, 3–10 m,<br />
10–20 m, > 20 m).<br />
147
Table 2. Lake area (km 2 ), depth (m) <strong>and</strong> number <strong>of</strong> gillnets used <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> test fish<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Lake <strong>Area</strong> (km 2 ) Depth (m) Number <strong>of</strong> gillnets<br />
F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> Harrijärvi 0.96 11 21<br />
Pitkä Surnujärvi 0.69 11.3 22<br />
<strong>Norway</strong> Durvatn 0.37 16 16<br />
Gardsjøen 0.67 25 21<br />
Holmvatn 0.80 >20 21<br />
Rabbvatn 0.40 23 16<br />
Rundvatn 0.45 15 23<br />
<strong>Russia</strong> Shuonijaur 8.5 10 40<br />
Ilja-Nautsijarvi 3.5 30<br />
Virtuovoshjaur 1.16 13 26<br />
Riuttikjaure 0.9 21<br />
Toartesjaur 0.6 21<br />
Table 3. Determ<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> ecological status for trout <strong>in</strong> acidified lakes based on <strong>the</strong> catch per unit effort (CPUE, number <strong>of</strong> fish per<br />
100 m 2 ) <strong>and</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> spawn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> feed<strong>in</strong>g habitat (OR) (S<strong>and</strong>lund et al. 2013).<br />
CPUE, number <strong>of</strong> fish per 100 m 2<br />
Gillnet type OR Very good Good Moderate Bad Very Bad<br />
NORDIC ≥ 50 > 20 20–5 15–10 < 10 < 5<br />
NORDIC 25–50 > 15 15–10 10–5 5–2 < 2<br />
NORDIC ≤ 25 > 10 10–5 5–2 < 2 0<br />
Age determ<strong>in</strong>ation was based on operculum<br />
(perch), otoliths (trout <strong>and</strong> char <strong>in</strong> <strong>Norway</strong>), cleithrum<br />
(pike <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>) or scales (o<strong>the</strong>rs). For <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish<br />
lakes <strong>the</strong> back-calculation <strong>of</strong> growth is based on <strong>the</strong><br />
formula <strong>of</strong> Monastyrsky (Bagenal & Tesch 1978). For<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes <strong>the</strong> growth <strong>of</strong> perch <strong>and</strong> pike was<br />
back-calculated with <strong>the</strong> Lea formula <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> growth<br />
<strong>of</strong> whitefish was back-calculated with <strong>the</strong> Lee formula<br />
(Chugunova 1959, Bryuzg<strong>in</strong> 1969).<br />
For <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish lakes <strong>the</strong> ecological status was<br />
evaluated by us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish EQR4 <strong>in</strong>dex (Tammi et<br />
al. 2006, Ol<strong>in</strong> et al. 2013). Fish community variables<br />
used <strong>in</strong> evaluat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ecological status were biomass<br />
(CPUE, g/net), number (CPUE, number/net) <strong>and</strong> appearance<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dicator species. Ecological quality ratio<br />
(EQR) was calculated by divid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> observed value<br />
<strong>of</strong> each variable with lake type specific reference value.<br />
Average from <strong>the</strong> EQR values <strong>of</strong> each variable describes<br />
<strong>the</strong> fish community based on evaluated ecological<br />
status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> Norwegian lakes <strong>the</strong> ecological status <strong>of</strong><br />
trout populations was evaluated based on a classification<br />
system that takes <strong>in</strong>to account <strong>the</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
available spawn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> feed<strong>in</strong>g habitats (OR = oppvekstratio)<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> ratio between <strong>the</strong>ir surface areas<br />
(m 2 ) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> lake’s surface area (ha). In this study <strong>the</strong><br />
quality <strong>of</strong> spawn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> feed<strong>in</strong>g habitat was evaluated<br />
from satellite pictures. Ecological status is evaluation<br />
also dependent on catch per unit effort (CPUE,<br />
as number <strong>of</strong> fish per 100 m 2 ) (Table 3). The classification<br />
system describes <strong>the</strong> fish community on a<br />
five step scale: Very good, Good, Moderate, Bad <strong>and</strong><br />
Very Bad. Quality <strong>of</strong> trout <strong>and</strong> char was also evaluated<br />
based on muscle colour, presence <strong>of</strong> parasites <strong>and</strong><br />
condition factor.<br />
For <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes <strong>the</strong> ecological status was evaluated<br />
based on expert assesment method <strong>in</strong> which <strong>the</strong><br />
studied lakes were compared to reference ecosystems.<br />
Also <strong>the</strong> frequency <strong>of</strong> malformations <strong>in</strong> fish <strong>and</strong><br />
heavy metal accumulation <strong>in</strong> fish tissues was studied.<br />
148
Results <strong>and</strong> discussion<br />
Community structure<br />
The community structures <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> studied lakes were<br />
quite similar <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong> (Figure 1).<br />
The dom<strong>in</strong>ant fish groups overall were salmonids<br />
<strong>and</strong> percids. The common salmonids were whitefish<br />
(sparsely-rakered (SR) form <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>, form was not<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>) <strong>and</strong> grayl<strong>in</strong>g, some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes<br />
also had trout <strong>and</strong> char. The only percid present<br />
was perch. Pike, cypr<strong>in</strong>ids, m<strong>in</strong>now <strong>and</strong> burbot were<br />
caught <strong>in</strong> some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes but <strong>the</strong> numbers were<br />
low. In <strong>the</strong> Norwegian lakes that were sampled <strong>in</strong><br />
2013 trout <strong>and</strong> char were <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> species (Figure 1)<br />
but also <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> stickleback was suspected <strong>in</strong><br />
most lakes. However, after <strong>the</strong> first field work <strong>in</strong> 2013<br />
it was decided to <strong>in</strong>clude one more lake <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> survey,<br />
<strong>in</strong> order to compare community structure <strong>of</strong> perch<br />
across borders. An additional “perch lake” was <strong>the</strong>refore<br />
chosen <strong>in</strong> <strong>Norway</strong>.<br />
The fish communities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes are different between<br />
<strong>Russia</strong>, F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Norway</strong> due to <strong>the</strong> historical<br />
immigration <strong>of</strong> fish after <strong>the</strong> previous ice age<br />
(Økl<strong>and</strong> 1966). After <strong>the</strong> ice age (8 000 years ago)<br />
<strong>the</strong> big Ancylus lake was established. This lake covered<br />
<strong>the</strong> Baltic Sea <strong>and</strong> parts <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Sweden.<br />
Fish species like perch, pike <strong>and</strong> whitefish emigrated<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Ancylus Lake <strong>in</strong>to rivers <strong>and</strong> lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />
part <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nmark, Nor<strong>the</strong>rn F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>, Sweden <strong>and</strong><br />
Northwest <strong>Russia</strong>. Trout <strong>and</strong> char immigrated to <strong>the</strong><br />
coastal lakes <strong>and</strong> rivers along <strong>the</strong> Norwegian coast.<br />
CPUE <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />
The total CPUEs as g/net <strong>and</strong> number/net <strong>of</strong> each<br />
study lake were evaluated (Table 4, Figure 2 <strong>and</strong> Figure<br />
3). Lake Harrijärvi had a higher g/net CPUE <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish lakes <strong>and</strong> Lake Pitkä Surnujärvi had more<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals per net. Fish community <strong>of</strong> Lake Harrijärvi<br />
consisted ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>of</strong> large-sized <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>of</strong> grayl<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Dom<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> salmonids is typical <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> oligotrophic<br />
lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>. In Lake Pitkä Surnujärvi<br />
<strong>the</strong> biomass was dom<strong>in</strong>ated by perch, but <strong>in</strong> numbers<br />
more salmonids were caught. Fish community <strong>of</strong> Lake<br />
Pitkä Surnujärvi ma<strong>in</strong>ly consisted <strong>of</strong> large perches<br />
<strong>and</strong> small whitefish.<br />
CPUE <strong>in</strong> <strong>Norway</strong><br />
Most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Norwegian lakes had CPUEs similar to<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish lakes <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> catch consisted <strong>of</strong> trout <strong>and</strong> Arctic<br />
char. The highest CPUEs <strong>of</strong> all study lakes were <strong>in</strong><br />
Lake Rundvatn (3846 g/net <strong>and</strong> 38.3 <strong>in</strong>dividuals/net)<br />
(Table 5, Figure 2 <strong>and</strong> Figure 3). The catch <strong>in</strong> Lake<br />
Rundvatn was clearly dom<strong>in</strong>ated by perch. The quality<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> trout <strong>in</strong> Rundvatn was very good with a condition<br />
rate <strong>of</strong> 1.1 <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> color <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> muscle tissue is<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly red or p<strong>in</strong>k. Trout larger than 25 cm are considered<br />
as piscivorous <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>refore have plenty <strong>of</strong> small<br />
perch to feed upon. There are only small tributaries to<br />
Lake Rundvatn <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> spawn<strong>in</strong>g possibilities for trout<br />
are considered as poor. The perch population is very<br />
dense but <strong>the</strong> fish still grow to lengths <strong>of</strong> > 15 cm.<br />
CPUE <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong><br />
The CPUEs <strong>of</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes were similar to, or lower<br />
than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> Norwegian lakes (Table 6, Figure<br />
2 <strong>and</strong> Figure 3). Lake Shuonijaur had low CPU-<br />
Es. Percids dom<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> catch but <strong>in</strong> a previous<br />
test fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 2005 trout <strong>and</strong> Arctic char were <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong><br />
species. This k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> change is typical <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> water<br />
reservoirs <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Murmansk Region. The ratio <strong>of</strong> mature<br />
<strong>and</strong> immature Arctic char specimens <strong>in</strong> different<br />
age groups testifies <strong>of</strong> a significant number miss<strong>in</strong>g<br />
spawn<strong>in</strong>g. It is evident that <strong>in</strong> Lake Shuonijaur effective<br />
reproduction <strong>of</strong> char is impeded by anthropogenic<br />
load, lack <strong>of</strong> favorable food reserves <strong>and</strong> competition<br />
from perch.<br />
In lakes Ilja-Nautsijarvi, Virtuovoshjaur <strong>and</strong> Toartesjaur<br />
percids dom<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> catch <strong>of</strong> 2013. However,<br />
earlier test fish<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> Virtuovoshjaur <strong>in</strong> 1992<br />
<strong>and</strong> 2005 <strong>in</strong>dicated that whitefish was <strong>the</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ant<br />
species. Present whitefish population <strong>in</strong> Virtuovoshjaur<br />
consists ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>of</strong> younger age groups for which<br />
early maturity is common.<br />
In Virtuovoshjaur <strong>the</strong> average weight <strong>of</strong> perch was<br />
100–150 g <strong>and</strong> length 18–24 cm In Ilja-Nautsijarvi<br />
perch were <strong>of</strong> a smaller size (up to 100 g <strong>and</strong> 10–15<br />
cm). In Lake Toartesjaur <strong>the</strong>re were quite a lot <strong>of</strong> juvenile<br />
perch but also mature fish <strong>of</strong> all size classes were<br />
caught. In Lake Riuttikjaure <strong>the</strong> biomass was dom<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
<strong>of</strong> salmonids but small-sized percids were more<br />
abundant <strong>in</strong> numbers.<br />
CPUE values for most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> study lakes can be<br />
deemed low. A high proportion <strong>of</strong> predatory fish was<br />
also noted <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> structure <strong>of</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n fish populations.<br />
The biomass <strong>of</strong> predators <strong>in</strong> some lakes reached 64<br />
% (Virtuovoshjaur), 84 % (Ilja-Nautsijarvi) <strong>and</strong> even<br />
92 % (Toartesjaur).<br />
In Lake Kochejaur <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong> <strong>the</strong> fish community<br />
has been studied <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> period from 1989 to 2010.<br />
The proportion <strong>of</strong> perch was small <strong>in</strong> 1989 <strong>and</strong> whitefish<br />
has historically been <strong>the</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ant species. New<br />
studies revealed an elevated proportion <strong>of</strong> perch. In<br />
149
0.3<br />
4.3<br />
10.3<br />
8.7<br />
49.9<br />
24.4<br />
7.8<br />
29.9<br />
whitefish<br />
grayl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pike<br />
perch<br />
trout<br />
81.1<br />
Harrijärvi<br />
17.9<br />
Pitkä Surnujärvi<br />
Pitkä Surnujärvi<br />
5.1<br />
60.4<br />
char<br />
burbot<br />
31.4<br />
22.3<br />
46<br />
Shuonijaur<br />
12<br />
68.8<br />
77.7<br />
54<br />
88<br />
Durvatn<br />
Holmvatn<br />
Rabbvatn<br />
Rundvatn<br />
0.3<br />
4.3<br />
9.5<br />
26.4<br />
19.8<br />
1.9<br />
5.6<br />
5.1<br />
29.9<br />
60.4<br />
62.2<br />
28.3<br />
60.7<br />
12.6<br />
0.3<br />
23.5<br />
56.7<br />
82.5<br />
Shuonijaur<br />
Ilja-Nautsijarvi<br />
Virtuovoshjaur<br />
Riuttikjaure<br />
Toartesjaur<br />
Figure 1. The proportions (biomass %) <strong>of</strong> different fish species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> studied lakes. M<strong>in</strong>nows were caught <strong>in</strong> lakes Pitkä-Surnujärvi<br />
<strong>and</strong> Ilja-Nautsijarvi, but <strong>the</strong>ir biomass proportions were so low that <strong>the</strong>y rounded to zero.<br />
Table 4. Summary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> results from <strong>the</strong> gillnet fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish lakes.<br />
Lake<br />
Harrijärvi<br />
Pitkä Surnujärvi<br />
Fish species<br />
Total catch<br />
(number)<br />
Number<br />
%<br />
Total catch<br />
(g)<br />
Biomass<br />
%<br />
CPUE<br />
g/net<br />
CPUE<br />
number/net<br />
CPUE (per<br />
100 m 2 )<br />
Pike 9 12 2699 10.3 128.5 0.4 0.9<br />
Whitefish 28 40.6 2285 8.7 108.8 1.3 2.9<br />
Grayl<strong>in</strong>g 32 46,4 21352 81.1 1016.8 1.5 3.3<br />
Total 69 100 26336 100 1254.1 3.2 9.8<br />
Perch 50 41.3 6936 49.9 315.3 2.3 5.1<br />
Pike 9 7.4 2494 17.9 113.4 0.4 09<br />
Whitefish 55 45.5 3390 24.4 154.1 2.5 4.9<br />
Grayl<strong>in</strong>g 6 5.0 1084 7.8 49.3 0.3 0.7<br />
M<strong>in</strong>now 1 0.8 3 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2<br />
Total 121 100 13907 100 632.2 5.6 11.8<br />
150
CPUE g/net<br />
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500<br />
F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />
Harrijärvi<br />
Pitkä Surnujärvi<br />
632<br />
1254<br />
<strong>Norway</strong><br />
Durvatn<br />
Holmvatn<br />
Rabbvatn<br />
Gardsjøen<br />
Rundvatn<br />
481<br />
742<br />
1063<br />
1210<br />
3846<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Shuonijaur<br />
Ilja-Nautsijarvi<br />
Virtuovoshjaur<br />
Riuttikjaure<br />
Toartesjaur<br />
259<br />
203<br />
459<br />
1355<br />
1599<br />
Figure 3. The total CPUE g/net <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> study lakes.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>Norway</strong><br />
Harrijärvi<br />
Pitkä Surnujärvi<br />
Durvatn<br />
Holmvatn<br />
Rabbvatn<br />
Gardsjøen<br />
Rundvatn<br />
3,3<br />
5,5<br />
5,2<br />
3,6<br />
7,7<br />
9,7<br />
CPUE number/net<br />
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45<br />
38,3<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
Shuonijaur<br />
Ilja-Nautsijarvi<br />
Virtuovoshjaur<br />
Riuttikjaure<br />
Toartesjaur<br />
1,9<br />
5,6<br />
7,1<br />
9,0<br />
12,1<br />
Figure 2. The total CPUE number/<br />
net <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study lakes.<br />
Table 5. Summary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> results from <strong>the</strong> gillnet fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Norwegian lakes.<br />
Lake<br />
Durvatn<br />
Holmvatn<br />
Rabbvatn<br />
Gardsjøen<br />
Rundvatn<br />
Fish species<br />
Total catch<br />
(number)<br />
Number<br />
%<br />
Total<br />
catch (g)<br />
Biomass<br />
%<br />
CPUE<br />
g/net<br />
CPUE<br />
number/net<br />
Trout 90 73.2 11666 68.6 729 5.6 12.5<br />
Arctic char 33 26.8 5340 31.4 334 2.1 4.6<br />
Total 123 100 17006 100.0 1063 7.7 17.1<br />
Trout 126 61.8 19725 77.7 939 6.0 13.3<br />
Arctic char 78 38.2 5678 22.3 270 3.7 8.2<br />
Total 204 100 25403 100 1210 9.7 21.6<br />
Trout 34 41.0 4151 54.0 259 2.1 4.7<br />
Arctic char 49 59.0 3542 46.0 221 3.1 6.8<br />
Total 83 100 7693 100 481 5.2 11.5<br />
Trout 76 100 15590 100 742 3.6 8.0<br />
Total 76 100 15590 100 742 3.6 8.0<br />
Trout 30 3.8 9100 12.0 446 1.5 3.3<br />
Perch 750 96.2 69000 88.0 3400 36.8 81.8<br />
Total 780 100 78100 100 3846 38.3 95.1<br />
CPUE (per<br />
100 m 2 )<br />
151
Table 6. Summary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> results from <strong>the</strong> gillnet fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes.<br />
Lake<br />
Fish species<br />
Total catch<br />
(number)<br />
Number<br />
%<br />
Total catch<br />
(g)<br />
Biomass<br />
%<br />
CPUE<br />
g/net<br />
CPUE<br />
number/net<br />
CPUE (per<br />
100 m 2 )<br />
Trout 3 1.3 525 5.1 13.1 0.1 0.2<br />
Perch 208 88.9 6256 60.4 156 5.2 11.6<br />
Shuonijaur<br />
Ilja-Nautsijarvi<br />
Virtuovoshjaur<br />
Riuttkijaure<br />
Toartesjaur<br />
Arctic char 20 8.5 3096 29.9 77.4 0.5 1.2<br />
Pike 1 0.4 441 4.3 11 0.03 0.1<br />
Burbot 2 0.9 32 0.3 0,8 0.1 0.2<br />
Total 234 100 10350 100 259 5.93 13.3<br />
Perch 231 85.5 25293 62.2 843 7.7 17.1<br />
Whitefish 25 9.3 3859 9.5 129 0.8 1.8<br />
Pike 12 4.4 11495 28.3 383 0.4 0.9<br />
M<strong>in</strong>now 2 0.7 3 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2<br />
Total 270 100 40650 100 1355 9 20<br />
Perch 205 65.1 25228 60.7 970 7.9 17..5<br />
Whitefish 103 32.7 10963 264 422 4.0 8.9<br />
Pike 6 1.9 5241 126 202 0.2 0.4<br />
Grayl<strong>in</strong>g 1 0.3 130 0.3 5.0 0.04 0.1<br />
Total 315 100 41562 100 1599 12.14 26.9<br />
Perch 31 795 1001 23.5 47.7 1.5 3.3<br />
Whitefish 6 15.4 2415 56.7 115 0.3 0.7<br />
Trout 2 5.1 843 19.8 40.1 0.1 0.2<br />
Total 39 100 4259 100 203 1.9 4.2<br />
Perch 145 97.3 8578 82.5 409 6.9 15.2<br />
Pike 3 2.0 582 5.6 27.7 0.1 0.2<br />
Burbot 1 0.7 1235 11.9 58.8 0.05 0.1<br />
Total 149 100 10395 100 495 7.15 15.5<br />
<strong>the</strong> last test fish<strong>in</strong>g perch formed <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
fish population. The whitefish population had only<br />
s<strong>in</strong>gle specimens <strong>of</strong> younger age groups. The majority<br />
was 4–7 year old fish, which is associated with a<br />
high degree <strong>of</strong> fish migration from o<strong>the</strong>r water reservoirs,<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g Lake Kochejaur ma<strong>in</strong>ly as a feed<strong>in</strong>g area.<br />
Absence <strong>of</strong> juvenile specimens is caused by silt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
up <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> water reservoir <strong>and</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> spawn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
grounds.<br />
Growth rate<br />
F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />
The growth <strong>of</strong> grayl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Lake Harrijärvi was quite fast<br />
(on average, <strong>the</strong> total length <strong>of</strong> 30 cm was exceeded<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> fourth grow<strong>in</strong>g season) whereas <strong>in</strong> Lake<br />
Pitkä Surnujärvi 30 cm length was not exceeded before<br />
<strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> six. The growth rate seemed to be quite<br />
constant <strong>in</strong> Lake Harrijärvi <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Pitkä Surnujärvi<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> first four grow<strong>in</strong>g seasons, but seemed to<br />
slow down after <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals exceeded <strong>the</strong> length<br />
<strong>of</strong> 25 cm.<br />
The growth <strong>of</strong> whitefish <strong>in</strong> Lake Harrijärvi was quite<br />
fast as <strong>the</strong> total length <strong>of</strong> 30 cm was exceeded on<br />
average dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> third grow<strong>in</strong>g season but <strong>in</strong> Lake<br />
Pitkä Surnujärvi <strong>the</strong> growth was fairly slow. The<br />
growth rate <strong>in</strong> Harrijärvi was quite constant dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
first three grow<strong>in</strong>g seasons but seemed to slow down<br />
after fish exceeded <strong>the</strong> length <strong>of</strong> 30 cm, whereas <strong>in</strong><br />
Pitkä Surnujärvi <strong>the</strong> growth rate seemed to stay <strong>the</strong><br />
same dur<strong>in</strong>g all grow<strong>in</strong>g seasons.<br />
The growth <strong>of</strong> perch <strong>in</strong> Lake Pitkä Surnujärvi was<br />
moderate when compared to o<strong>the</strong>r nor<strong>the</strong>rn lakes<br />
(Sairanen et al. 2007) as <strong>the</strong> total length <strong>of</strong> 20 cm was<br />
exceeded dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> sixth or seventh grow<strong>in</strong>g season,<br />
on average.<br />
<strong>Norway</strong><br />
The growth rates for trout <strong>and</strong> Arctic char were relatively<br />
good <strong>the</strong> first 4–5 years <strong>in</strong> Lake Durvatn <strong>and</strong><br />
Lake Gardsjøen. In lakes Rabbvatn <strong>and</strong> Holmvatn <strong>the</strong><br />
152
growth rate for trout <strong>and</strong> Arctic char was lower compared<br />
to lakes Durvatn <strong>and</strong> Gardsjøen. In all <strong>the</strong> lakes<br />
<strong>the</strong> growth slowed considerably when <strong>the</strong> fish matured,<br />
which is normal. The age for maturity varied between<br />
<strong>the</strong> different lakes but both trout <strong>and</strong> Arctic char<br />
population <strong>in</strong> all <strong>the</strong> lakes started to mature at <strong>the</strong> age<br />
<strong>of</strong> four or five years old.<br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
In <strong>the</strong> small <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes short lifetime <strong>and</strong> early maturity<br />
<strong>of</strong> fish was noted despite <strong>the</strong>ir apparent remoteness<br />
from <strong>in</strong>dustrial pollution (Chapter 4, Introduction,<br />
Figure 1). Fish older than seven years are encountered<br />
<strong>in</strong> s<strong>in</strong>gle specimens. The growth rates have decreased<br />
compared to earlier research <strong>in</strong> most lakes. In<br />
Lake Shuonijaur perch has higher growth rate than<br />
char. The growth rate <strong>of</strong> perch is high until <strong>the</strong> length<br />
<strong>of</strong> 20 cm but is <strong>the</strong>n reduced, which can be expla<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> transition to <strong>the</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> predatory type<br />
<strong>of</strong> feed<strong>in</strong>g. The growth rate <strong>of</strong> char seemed to be quite<br />
constant at all ages. In Lake Ilja-Nautsijarvi <strong>the</strong> growth<br />
rates <strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong> fish species are low, for example <strong>the</strong><br />
whitefish reach <strong>the</strong> size <strong>of</strong> 30 cm only at <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong><br />
7–8 years. In Lake Virtuovoshjaur <strong>and</strong> Lake Riuttkijaure<br />
<strong>the</strong> growth rates <strong>of</strong> whitefish <strong>and</strong> perch are even<br />
somewhat lower than <strong>in</strong> Lake Ilja-Nautsijarvi.<br />
In all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n study lakes <strong>the</strong> whitefish (SR)<br />
grows fastest dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> first year <strong>of</strong> life <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> growth<br />
decreases when <strong>the</strong>y reach <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> 2+. Whitefish<br />
<strong>of</strong> lakes Virtuovoshjaur <strong>and</strong> Ilja-Nautsijarvi have periods<br />
<strong>of</strong> even slower growth at <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> 7+ which<br />
accords with literature (Reshetnikov, 1966, 1980). The<br />
growth rate <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> perch was noted to slow at <strong>the</strong> age<br />
<strong>of</strong> n<strong>in</strong>e. In Lake Toartesjaur <strong>the</strong> growth rate <strong>of</strong> perch is<br />
average until <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> four <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>n it drops until <strong>the</strong><br />
age <strong>of</strong> seven when it seems to start grow<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>.<br />
Ecological status<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to test fish<strong>in</strong>g results 2013 <strong>the</strong> fish community<br />
based ecological status <strong>of</strong> Lake Harrijärvi was<br />
good <strong>and</strong> Lake Pitkä Surnujärvi high. In <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong><br />
Lake Harrijärvi <strong>the</strong> number catch <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dicator species<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicated high ecological status whereas <strong>the</strong> biomass<br />
catch <strong>in</strong>dicated only moderate ecological status.<br />
The high biomass catch compared to lake type<br />
(F<strong>in</strong>nish lake type Vh = Small <strong>and</strong> medium sized clear<br />
water lakes) specific reference value resulted from too<br />
high biomass catch <strong>of</strong> grayl<strong>in</strong>g that lead only to good<br />
overall ecological status. However, because grayl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dicator species, Lake Harrijärvi should<br />
also be considered <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> highest class (Table 7).<br />
The ecological status <strong>of</strong> trout populations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Norwegian lakes was classified as good <strong>in</strong> Durvatn,<br />
Holmvatn <strong>and</strong> Gardsjøen <strong>and</strong> moderate <strong>in</strong> Rabbvatn<br />
<strong>and</strong> Rundvatn. In <strong>Norway</strong> a method for ecological<br />
classification <strong>of</strong> fish communities o<strong>the</strong>r than trout has<br />
not been developed yet.<br />
The method <strong>of</strong> lake ecological status classification<br />
based on <strong>the</strong> fish communities’ condition is not developed<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>. However, long-time experience <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> researchers (INEP) made possible to assess <strong>the</strong><br />
status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> studied <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes based on comparisons<br />
with “reference water ecosystems”. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
this expert assessment method, <strong>the</strong> ecological status<br />
<strong>of</strong> Lake Virtuovoshjaur was high <strong>and</strong> Lake Ilja-Nautsijarvi<br />
good. The o<strong>the</strong>r lakes´ status was classified as<br />
moderate.<br />
Table 7. Ecological status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fish populations <strong>in</strong> lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border region<br />
accord<strong>in</strong>g to national st<strong>and</strong>ards.<br />
Country Lake Ecological status<br />
F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>Russia</strong><br />
<strong>Norway</strong><br />
Harrijärvi<br />
Pitkä Surnujärvi<br />
Shuonijaur<br />
Ilja-Nautsijarvi<br />
Virtuovoshjaur<br />
Riuttikjaure<br />
Toartesjaur<br />
Durvatn<br />
Gardsjøen<br />
Holmvatn<br />
Rabbvatn<br />
Rundvatn<br />
High (very good)<br />
High (very good)<br />
Moderate<br />
Good<br />
High (very good)<br />
Moderate<br />
Moderate<br />
Good<br />
Good<br />
Good<br />
Moderate<br />
Moderate<br />
153
Malformations <strong>in</strong> fish <strong>and</strong> assessment <strong>of</strong> anthropogenic<br />
load<br />
Malformations due to environmental pollution were<br />
noted <strong>in</strong> different species <strong>of</strong> fish <strong>in</strong> all <strong>the</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes,<br />
as fish muscle, liver, kidneys <strong>and</strong> gills were analyzed<br />
for copper, nickel, mercury <strong>and</strong> z<strong>in</strong>c. The ma<strong>in</strong><br />
affected organs were liver <strong>and</strong> kidneys but also changes<br />
<strong>in</strong> gonads <strong>and</strong> gills were detected. The common<br />
changes <strong>in</strong>cluded pale color <strong>of</strong> liver (fatty degenerations),<br />
formation <strong>of</strong> excess connective tissue <strong>in</strong> kidneys<br />
<strong>and</strong> gonads, segmented structure <strong>and</strong> asynchronous<br />
maturity <strong>of</strong> reproductive products <strong>and</strong> distortion<br />
<strong>of</strong> gill rakers <strong>in</strong> whitefish. In general, <strong>the</strong> frequency <strong>of</strong><br />
occurrence <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensiveness <strong>of</strong> fish pathologies stay<br />
on <strong>the</strong> same level with <strong>in</strong>significant changes throughout<br />
<strong>the</strong> whole term <strong>of</strong> observations (Figure 4). The<br />
malformations are caused by toxic impact <strong>of</strong> heavy<br />
metals.<br />
Copper concentrations have ei<strong>the</strong>r grown <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> last<br />
decades (more common) or stayed at <strong>the</strong> same level.<br />
Concentrations are highest <strong>in</strong> whitefish, especially <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> bottom-feed<strong>in</strong>g sparsely-rakered type, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> all<br />
studied species it accumulates most <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> liver <strong>and</strong><br />
kidneys. Nickel, <strong>in</strong> difference to copper, demonstrates<br />
a reduction <strong>of</strong> accumulation <strong>in</strong> fish over <strong>the</strong> last years.<br />
The differences between species <strong>and</strong> organs are not<br />
as clear as with copper but it seems that whitefish is<br />
<strong>the</strong> most affected species <strong>and</strong> kidneys <strong>and</strong> gills <strong>the</strong><br />
most accumulat<strong>in</strong>g organs.<br />
Mercury tends to accumulate more <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> liver <strong>and</strong><br />
kidneys than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> muscle <strong>and</strong> highest contents <strong>of</strong><br />
mercury were naturally recorded <strong>in</strong> predatory fish. Exceeded<br />
maximum allowable concentrations <strong>of</strong> mercury<br />
were noted <strong>in</strong> muscle tissue <strong>of</strong> perch <strong>and</strong> pike<br />
throughout <strong>the</strong> whole observation period <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> most<br />
distant lakes Kochejaur <strong>and</strong> Virtuovoshjaur (Figure 5).<br />
Z<strong>in</strong>c enhances <strong>the</strong> toxicity <strong>of</strong> many o<strong>the</strong>r metals.<br />
Its concentrations did not exhibit time trends or <strong>in</strong>terspecies<br />
trends <strong>in</strong> any <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> water reservoirs <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>re<br />
is also a significant variability <strong>of</strong> z<strong>in</strong>c accumulation <strong>in</strong><br />
fish organs with<strong>in</strong> each species.<br />
High variability <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> heavy metal content with<strong>in</strong><br />
one species was recorded practically <strong>in</strong> all <strong>the</strong> water<br />
reservoirs. For some specimens <strong>the</strong> levels <strong>of</strong> copper,<br />
nickel <strong>and</strong> z<strong>in</strong>c accumulation were comparable to<br />
<strong>and</strong> exceeded <strong>the</strong> maximum values <strong>of</strong> metals’ concentrations<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fish <strong>of</strong> Lake Kuetsjarvi, which is regarded<br />
as <strong>the</strong> most polluted water body <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
watercourse. This can testify <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g airborne<br />
anthropogenic load <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area <strong>and</strong> impact <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> secondary pollution from bottom sediments.<br />
Malformations were not studied <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> Norwegian<br />
lakes’ fish. Norwegian lakes have suffered<br />
from acidification quite recently but <strong>the</strong> situation has<br />
improved. The quality <strong>of</strong> trout <strong>and</strong> char was evaluated<br />
based on <strong>the</strong> color <strong>of</strong> muscle <strong>and</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> parasites.<br />
The quality was good <strong>in</strong> Holmvatn <strong>and</strong> Rundvatn,<br />
moderate <strong>in</strong> Gardsjøen <strong>and</strong> relatively poor <strong>in</strong> Rabbvatn.<br />
Kochejaur<br />
Virtuovoshjaur<br />
frequency occurance, %<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
frequency occurance, %<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
changes <strong>of</strong> gonads<br />
changes <strong>of</strong> kidneys<br />
changes <strong>of</strong> liver<br />
changes <strong>of</strong> gills<br />
0<br />
0<br />
1991 2002 2005 2007<br />
1992 2005 2007 2013<br />
Figure 4. Frequency <strong>of</strong> malformations <strong>of</strong> whitefish <strong>in</strong> lakes Kochejaur <strong>and</strong> Virtuovoshjaur.<br />
154
4,5<br />
4,0<br />
3,5<br />
3,0<br />
2,5<br />
2,0<br />
1,5<br />
1,0<br />
0,5<br />
0,0<br />
muscle<br />
MPC for Hg<br />
Wh Wh Pe Pi Wh Pe Pi Wh Pe Pi<br />
4,5<br />
4,0<br />
3,5<br />
3,0<br />
2,5<br />
2,0<br />
1,5<br />
1,0<br />
0,5<br />
0,0<br />
muscle<br />
MPC for Hg<br />
Wh Pe Pi Wh Pe Pi Wh Pe Pi<br />
2002 2005 2007 2009<br />
2005 2007 2013<br />
Kochejaur Lake<br />
Virtuovoshjaur Lake<br />
Figure 5. Mercury <strong>in</strong> fish muscle <strong>in</strong> lakes Kochejaur <strong>and</strong> Virtuovoshjaur over various periods <strong>of</strong> research (µg/g dry weight<br />
/ppm). MPC =<br />
maximum permissible concentration, Wh = whitefish, Pe = perch, Pi = pike.<br />
Summary <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
Fish communities <strong>of</strong> small border area lakes <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>,<br />
<strong>Russia</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Norway</strong> were studied <strong>in</strong> 2013 <strong>and</strong><br />
2014 <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> ecological status was evaluated based<br />
on fish community variables. The f<strong>in</strong>al aim was to<br />
evaluate <strong>the</strong> usefulness <strong>of</strong> fish community variables<br />
(community structure, growth rate, maturation age,<br />
longevity) <strong>in</strong> assessment <strong>of</strong> environmental impacts.<br />
Based on earlier studies carried out <strong>in</strong> small lakes<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area, several new variables were <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
<strong>in</strong> order to assess impacts <strong>of</strong> climate change, hazardous<br />
substance deposition <strong>and</strong> possible effects <strong>of</strong><br />
acidification. One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> reasons to conduct fish<br />
community studies was to carry out a basel<strong>in</strong>e study<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> methods required <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> EU Water Framework<br />
Directive.<br />
Fish community studies give <strong>in</strong>formation on how<br />
<strong>the</strong> community structure changes over time. Fish community<br />
variables measured <strong>in</strong> this study give a clear<br />
<strong>in</strong>dication <strong>of</strong> how fish communities change across<br />
borders <strong>and</strong> over a long time period.<br />
Lakes <strong>of</strong> Arctic <strong>and</strong> subarctic latitudes, as a rule,<br />
do not have a variety <strong>of</strong> fish species as species<br />
richness decreases as latitude <strong>in</strong>creases (Hillebr<strong>and</strong><br />
2004). Arctic char, trout, whitefish <strong>and</strong> perch are <strong>the</strong><br />
most common species <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>,<br />
<strong>Russia</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Norway</strong>.<br />
Community structure<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish <strong>and</strong> Norwegian lakes are highly oligotrophic<br />
clear water lakes <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir water quality is generally<br />
high. The fish communities represent <strong>the</strong> typical<br />
fish community <strong>of</strong> small sized lakes <strong>in</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn areas<br />
where <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> species is low <strong>and</strong> salmonid fishes<br />
are dom<strong>in</strong>ant. No signs <strong>of</strong> environmental degradation<br />
were detected <strong>and</strong> occurrence <strong>of</strong> several yearclasses<br />
<strong>of</strong> most species <strong>in</strong>dicated no signs <strong>of</strong> failure<br />
<strong>in</strong> reproduction. No harmful effects <strong>of</strong> acidification on<br />
<strong>the</strong> fish communities <strong>of</strong> surveyed lakes were observed.<br />
M<strong>in</strong>now, which is highly sensitive to acidification,<br />
existed <strong>in</strong> Lake Pitkä Surnujärvi For fur<strong>the</strong>r monitor<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
electr<strong>of</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> stony shores could be <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
to obta<strong>in</strong> a more reliable figure <strong>of</strong> m<strong>in</strong>now population.<br />
The studied <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes are all oligotrophic <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> composition <strong>of</strong> fish community is typical for such<br />
arctic lakes even though <strong>the</strong> predom<strong>in</strong>ant species are<br />
chang<strong>in</strong>g from coregonids <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r salmonids to<br />
perch. A fast restructur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> fish community <strong>of</strong> water<br />
reservoirs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Murmansk Region <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> last decade<br />
was noted: perch <strong>and</strong> cypr<strong>in</strong>ids <strong>of</strong>ten replace salmonids.<br />
The number <strong>of</strong> perch <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> lakes over <strong>the</strong><br />
last decade has a constant tendency to grow, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
a number <strong>of</strong> lakes its proportion can reach over 90 %.<br />
This change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fish community is evident <strong>in</strong> <strong>Norway</strong>,<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River lakes, where an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong><br />
perch most likely is related to observed temperature<br />
<strong>in</strong>creases (Chapter 3, Long-term effects <strong>of</strong> metal contam<strong>in</strong>ations,<br />
water regulations, species <strong>in</strong>vasions <strong>and</strong><br />
climate change on <strong>the</strong> fish community <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik<br />
River). In addition to climate change, also high level<br />
<strong>of</strong> load<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dusrty, <strong>the</strong> catchments <strong>and</strong> bottom<br />
sediments may <strong>in</strong>fluence this change <strong>in</strong> species<br />
communities (Kashul<strong>in</strong> et al. 2012, Terentjev & Kashul<strong>in</strong><br />
2012).<br />
Growth rate <strong>and</strong> maturation age<br />
In <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish lakes <strong>the</strong> growth rates were quit fast<br />
<strong>and</strong> constant <strong>in</strong> both lakes. The growth rates <strong>in</strong> most<br />
lakes <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong> have decreased compared to earlier<br />
studies. In <strong>Norway</strong> <strong>the</strong> growth rate <strong>of</strong> trout was normal.<br />
The growth rate <strong>and</strong> maturation age varied for<br />
155
fish <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Norwegian lakes. In all <strong>the</strong> lakes <strong>the</strong> growth<br />
rate slowed considerably when <strong>the</strong> fish became mature<br />
at <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> four to six years. There seems to<br />
be a good correlation between growth rate, population<br />
density <strong>and</strong> lake morphology.<br />
The studied <strong>Russia</strong>n lakes are all oligotrophic <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> composition <strong>of</strong> fish community is typical for such<br />
arctic lakes even though <strong>the</strong> predom<strong>in</strong>ant species are<br />
chang<strong>in</strong>g from coregonids <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r salmonids to<br />
perch. The levels <strong>of</strong> priority toxicants copper, nickel,<br />
z<strong>in</strong>c <strong>and</strong> mercury are all elevated, which shows especially<br />
<strong>in</strong> whitefish through changes <strong>in</strong> life cycle <strong>and</strong><br />
multiple malformations.<br />
For future studies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fish communities <strong>of</strong> small<br />
border area lakes it is recommended that monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
should be cont<strong>in</strong>ued with <strong>the</strong> NORDIC nets <strong>and</strong> same<br />
methods. Monitor<strong>in</strong>g should be conducted at a threeyear<br />
<strong>in</strong>terval. Electr<strong>of</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> stony shores could be<br />
<strong>in</strong>cluded to obta<strong>in</strong> a more reliable figure <strong>of</strong> m<strong>in</strong>now population<br />
<strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r species or size classes liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
shorel<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> study lakes. Monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> heavy<br />
metal levels <strong>and</strong> especially mercury <strong>in</strong> fish is recommended.<br />
The evaluation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ecological status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
lakes based on fish communities should be done <strong>in</strong> an<br />
as uniform way as possible.<br />
References<br />
Bagenal, T.B. & Tesch, F.W. 1978: Age <strong>and</strong> growth. In: Bagenal T.(ed.): Methods for assessment <strong>of</strong> fish production <strong>in</strong> fresh<br />
waters. Blackwell, Oxford. p. 101–136.<br />
Bryuzg<strong>in</strong> V.L. 1969: Methods <strong>of</strong> study <strong>of</strong> fish growth by scales, bones <strong>and</strong> otoliths. Naukova Dumka. Kiev. 188 p.<br />
Chugunova N.I. 1959: Fish age <strong>and</strong> growth study guide. Publisher <strong>of</strong> USSR Academy <strong>of</strong> Science. 164 p. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Hillebr<strong>and</strong>, H. 2004: On <strong>the</strong> generality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> latitud<strong>in</strong>al diversity gradient. The American Naturalist 163 (2): 192–211.<br />
Kashul<strong>in</strong> N.A., Denisov D.B., Valkova S.А., V<strong>and</strong>ysh O.I., Terentjev P.M. 2012: The modern tendencies <strong>of</strong> modification <strong>of</strong><br />
fresh water ecosystems <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Euro-Arctic region. Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> Kola science center. Applied ecology <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> North. 1:<br />
7-54. Kola Science Center RAS. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n).<br />
Kurkilahti, M. 1999: Nordic multimesh gillnet – robust gear for sampl<strong>in</strong>g fish populations. Academic dissertation, Department<br />
<strong>of</strong> Biology, University <strong>of</strong> Turku.<br />
Ol<strong>in</strong>, M., Rask, M., Ruuhijärvi, J. & Tammi, J. 2013: Development <strong>and</strong> evaluation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish fish-based lake classification<br />
method. Hydrobiologia 713: 149–166.<br />
Reshetnikov Yu. S. 1966: Peculiarities <strong>of</strong> growth <strong>and</strong> matur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> whitefish <strong>in</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn water bas<strong>in</strong>s. In: Nikolsky, G.V.,<br />
Lap<strong>in</strong>, J.E. (ed.) Regularities <strong>of</strong> fish population dynamics <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> White Sea <strong>and</strong> its bas<strong>in</strong>. Nauka. Moscow. p. 93–155. (<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Reshetnikov, Yu 1980: Ecology <strong>and</strong> systematics <strong>of</strong> coregonid fish. Nauka. Moscow. 300 p. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n)<br />
Sairanen, S., Rask, M., Stridsman, S. & Holmgren, K. 2007: TRIWA II work report, Fish communities <strong>of</strong> 15 lakes <strong>in</strong> River<br />
Torne bas<strong>in</strong>: aspects <strong>of</strong> lake typology <strong>and</strong> ecological status. Work report. 45 p.<br />
S<strong>and</strong>lund, O.T. 2013: Vannforskriften og fisk – forslag til klassifiser<strong>in</strong>gssystem. Miljødirektoratet Rapport M22-2013. (<strong>in</strong><br />
Norwegian)<br />
Tammi, J., Rask, M. & Ol<strong>in</strong>, M. 2006: Kalayhteisöt järvien ekologisen tilan arvio<strong>in</strong>nissa ja seurannassa. Alustavan luokittelujärjestelmän<br />
perusteet. Kala- ja riistaraportteja 383. 51 p. (<strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish)<br />
Terentjev P.M., Kashul<strong>in</strong> N.A. 2012: The transformation <strong>of</strong> fish communities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> waterbodies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Murmansk region.<br />
Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> Kola science center. Applied ecology <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> North 2: 61–100. Kola Science Center RAS. (<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>n).<br />
Økl<strong>and</strong>, J. 1966. Elg og stor damsnegl levde i Løten for 8 000 år siden. Fauna 19:158-25. (<strong>in</strong> Norwegian)<br />
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Photos: Helén Johanne Andersen<br />
157
158
Chapter 5: Influence <strong>of</strong> pollution <strong>and</strong><br />
climate variation <strong>in</strong> small rivers <strong>in</strong>dicated<br />
by freshwater pearl mussels<br />
PAUL ERIC ASPHOLM, MICHAEL CARROLL, GUTTORM N. CHRISTENSEN, HELÉN JOHANNE ANDERSEN, WILL<br />
AMBROSE<br />
Freshwater pearl mussels. Photo: Helén Johanne Andersen.<br />
159
1 Freshwater pearl mussel –<br />
The environmental storyteller<br />
The objectives <strong>of</strong> this <strong>in</strong>vestigation are to establish a<br />
method <strong>of</strong> reveal<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> climate parameters<br />
<strong>and</strong> heavy metal pollutants <strong>in</strong> rivers us<strong>in</strong>g shells<br />
<strong>of</strong> freshwater pearl mussels for long time series. The<br />
effects <strong>of</strong> climate change on <strong>the</strong> hydrological regime<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> rivers <strong>and</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r on <strong>the</strong> ecological status <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> EU Water Framework Directive bio<strong>in</strong>dicator <strong>and</strong><br />
flagship species Margaritifera margaritifera have been<br />
evaluated from three rivers <strong>in</strong> two different climatic zones<br />
<strong>in</strong> Sør-Varanger County <strong>in</strong> <strong>Norway</strong>.<br />
The freshwater pearl mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera)<br />
is a long-lived aquatic organism, which may<br />
reach an age up to 150–200 years (Bauer 1992, Ziuganov<br />
et al. 2000, Schöne et al. 2004, Helama & Valovirta<br />
2008). It occurs <strong>in</strong> clear, flow<strong>in</strong>g streams <strong>and</strong> rivers<br />
throughout nor<strong>the</strong>rn Europe (Sk<strong>in</strong>ner et al. 2003).<br />
Overall abundances <strong>and</strong> populations have decl<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
dramatically over <strong>the</strong> past century due to harvest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(for <strong>the</strong> shell <strong>and</strong> pearls) <strong>and</strong> habitat degradation<br />
(Bauer 1986, 1988), <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> mussel is currently listed<br />
on <strong>the</strong> IUCN red list as severely threatened.<br />
The hard parts <strong>of</strong> aquatic organisms (e.g. coral<br />
skeletons, shells <strong>of</strong> clams, fish otoliths) are deposited<br />
sequentially as <strong>the</strong> organism grows (Morrongiello et<br />
al. 2012). Consequently, <strong>the</strong> sequential deposition <strong>of</strong><br />
hard parts by an animal records a biological <strong>and</strong> environmental<br />
chronology dur<strong>in</strong>g its life, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> study<br />
<strong>of</strong> this record, sclerochronology, has been fundamental<br />
<strong>in</strong> reconstruct<strong>in</strong>g past environments (Hudson et al.<br />
1976, Wanamaker et al. 2012).<br />
The freshwater pearl mussel shell grows through<br />
sequential accretion <strong>of</strong> calcium carbonate material deposited<br />
at <strong>the</strong> shell marg<strong>in</strong> (Mutvei et al. 1994, Dunca<br />
1999). Seasonal changes <strong>in</strong> growth result <strong>in</strong> annual<br />
growth <strong>in</strong>crements <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> shell structure (similar to<br />
tree-r<strong>in</strong>gs). The size <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> annual r<strong>in</strong>gs is affected by<br />
nutrients, pH, availability <strong>of</strong> food, availability <strong>of</strong> calcium<br />
<strong>and</strong> climatic <strong>and</strong> environmental factors such as<br />
water temperature <strong>and</strong> turbidity. This allows us to use<br />
<strong>the</strong> growth <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mussel as a proxy for different environmental<br />
conditions (Mutvei et al. 1996, Dunca et<br />
al. 2005, Black et al. 2010). The shells are excellent<br />
archive <strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>of</strong> environmental changes, as <strong>the</strong>y<br />
have solid <strong>and</strong> impermeable shells that reta<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>corporated<br />
elements from <strong>the</strong> ambient water without spatial<br />
relocation. This allows reconstruction <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong><br />
impacts like climate <strong>and</strong> pollution experienced over lifespans<br />
that can be well <strong>in</strong> excess <strong>of</strong> 100 years (Westermark<br />
et al. 1996), predat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>strumental records<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area. The analysis <strong>of</strong> shell <strong>in</strong>crements makes<br />
it possible to establish long-term growth chronologies<br />
<strong>and</strong> assess environmental conditions <strong>in</strong> different years<br />
(Jones et al. 1989, Schöne et al. 2003, Ambrose et<br />
al. 2006).<br />
The freshwater pearl mussel is a key species <strong>in</strong><br />
nor<strong>the</strong>rn Norwegian rivers, especially <strong>in</strong> those conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
Atlantic salmon <strong>and</strong> brown trout. The mussels<br />
are natural biological filters <strong>and</strong> one mussel can filter<br />
up to 50 liters <strong>of</strong> water per day (Hendelberg 1961).<br />
This reduces organic matter <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> system, <strong>and</strong> hence<br />
helps to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> oxygen levels <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terstitial<br />
water, which would be reduced through bacterial degradation<br />
<strong>of</strong> excess organic material on <strong>the</strong> bottom.<br />
Therefore, M. margaritifera is an effective <strong>in</strong>dicator <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> temporal variation <strong>in</strong> local pollution levels (Mutvei<br />
et al. 1996, Mutvei & Westermark 2001).<br />
High levels <strong>of</strong> bioaccumulated metals have been<br />
found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> shells <strong>of</strong> M. margaritifera from several<br />
European countries, <strong>and</strong> toxic heavy metals (copper<br />
(Cu), lead (Pb), arsenic (As), nickel (Ni), <strong>and</strong> chromium<br />
(Cr)) are regarded to have contributed to <strong>the</strong><br />
decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> freshwater pearl mussel populations. The<br />
same applies to <strong>the</strong> essential metals iron (Fe), manganese<br />
(Mn), <strong>and</strong> z<strong>in</strong>c (Zn). Cadmium (Cd) <strong>and</strong> Cu<br />
are predom<strong>in</strong>antly found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> viscera; Mn, Ni, Pb,<br />
Mg, <strong>and</strong> Zn are ma<strong>in</strong>ly found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ed o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
tissues, while Fe, As <strong>and</strong> Cr are evenly distributed<br />
between both fractions. Cu is a toxic metal to all<br />
aquatic organisms <strong>and</strong> is bioaccumulated to a ra<strong>the</strong>r<br />
high degree. Cu, Fe, Pb, Mg <strong>and</strong> As all <strong>in</strong>terfere with<br />
calcium metabolism by different mechanisms. These<br />
heavy metals are also stored <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> shell as it is secreted.<br />
Hence, simultaneously analyz<strong>in</strong>g shell metal<br />
concentrations <strong>and</strong> growth patterns can lead to better<br />
constra<strong>in</strong>ts on <strong>the</strong> temporal history <strong>of</strong> metal <strong>in</strong>puts to<br />
<strong>the</strong> environment <strong>and</strong> ecosystem (Carroll et al. 2009).<br />
160
Methods <strong>and</strong> key f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
30 liv<strong>in</strong>g mussels were collected <strong>in</strong> 2012–2013 from<br />
each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> three rivers; Karpelva, Skjellbekken <strong>and</strong><br />
Spruvbekken. The rivers are located <strong>in</strong> different climatic<br />
zones, enabl<strong>in</strong>g a comparison <strong>of</strong> growth <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
mussel under variable climatic conditions. The M.<br />
margaritifera populations occur at various distances<br />
<strong>and</strong> directions from <strong>the</strong> Nikel comb<strong>in</strong>e at <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>. The freshwater pearl mussel is currently<br />
listed by <strong>the</strong> IUCN red list as severely threatened<br />
<strong>and</strong> it is <strong>the</strong>refore a challenge to collect mussels<br />
for <strong>in</strong>vestigation. However, this study has also taken<br />
<strong>in</strong>to consideration <strong>the</strong> use dead shells to reveal new<br />
knowledge about pollution <strong>and</strong> climate variations.<br />
The bivalve shells were sectioned dorso-ventrally<br />
along <strong>the</strong> axis <strong>of</strong> m<strong>in</strong>imum growth start<strong>in</strong>g at <strong>the</strong> h<strong>in</strong>ge<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> shell. Then <strong>the</strong>se cross sections were<br />
imaged <strong>and</strong> advanced imag<strong>in</strong>g microscopy s<strong>of</strong>tware<br />
was used to enumerate growth l<strong>in</strong>es for growth rates<br />
<strong>in</strong> order to identify placement <strong>of</strong> sample sites for m<strong>in</strong>eral,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g heavy metal, analysis (Figure 1). Growth<br />
<strong>and</strong> age were calculated from <strong>the</strong> growth r<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>and</strong><br />
contam<strong>in</strong>ant levels can be related to <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>crements,<br />
provid<strong>in</strong>g an absolute time marker. Shells exhibited<br />
annual growth dist<strong>in</strong>guished from dist<strong>in</strong>ct l<strong>in</strong>es signify<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter period <strong>of</strong> little or no growth (Figure 1).<br />
This study determ<strong>in</strong>ed that <strong>in</strong>dividuals from Karpelva<br />
(N=30) ranged <strong>in</strong> age from 60 to 220 years. Prelim<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
growth chronology was developed, which exhibits<br />
a variable shell growth pattern among years (Figure<br />
2). The role <strong>of</strong> different environmental factors regulat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong>se growth patterns (e.g. river temperature, air<br />
temperature, precipitation, w<strong>in</strong>d etc.) will be studied<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
Tissue was dissected from shells <strong>and</strong> frozen for<br />
analysis <strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ants <strong>and</strong> stable isotopes.<br />
Figure 1. The growth <strong>in</strong>crements <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> M. margaritifera,<br />
which are produced with an annual cycle. These<br />
<strong>in</strong>crements form <strong>the</strong> temporal basis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> chronology.<br />
Figure 2. Growth chronology <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> freshwater pearl mussels from <strong>the</strong> collection po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> 2012 back to 1860, spann<strong>in</strong>g<br />
some 150 years. Oscillatory periods <strong>of</strong> higher <strong>and</strong> lower growth are evident.<br />
161
Shell <strong>and</strong> tissue isotopic ratios (δ 18 O, δ 13 C <strong>and</strong><br />
δ 15 N) can be proxies for water temperatures <strong>and</strong> food<br />
sources, respectively. Heavy metal concentrations <strong>in</strong><br />
tissues <strong>and</strong> shells varied among <strong>in</strong>dividuals (Figure<br />
3), but overall exhibited higher levels at Karpelva<br />
compared to o<strong>the</strong>r river systems far<strong>the</strong>r afield from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Nikel plant (Figure 4).<br />
Th<strong>in</strong> (1 mm) sections <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> shell were prepared for<br />
geochemical analysis, followed by measurement <strong>of</strong><br />
elemental ratios with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> prismatic layer (Figure 5).<br />
The heavy metal concentrations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> shell material<br />
varied among time-periods with elevated concentrations<br />
<strong>of</strong> some elements after <strong>the</strong> Nikel plant came <strong>in</strong>to<br />
operation (<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1930s), compared with earlier (Figure<br />
6). Iron <strong>and</strong> manganese particularly have trends<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased concentrations <strong>in</strong> growtn <strong>in</strong>crements formed<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> plant operation compared to before.<br />
Nickel<br />
Copper<br />
Iron<br />
Concentration (ug/g)<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
Shell<br />
Tissue<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
2000<br />
1500<br />
1000<br />
500<br />
0<br />
0 5 10 15 20 25 30<br />
0<br />
0 5 10 15 20 25 30<br />
0<br />
0 5 10 15 20 25 30<br />
Sample Number<br />
Sample Number<br />
Sample Number<br />
Figure 3. Heavy metal concentrations (Ni, Cu, Fe) <strong>in</strong> bulk shell <strong>and</strong> tissues from Karpelva.<br />
16<br />
Nickel<br />
14<br />
12<br />
Shell<br />
Tissue<br />
Concentration (ug/g)<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
Karpelva SkjellbekkenSpurvbekken Føllelva Juojoki<br />
Figure 4. Comparison <strong>of</strong> nickel concentration (mean +SErr) <strong>in</strong> bulk<br />
shell <strong>and</strong> tissues from Karpelva <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r river systems.<br />
162
Conclusions<br />
The results from this study show that <strong>the</strong> freshwater<br />
pearl mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera) can be<br />
used to <strong>in</strong>vestigate climate parameters <strong>and</strong> heavy<br />
metal pollutants for long time series <strong>in</strong> rivers. However,<br />
more <strong>in</strong>vestigation is needed to harmonize <strong>and</strong><br />
calibrate <strong>the</strong> annual growth chronology <strong>and</strong> to relate<br />
growth differences among years to local climate <strong>and</strong><br />
large-scale climate <strong>in</strong>dices.<br />
The project has also evaluated <strong>the</strong> possibilities to<br />
use mussels that have died <strong>of</strong> natural causes for monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ants <strong>and</strong> climatic variations. It is<br />
possible, but it is beneficial that <strong>the</strong> mussels are relatively<br />
fresh <strong>and</strong> that <strong>the</strong> approximate time <strong>of</strong> death<br />
is known.<br />
Figure 5. Image <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> shell marg<strong>in</strong> area <strong>of</strong> a freshwater pearl mussel after laboratory process<strong>in</strong>g (section<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> polish<strong>in</strong>g).<br />
(Image: W. Locke)<br />
Figure 6. Concentration <strong>of</strong> various metals <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
M. margaritifera shells from Karpelva (site 1 =<br />
upper figure, site 2 = lower figure), separated <strong>in</strong><br />
periods before <strong>and</strong> after <strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> operation<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nikel plant <strong>in</strong> <strong>Russia</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1946.<br />
163
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Freshwater pearl mussel <strong>in</strong>vestigations. Photos: Helén Johanne Andersen.<br />
165
D O C U M E N T A T I O N P A G E<br />
Publication series <strong>and</strong> numbers<br />
Reports 41/2015<br />
<strong>Area</strong>(s) <strong>of</strong> responsibility<br />
Environment <strong>and</strong> Natural Resources<br />
Author(s)<br />
Jukka Ylikörkkö<br />
Guttorm, N. Christensen<br />
Nikolay Kashul<strong>in</strong><br />
Dmitrii Denisov<br />
Helén Johanne Andersen<br />
Elli Jelkänen<br />
Date<br />
May 2015<br />
Publisher<br />
Centre for Economic Development, Transport <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Environment for Lapl<strong>and</strong><br />
F<strong>in</strong>ancier/commissioner<br />
Kolarctic ENPI CBC Programme<br />
Centre for Economic Development, Transport <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Environment for Lapl<strong>and</strong><br />
Title <strong>of</strong> publication<br />
<strong>Environmental</strong> <strong>Challenges</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jo<strong>in</strong>t <strong>Border</strong> <strong>Area</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Norway</strong>, F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong><br />
Abstract<br />
This report exam<strong>in</strong>es <strong>the</strong> human impact on <strong>the</strong> subarctic environment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> jo<strong>in</strong>t border area <strong>of</strong> <strong>Norway</strong>, F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong>. The aim is<br />
to present <strong>the</strong> current state <strong>and</strong> recent changes that have taken place <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region.<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> threat to <strong>the</strong> environment is <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> metallurgical <strong>in</strong>dustrial comb<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> towns <strong>of</strong> Nikel <strong>and</strong> Zapolyarny<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula. Emissions from this complex <strong>in</strong>clude high levels <strong>of</strong> heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants <strong>and</strong> sulfur<br />
dioxide. Pollution, along with climate change, water level regulation <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r anthropogenic effects, has affected <strong>the</strong> aquatic ecosystems<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> jo<strong>in</strong>t border area.<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> heavy metals <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area are copper <strong>and</strong> nickel, <strong>the</strong> highest concentrations <strong>of</strong> which are measured near <strong>the</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>e. Direct discharge<br />
<strong>of</strong> sewage <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> river cont<strong>in</strong>ues <strong>and</strong> airborne heavy metal particles are also deposited to areas far<strong>the</strong>r away. Climate change<strong>in</strong>duced<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> temperature <strong>and</strong> precipitation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula is evident. Water level regulation with seven hydropower plants<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River have changed it <strong>in</strong>to a series <strong>of</strong> lakes <strong>and</strong> lake-like reservoirs.<br />
This report discusses modell<strong>in</strong>g, which was enabled to estimate <strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> climate change on Lake Inarijärvi <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River hydrology,<br />
water level fluctuation <strong>and</strong> ecology <strong>and</strong> to follow <strong>the</strong> sulfur dioxide emissions emitted from <strong>the</strong> Pechenganikel. Effects <strong>of</strong> pollution<br />
on <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>and</strong> concentrations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> pollutants were studied <strong>and</strong> climate change <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border area <strong>and</strong> its effects on <strong>the</strong> ecology<br />
were estimated. Also <strong>the</strong> effects <strong>of</strong> water level regulation on <strong>the</strong> ecological status <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> aquatic ecosystems were addressed.<br />
Keywords<br />
Environment, monitor<strong>in</strong>g, air quality, climate change, water quality, aquatic, ecosystems, <strong>the</strong> Pasvik River, heavy metals, POPs<br />
ISBN (pr<strong>in</strong>t)<br />
978-952-314-258-9<br />
www<br />
www.doria.fi/ely-keskus<br />
ISBN (PDF)<br />
978-952-314-259-6<br />
ISSN-L<br />
2242-2846<br />
ISSN (pr<strong>in</strong>t)<br />
2242-2846<br />
URN<br />
URN:ISBN:978-952-314-259-6<br />
Distributor<br />
Centre for Economic Development, Transport <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Environment for Lapl<strong>and</strong><br />
P..O. Box 8060, FI-96101 Rovaniemi, F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />
Tel. +358 40 526 2821. Fax +358 16 310 340<br />
Publication is also available <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternet: www.doria.fi<br />
Place <strong>of</strong> publication <strong>and</strong> date<br />
Rovaniemi 2015<br />
Pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g place<br />
Juvenes Pr<strong>in</strong>t<br />
ISSN (onl<strong>in</strong>e)<br />
2242-2854<br />
Language<br />
English<br />
Number <strong>of</strong> pages<br />
165<br />
166
K U V A I L U L E H T I<br />
Julkaisusarjan nimi ja numero<br />
Raportteja 41/2015<br />
Vastuualue<br />
Ympäristö ja luonnonvarat<br />
Tekijät<br />
Jukka Ylikörkkö<br />
Guttorm, N. Christensen<br />
Nikolay Kashul<strong>in</strong><br />
Dmitrii Denisov<br />
Helén Johanne Andersen<br />
Elli Jelkänen<br />
Julkaisuaika<br />
Toukokuu 2015<br />
Kustantaja /Julkaisija<br />
Lap<strong>in</strong> el<strong>in</strong>ke<strong>in</strong>o-, liikenne- ja ympäristökeskus<br />
Hankkeen rahoittaja / toimeksiantaja<br />
Kolarctic ENPI CBC -ohjelma<br />
Lap<strong>in</strong> el<strong>in</strong>ke<strong>in</strong>o-, liikenne- ja ympäristökeskus<br />
Julkaisun nimi<br />
<strong>Environmental</strong> <strong>Challenges</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jo<strong>in</strong>t <strong>Border</strong> <strong>Area</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Norway</strong>, F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong><br />
(Ympäristöhaasteet Norjan, Suomen ja Venäjän yhteisellä raja-alueella)<br />
Tiivistelmä<br />
Tässä raportissa tarkastellaan ihmisten aiheuttamia haittoja Norjan, Suomen ja Venäjän yhteisellä, subarktisella raja-alueella. Raportissa<br />
esitetään ympäristön nykytila ja alueella tapahtuneet viime-aikaiset muutokset.<br />
Suur<strong>in</strong> uhka ympäristölle on Nikkelissä ja Zapolyarnyissa Kuolan niemimaalla sijaitseva Petsenganikel<strong>in</strong> kaivos- ja metalliteollisuuskomb<strong>in</strong>aatti.<br />
Laitoksesta leviää ympäristöön suuria määriä raskasmetalleja, pysyviä orgaanisia yhdisteitä ja rikkidioksidia. Saasteet, yhdessä<br />
ilmastonmuutoksen, säännöstelyn ja muiden ihmisvaikutusten kanssa, ovat vaikuttaneet yhteisen raja-alueen vesiekosysteemeih<strong>in</strong>.<br />
Alueen tärkeimmät raskasmetallit ovat kupari ja nikkeli, joiden ptioisuudet ovat korkeimmillaan komb<strong>in</strong>aat<strong>in</strong> lähellä. Suorat jätevesipäästöt<br />
jokeen jatkuvat ja raskasmetallihiukkaset kulkeutuvat ilman mukana myös kaukaisemmille alueille. Kuolan niemimaalla on havaittavissa<br />
ilmastonmuutoksen aiheuttama lämpötilan ja sademäärän nousu. Paatsjoen säännöstely seitsemällä vesivoimalalla on muuttanut joen<br />
järvien ja järvimäisten patoaltaiden jatkumoksi.<br />
Tässä raportissa käsitellään mallitusta, jolla arvioiti<strong>in</strong> ilmastonmuutoksen vaikutuksia Inarijärven ja Paatsjoen hydrologiaan ja veden<br />
p<strong>in</strong>nankorkeuden vaihteluih<strong>in</strong> ja seuratti<strong>in</strong> Petsenganikel<strong>in</strong> rikkidioksidipäästöjen leviämistä. Saasteiden vaikutuksia luontoon ja päähaittaa<strong>in</strong>eiden<br />
pitoisuuksia tutkitti<strong>in</strong> ja ilmastonmuutosta raja-alueella ja sen vaikutuksia ekologiaan arvioiti<strong>in</strong>. Lisäksi hava<strong>in</strong>noiti<strong>in</strong> vedenkorkeuden<br />
säännöstelyn vaikutuksia vesiekosysteemien ekologiseen tilaan.<br />
Asiasanat (YSA:n mukaan)<br />
Ympäristö, seuranta, ilmanlaatu, ilmastonmuutokset, vedenlaatu, vesiekosysteemi, raskasmetallit, pysyvät orgaaniset yhdisteet<br />
ISBN (Pa<strong>in</strong>ettu)<br />
978-952-314-258-9<br />
ISBN (PDF)<br />
978-952-314-259-6<br />
ISSN-L<br />
2242-2846<br />
ISSN (pa<strong>in</strong>ettu)<br />
2242-2846<br />
ISSN (verkkojulkaisu)<br />
2242-2854<br />
www<br />
www.doria.fi/ely-keskus<br />
URN<br />
URN:ISBN:978-952-314-259-6<br />
Kieli<br />
englanti<br />
Sivumäärä<br />
165<br />
Julkaisun tilaukset<br />
Lap<strong>in</strong> el<strong>in</strong>ke<strong>in</strong>o-, liikenne- ja ympäristökeskus<br />
PL 8060, 96101 Rovaniemi<br />
Puh. +358 40 526 2821. faksi +358 16 310 340<br />
Julkaisu saatavana myös verkossa: www.doria.fi<br />
Kustannuspaikka ja -aika<br />
Rovaniemi 2015<br />
Pa<strong>in</strong>otalo<br />
Juvenes Pr<strong>in</strong>t<br />
167
С Т Р А Н И Ц А Д О К У М Е Н Т А Ц И И<br />
Название и номер серии публикации<br />
Reports 41/2015<br />
Ansvarsområde<br />
Окружающая среда и природные ресурсы<br />
Авторы<br />
Юкка Юликоркко<br />
Гутторм Н. Кристинсен<br />
Николай Кашулин<br />
Дмитрий Денисов<br />
Хелен Йоханне Андерсен<br />
Элли Йелканен<br />
Дата публикации<br />
Май 2015<br />
Издатель<br />
Центр экономического развития, транспорта и окружающей среды Лапландии<br />
Финансирование/Заказчик<br />
Программа Коларктик ИЕСП ПС<br />
Центр экономического развития, транспорта и окружающей среды Лапландии<br />
Название публикации<br />
<strong>Environmental</strong> <strong>Challenges</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jo<strong>in</strong>t <strong>Border</strong> <strong>Area</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Norway</strong>, F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong><br />
(Экологические проблемы общей приграничной территории Норвегии, Финляндии и России)<br />
Резюме<br />
Данный отчёт является обзором настоящего состояния окружающей среды и произошедших за последние годы изменений в<br />
приграничном районе Норвегии, Финляндии и России. Основное внимание уделяется антропогенному воздействию на водную<br />
среду.<br />
Горно-металлургический комбинат ”Печенганикель”, расположенный на северо-западе Мурманской области, является одним<br />
из самых крупных объектов, влияющих на состояние природной среды в приграничном районе. Выбросы комбината содержат<br />
высокие концентрации тяжелых металлов, стойких органических загрязняющих веществ и диоксида серы. Загрязнение в<br />
сочетании с климатическими изменениями, регулирование уровня воды и другие антропогенные факторы оказывают негативное<br />
воздействие на водные экосистемы общей приграничной территории.<br />
Из тяжелых металлов наиболее значимыми загрязнителями в этом районе являются медь и никель, самые высокие<br />
концентрации которых наблюдаются вблизи комбината. Продолжаются сбросы токсических веществ в притоки реки Паз. Свой<br />
вклад в загрязнение региона привносит и трансграничный перенос поллютантов. В связи с климатическими изменениями<br />
отмечается рост температуры и количества осадков на Кольском полуострове. Семь ГЭС на реке Паз превратили ее в цепь озер<br />
и водохранилищ озерного типа.<br />
В публикации помещена информация о моделировании, позволяющем проследить за перемещениями выбросов диоксида серы<br />
и оценить воздействие климатических изменений на гидрологический режим, колебание уровня воды озера Инари и реки Паз,<br />
на их экологическое состояние. Продолжается изучение влияния регулирования на состояние водных экосистем в условиях<br />
изменения климата.<br />
Ключевые слова<br />
Окружающая среда, мониторинг, качество воздуха, климатические изменения, качество воды, водный, экосистемы, река Паз,<br />
тяжёлые металлы, СОЗ<br />
ISBN (pr<strong>in</strong>ted)<br />
978-952-314-258-9<br />
ISBN (PDF)<br />
978-952-314-259-6<br />
ISSN-L<br />
2242-2846<br />
ISSN (pr<strong>in</strong>t)<br />
2242-2846<br />
ISSN (onl<strong>in</strong>e)<br />
2242-2854<br />
www<br />
www.doria.fi/ely-keskus<br />
URN<br />
URN:ISBN:978-952-314-259-6<br />
Язык<br />
Английский<br />
Количество<br />
165<br />
Распространитель<br />
Центр экономического развития, транспорта и окружающей среды Лапландии<br />
а/я 8060, FI-96101 Рованиеми, Финляндия<br />
Телефон: +358 40 562 2821, Fax +358 16 310 340<br />
Публикация также доступна в Интернете по адресу: www.doria.fi<br />
Место и год издания<br />
Рованиеми, 2015<br />
Издательство<br />
Juvenes Pr<strong>in</strong>t<br />
168
P R E S E N T A T I O N S B L A D<br />
Publikationens serie och nummer<br />
Report 41/2015<br />
Ansvarsområde<br />
Miljø og naturresurser<br />
Forfattere<br />
Jukka Ylikörkkö<br />
Guttorm, N. Christensen<br />
Nikolay Kashul<strong>in</strong><br />
Dmitrii Denisov<br />
Helén Johanne Andersen<br />
Elli Jelkänen<br />
Utgivelsedato<br />
Mai 2015<br />
Utgiver<br />
Lappl<strong>and</strong> nær<strong>in</strong>sutvikl<strong>in</strong>g, samferdsel og miljøsentral<br />
Prosjektet er f<strong>in</strong>ansier av / oppdragsgiver<br />
Kolarctic ENPI CBC program<br />
Lappl<strong>and</strong> nær<strong>in</strong>sutvikl<strong>in</strong>g, samferdsel og miljøsentral<br />
Tittel / Publikasjonens tittel<br />
<strong>Environmental</strong> <strong>Challenges</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jo<strong>in</strong>t <strong>Border</strong> <strong>Area</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Norway</strong>, F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Russia</strong><br />
(Miljøutfordr<strong>in</strong>ger i grenseområdet mellom Norge, F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> og Russl<strong>and</strong>)<br />
Sammendrag<br />
Denne rapporten tar for seg miljøtilst<strong>and</strong>en i grenseområdet mellom Norge, F<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> og Russl<strong>and</strong>, på bakgrunn av <strong>in</strong>dustriell<br />
aktivitet i området. Målet er å slå fast den nåværende miljøtilst<strong>and</strong>en og eventuelle nylige endr<strong>in</strong>ger.<br />
Den største trusselen mot miljøet er gruve- og fabrikkanleggene i Nikel og Zapoljarnij. De forurensede utslippene fra smelteverkene<br />
er tungmetaller, persistente organiske forb<strong>in</strong>delser (POPs), og svoveldioksid (SO 2<br />
). Forurensn<strong>in</strong>g, klimaendr<strong>in</strong>ger, vannreguler<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
og <strong>and</strong>re menneskeskapte påvirkn<strong>in</strong>ger har konsekvenser for det akvatiske økosystemet i grenseområdet.<br />
Kobber og nikel er de mest framtredende tungmetallene som slippes ut fra smelteverkene, hvor de høyeste nivåene er målt<br />
nærmest smelteverket. Smelteverket slipper ut avløpsvann til nærliggende elver og tungmetaller til luft som kan langtransporters<br />
i atmosfæren. Det er tydelige tegn til klimaendr<strong>in</strong>ger, høyere temperaturer og mer nedbør på Kolahalvøya. Vannst<strong>and</strong>en i Pasvikelva<br />
blir regulert med syv vannkraftverk, dette har resultert i at elva har fått et <strong>in</strong>nsjøliknende preg.<br />
Denne rapporten tar også for seg modeller<strong>in</strong>g for å kunne anslå effektene av klimaendr<strong>in</strong>ger i Enaresjøen og Pasvikelva.<br />
Modeller<strong>in</strong>gen vil også kunne anslå i hvilken grad endr<strong>in</strong>ger i vannst<strong>and</strong>en, økologi og SO 2<br />
sluppet ut fra Penchenganikel har<br />
på miljøet i regionen. På bakgrunn av en rekke miljøundersøkelser er konsekvensene av forurensede utslipp og klimaendr<strong>in</strong>ger<br />
estimert. Hvilke konsekvenser vannreguler<strong>in</strong>g har på miljøtilst<strong>and</strong>en og det akvatiske miljøet er også blitt undersøkt.<br />
Emneord<br />
Miljø, overvåkn<strong>in</strong>g, luftkvalitet, klimaendr<strong>in</strong>ger, vannkvalitet, akvatisk, økosystem, Pasvikelva, tungmetaller, POPs<br />
ISBN (trykk)<br />
978-952-314-258-9<br />
ISBN (PDF)<br />
978-952-314-259-6<br />
ISSN-L<br />
2242-2846<br />
ISSN (trykk)<br />
2242-2846<br />
ISSN (webbpublikasjon)<br />
2242-2854<br />
www<br />
www.doria.fi/ely-keskus<br />
URN<br />
URN:ISBN:978-952-314-259-6<br />
Språk<br />
engelsk<br />
Antal sider<br />
165<br />
Salg / Distributør av utgivelsen<br />
Lappl<strong>and</strong> nær<strong>in</strong>sutvikl<strong>in</strong>g, samferdsel og miljøsentral<br />
PL 8060, FI-96101 Rovaniemi<br />
Tel.+358 40 526 2821. Fax +358 16 310 340<br />
Reporten f<strong>in</strong>nes på Internet: www.doria.fi<br />
Utgiversted og -år<br />
Rovaniemi 2015<br />
Trykksted<br />
Juvenes Pr<strong>in</strong>t<br />
169
REPORTS 41 | 2015<br />
ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES IN THE JOINT BORDER AREA OF NORWAY, FINLAND<br />
AND RUSSIA<br />
Centre for Economic Development, Transport <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Environment for Lapl<strong>and</strong><br />
ISBN 978-952-314-258-9 (pr<strong>in</strong>t)<br />
ISBN 978-952-314-259-6 (PDF)<br />
ISSN-L 2242-2846<br />
ISSN 2242-2846 (pr<strong>in</strong>t)<br />
ISSN 2242-2854 (onl<strong>in</strong>e)<br />
URN:ISBN:978-952-314-259-6<br />
www.doria.fi/ely-keskus | www.ely-keskus.fi