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Declaration <strong>of</strong> Our Core<br />
Commitment to Sustainability<br />
Dilmah owes its success to the quality <strong>of</strong> Ceylon Tea. Our business was founded therefore on an<br />
enduring connection to the land and the communities in which we operate. We have pioneered<br />
a comprehensive commitment to minimising our impact on the planet, fostering respect for the<br />
environment and ensuring its protection by encouraging a harmonious coexistence <strong>of</strong> man and<br />
nature. We believe that conservation is ultimately about people and the future <strong>of</strong> the human race, that<br />
efforts in conservation have associated human well-being and poverty reduction outcomes. These<br />
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Our Commitment<br />
We reinforce our commitment to the principle <strong>of</strong> making business a matter <strong>of</strong> human service and to<br />
the core values <strong>of</strong> Dilmah, which are embodied in the Six Pillars <strong>of</strong> Dilmah.<br />
Front Cover<br />
Heterodermia queensberryi was first recorded by Dr. Gothamie<br />
Weerakoon and named after Dilmah’s Queensberry Estate<br />
where it was discovered during an expedition supported by<br />
Dilmah Conservation. Thus far, this endemic species has only<br />
been observed on smooth tree bark in the high mountain<br />
forests in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
An online key to complement this publication<br />
is available at:<br />
http://dbiodbs.units.it/carso/chiavi_pub21?sc=656<br />
This online key is made available with the endorsement <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Life Sciences, University <strong>of</strong> Trieste, Italy and the<br />
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Citation<br />
Weerakoon, G. (2015). <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. Colombo, <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>:<br />
Ceylon Tea Services PLC.<br />
Text by<br />
Gothamie Weerakoon<br />
Photographs by<br />
Andre Aptroot, Alissa Allen, Felix Schumn,<br />
Gothamie Weerakoon, Mendis Wickramasinghe,<br />
Nilantha Vishvanath, Robert Lucking, Sarath Perera<br />
Vimukthi Ambuldeniya, Vishan Pushpamal<br />
Line drawings, Design and Layout by<br />
Kasun Pradeepa. Wild Studio<br />
Printed and bound<br />
Karunaratne & Sons (Pvt)Ltd.<br />
ISBN: 978-955-0081-15-8<br />
Ceylon Tea Services PLC<br />
MJF Group<br />
111, Negombo Road<br />
Peliyagoda<br />
<strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
Contact<br />
info@dilmahconservation.org<br />
2015.<br />
<strong>Fascinating</strong><br />
<strong>Lichens</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
Gothamie Weerakoon
Message from the Founder<br />
Having spent many years <strong>of</strong> my life in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>’s tea fields, I have noticed the<br />
common presence <strong>of</strong> lichens upon tree bark and rocks, and even man-made<br />
structures. However, I did not pay particular attention to the unassuming presence <strong>of</strong><br />
lichens in and around our environment until a new species <strong>of</strong> lichen Heterodermia<br />
queensberryi was discovered in Dilmah’s Queensberry Estate in Nawalapitiya. It is<br />
through that discovery that I learned about the valuable environmental contribution<br />
<strong>of</strong> these overlooked organisms. <strong>Lichens</strong> are an essential but <strong>of</strong>ten unnoticed part <strong>of</strong><br />
nature.<br />
There is a dearth <strong>of</strong> knowledge about lichens which is hampering people’s<br />
opportunities to learn more about and appreciate their important role in ecosystems.<br />
As such, I am glad that Dilmah Conservation has partnered with Dr. Gothamie<br />
Weerakoon to develop <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>; the first effort <strong>of</strong> its kind in <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong>. I hope that this visual compilation will help stir an interest in young people in<br />
particular to observe the world around them with keener eyes and understand the<br />
vital part played even by its ignored and seemingly insignificant constituents.<br />
This book represents an invitation to young people to go out into the environment<br />
and learn more about uncommon and unusual flora, fauna and other fascinating<br />
organisms which remain unknown due to the lack <strong>of</strong> accessible knowledge. We at<br />
Dilmah Conservation hope that as the first ever local publication on this subject, this<br />
introduction to <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> serves as a source <strong>of</strong> encouragement to a wider<br />
audience to learn more about lichens and their distribution.<br />
Merrill J. Fernando<br />
Founder – Dilmah Conservation
<strong>Fascinating</strong><br />
<strong>Lichens</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
Gothamie Weerakoon<br />
Cladonia didyma
Foreword<br />
Preface<br />
08 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
<strong>Lichens</strong> are fascinating symbiotic organisms exhibiting an extraordinary diversity<br />
<strong>of</strong> morphologies and colours. Their appearance is so different from its individual<br />
partners, fungi and algae and/or cyanobacteria, that lichenologists until the mid-<br />
19th century did not recognize their dual nature. This symbiotic association produces<br />
tough creatures able to grow under the harshest conditions at high elevations <strong>of</strong><br />
the Himalayas to Nunataks in continental Antarctica. However, they occur in basically<br />
all terrestrial ecosystems and in fact are most speciose in tropical regions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
world. In tropical ecosystems they occur at all elevations from mostly crustose,<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten inconspicuous species in lowland rain forests to large macrolichens at higher<br />
elevations, especially at elevations that are under the influence <strong>of</strong> Passat clouds.<br />
<strong>Lichens</strong> and their associated bryophytes form the most important epiphytic organisms<br />
and are also first colonizers <strong>of</strong> soil and rocks and hence contribute significantly to the<br />
production and stabilization <strong>of</strong> soil. Despite their ecological importance and the high<br />
diversity <strong>of</strong> lichens in the tropics, the diversity <strong>of</strong> lichens in the tropics is generally<br />
poorly known. In the 19th century most tropical countries were visited by general<br />
botanists who collected lichens among a number <strong>of</strong> different organisms, and the<br />
study <strong>of</strong> those lichens was <strong>of</strong>ten done by specialist who either never or rarely studied<br />
tropical lichens in nature. Subsequently, European or North American lichenologists<br />
visited tropical countries for expeditions collecting specifically lichens and hence<br />
enhancing our knowledge <strong>of</strong> lichen diversity in the tropics. However, the main step<br />
forward was the increasing number <strong>of</strong> lichenologists working in the tropics where the<br />
lichen diversity is high. In <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> the recent local increase in interest in lichenology<br />
resulted in a remarkable increase in new records for the country and even the Indian<br />
subcontinent and numerous new species were discovered. Thus the time to publish<br />
a guide to introduce interested citizens into the fascinating world <strong>of</strong> lichens in <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong> is ideal. Gothamie Weerakoon, the author <strong>of</strong> this beautiful guide, is one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
new generation <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n lichenologists who has contributed to the knowledge<br />
<strong>of</strong> lichens in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> to a great extent. She has worked intensely on the ecology <strong>of</strong><br />
lichens in the highlands <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> and worked on the taxonomy mainly <strong>of</strong> crustose<br />
lichens, especially the megadiverse family Graphidaceae. The latter family consists<br />
<strong>of</strong> approximately 2,500 described species, and has its center <strong>of</strong> distribution in the<br />
wet tropics. Therefore it seems appropriate that Gothamie devoted one chapter <strong>of</strong><br />
her guide to this diverse family. I hope that this guide will encourage a number <strong>of</strong><br />
young students and citizen scientists to get interested in these fascinating symbiotic<br />
organisms and join forces with current <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n lichenologists in their endeavor to<br />
understand lichen diversity in this diversity hotspot.<br />
H. Thorsten Lumbsch<br />
President, International Association for Lichenology<br />
Robert A. Pritzker Director <strong>of</strong> the Integrative Research Center,<br />
The Field Museum, Chicago, IL, USA<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the ongoing puzzles that has plagued me is why only a handful <strong>of</strong> people,<br />
including amateur and pr<strong>of</strong>essional naturalists in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, know about or indeed, care<br />
about lichens. As an integral part <strong>of</strong> life around us, lichens seem to have everything<br />
going for them. <strong>Lichens</strong> are a visible and a vital component <strong>of</strong> any landscape, yet they<br />
are not perceived as life forms in their own right.<br />
They are colourful, varied, can be found all through the year, occur almost everywhere,<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten easy to recognize, and require minimum equipment to appreciate. <strong>Lichens</strong> are<br />
the essence <strong>of</strong> our forests, as they prefer unpolluted and undisturbed landscape. To<br />
find them in abundance, just find any corner in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> where the environment is<br />
still pure and unspoiled.<br />
In a world in which few habitats remain pristine as a consequence <strong>of</strong> human<br />
activities, an appreciation <strong>of</strong> lichens can strengthen the desire to preserve and defend<br />
biological diversity and protect natural areas. To study them, one must go on foot and<br />
look closely at parts <strong>of</strong> the landscape which are as yet unspoiled.<br />
Flourishing, long-lived symbiotic lichens endure searing seasonal changes, heavy<br />
rains, frigid nights, episodes <strong>of</strong> intensive grazing and trampling. These lichens in all<br />
their varied magnificence, support myriads <strong>of</strong> animals ranging from tiny mites and<br />
tree frogs that spend their entire lives in a few square meters, to wide-ranging birds,<br />
variety <strong>of</strong> insects, snails and mammals among others. People <strong>of</strong> many areas have also<br />
used lichens as food, medicines, dye etc. <strong>Lichens</strong> have been used as natural indicators<br />
to monitor air quality and as indicators <strong>of</strong> forest health.<br />
While the flora <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> has been explored for centuries, why then have <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n<br />
lichens been paid very little attention for so long? I believe it is because there have<br />
never been easily accessible keys or guides available for the country, not even for the<br />
most common and conspicuous species. Indian scientists have produced numerous<br />
well-illustrated books dealing with lichens for many regions <strong>of</strong> India, while the <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong>n lichen flora had only received some attention by foreign lichenologists until<br />
recent years. Even so, no comprehensive treatment has been produced for the<br />
country.<br />
The idea <strong>of</strong> preparing a book to fill the basic requirement <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n lichenology<br />
came up from the conversations between me and Dilmah Conservation in late 2013.<br />
Consequently, I made two short trips with the Dilmah team to photograph some<br />
species in known localities during my family vacation last year.<br />
<strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> 09
Acknowledgements<br />
This book provides only an introduction to the fascinating and diverse lichens <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong>. The book does not contain extensive descriptions that are usually typical to<br />
lichen field guides, as I wanted to make the book simple enough for anyone who<br />
wishes to discover these organisms. This book includes most <strong>of</strong> the macrolichens that<br />
one is likely to encounter in frequently visited areas such as Horton Plains, Nuwara<br />
Eliya, the Knuckles Mountains or Adams Peak (<strong>Sri</strong> Pada), plus a few <strong>of</strong> the more<br />
common and distinctive crustose species. The images in this book are drawn mostly<br />
from those I took for my recent studies, and in some cases I have reused colleagues’<br />
photos for certain species absent from the herbarium or those that were not noted<br />
during the short field trips.<br />
Whenever I am in a lichen-rich landscape <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, I am astounded by the diversity<br />
and complexity surrounding me—countless lichens, interacting at multiple levels,<br />
both visible and invisible to the human eye occur from ground level to canopy top,<br />
shaping and in turn being shaped by the physical environment. Spending time in<br />
an unaltered forest and to be immersed in the result <strong>of</strong> thousands <strong>of</strong> generations <strong>of</strong><br />
competition and natural selection resulting in a dynamic array <strong>of</strong> diversity, which,<br />
collectively, is supremely attuned to this unique landscape, is such a fantasy.<br />
According to my field observations and ongoing research studies, over 2000 different<br />
lichen species could occur in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. How many lichens have you seen so far? Do<br />
you really want to know about these fascinating organisms? For me, lichens are an<br />
essential part <strong>of</strong> any landscape. I began studying them not long ago, only in 2009.<br />
Learning to recognize lichens as distinct life forms, and beginning to distinguish one<br />
from the other, was a revelation to me; a powerful invitation to find out more. I invite<br />
the reader to embark on a similar journey.<br />
Gothamie Weerakoon<br />
Scientific Affiliate, Integrative Research Centre, The Field Museum,<br />
1400 South Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605-2496, U.S.A.;<br />
email: gothamiew@yahoo.com<br />
I am especially grateful to Dilmah Conservation for funding the publication <strong>of</strong> this<br />
lichen book for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
This book was made possible by the kindness and encouragement from many<br />
people: fellow researchers, administrators, amateur enthusiasts and colleagues<br />
who contributed their expertise and assistance. Many lichenological colleagues<br />
contributed specimens, photographs, and helped with the identification <strong>of</strong><br />
specimens. Special mention must be made <strong>of</strong> the following for their support:<br />
Thorsten Lumbsch, Robert Lucking, Pat Wolseley, Andre Aptroot, Susan Will-Wolf,<br />
Felix Schumn, Yoshihito Ohmura, Dan Blanchon, Sittiporn Parnmen, Matthew Nelson,<br />
Philippe Clerc, Holger Thues, Cecile Gueidan, Steve Leavitt, Ekaphan Kraichak, Eimy<br />
Rivas Plata, Bruce McCune, Pier Luigi Nimis, and Colman Patrick Cloonan.<br />
I am especially thankful to my senior supervisor, Thorsten Lumbsch, for his mentoring<br />
and encouragement which made this book possible. I wish to thank Pat Wolseley for<br />
inspiring my love for lichens. Further, I also wish to express my gratitude to Robert<br />
Lucking, and Andre Aptroot, whose pr<strong>of</strong>ound knowledge <strong>of</strong> tropical lichens and<br />
guidance is absolutely central to my involvement with lichens.<br />
I wish to acknowledge the University <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> Jayewardenepura, National Science<br />
Foundation-USA, Field Museum-USA, Natural History Museum-UK, National<br />
Geographic Society, British Lichen Society and Dilmah Conservation for their<br />
generous support for my research. Heartfelt thanks also to Peter Raven, President<br />
Emeritus <strong>of</strong> the Missouri Botanical Garden.<br />
Thanks to Chandrani Wijeyaratne for her valuable life lessons.<br />
And thanks to Siril Wijesundara, Veranja Karunaratne, Udeni Jayalal, Aruna<br />
Weerasooriya, Ranil Rajapakshe, and Dinzardhe Raheem for their support.<br />
Finally, I am very grateful for my husband, my two sons, my family, friends, and all<br />
those who made this book possible.<br />
10 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
<strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> 11
Contents<br />
Foreword 08<br />
Preface 09<br />
Acknowledgements 11<br />
1. <strong>Lichens</strong> and Their Role 15<br />
1.1 What is a Lichen? 15<br />
Lichen Structure 16<br />
Types <strong>of</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> 19<br />
Reproduction 22<br />
Noteworthy External Structures 25<br />
Colours and Chemistry <strong>of</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> 27<br />
1.2 Use <strong>of</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> 28<br />
1.3 Ecology and Diversity <strong>of</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> 30<br />
2. The <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n Lichen Flora 32<br />
2.1 Earlier Records <strong>of</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> 32<br />
2.2 Lichen Flora <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> 33<br />
2.3 Distribution and Bio Geographical Relationships 36<br />
3. Conserving and Studying <strong>Lichens</strong> 37<br />
3.1 Conservation 37<br />
3.2 Studying, Collecting and Identifying 38<br />
4. Some <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> 41<br />
4.1 About this Book 41<br />
4.2 Illustrations <strong>of</strong> Some <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> 44<br />
5. Lichen Family Graphidaceae: 134<br />
Most Speciosus Lichen Family in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
Appendix: 163<br />
Other New Species and New Records <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n <strong>Lichens</strong><br />
Glossary 176<br />
Bibliography and Resources for Further Study 180<br />
Index 183<br />
Scientific Names<br />
Pseudocyphellaria beccarii<br />
12 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
<strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> 13
1. <strong>Lichens</strong> and Their Role<br />
1.1 What is a Lichen?<br />
<strong>Lichens</strong> are not a single organism, but a combination <strong>of</strong> two (or a few): a fungus<br />
and either an alga or a cyanobacterium. The fungus is called the mycobiont.<br />
The alga or cyanobacterium is known as the photobiont. The relationship<br />
between the mycobiont and photobiont is mutually beneficial and is termed as<br />
symbiosis. The mycobiont and some <strong>of</strong> the lichen forming photobionts do not<br />
or only rarely occur in a free-living state. They are obligate symbionts, meaning<br />
that symbionts depend on each other for survival. The fungus obtains food from<br />
the photobiont. The photobiont acquires additional sources <strong>of</strong> nutrients and a<br />
stable home within the lichen body (thallus), so it is protected from the vagaries<br />
<strong>of</strong> the environment.<br />
M - Mycobiont<br />
P - Photobiont<br />
P<br />
M<br />
Is the lichen thallus a controlled form <strong>of</strong> parasitism ?<br />
Heterodermia queensberryi<br />
Recent research has found that lichens have a diverse community <strong>of</strong><br />
microbiological organisms inside them; namely, an assortment <strong>of</strong> bacteria and<br />
fungi that are different from the main symbiotic partners. The role <strong>of</strong> bacteria<br />
within the lichen requires extensive research to understand their functions.<br />
<strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> 15
The lichen symbiosis is a successful relationship which allows lichens to<br />
thrive in almost all terrestrial habitats. <strong>Lichens</strong> live on sunlight, air and water. They<br />
do not have roots, and thus do not absorb nutrients or water. This allows lichens<br />
to grow on a wide variety <strong>of</strong> substrates. <strong>Lichens</strong> are fully adapted to function as<br />
miniature ecosystems. Therefore, lichens are found from the tropics to the Polar<br />
Regions, in built-up areas and even in extreme environments where a separate<br />
mycobiont and photobiont would be rare or nonexistent. <strong>Lichens</strong> flourish on<br />
old paint, rusty metal, glass, plastic, old shoes, and on tops <strong>of</strong> vehicles that have<br />
been parked in the same place for years. In fact, some lichen individuals which<br />
continue to exist in the arctic regions are reported to be over 3000 years old.<br />
Fungi are not plants, but organisms with an ancient lineage <strong>of</strong> their own, closer to<br />
animals than plants. <strong>Lichens</strong> have evolved from various groups <strong>of</strong> non-lichenized<br />
fungi at different times in the history <strong>of</strong> evolution. Therefore, diverse groups <strong>of</strong><br />
lichens exist in nature.<br />
The main body <strong>of</strong> the lichen, the thallus, consists mainly <strong>of</strong> microscopic threads<br />
<strong>of</strong> fungus, known as hyphae. In most lichens, the algal or cyanobacterial cells<br />
lie among the hyphae, in a layer just beneath the surface. The thallus usually<br />
consists <strong>of</strong> several distinct layers in many lichens;<br />
1. Upper Cortex - outermost layer: composed <strong>of</strong> densely packed fungal cells;<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten brightly coloured, containing pigments that protect the thallus from<br />
radiation. The cortex forms a sort <strong>of</strong> skin on the lichen’s surface.<br />
2. Algal Layer - concentration layer <strong>of</strong> photobiont cells, cells <strong>of</strong> algae and/or<br />
cyanobacteria.<br />
3. Medulla - loosely interwoven, thread like fungal cells (hyphae).<br />
4. Lower cortex - in some lichens root-like structures or rhizines, attach the<br />
thallus to the substrate.<br />
Upper cortex<br />
Although lichens have a simple construction, they cannot be considered as<br />
primitive. According to their DNA sequence data, lichens are older than<br />
dinosaurs and would have first appeared about 300 to 250 million years ago<br />
during the Permian period on the single supercontinent Pangaea. These early<br />
lichen groups continue to exist today.<br />
The Permian is a geologic period extended from 300 to 250<br />
million years ago. It is the last period <strong>of</strong> the Paleozoic Era. At the<br />
time, the world was dominated by a single supercontinent known<br />
as Pangaea, surrounded by a global ocean called Panthalassa. The<br />
Permian Period (along with the Paleozoic Era) ended with the largest<br />
mass extinction in Earth’s history, in which nearly 90% <strong>of</strong> marine<br />
species and 70% <strong>of</strong> terrestrial species died out.<br />
Cross section <strong>of</strong> the lichen thallus<br />
(Source: Indian lichens)<br />
Algal layer<br />
Fruiting body<br />
(apothecium)<br />
Medulla<br />
Lower cortex<br />
Thallus<br />
Rhizines on the thallus undersurface<br />
Lichen Structure<br />
The body <strong>of</strong> the lichen is called the thallus and is composed <strong>of</strong> the cells <strong>of</strong> the<br />
mycobiont and the photobiont. The thallus <strong>of</strong> a lichen is treated as an individual.<br />
The mycobiont is mostly a member <strong>of</strong> the Ascomycota (cup fungi) and is<br />
typically the dominant partner. What a lichen looks like is strongly influenced by<br />
the photobiont. The resultant thallus is unlike either <strong>of</strong> the individual symbionts.<br />
Every lichen has its own unique thallus. The taxonomic nomenclature (name<br />
<strong>of</strong> the lichen) is assigned on the basis <strong>of</strong> the fungus <strong>of</strong> the lichen.<br />
Apothecium<br />
Ascus with<br />
spores<br />
Algal cells<br />
Upper cortex<br />
<strong>of</strong> the thallus<br />
Lower cortex<br />
Rhizines<br />
(Above) Diagrammatic representation<br />
<strong>of</strong> a lichen, (Left) with a section<br />
through the thallus and apothecium<br />
Fungal hyphae<br />
(comprising the<br />
medulla)<br />
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Types <strong>of</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong><br />
The vegetative structure <strong>of</strong> the lichen has developed to a complexity that has<br />
not yet been reached by any other group in the fungal kingdom. Consequently,<br />
lichens come in many colours and have various structures. In general, lichens are<br />
subdivided into several growth forms. These forms are used for convenience <strong>of</strong><br />
categorizing lichens and have no taxonomic basis. Thus, each form could include<br />
very different unrelated families and genera, and conversely, a single family or a<br />
genus could span several growth forms.<br />
Initially, lichens can be categorized as microlichens and macrolichens based on<br />
the size <strong>of</strong> the thallus. Based on the habit <strong>of</strong> lichens, all <strong>of</strong> them can be integrated<br />
within the threefold artificial scheme <strong>of</strong> growth forms viz. crustose, foliose and<br />
fruticose. The simplest growth form, crustose lichens, is principally considered as<br />
a microlichen. Usually smaller, flat patches on bark or rock are crustose. They are<br />
closely attached to the substrate growing directly on the surface with the lower<br />
surface tightly attached, so water loss is restricted to the upper surface.<br />
Lichen species with more complex, larger and more conspicuous growth forms<br />
are termed as macrolichens and mainly include the foliose and fruticose lichens.<br />
Thallus structure.<br />
(Left) Filamentous (Ephebe lanata)<br />
(Right) Squamulose (Placidium lachneum)<br />
but also the typical cellular arrangement <strong>of</strong> a foliose lichen.<br />
(Above) Branched rhizines<br />
(Hypotrachyna laevigata), (Below)<br />
Simple rhizines<br />
(Parmotrema crinitum)<br />
Foliose lichens have a leaf-like, flattened, partially attached thallus that expands<br />
and spreads horizontally. The thallus is usually attached to the substrate by<br />
rhizines present on the lower surface, consisting <strong>of</strong> a root-like hair that may be<br />
simple, dichotomously, or irregularly divided and grow centrifugally outwards.<br />
Prothallus<br />
Prothallus - in some lichens, the thallus may be attached to the substrate<br />
directly by a mat <strong>of</strong> hyphae <strong>of</strong> the medulla or cortex. When present, this<br />
has a distinct colour (black, red, pink, brown).<br />
Fruticose lichens have upright, bushy or shrubby growth or pendulous, hairlike<br />
or strap-shaped growth by which the thallus is attached to the substrate<br />
at the base (by a holdfast). In fruticose lichens, the upper cortex goes all the<br />
way around the branches or stalks, so there is no upper or lower surface. The<br />
photobiont layer is found below the cortex, and the medulla lies deeper within.<br />
There are two types <strong>of</strong> fruticose thalli: radiate-fruticose (e.g. Usnea) and stratosefruticose<br />
(e.g. Cladonia). Some fruticose lichens have a solid interior while some<br />
genera have a hollow interior (Cladonia). <strong>Lichens</strong> which belong to genus Usnea<br />
have an elastic central cord.<br />
Some species with tiny, crowded, <strong>of</strong>ten overlapping lobes called squamules are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten referred to as squamulose. These have been grouped with the crustose<br />
species except for those in Cladonia, a special case. Most Cladonia species have a<br />
base consisting <strong>of</strong> a mass <strong>of</strong> squamules, the primary thallus from which single or<br />
branched stalks arise, called podetia that are essentially fruticose. So this genus<br />
has been placed with the other fruticose genera.<br />
Prothallus is formed in some lichens; Parmeliella brisbanensis<br />
18 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
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Microlichens<br />
Crustose<br />
Crustose lichens:<br />
A mosaic <strong>of</strong> species growing on bark<br />
b. Radiate-fruticose - (Left) Ramalina usnea,<br />
(Middle) Fruticose - beard-like, (Right) Holdfast<br />
(Left) Crustose : leprose, (Middle) Crustose : areolate, (Right) Crustose : placodioid<br />
Macrolichens<br />
a. Stratose-fruticose, b. Radiate-fruticose, c. Foliose, d. Squamulose<br />
c. Foliose - (Left) Pseudocyphellaria beccarii,<br />
(Right) Foliose<br />
a. Stratose-fruticose - (Left) Cladonia coccifera, (Right) Fruticose : cuplike<br />
d. Squamulose - (Left) Phyllopsora halei,<br />
(Right) Squamulose<br />
20 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
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Lichen communities are classified based on the substrate on which they grow on<br />
viz. terricolous (on soil), saxicolous (on rock), lignicolous (on wood), corticolous<br />
(on bark), foliicolous (on leaves), and omnicolous (on various substrates).<br />
Corticolous (bark-inhabiting) communities are the major component <strong>of</strong><br />
epiphytic communities (that also includes foliicolous species on living leaves) in<br />
tropical forest areas.<br />
(Left) Many different<br />
saxicolous lichens (on rock)<br />
(Below left)Chroodiscus<br />
australiensis, one <strong>of</strong> most<br />
beautiful foliicolous lichen<br />
found in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
(Below right) Foliicolous<br />
lichens (on leaves); rain<br />
forests are home to many<br />
different lichens, also<br />
growing on living leaves.<br />
These structures vary in different lichen species, with colour, texture and size. The<br />
most common type observed, are apothecia.<br />
In some lichen genera, the fruiting bodies are perithecia, which are flaskshaped<br />
structures immersed in the lichen tissue and opening at the top with a<br />
small hole.<br />
There are special types <strong>of</strong> apothecia called lirellae. Lirellae are linear and<br />
elongated apothecia, <strong>of</strong>ten branched, with a slit-like opening.<br />
Apothecia share common features, although those can be arranged in diverse<br />
ways. Within the apothecia, microscopic Spores are produced in a sac like<br />
structure called Asci. The outer margin <strong>of</strong> the apothecium is called exciple; it<br />
may be blackened like carbon (lecideine) or pale to colourless (biatorine), or it<br />
may consist <strong>of</strong> thallus-like tissue, an amphithecium, forming a thalline margin<br />
containing algae. Apothecia with thalline margins are called lecanorine (margin<br />
is the same colour as the thallus), after the genus Lecanora.<br />
Reproduction<br />
22 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
The majority <strong>of</strong> the lichenized ascomycetes have a sexual reproduction<br />
(via spores) and / or an asexual reproduction (vegetative / some form <strong>of</strong><br />
fragmentation <strong>of</strong> thallus).<br />
With a few exceptions, lichenized fungi are ascomycetes, and their fruiting bodies<br />
are known as ascomata. Sexual reproduction <strong>of</strong> lichens happens only in the<br />
mycobiont as reproduction by both the symbionts is usually not possible. The<br />
structures formed by the mycobiont are usually roundish, disk-shaped or globular.<br />
The wavy lines like fruiting bodies called apothecia, perithecia or lirellae.<br />
Different types <strong>of</strong> reproductive structures and spores in an Ascus:<br />
(Above left) a. Lirellae (Graphis gonimica),<br />
(Above middle) Lirellae (Graphis srilankensis),<br />
(Above right) b. Lecideine apothecia (Megalospora sulphurata),<br />
(Below left) c. Lecanorine apothecia (Heterodermia diademata),<br />
(Below middle) d. Apothecia on thalline stalk/ Podetia (Cladonia fruticulosa),<br />
(Below right) e. Spores in Asci<br />
<strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> 23
f. different lichen spores - (Left) Muriform spore; Thelotrema spp. ,<br />
(Middle) Septate spores; Arthonia spp. , (Right) g. Perithecia pyrenula spp.<br />
Structure <strong>of</strong> flask - like<br />
perithecium showing thick<br />
black outer wall and asci<br />
containing spores. Spores are<br />
ejected via the small opening<br />
(ostiole)at the top.<br />
(Left) a. Soredia on the thallus margin <strong>of</strong> Pseudocyphellaria intricata,<br />
(Right) Diagram <strong>of</strong> structure <strong>of</strong> soralium containing soredia<br />
Isidia are tiny cylindrical or granular shaped outgrowths from the thallus and<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten finger-like structures arising from <strong>of</strong> the upper cortex where both algal and<br />
fungal symbionts are present. They are attached from their base to the thallus, so<br />
break <strong>of</strong>f easily and disperse to grow into a new thallus in a new location.<br />
Evidently, fungal spores by themselves cannot make a new lichen; they need<br />
to find a suitable species <strong>of</strong> algal or cyanobacterial partner to generate a new<br />
thallus. It is still a mystery how <strong>of</strong>ten this happens in nature, since both the<br />
fungus and alga come together on a microscopic scale. Possibly that is the main<br />
reason that lichens have evolved into developing other asexual/ nonsexual /<br />
vegetative ways <strong>of</strong> reproducing by several kinds <strong>of</strong> vegetative propagules.<br />
24 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
These propagules are formed on the thallus surface and are easily detached.<br />
The propagules contain little bits <strong>of</strong> a complete lichen, and they are spread by<br />
wind and rain or by insects, birds, snails and other animals. They are, perhaps the<br />
dominant ways by which a lichen is dispersed and becomes established on new<br />
substrates.<br />
Isidia and soredia are considered as the most important symbiotic propagules<br />
among the many different vegetative propagules.<br />
Soredia are the most common vegetative structures. These tiny balls consist <strong>of</strong><br />
a few threads <strong>of</strong> fungal hyphae surrounding a few cells <strong>of</strong> algae. Soredia do not<br />
have a cortex, and can be fine and powdery (farinose) or coarse and granular.<br />
In many lichens, soredia are formed in soralia which are simply scattered on the<br />
surface. The types and location <strong>of</strong> soralia are important characters in identifying<br />
many lichen species: soralia may be marginal along the lobe margins; laminal, on<br />
the upper surface <strong>of</strong> the lobes; or labriform, like tiny lips on the lobe tips.<br />
Noteworthy External Structures<br />
(Left) b. Isidia on the thallus margin <strong>of</strong> Pseudocyphellaria<br />
desfontainii, (Right) Diagram <strong>of</strong> isidium structure<br />
The colour <strong>of</strong> the lichen surface is important in differentiating one species from<br />
another, as is whether the surface is shiny or dull, smooth or crusty and rough.<br />
A number <strong>of</strong> non-reproductive features are also important in identifying many<br />
lichens. Pruina, a thin coating <strong>of</strong> crystals and dead cells resembling pale white<br />
or rarely yellow dust or frosting is one <strong>of</strong> the most important characters in lichen<br />
identification. Pruina lightens the colour <strong>of</strong> the lichen surface, and can be found<br />
on the lobes or on apothecia.<br />
Cyphellae (round white depression on lower surface) that are actually holes in<br />
the cortex and Pseudocyphellae (see under genus Pseudocyphellaria).<br />
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Colours and Chemistry <strong>of</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong><br />
Many lichen fungi produce one or more unique chemical compounds. There<br />
are hundreds <strong>of</strong> compounds produced by lichens, many that are not created by<br />
any other organism. These colours <strong>of</strong>ten found in lichen growing in exposed,<br />
bright locations, help protect the algal layer from overexposure to sunlight. Also<br />
these chemicals help to repel herbivores, kill attacking microbes and discourage<br />
competition from other organisms. Some colourless chemical substances in<br />
lichens can be useful, and <strong>of</strong>ten essential in species identification.<br />
(Left) Cyphellae on the lower<br />
surface <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> Sticta weigelii,<br />
(Right) Pores on the lower surface <strong>of</strong> Sticta spp.<br />
(R.above) (cyphellae), (Right below) Pseudocyphellaria<br />
spp. (pseudocyphellae)<br />
Cilia on the margin <strong>of</strong> lobes <strong>of</strong> Heterodermia sp.<br />
Some lichen species have cilia,<br />
slender, hair like growths on the<br />
margins <strong>of</strong> lobes or around the rims<br />
<strong>of</strong> apothecia. They can be pale to<br />
dark, and unbranched or branched.<br />
Cilia do not fasten the lichen to the<br />
substrate.<br />
Many different chemical<br />
compounds are found<br />
in lichens: TLC <strong>of</strong><br />
Heterodermia hypochraea<br />
Some lichens whose main photobiont is a green alga also contain cyanobacteria.<br />
The cyanobacteria can serve as a secondary photobiont. These cyanobacterial<br />
cells are clustered into gall-like lumps or granules called cephalodia, usually seen<br />
as darker coloured bumps. These cyanobacteria fix nitrogen which can be used<br />
by the lichen and other plants. Thus, they assist lichens in colonizing nitrogenpoor<br />
environments and enrich the soil for plants.<br />
Fairly simple spot tests can be carried out using few chemicals, to tell species<br />
apart. Information on simple chemical tests is included in the species descriptions<br />
in this book where relevant.<br />
The basic techniques required for spot tests are simple. A few reagents and a<br />
capillary tube are needed to apply a tiny amount <strong>of</strong> reagent to the lichen, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
a specific part <strong>of</strong> it. The most commonly used reagents are:<br />
K (KOH): 10% solution <strong>of</strong> KOH, potassium hydroxide.<br />
C: strong solution <strong>of</strong> NaCIO, sodium hypochlorite. Undiluted laundry Bleach can<br />
be used.<br />
Cephalodia - gall -like lumps that are<br />
brown red colour on the thallus <strong>of</strong><br />
Stereocaulon austroindicum<br />
P: a solution <strong>of</strong> para-phenylenediamine. Must obtain from a chemical supplier<br />
and store in a brown bottle.<br />
26 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
<strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> 27
and is brilliantly camouflaged as a lichen, (Wickramasinghe and Wickramasinghe<br />
2012) and Pseudophilautus jagathgunawardanai is commonly observed on tree<br />
trunks among lichens (Wickramasinghe et al.2013). <strong>Lichens</strong> occupy a critical<br />
position in the Arctic food chain as they are the main food source for reindeer.<br />
Some butterflies store lichen compounds in their tissues as a chemical defence.<br />
Xanthoria parietina, a bright orange<br />
yellow foliose lichen produces a pink<br />
coloured compound that is used for<br />
dying wool<br />
1.2 Use <strong>of</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong><br />
28 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
<strong>Lichens</strong> have had many practical applications for mankind from the production<br />
<strong>of</strong> food to clothing during various times and across cultures around the world, in<br />
addition to the ecological role they play in our environment.<br />
Since the dawn <strong>of</strong> human civilization, lichens have been used for medicinal<br />
purposes. Many communities use lichens as sources <strong>of</strong> food, and to produce<br />
dyes, perfumes, and cosmetics. They are also used as herbal remedies, and to<br />
produce antibiotics. Ancient tribal communities used lichens such as Letharia to<br />
poison arrow heads.<br />
Scientists have looked at lichen compounds for a number <strong>of</strong> years for their<br />
possible uses as medicines. Usnea has been used for making deodorants and<br />
skin cream. Nevertheless, the use <strong>of</strong> lichens for all these applications has a great<br />
limiting factor: how can it be supplied? <strong>Lichens</strong> cannot be harvested sustainably<br />
for commercial purposes due to their slow growth and small size.<br />
Lichen dyes<br />
(Left) Letharia columbiana<br />
dyed wool,<br />
(Right) Umbilicaria<br />
mammulata dyed wool<br />
Some bird species and Northern flying squirrels use lichens as nesting material.<br />
Many animal species feed on lichens while some insects and tree frogs capitalize<br />
on the camouflage provided by the lichens. Few frog species have very close<br />
association with lichens in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>: Pseudophilautus cavirostris (hollow snouted<br />
shrub frog / Hirigadu panduru mediya) hides amongst lichens on tree trunks<br />
(Left) Humming bird nest made with lichens,<br />
(Right) Pseudophilautus cavirostris (hollow snouted shrub frog /Hirigadu<br />
panduru mediya) brilliantly camouflaged as lichens - bryophytes-bark<br />
The ecological role <strong>of</strong> lichens: <strong>Lichens</strong> are well known as pioneers in plant<br />
succession and display a significant resilience for invasion in much <strong>of</strong> the world’s<br />
terrestrial surface, <strong>of</strong>ten in stressful, extreme environments inhospitable to other<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> life. It is believed that lichens cover 8% <strong>of</strong> the Earth’s land surface. Their<br />
dominance means they play a globally important role in the earth’s ecology.<br />
<strong>Lichens</strong> act as carbon sinks delaying global warming as they consume carbon<br />
dioxide for photosynthesis. When lichens cover the ground, they prevent the<br />
soil from drying out. They conserve moisture where water is scarce, especially<br />
in deserts, by capturing fog and dew. <strong>Lichens</strong> are capable <strong>of</strong> accumulating<br />
and releasing nitrogen and phosphorus, which helps with the growth <strong>of</strong> forest<br />
trees on nutrient-poor soils. <strong>Lichens</strong> play a major role in rock weathering and<br />
contribute to soil formation.<br />
<strong>Lichens</strong> cover rocks in rocky landscapes <strong>of</strong> temperate and arctic regions, so<br />
valuable geological information is protected. As lichen communities forming<br />
on different types <strong>of</strong> rock are unique, they enhance field mapping and remote<br />
sensing in the earth sciences. The colourful patina imparted by lichens has been<br />
immortalized in the names <strong>of</strong> rocks and hills throughout the temperate region.<br />
<strong>Lichens</strong> have been successfully used to monitor contamination by radioactive<br />
elements, nuclear bomb testing and the crashing <strong>of</strong> nuclear-powered satellites.<br />
Further, lichens have proved they are good candidates to monitor changes in<br />
UV-B radiation due to the ozone hole.<br />
<strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> 29
<strong>Lichens</strong> as bioindicators: The dual nature <strong>of</strong> the lichen association and its<br />
highly susceptible behaviour to natural and anthropogenic disturbance make<br />
them powerful environmental indicators. They have become good candidates<br />
because they are long lived, widely distributed on a global scale, form perennial<br />
bodies, and concentrate elements from their immediate environment. Hence,<br />
lichens are used as indicators in many different ways. They are used to assess<br />
physiological, biochemical or morphological changes, and changes in<br />
community structure through extinction or species substitution.<br />
Monitoring the pollution status or health <strong>of</strong> the ecosystems using lichens has<br />
been carried out extensively for several decades and a large body <strong>of</strong> literature<br />
has been published numbering several thousand articles. Air quality, metal<br />
contamination, conservation and health status <strong>of</strong> ecosystems and effects <strong>of</strong><br />
global warming have all been monitored using lichens. Since lichens replace<br />
monitoring techniques using instrumental recording, they have become a lowcost<br />
option for environmental monitoring.<br />
1.3 Ecology and Diversity <strong>of</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong><br />
The ecology <strong>of</strong> lichen communities and their dynamics have been investigated<br />
by numerous lichenologists. They have found that lichen succession is largely<br />
directional, and changes taking place in the environment affect lichen<br />
communities. Changes in lichen succession are arrested and environmental<br />
changes are minimized in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, deserts, rocky outcrops<br />
<strong>of</strong> temperate areas, rocks along rivers, lakes, and oceans. Lichen communities last<br />
for centuries in these habitats.<br />
Though lichens play a dominant role in terrestrial communities, knowledge <strong>of</strong><br />
their community ecology as relevant to remote areas, especially in inaccessible<br />
Polar Regions and many <strong>of</strong> the tropical areas, is limited. About 18,000 lichens have<br />
been recorded so far while the current estimation remains as 28,000. Estimates<br />
agree that half <strong>of</strong> the global estimation, 14,000 lichens, is entirely harboured in<br />
the tropics.<br />
The appearance <strong>of</strong> lichen communities is similar in wide geographical areas <strong>of</strong><br />
the world while the species composition varies from region to region. Certain<br />
lichens are found to be restricted to specific substrates (the surface on which<br />
lichens are attached). Some lichen groups are cosmopolitan and become<br />
established in specific communities.<br />
<strong>Lichens</strong> are most striking in arctic and alpine environments, as they <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
form extensive carpets on the ground and colourful crusts on rock surfaces.<br />
Comparatively, lichens tend to be inconspicuous in tropical environments,<br />
except in some mountain forests, which are festooned with fruticose lichens.<br />
<strong>Lichens</strong> on organic substrates (bark, leaf surface) are most diverse in the tropics,<br />
while lichens on rocks are poorly represented. The tropical primary forest canopy<br />
is an unexplored frontier for lichen survival.<br />
The significance <strong>of</strong> lichens in the tropics is not immediately obvious. Not enough<br />
attention has been given to their biodiversity. Most <strong>of</strong> the tropical areas still<br />
remain under-explored or unexplored.<br />
Lichen dynamics change more in tropical forest areas, since environmental<br />
conditions fluctuate throughout the year. <strong>Lichens</strong> become established first in<br />
abandoned fields, typical forest areas or similar habitats. Then they are replaced<br />
by bryophytes, ferns and finally by higher plants in the tropics.<br />
A cryptogam reproduces by spores,<br />
without flowers or seeds. The best<br />
known groups <strong>of</strong> cryptogams are<br />
algae, lichens, mosses and ferns.<br />
Cryptogams - <strong>Lichens</strong>, mosses and fern<br />
on a tree trunk<br />
Old car covered with<br />
various lichens<br />
Although lichenized fungi are better known than other fungi, there are significant<br />
geographical and taxonomic gaps in the tropics. A geographical analysis <strong>of</strong><br />
lichen checklists suggests that most missing species will be found in the tropics<br />
and the southern hemisphere.<br />
Knowledge <strong>of</strong> tropical lichens is crucial for the accurate estimation <strong>of</strong><br />
global lichen richness.<br />
30 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
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32 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
So far, the most speciose type <strong>of</strong> lichens known in tropics, are corticolous<br />
lichens. The factors determining their development are: climate, site characters,<br />
phorophyte characters, degree <strong>of</strong> illumination and humidity, continuity and<br />
age <strong>of</strong> vegetation cover in a particular site, age <strong>of</strong> the bark surface, pH <strong>of</strong> the<br />
bark, degree <strong>of</strong> corrugation <strong>of</strong> the bark, degree and rate <strong>of</strong> sloughing <strong>of</strong> bark,<br />
moisture-retention and absorbent properties <strong>of</strong> the bark, inclination <strong>of</strong> the<br />
trunk, aspect, and degree <strong>of</strong> bark leaching by the rain.<br />
Among South Asian countries, most work on lichens has been done in India,<br />
from 1925 onwards. The nucleus for lichenological studies was initiated by D.D.<br />
Awasthi in late 20th century in Lucknow and he is renowned as the father <strong>of</strong><br />
lichen taxonomy in India. Out <strong>of</strong> these early publications Awasthi’s “Catalogue <strong>of</strong><br />
lichens from India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Ceylon” (1965), “A key to the Microlichens<br />
<strong>of</strong> India, Nepal and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>” (1991) and “A Compendium <strong>of</strong> the Macrolichens<br />
from India, Nepal and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>” (2007) also documented the lichens <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
The most recently published “An Annotated Checklist <strong>of</strong> Indian <strong>Lichens</strong>” by Singh<br />
and Singha (2010) compiled 2303 lichens found in India.<br />
2. <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n Lichen Flora<br />
2.1 Earlier records <strong>of</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong><br />
G.H.K. Thwaites, a director <strong>of</strong> the Botanical Gardens in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> from 1849-1880,<br />
made the first collection <strong>of</strong> lichens in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, duplicates <strong>of</strong> which are housed at<br />
the Natural History Museum in London and in other European herbaria. Leighton<br />
(1869) described 196 species for this collection including 43 species new to<br />
science. A visit by Almquist in 1879 produced a collection <strong>of</strong> lichens that formed<br />
the basis <strong>of</strong> Nylander’s Lichenes Ceylonenses (Nylander 1900 a, b). A.G.H.<br />
Alston (1938), who wrote the “Kandy Flora”, a supplement to Trimens handbook,<br />
made the third lichen collection which included lichen species collected during<br />
1926-1931. S. Kurokawa and M. Mineta in 1966 and 1968 provided accounts <strong>of</strong><br />
Anaptychia (Kurokawa 1973) and Parmeliaceae (Kurokawa & Mineta 1973). Under<br />
the Flora <strong>of</strong> Ceylon project conducted by Smithsonian institution (1970-1976),<br />
lichens were collected from a range <strong>of</strong> sites including the drier lowlands areas<br />
<strong>of</strong> the country by R. Santesson, A. Tehler & L. Wheeler. During the 70’s R. Moberg<br />
and M. Hale visited <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, where Hale collected lichens from the canopies <strong>of</strong><br />
giant dipterocarp trees while the logging was taking place in the largest pristine<br />
rainforest <strong>of</strong> Sinharaja. These collections resulted in regional accounts <strong>of</strong> Relicina<br />
(Hale 1980) and “A revision <strong>of</strong> the lichen family Thelotremataceae in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>”<br />
which was published in the Bulletin <strong>of</strong> the Natural History Museum in 1981.<br />
Following a botanical excursion from the University <strong>of</strong> Vienna in 1984,<br />
Brunnbauer (1984-1987) compiled an account <strong>of</strong> the literature on lichens in <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong> in 15 fascicles (unpublished), which included 546 species together with<br />
synonymy. Jayasooriya, in 1984, donated his collection <strong>of</strong> lichens which included<br />
17 specimens to the National Herbarium <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> from Ritigala Strict Nature<br />
reserve. Further publications by Moberg (1986, 1987), Awasthi (1991), Makhija<br />
& Patwardhan (1992), Breuss & Brunnbauer (1986) and Vězda et al. (1997) have<br />
brought the number up to 659 species <strong>of</strong> lichens recorded from <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
The first workshop on Lichenology at Peradeniya was conducted by P.A. Wolseley<br />
and G.N. Hariharan in 1999, during which 98 taxa were collected and deposited<br />
at the National Herbarium <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. Collections made for extracting the<br />
secondary products <strong>of</strong> lichens parallel to this workshop contributed to publish<br />
papers on Usnea and a description <strong>of</strong> two new species <strong>of</strong> leprarioid lichens<br />
(Orange et al. 2001). During a five year survey <strong>of</strong> lichens carried out by S.C.<br />
Wijeyaratne (1999-2003) in the Ritigala Mountains, 35 lichens were recorded for<br />
<strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Since then, several other lichenological excursions brought the lichen number<br />
in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> up to 696 (Nayanakantha & Gajemeragedara, 2003). Attanayaka<br />
(2006) carried out a study on diversity and distribution <strong>of</strong> corticolous lichens<br />
as indicators <strong>of</strong> sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide levels in Colombo and<br />
suburbs. This was the very first study <strong>of</strong> air quality monitoring using the lichens<br />
in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. This study identified 47 lichen genera including ten genera that<br />
were sensitive to air pollutants. Udeni Jayalal and research team carried out<br />
a survey in the Horton Plains in the years 2004-2009. Results from this study<br />
suggest that the total lichen number could be c. 800 species. Further this study<br />
added several new lichen records and two Anzia species (Jayalal et al. 2012)<br />
to <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n lichen list. The extensive study carried during 2008-2012 in the<br />
Knuckles mountain region covering 16 different vegetation types by Gothamie<br />
Weerakoon and research team discovered nine new lichen species and 159 new<br />
records for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> ( Weerakoon et al. 2012 a, b & c; Wijeyaratne et al. 2012) .<br />
2.2 Lichen Flora <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
The combination <strong>of</strong> an ancient, topographically and geologically diverse<br />
landscape and repeated influxes <strong>of</strong> biota from diverse regions in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> in<br />
response to climatic change have resulted in a unique juxtaposition <strong>of</strong> lichens<br />
from spatially and temporally disparate bio-geographic regions. Many lichen<br />
species not typically found in nearest sub-continental South India have adapted<br />
to suitable microhabitats, and survived in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> through changes <strong>of</strong> climate.<br />
Geology, altitude and vegetation types strongly influence the <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>’s lichen<br />
flora. Geology plays a main role, either directly (rock colonizing species), or<br />
<strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> 33
indirectly through its influence on soil and vegetation. Altitude, on the other<br />
hand, has major effects, governing the humidity, rainfall, temperature and wind<br />
which are the main environmental factors that affect lichen communities in <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
<strong>Lichens</strong> are represented in all terrestrial habitats, from costal rocks to the highest<br />
mountain peak Pidurutalagala (2524 m). <strong>Lichens</strong> are usually the richest plant<br />
group in most vegetation types in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. <strong>Lichens</strong> thrive in the cool, brightly lit<br />
conditions <strong>of</strong> high altitude montane and submontane rainforests. Some lichens<br />
occur below the high-water mark on seashores, and are found semi-permanently<br />
submerged in rivers and lakes while some lichens have even invaded manmade<br />
substrates. Only mosses and liverworts in moist environments attain a level<br />
<strong>of</strong> diversity comparable to that <strong>of</strong> lichens. <strong>Lichens</strong>, together with mosses, and<br />
liverworts can be found in abundance competing for space on trunks, twigs,<br />
rocks, soil and rotting wood.<br />
a b c d<br />
e<br />
f<br />
g<br />
h<br />
i<br />
Different types <strong>of</strong><br />
Crustose lichens<br />
j<br />
Road side sign post covered by<br />
lichens at Horton Plains National Park,<br />
some foliose, crustose and Usnea spp.<br />
Crustose lichens; The most diverse type <strong>of</strong> lichens<br />
in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. Knowledge <strong>of</strong> crustose lichens is most<br />
incomplete in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
The central mountain region with the largest units <strong>of</strong> continuous montane<br />
vegetation documents the highest levels <strong>of</strong> endemic, rare, or disjunct lichen<br />
biota known to date. However, this region has been poorly explored from<br />
a lichenological perspective. The little lichen work was done in the central<br />
mountain region prior to field work conducted by local lichenologists in recent<br />
years in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. Many foreign lichenologists compiled their expeditions <strong>of</strong><br />
macrolichens and few microlichens in a portion <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, stating in their<br />
introductions “no pr<strong>of</strong>essional local lichenologist has ever collected in the<br />
region”. This sober assessment <strong>of</strong> the current state <strong>of</strong> lichenological knowledge<br />
in the region must explicitly acknowledge that there are many more lichens yet<br />
to be documented from the interior highlands; preliminary work carried out by<br />
local lichenologists suggests that there are many undescribed species.<br />
m<br />
k<br />
a. Haematomma accolens, b. Letrouitia parabola,<br />
c. Cratiria obscurior, d. Letrouitia subvulpina,<br />
e. Brigantiaea leucoxantha, f. Malmidea granifera,<br />
g. Haematomma africanum, h. Lecanora helva,<br />
i. Letrouitia domingensis, j. Lecanora leprosa,<br />
k. Haematomma flexuosum, l. Bacidia millegrana,<br />
m. Lecanora tropica, n. Megalospora sulphurata,<br />
o. Malmedia leproloma, p. Malmedia bakeri,<br />
q. Ramboldia russula, r. Cresponea proximata<br />
l<br />
n<br />
At present, nearly 1000 lichen species are known for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, as lichen research<br />
is ongoing for the country (Weerakoon & Aptroot 2013; Weerakoon and Aptroot<br />
2014; Weerakoon et al. 2014, Weerakoon et al. in press). Nevertheless, given the<br />
poor state <strong>of</strong> knowledge relating to many <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n lichen groups, it is more<br />
likely that 2000 or more lichen species can be found on the island.<br />
34 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
o p q r
2.3 Distribution and Biogeographical<br />
Relationships<br />
<strong>Lichens</strong> have migrated across the globe, from the Northern to Southern<br />
Hemisphere and across the Neotropics to Paleotropics, because lichens have<br />
an exceptional ability to disperse. The spores and vegetative propagules are<br />
readily transported by wind or water. Additionally, some distribution patterns<br />
are considered to be very ancient and lichens reflect past land connections.<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> the recorded <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n lichens are found in the central highlands,<br />
west, and southwest <strong>of</strong> the island. These lichens have close relatives in similar<br />
geographic areas in India, South-East Asia, the Andaman Islands, South Australia,<br />
and Tasmania. Lichen species in the mountain areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> are related to<br />
the Northern Hemisphere “Gondwanan” species and “Bipolar” species <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Alpine and Polar Regions. Some species even represent relics <strong>of</strong> past and wider<br />
distributions; many are possible examples <strong>of</strong> dispersal via the world’s mountain<br />
chains.<br />
In the drier areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, especially the dry evergreen forest, deciduous<br />
forest and the mangrove forest <strong>of</strong> coastal areas, the lichen flora shows strong<br />
similarities to mainland India. These lichens underline the ecological and climatic<br />
affinities <strong>of</strong> the two regions, and the frequency <strong>of</strong> past land connections. Some<br />
lichens are known to be endemic to <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> (c. 60 species), i.e., restricted to a<br />
very local geographical area.<br />
A considerable amount <strong>of</strong> the lichen species <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> are closely related to<br />
lichens <strong>of</strong> the Indo-Malaysian floristic region <strong>of</strong> the world, sharing many common<br />
families and genera. The close relationships between them are credited to their<br />
common origin in the ancient supercontinent <strong>of</strong> Gondwana.<br />
Many lichen species in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> are cosmopolitan species.<br />
Cosmopolitan lichens are found in most vegetation types and habitats. They are<br />
most abundant around settled areas, on man-made substrates, and on exotic<br />
trees in plantations, parks and gardens. Disturbed, man-modified habitats<br />
are also lichen rich colonies and certain species are abundant in cardamom<br />
plantations in the Kalupahana-Knuckles mountain region. During the period <strong>of</strong><br />
British colonization, substantial areas <strong>of</strong> the central highlands were irrevocably<br />
altered by tea plantations, resulting in the local extinction <strong>of</strong> many lichen species.<br />
Nevertheless, some lichen species have managed to establish or survive in these<br />
areas, preserving an element <strong>of</strong> native vegetation in the altered environment<br />
and providing an important source <strong>of</strong> fascinating floristic diversity.<br />
3. Conserving and Studying<br />
<strong>Lichens</strong><br />
3.1 Conservation<br />
As a result <strong>of</strong> human activities, some lichens suffer adversely, like many other living<br />
things on this planet. Most lichens found in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> are very tiny microlichens,<br />
hence it is not possible to immediately notice the loss <strong>of</strong> species or changes in<br />
distribution pattern. The loss <strong>of</strong> lichens mainly results from habitat destruction<br />
owing to atmospheric and aquatic degradation. <strong>Lichens</strong> quickly respond to air<br />
pollution and habitat changes. Their ecological roles and requirements are totally<br />
different from those <strong>of</strong> macro-organisms. Often without lichens, the survival <strong>of</strong><br />
macro-organisms is in danger as lichens are vital components <strong>of</strong> ecosystem<br />
function.<br />
Careful observation,<br />
correct identification,<br />
enthusiasm, extensive<br />
sampling and long<br />
laboratory hours are<br />
essential to understand<br />
the fascinating lichen<br />
flora <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
Both at species level and at a community level, much <strong>of</strong> the lichen flora is confined<br />
to montane, submontane, and rain forests in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. These vegetation types<br />
have the highest risk in the country. The utmost threat to <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n lichens is via<br />
habitat destruction. When natural vegetation is replaced, be it agricultural land<br />
or plantation forest / monoculture plantations (e.g. Cardamom, tea), a substantial<br />
and irreplaceable segment <strong>of</strong> lichen diversity is inevitably lost.<br />
36 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
<strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> 37
38 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
The importance <strong>of</strong> very old trees that host many extremely specialized lichen<br />
species must not be underestimated. These old trees can be found in cardamom<br />
and tea plantations, botanical gardens, parks, and home gardens. Also, it is<br />
essential to maintain a continuous, stable, unbroken canopy which shields the<br />
interior <strong>of</strong> the vegetation from the vagaries <strong>of</strong> the climate and from invasion by<br />
adventive weedy species.<br />
Lichen research carried out in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> has proved that fragmentation <strong>of</strong> forests<br />
into small, isolated stands has had a deleterious effect on the lichen flora.<br />
Fragmentation results in a general drying-out <strong>of</strong> the site due to its small size.<br />
This leads to the establishment <strong>of</strong> ‘weedy’ non-forest lichen species from nearby<br />
vegetation. So the native epiphytic forest lichens completely lose their habitat<br />
or lose their reproductive ability. The end result is the swamping away <strong>of</strong> native<br />
lichen forest flora by opportunistic species from outside. Once vanished, the<br />
chances <strong>of</strong> forest epiphytic lichens re-invading the site are reduced due to the<br />
increased distance from other forests which could serve as a source <strong>of</strong> lichen<br />
spores.<br />
Many areas with a high conservation value for flowering plants may also<br />
have a high value for lichens and bryophytes, but the reverse is not always<br />
true. Grasslands and rocky areas with no conservation value when it comes<br />
to flowering plants may still be rich in lichens. The lack <strong>of</strong> awareness on the<br />
environmental importance <strong>of</strong> lichens means that such areas could be overlooked<br />
during conservation assessments.<br />
There is much more to learn about <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n lichens—their diversity, biology<br />
and ecology. The knowledge <strong>of</strong> lichens in the wet zone, intermediate zone,<br />
dry zone, arid zone and in aquatic habitats (both freshwater and marine)<br />
is lacking. Conservationists <strong>of</strong>ten lack information on lichens in prioritizing<br />
conservation decisions. Moreover, lichens can be discovered in unexplored<br />
locations as these areas may harbour many new species. As rapid development<br />
is causing a massive loss to biodiversity in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, it is crucial to document<br />
our fascinating lichens before they disappear. It is critical that we document our<br />
threatened lichens on the National Red list and take necessary actions to protect<br />
both lichens and their sensitive microhabitats. It is worth questioning whether<br />
lichen conservation can become a reality in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
3.2 Studying, Collecting and Identifying<br />
Unlike birds, butterflies, seasonal flowers or many other organisms, there are<br />
no special times <strong>of</strong> year to observe lichens. The only limiting factor may be<br />
accessibility to a specific habitat. Hundreds <strong>of</strong> lichen species are accessible and<br />
remain relatively unchanged at any time <strong>of</strong> the year. You can enjoy lichens in<br />
their natural habitats.<br />
There are many lichens just sitting in your back yard which you may have<br />
never noticed.<br />
Although pr<strong>of</strong>essional lichenologists insist on collections for identification in<br />
the lab for scientific purposes, most <strong>of</strong> us will never have the need to collect<br />
lichens. Leave them right where they grow best and enjoy them. Close<br />
up photography and sketching will help produce tangible memories <strong>of</strong> your<br />
experience.<br />
Never collect lichens from protected areas without a permit. Also do not collect<br />
these slow growing organisms, unless you need them for a scientific purpose.<br />
A hand lens is the single most important tool to have with you (10X jewellers<br />
lens), which will make it easy to see most <strong>of</strong> the obvious characteristics <strong>of</strong><br />
lichens. Most <strong>of</strong> the macrolichens can be told apart by their general appearance.<br />
The macrolichens included in this book are very easy to identify, just by using a<br />
hand lens in the natural habitats. However, a majority <strong>of</strong> microlichens, especially<br />
crustoses can only be identified through the careful study <strong>of</strong> their microscopic<br />
characteristics, the number and type <strong>of</strong> spores, detail <strong>of</strong> the ascus structure, and<br />
so forth. Every so <strong>of</strong>ten, thin-layer chromatography (TLC) is needed to identify<br />
the lichen compounds more thoroughly.<br />
You need to pay close attention when you collect for scientific purposes. It will<br />
leave a scar when gathering crustose species, as it can only be collected by<br />
removing some <strong>of</strong> the substrate. This can only be done by using a knife or a<br />
chisel. To obtain lichens found on rocks, the collector may even need a hammer<br />
and cold chisel. Once collected, specimens should be kept in folded paper<br />
packets (not plastic bags) because lichens need to be kept dry or they will rot.<br />
Even experts <strong>of</strong>ten have trouble naming lichens with confidence, because the<br />
range <strong>of</strong> variation within a species can make it resemble closely related ones.<br />
More and more, lichenologists are using molecular methods and statistical<br />
methods <strong>of</strong> revealing evolutionary relationships to circumscribe genera and<br />
species. However, none <strong>of</strong> this should discourage readers who want to try<br />
their hand at serious identification. There are good sources <strong>of</strong> help beyond this<br />
primary guide book for anyone who wants to dig deeper. Access to a good<br />
dissecting tool, a compound microscope, and few easily obtainable chemicals<br />
can take you to higher level.<br />
Like many other groups <strong>of</strong> organisms, some lichen species are common while<br />
some species are rare to very rare. Currently there is no organization or institution<br />
that is working to identify extremely uncommon or endangered lichens species<br />
in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. Furthermore, the true evolutionary relationships among species <strong>of</strong><br />
lichen fungi are just beginning to be worked out, so the classification <strong>of</strong> lichen<br />
<strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> 39
40 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
is changing rapidly, and it is difficult for available information in print and even<br />
online to keep up. Collections <strong>of</strong> data for many species (even some species listed<br />
on this book) are scant, and many older identifications (based on literature and<br />
collections <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>) are questionable. Therefore, the true range <strong>of</strong> many<br />
species, especially crustoses, is largely unknown. Published information <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
reflects where collectors have gone as much as where the species actually grow.<br />
The potential for trained collectors and naturalists to make a real contribution to<br />
our knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n lichens, therefore, is substantial.<br />
It is better to keep in mind that lichen classification is changing rapidly<br />
though lichens evolve slowly.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the fascinating aspects about lichens is that a species which is generally<br />
uncommon, may be strikingly abundant in one area. I recall that I had not<br />
encountered Hypogymnia zeylanica anywhere in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> until I went to a<br />
particular spot in Horton Plains, where suddenly it seemed to be on almost all<br />
the trees. If you see this species, you might think this is a common species, but I<br />
have not encountered it anywhere else except for very specific places in Horton<br />
Plains and few adjacent locations. I think this element <strong>of</strong> surprise is one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
most satisfying rewards <strong>of</strong> looking for lichens, along with the fact that they grow<br />
in all <strong>of</strong> the wildest and most beautiful environments.<br />
4. Some <strong>Fascinating</strong><br />
<strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
4.1 About this Book<br />
This is a preliminary treatment <strong>of</strong> the fascinating lichen flora <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. This<br />
book includes a few conspicuous lichens that can be easily spotted by any<br />
naturalist. The majority <strong>of</strong> these lichens are found in high elevation montane<br />
habitats. Many species included in the book can be found in the Horton Plains,<br />
Hakgala Botanical Gardens, many places in Nuwara Eliya, the National Botanical<br />
Garden in Peradeniya and Adam’s Peak (<strong>Sri</strong> Pada).<br />
It is necessary to emphasize a caveat about this book. This is a first attempt to<br />
compile a lichen field guide for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, and to provide information about the<br />
distribution and ecology <strong>of</strong> a few species in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. Some <strong>of</strong> the treatments<br />
are preliminary, and in a few cases, as indicated in the text, there is considerable<br />
uncertainty regarding the application <strong>of</strong> a name for several species. Even with a<br />
few uncertainties, a field guide book such as this can be a useful tool in gaining<br />
an understanding <strong>of</strong> the local lichen biota and facilitating the availability <strong>of</strong><br />
accessible information. Out <strong>of</strong> hundreds <strong>of</strong> known lichen species in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>,<br />
this book includes few <strong>of</strong> the macrolichens and very few conspicuous crustose<br />
genera with few examples.<br />
A serious observer will undoubtedly find many lichens that are not mentioned<br />
here since there are over 1000 lichens known from the country. I have not<br />
provided keys or extensive descriptions. Readers who wish to confidently identify<br />
lichens will need to consult primary sources. I would also encourage readers to<br />
consult the keys to lichens that are found in other published sources, as keys are<br />
the quickest route to identification. The Bibliography <strong>of</strong> this book lists some <strong>of</strong><br />
the important books on lichens, scientific journals that regularly publish articles,<br />
and a number <strong>of</strong> useful online resources. A number <strong>of</strong> lichens can be found with<br />
good photographs and extensive descriptions on the internet.<br />
In this guide, the lichens are arranged alphabetically by genus. For each genus<br />
included in this book, there is a heading with the genus (Genus), family (F),<br />
Order (O) and how many species are known in the world for each genus (W)<br />
followed by a brief synopsis <strong>of</strong> diagnostic features. This synopsis pertains only<br />
to those members <strong>of</strong> the genus listed in the book, and not necessarily to all<br />
members <strong>of</strong> the genus. Information on morphology, chemistry, and ecology<br />
is for the most part derived from central highland material, with emphasis on<br />
the lower elevations. In a few instances, I have based my comments on other<br />
Asian and temperate material, or relied on literature reports for taxa, particularly<br />
regarding sexual characters for species which are mostly sterile in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Each lichen included in the book is given the species name, standard coding<br />
acronym used on field data (when available), and the growth form (foliose,<br />
fruticose, crustose etc.). This is followed by distribution, habitat, ecology, and<br />
any other information <strong>of</strong> importance about the lichen, as well as any diagnostic<br />
information on chemical constituents for further characterization <strong>of</strong> the species.<br />
The descriptions include distinguishing traits with as little technical jargon as<br />
possible. Thallus details include colour, shape, and unique features. Apothecia<br />
details are limited to where appropriate. Chemistry is included only when it is<br />
necessary to identify the species. Positive identification <strong>of</strong> lichens <strong>of</strong>ten requires<br />
chemical testing (it is best to do the chemical tests under a microscope when<br />
lichens are collected for further studies). The special notes include tips for field<br />
identification characteristics and similar species with which the subject lichen<br />
may be confused.<br />
<strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> 41
I chose to use close-up photos that depict the most visible characteristics <strong>of</strong><br />
the lichen to identify them in the field. It is important to read the text below<br />
to get a sense <strong>of</strong> the traits which can be used in the field and confirming the<br />
identification in a lab when necessary. It is advised to look at the lichen closely<br />
with a hand lens (10x magnification). The most common substrates and habitats<br />
<strong>of</strong> the species included in this book are listed according to my current field<br />
experience. Your best bet is to find the species, will be under similar climatic<br />
and habitat conditions. However, be mindful that this is not exclusively so. Some<br />
species have very narrow or specific needs while others can vary widely.<br />
Species<br />
In trying to understand and appreciate the biological diversity <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>,<br />
especially in the face <strong>of</strong> human impact on the environment, it is essential not<br />
to overlook any significant part <strong>of</strong> the country’s biodiversity. This unfortunately<br />
has been the case with lower plants and fungi, including lichens. Thus, in this<br />
book, the fascinating world <strong>of</strong> lichen biology is briefly introduced, covering not<br />
only what lichens look like but also where they are found and what economic<br />
and ecological importance they have. In the diversity <strong>of</strong> their colours and<br />
habitats, lichens are a fascinating and important part <strong>of</strong> nature. By observing life<br />
around us, we become better and more responsible keepers <strong>of</strong> the sustainable<br />
systems upon which we depend. For those who want to observe nature in their<br />
childhood, the world can become a wonderful place to cultivate a lifelong love<br />
<strong>of</strong> nature. I hope this preliminary treatment will inspire casual nature lovers;<br />
especially the next generation <strong>of</strong> students and young naturalists to advance the<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> these fascinating organisms.<br />
Illustrations<br />
Common name<br />
Scientific name<br />
Description<br />
Status<br />
Habitat<br />
Locations<br />
Family<br />
name<br />
Family<br />
colour<br />
code<br />
Common Name<br />
Genus<br />
Order<br />
Family<br />
Number<br />
<strong>of</strong> species<br />
recorded in the<br />
world up to<br />
2014<br />
Description<br />
Genus<br />
Record Status<br />
E Endemic, SL new record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>,<br />
IC New record to Indian subcontinent<br />
and for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
E SL IC<br />
Distributation Status<br />
VC Very Common, C Common, R Rare,<br />
VR Very Rare, DD Data Deficient<br />
VC C R VR DD<br />
Cladoniaceae<br />
Coccocarpiaceae<br />
Coenogoniaceae<br />
Collemataceae<br />
Graphidaceae<br />
Pannariaceae<br />
Parmeliaceae<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Ramalinaceae<br />
Roccellaceae<br />
Colour<br />
Code<br />
<strong>Lichens</strong> Type<br />
Cr Crustose, Fr Fruticose, Fo Foliose<br />
Lecanoraceae<br />
Megalosporaceae<br />
Sphaerophoraceae<br />
Stereocaulaceae<br />
Cr Fr Fo<br />
Lobariaceae<br />
Usneaceae<br />
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<strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> 43
Bunodophoron<br />
Lecanorales Sphaerophoraceae<br />
24<br />
Bunodophoron is a characteristic genus found in cool, wet, temperate areas<br />
and montane rainforests in tropical and subtropical areas. Its species are mostly<br />
epiphytes, only rarely found on rocks. This genus includes some <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
conspicuous epiphytic lichens <strong>of</strong> the shaded forests interior.<br />
In <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, they usually grow on mossy trunks. They have a hanging Christmas<br />
tree-like appearance due to their pendant fruticose thalli. Bunodophoron species<br />
produce a black, powdery fruiting body known as mazaedium. Mature fruiting<br />
bodies were not observed on any species collected in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. Different species<br />
are readily distinguished by their thallus form, colour and chemistry. Their size<br />
and colour also provides important information for differentiating species.<br />
Few species <strong>of</strong> Bunodophoron are widespread, most showing distinct preference<br />
for particular forest communities, favouring mature mossy trunks. Only<br />
Bunodophoron diplotypum and Bunodophoron formosanum are widespread<br />
in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. Other species have a distinct preference for particular montane<br />
communities.<br />
Bunodophoron diplotypum<br />
C<br />
Fr<br />
Sphaerophoraceae<br />
Apothecia called mazedia, terminal or laminal, greyish to reddish brown.<br />
Chemistry Medulla K-or K+ yellow; C-;P-or P+ yellowish to red, I-. UV+ white.<br />
In fungi, a fruiting body is a multi-cellular structure on which spore-producing<br />
structures, such as basidia or asci, are borne. The fruiting body is part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sexual phase <strong>of</strong> a fungal life cycle.<br />
Description This fruticose lichen has an erect, elongated thallus that is irregularly<br />
branched. It forms large colonies. The upper surface is greyish yellow and green<br />
to pale grey, or sometimes almost white. The medulla is hollow. Mazedia are not<br />
seen on <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n material.<br />
Status This common species can be spotted easily, as it forms large colonies on<br />
the mature trunks <strong>of</strong> trees in shady interiors.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1000 m.<br />
Sphaerophoraceae<br />
Locations Horton Plains and Kalupahana, montane forests in the Knuckles<br />
mountain region.<br />
44 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
<strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> 45
Cladonia<br />
Reindeer lichens, Caribou lichens, Reindeer moss<br />
Lecanorales Cladoniaceae<br />
350<br />
Cladonia is a large lichen genus and widely distributed in both hemispheres. A<br />
number <strong>of</strong> species are cosmopolitan, typically favouring sunny habitats, but a<br />
few occur in shady forest interiors. Most commonly found on soil but occur on<br />
all kinds <strong>of</strong> substrates. It is especially abundant on sandy soil, exposed acid rock<br />
outcrops, dead wood in rather dry situations, eucalyptus and pinus forests and<br />
at forest margins.<br />
Several species are widespread in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, but are <strong>of</strong>ten misidentified due to<br />
their complex morphology and chemistry. Few recent collections were studied<br />
recently by Gothamie Weerakoon and Andre Aptroot. Twelve new records <strong>of</strong><br />
Cladonia were discovered for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> including 4 species that are new records<br />
for the Indian subcontinent (Weerakoon & Aptroot 2014). It is possible that many<br />
undiscovered species occur in particular montane communities. The species<br />
form extensive colourful lawns on the forest floor and in open stony areas.<br />
Sphaerophoraceae<br />
Fr<br />
C<br />
Bunodophoron formosanum<br />
Description The thallus <strong>of</strong> this fruticose lichen forms extensive colonies. The<br />
slender sparse branches are flattened, particularly at the base. The upper surface<br />
is pale, greyish green to whitish dirty green. The medulla or internal layer is dense<br />
to hollow. The lower surface is whitish grey. Mazedia are not seen on <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n<br />
material.<br />
Status This common species can be spotted easily as it forms large colonies on<br />
the mature trunks <strong>of</strong> trees in shady interiors.<br />
The species in this genus have a complex morphology. The development <strong>of</strong><br />
the lichen thallus begins with a scaly (Squamulose) primary thallus. Next, erect<br />
stalks or podetia develop from the surface or the edge <strong>of</strong> the squamules. In<br />
some species, the primary squamules disappear leaving the podetia. Podetia are<br />
hollow, simple or branched, can end in a cup-like structure or be tapered or have<br />
a pointed tip.<br />
The end <strong>of</strong> Podetia produces brown or bright red (sometimes waxy yellowish<br />
beige) biatorine apothecia (disc) containing colourless, single celled spores, 8<br />
per ascus.<br />
Chemistry Contains wide variety <strong>of</strong> compounds.<br />
Cladoniaceae<br />
Habitat Cosmopolitan species. Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests<br />
above 1000m.<br />
Locations Horton Plains, Pidurutalagala, Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve,<br />
Kalupahana, Knuckles, and Gombaniya montane forests in the Knuckles<br />
mountain region.<br />
46 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
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Fr<br />
R<br />
SL<br />
Cladonia cartilaginea<br />
Cladonia coccifera<br />
R<br />
Fr<br />
Cladoniaceae<br />
Description Fruticose. The primary thallus is squamulose, persistent, with a<br />
green upper side. Podetia are simple or branched, white to light grey, tough, tall,<br />
slender and sorediate. The podetia surface is circular to angular, discs are dark<br />
brown at the tips <strong>of</strong> the podetia.<br />
Status A rare species that is only spotted in a few locations. Found at a forest<br />
margin in an open sunny habitat. Pantropical species. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 900-1200 m.<br />
Locations Kandy and Nuwara Eliya.<br />
Description Fruticose. The primary thallus is squamulose and persistent, with<br />
a green upper side and white or orange white below. The thallus is esorediate.<br />
Podetia are greenish, yellowish or whitish grey, and cup-bearing. Cups are<br />
wide and usually single. Conspicuous brick red to bright red podetia discs are<br />
abundant.<br />
Status Only spotted in two locations. But this species when abundant makes a<br />
red lawn on the soil. Known from many temperate forests <strong>of</strong> the world from arctic<br />
to temperate regions in Asia, Europe, North and South America, this species can<br />
be easily identified as it forms large colonies.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation interior forests above 1200 m.<br />
Cladoniaceae<br />
Locations Near Pattipola station - forest department monoculture forest. Seen<br />
on stumps <strong>of</strong> logged wood.<br />
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Fr<br />
DD<br />
SL<br />
Cladonia corniculata<br />
Cladonia didyma Southern soldiers<br />
DD<br />
Fr<br />
Cladoniaceae<br />
Description Fruticose, Primary thallus is squamulose, small, sorediate and<br />
brown on upper side. Podetia are white to yellowish grey, thick at the base and<br />
branched in the apical region. Podetial discs are pale brown. Podetia surface is<br />
sorediate.<br />
Status Only spotted in a few localities. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1000 m.<br />
Locations Nuwara Eliya.<br />
Description Fruticose. The primary thallus is microsquamulose and<br />
inconspicuous. The thallus is esorediate. The podetia grow on basal squamules.<br />
Podetia are simple or sparingly branched, pale to dark brown -greenish, fragile ,<br />
fairly common, the disc is wide and bright red.<br />
Status Only spotted in two locations. This species can be readily identified as it<br />
forms large colonies. The simple podetia with red discs are conspicuous.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1000 m.<br />
Locations Horton Plains and Knuckles montane forests.<br />
Cladoniaceae<br />
50 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
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Fr<br />
VC<br />
SL<br />
Cladonia fruticulosa<br />
Cladonia humilis<br />
SL<br />
DD<br />
Fr<br />
Cladoniaceae<br />
Description Fruticose. Basal squamules are persistent, small to medium size, and<br />
cottony granulose sorediate on the lower side. Pale to dark brown grey podetia<br />
grow from basal squamules. Podetia are simple, and rarely branched. Podetial<br />
discs are common, convex, pale brown to dark brown.<br />
Status Very common. Can be easily identified as this species forms large<br />
colonies and has simple, brown podetia. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. (Weerakoon<br />
& Aptroot 2014)<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 900 m. Mostly<br />
observed on sunny open places growing on soil and soil banks.<br />
Description Fruticose. The primary thallus is squamulose and large, irregularly<br />
lobate. Podetia are whitish grey brown, thick at base, simple, closed, inner side<br />
not sorediate, outer side sorediate and squamulose and disc brown.<br />
Status Only spotted in a few localities. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1000 m.<br />
Locations Nuwara Eliya.<br />
Cladoniaceae<br />
Locations Horton Plains and Kikiliyamana tower area, Pidurutalagala montane<br />
forests.<br />
52 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
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Fr<br />
Cladonia kurokawae<br />
Cladonia mauritiana<br />
DD SL<br />
SL DD Fr<br />
Cladoniaceae<br />
Description Fruticose. Primary thallus squamulose; squamules large, lobed,<br />
ascending, persistent. Podetia pale grey, 4-11 mm tall, simple, consisting <strong>of</strong> a 2-8<br />
mm wide, regular cup, the inner side granulose, the outer side areolate, corticate,<br />
with granules developing into schizidia. Apotecia and Pycnidia are brown.<br />
Photobiont: chlorococcoid. Spot-tests: K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange-red (with<br />
atranorin and fumarprotocetraric acid).<br />
Description Fruticose. The primary thallus is squamulose, and subcrustose to<br />
small. Podetia are whitish grey, simple, sparingly branched in the upper part, with<br />
a brown disc at the tips <strong>of</strong> podetia. The Podetial surface has microsquamules<br />
projecting downwards.<br />
Status Only spotted in a few localities. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Cladoniaceae<br />
Status Only spotted in a few localities. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1000 m.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1000 m.<br />
Locations Nuwara Eliya.<br />
Locations Nuwara Eliya.<br />
54 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
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Fr<br />
DD<br />
IC<br />
Cladonia phyllopoda<br />
Cladonia poeciloclada<br />
R<br />
Fr<br />
Cladoniaceae<br />
Description Fruticose. The primary thallus is squamulose, persistent, upper side<br />
green, white or orange-white below. The thallus is esorediate. Podetia are pale<br />
brownish to greenish, and sparsely branched. Mature discs are wide, abundant,<br />
brick red to bright brown and conspicuous.<br />
Status Only spotted in one locality. Found at a forest margin in an open sunny<br />
habitat. New record for the Indian subcontinent and for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1200 m.<br />
Description Fruticose, basal squamules are sparsely lobed, white and sometimes<br />
sorediate below. Podetia are pale or pale brown to grey, thick, and unbranched.<br />
Podetial discs are light brown.<br />
Status Rare species. Can be identified as this species forms large and simple<br />
podetia that are greenish grey.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1200 m.<br />
Observed in sunny open places, growing on soil and soil banks.<br />
Cladoniaceae<br />
Locations Near Ohiya road from Horton Plains.<br />
Locations Horton Plains montane forests.<br />
56 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
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Fr<br />
VR<br />
SL<br />
Cladonia singhii<br />
Cladonia subdelicatula<br />
IC<br />
DD<br />
Fr<br />
Cladoniaceae<br />
Description Fruticose. Basal squamules are green and small. Most <strong>of</strong> these<br />
squamules disappear in mature lichens. Pale to grey brownish Podetia grow from<br />
basal squamules. Podetia are simple to sparingly branched. The Podetial discs are<br />
brownish, and nearly cup shaped.<br />
Status Very rare species. Can be identified as it forms large colonies, and has<br />
simple podetia that are greenish grey. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevations above 1200 m. Observed in<br />
sunny open places growing on soil and soil banks.<br />
Locations Side bank <strong>of</strong> the Pattipola Road.<br />
Description Fruticose. Primary thallus is persistent, consisting <strong>of</strong> narrowly<br />
laciniate, esorediate squamules. Podetia are simple to slightly dichotomously<br />
branched, without axillary funnels, tips narrow, subulate. The podetial surface<br />
is granular, covered by abundant, finely laciniate squamules, and is esorediate<br />
but sometimes soredia-like granules are present. Light brown podetial discs are<br />
infrequent.<br />
Status Only spotted in a few localities. New record for the Indian subcontinent<br />
and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1000 m.<br />
Locations Nuwara Eliya.<br />
Cladoniaceae<br />
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Coccocarpia<br />
Shell lichens<br />
Peltigerales Coccocarpiaceae<br />
25<br />
Coccocarpia is mainly a tropical genus widely distributed in tropical and<br />
subtropical to oceanic-temperate regions on all substrata including living leaves.<br />
This is the only genus <strong>of</strong> the family Coccocarpiaceae recorded in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> so far.<br />
The speciation has taken place in two main centres, one in the northern part <strong>of</strong><br />
South America and one in South-East Asia.<br />
In <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, few species are common and distributed in low elevation humid<br />
forests to montane forests across a huge variation <strong>of</strong> elevations and in many<br />
different types <strong>of</strong> vegetation types.<br />
Fr<br />
DD<br />
SL<br />
Cladonia submultiformis<br />
Some species are closely appressed foliose lichens while few remain as<br />
micr<strong>of</strong>ruticose. All species contain cyanobacteria in a well-defined algal layer and<br />
have a white medulla. The thallus is usually bluish grey in colour, and dissected<br />
into linear or round lobes that are rather thick. Some species have isidia. Rhizines<br />
are white to black. Coccocarpia is similar in colour to many species <strong>of</strong> Leptogium,<br />
but Leptogium is a jelly lichen that becomes translucent when wet and also lacks<br />
a medulla. Also some Coccocarpia species resemble species <strong>of</strong> Parmeliella.<br />
Cladoniaceae<br />
Description Fruticose. Squamules <strong>of</strong> the primary thallus are large, but gradually<br />
disappear when the lichen is mature. Podetia are grey, thick at base, and<br />
repeatedly branched with bluish tips. Podetia are esorediate and abundantly<br />
squamulose. Podetial discs are brown and located at the tips <strong>of</strong> the podetia.<br />
Status Only spotted in a few localities. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1000 m.<br />
Apothecia laminal, adnate, biatorine, <strong>of</strong>ten with marginal hair, reddish brown to<br />
black; Asci: 8-spored; Spores: colourless, simple.<br />
Chemistry No lichen substance detected in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n species.<br />
Coccocarpiaceae<br />
Locations Nuwara Eliya.<br />
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Fo<br />
C<br />
Coccocarpia erythroxyli fruiting shell lichen<br />
Coccocarpia pellita<br />
C<br />
Fo<br />
Coccocarpiaceae<br />
Description The thallus is foliose, wide, lobulate, and grey to whitish grey.<br />
Species present in shaded habitats and can be sometimes seen as bluish black.<br />
Isidia are absent. The lower surface is pale to black. Rhizines are pale to black.<br />
Apothecia are not seen in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n material.<br />
Status This common species is widespread and very variable. It is always seen on<br />
the mature trunks <strong>of</strong> trees in shady interiors or open rocky substrates.<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid mid elevation to high elevation forests above<br />
700m. Even found in disturbed sites and amidst man-made vegetation types.<br />
Common in home gardens in high elevation areas.<br />
Locations Central highlands, high elevation wet zone forests and along rocky<br />
stream margins.<br />
Description The thallus is foliose, wide, <strong>of</strong>ten thin and fragile. Grey to whitish<br />
grey when dry and yellowish to bluish grey when wet. Species present in shaded<br />
habitats can be sometimes bluish black. The lower surface is dull blackish to<br />
black. Flattened isidia are present. Rhizines are pale to black. Apothecia are not<br />
seen. The main characteristic relevant to identifying this species is its flattened<br />
isidia.<br />
Status Always seen on mature trunks <strong>of</strong> trees in shady interiors and rarely on<br />
mossy rocks.<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid high elevation forests above 1200 m, and forestdwelling<br />
species.<br />
Locations Restricted to the central highlands. This species was seen in a few<br />
places along the Nuwara Eliya - Pattipola road that goes up to Horton Plains.<br />
Coccocarpiaceae<br />
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Coenogonium<br />
Pixie-hair lichens<br />
Ostropales Coenogoniaceae<br />
80<br />
Coenogonium is a genus that mainly occurs in the subtropical and tropical<br />
regions <strong>of</strong> the world. The genus consists <strong>of</strong> species with a green to greyish<br />
green crustose or filamentous thallus. Most filamentous species <strong>of</strong> Coenogonium<br />
consist <strong>of</strong> lichenized filaments <strong>of</strong> Trentepohlia (green alga) which are similar in<br />
appearance to unlichenized Trentepohlia, which are present in the same habitats.<br />
It is therefore essential to find thalli for filamentous species with fruiting bodies,<br />
not only to be able to name the species but also to be sure you have a lichen.<br />
Only few species are known from <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> up to date, the most common <strong>of</strong> which<br />
tends to be a pantropical species. Recent research by Weerakoon and Aptroot<br />
(2014) documented a new record <strong>of</strong> this genus for the Indian subcontinent and<br />
<strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Coccocarpiaceae<br />
Fo<br />
VR<br />
IC<br />
Coccocarpia stellata<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is characterized by linear, thin lobes that are<br />
flat, branched and dissected. Lobes are apically <strong>of</strong>ten very slightly wider and<br />
dark grey. The upper surface is bluish grey, while the lower surface is pale and<br />
has white rhizines. The lower surface is pale to black. Rhizines are pale to black.<br />
Apothecia are abundant and originate from lobe margins. Apothecial discs are<br />
orange brown and flat. Apothecia have a thin, slightly raised concolourous (same<br />
colour) margin.<br />
The <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n species are distinctive epiphytes that occur on smooth-barked<br />
trunks, and on mossy rocks <strong>of</strong> sub-montane, and montane forests throughout<br />
undisturbed, high elevation, humid areas.<br />
Species known from <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> are overlooked and need taxonomic revision.<br />
Studies are also needed to collect and identify the total diversity <strong>of</strong> this genus<br />
in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, as it can be assumed that many more species remain undiscovered<br />
in similar habitats.<br />
Apothecia common, sessile, convex to flat, disc yellowish to pale orange brown;<br />
Asci: mostly 8-spored; Spores: colourless, ellipsoid, 1-2 celled.<br />
Chemistry No lichen substances.<br />
Coenogoniaceae<br />
Status Seen on mature leaves and thin branches in settings that are more or<br />
less exposed to light. New record for the Indian subcontinent and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid, high elevation forests above 1600 m, and a<br />
forest-dwelling species.<br />
Locations This species can be found in a few places along the Nuwara Eliya<br />
- Pattipola road that goes up to Horton Plains. Restricted to Horton Plains and<br />
Hakgala strict nature reserve.<br />
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Cr<br />
VC<br />
IC<br />
Coenogonium linkii<br />
Coenogonium luteum<br />
VC<br />
Cr<br />
Coenogoniaceae<br />
Description This species is a distinctive epiphyte with a s<strong>of</strong>t, woolly appearance.<br />
The thallus is filamentous. Light green to white tufts, are slightly lifted from the<br />
surface at the lower edge. Isidia are absent. The yellowish orange apothecia are<br />
common. Apothecia are thin and flat.<br />
have 2-celled spores.<br />
Status Very common species. Always seen on mature tree trunks in very humid,<br />
shaded interiors and on moist rocky substrates. This species is pantropical. New<br />
record for the Indian subcontinent and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Description The pale greenish thallus is crustose, corticolous, thin, and smooth.<br />
The apothecia are large, sessile and mostly rounded, with orange discs.<br />
This species has been in the literature and available collections in the genus<br />
Dimerella.<br />
Status Very common species. Always seen on mature tree trunks in very humid<br />
forests. This species is widespread in temperate regions.<br />
Habitat found in humid upper montane forest above 1200 m.<br />
Coenogoniaceae<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid mid elevation to high elevation forests above<br />
1000 m.<br />
Locations Dotalugala mountain <strong>of</strong> Knuckles mountain region and Hakgala SNR.<br />
Locations Central highlands, and along rocky stream margins <strong>of</strong> submontane<br />
and montane forests.<br />
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Collema<br />
Jelly lichens, Tarpaper lichens<br />
Peltigerales Collemataceae<br />
75<br />
Collema is a large, cosmopolitan foliose genus <strong>of</strong> blackish grey to very dark olive,<br />
brownish olive lichens which <strong>of</strong>ten tend to be gelatinous, pulpy or swollen when<br />
wet. The species become steel grey to dark brownish black when the thallus is<br />
dry. Species <strong>of</strong> Collema are found on a wide variety <strong>of</strong> substrates in wet or dry<br />
habitats. The photobiont is a blue green cyanobacterium (usually Nostoc).<br />
Only few species are documented for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> as most <strong>of</strong> the species which<br />
should be placed in the genus Collema are overlooked for Leptogium. Collema<br />
can be distinguished from the related genus Leptogium by the absence <strong>of</strong> a<br />
cortex. Also, Collema species are never hairy or shiny like Leptogium, which can<br />
have a shiny thallus or white fuzzy hairs. One <strong>of</strong> the species, Collema coilocarpum,<br />
which belongs to the core group <strong>of</strong> the genus, is included in this book.<br />
Collemataceae<br />
In <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, species <strong>of</strong> Collema are most abundant at the scrubby edges <strong>of</strong> high<br />
elevation rainforests. They also occur in the submontane and montane interior<br />
but they tend to be less conspicuous there and are restricted to canopy branches<br />
or to moist shady recesses.<br />
It is worth climbing a tree to reach the canopy branches, to seek out these<br />
treasures in habitats where the species could possibly exist, since they are<br />
stunning black jelly beauties adorned with reddish, orange apothecia. This<br />
genus needs a detailed taxonomic revision in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Apothecia lecanorine, developing on the upper surface <strong>of</strong> the thallus, disc<br />
reddish orange brown; Asci: 4-8-spored, Spores: colourless, 2-to many-celled<br />
(muriform).<br />
Chemistry No lichen substances.<br />
Collema coilocarpum<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is mainly corticolous, and the upper side is olive<br />
grey, becoming purplish grey blue when dry (latter photos). Isidia are not found,<br />
but <strong>of</strong>ten develop erect, thickened lobules or cylindrical outgrowths can be seen<br />
that resemble isidia and can dominate the thallus (as shown in photos). Thallus is<br />
very pulpy and swollen when wet. Apothecia are dense. Discs are orange brown.<br />
The other species which is known to me in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> is Collema pulcellum var.<br />
subnigrescens. But the species needs clarification with fresh sampling. It has a<br />
dark blackish olive green upper surface that is deeply ridged. Only seen in one<br />
place at Nuwara Eliya.<br />
C<br />
Fo<br />
Collemataceae<br />
Status Common, cosmopolitan species. The species is known to <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> from<br />
early lichen collections and has been documented many times.<br />
Habitat Mainly seen on the mature canopy branches <strong>of</strong> trees in rainforest edges,<br />
submontane and montane areas.<br />
Locations Central highlands, high elevation wet zone forests, Meemure and<br />
Kalupahana areas <strong>of</strong> the Knuckles mountain region.<br />
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Dendriscosticta<br />
Peltigerales Lobariaceae<br />
5<br />
Dendriscosticta is more or less a northern Hemisphere genus newly described by<br />
Moncada et. al in 2013. This is macr<strong>of</strong>oliose (with very large lobes) genus, grows<br />
epiphytically, or very rarely on mossy rocks or logs, <strong>of</strong>ten between bryophytes<br />
and other lichens.<br />
The presence <strong>of</strong> cyphellae-like pores (cyphelloids) that are white and abundant<br />
on the lower surface distinguishes Dendriscosticta from the closely related<br />
Lobaria, Sticta and Pseudocyphellaria. However, <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n species need thorough<br />
morphological, chemical and molecular analysis. Especially the species placed<br />
in genus Lobaria in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> need to be thoroughly studied to understand<br />
whether they belong to genus Dendriscosticta. Further, it is possible that more<br />
species could occur in the highlands which would have been overlooked as<br />
Lobaria in montane communities which have not yet been fully observed.<br />
Apothecia cup shape and lecanorine; Spores: acicular to fusiform, septate and<br />
hyaline.<br />
Chemistry No substance detected on <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n material.<br />
Dendriscosticta platyphylloides (Basionym:Sticta platyphylloides Nyl.)<br />
SL<br />
VR L<br />
LC Fo<br />
Lobariaceae<br />
Description This macr<strong>of</strong>oliose lichen becomes pale brownish to green grey<br />
when dry and yellowish green when wet. It is loosely attached, mostly found<br />
among other mosses and epiphytes. The individual lobes have irregular to round<br />
apices, with more rounded margins. Branches are irregular and form thallus<br />
rosettes. The lower surface is pale brown. Cyphellae- like pores are present<br />
(cyphelloids). Isidia or soredia were not observed. Apothecia were not observed<br />
in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n material.<br />
Lobariaceae<br />
Status This very rare species is a new record for this new genus from <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong>. So far only one species belonging to this genus is known in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. This<br />
species was first reported by D.D. Awasthi (2007) from India and Nepal.<br />
Habitat Mostly seen in humid, high elevation forest areas, sitting on high<br />
elevation montane forests. When the thallus is young, it is not easy to spot<br />
among mosses.<br />
Locations Knuckles mountain region. Only seen in a few sites <strong>of</strong>f Kalupahana.<br />
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Diploschistes<br />
Crater lichens<br />
Ostropales Graphidaceae<br />
c.40<br />
Diploschistesis a cosmopolitan genus that mainly occurs in xeric (very dry)<br />
situations, usually in full sun. They are found on rocks, soil, and sometimes on<br />
mosses or as parasitic on other lichens.<br />
The species are crustose, with rather thick thalli and are creamy white to grey<br />
or yellowish in colour. Some species are heavily pruinose, but none sorediate.<br />
Only four species are known from this genus in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. However the three<br />
species previously recorded in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> are questionable. The species recently<br />
collected in Nawalapitiya, Diploschistes muscorum is a new record for the genus<br />
in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Apothecia with a well-developed brown to black exciple (tissue forming margin<br />
or walls <strong>of</strong> an ascomata) surrounded by a thalline margin, apothecia open by a<br />
deep, relatively wide cavity Asci: 1-4-8-spored; Spores: ellipsoid, brown to dark<br />
brown or purple black, muriform.<br />
Chemistry <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n species thallus C+ red, KC +red, K+ yellow turning to<br />
purple, PD-.<br />
Diploschistes muscorum Cowpie lichen<br />
SL<br />
R<br />
Cr<br />
Graphidaceae<br />
Description The thallus is crustose, white to pale grey, and continuous with<br />
an uneven surface and has a white prothallus. Apothecia 1-2mm in diameter,<br />
disc black to dark brownish, crater-like, embedded in thallus, <strong>of</strong>ten with a double<br />
margin, white pruinose, thalline margin slightly raised above the thallus. Asci<br />
4-spored.<br />
Status This rare species is a new record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, and can become<br />
established as a parasite on other lichens, especially Cladonia species. This<br />
is usually an aggressive crust that can invade other lichens and compete for<br />
resources or space.<br />
Graphidaceae<br />
Habitat Mostly found in disturbed conditions, in fully-exposed, sunny conditions.<br />
The specimens examined were collected from soil banks above 900 m.<br />
Locations Nawalapitiya.<br />
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Everniastrum<br />
Powder-tipped antler lichen<br />
Lecanorales Parmeliaceae<br />
c.28<br />
Everniastrum is a pantropical genus. It is a small genus with centres <strong>of</strong> speciation<br />
in Central and South America and Asia. Few species extend up to the temperate<br />
regions <strong>of</strong> the world. It grows on tree bark and rock. Several species <strong>of</strong> the genus<br />
have extended to temperate zones.<br />
This genus forms small foliose, almost fruticose lichens. The thallus has regular<br />
dichotomous branching pattern. Fine dark green soredia develop on the upper<br />
surface <strong>of</strong> the thallus, from which it derives its common name: powder-tipped<br />
antler lichen.<br />
Parmeliaceae<br />
Seven species <strong>of</strong> this genus have been recorded from India, Nepal and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. A<br />
single corticolous species has been observed thus far in Horton Plains, <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
It is possible that other species which have not yet been observed might occur<br />
in montane communities in the highlands. Everniastrum is similar to Hypogymnia<br />
in its size, branching pattern and soralia (at the lobe tips), but the lobes <strong>of</strong><br />
Hypogymnia are clearly inflated and hollow. The genus is under revision and<br />
is phylogenetically considered as part <strong>of</strong> genus Hypotrachyna.<br />
Apothecia laminal, lecanorine, pedicellate, hollow, disc imperforate; Asci:<br />
8-spored; Spores: colourless, ellipsoid, and simple.<br />
Chemistry upper cortex K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ yellow; medulla K+ yellow then<br />
turning deep red, C-, KC-, P+ yellow then orange in the species found in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Everniastrum cirrhatum<br />
Description Pendulous to fruticose. The thallus is corticolous, suberect to<br />
pendulous, very loosely adnate, richly dichotomously or subdichotomously<br />
branched. Strongly lobed to moderately involute or flat. Lobe apices are<br />
abundantly ciliate. The upper surface is pale grey to dark grey, but no soredia or<br />
isidia are found. The lower surface is black or brown or pale brown at the tips <strong>of</strong><br />
the lobes, with rather elongated black rhizines. Apothecia with hollow stalks are<br />
present.<br />
R<br />
Fr<br />
Parmeliaceae<br />
Status Rare species.<br />
Habitat Mostly found on trees and shrubs and rarely on rocks in humid forests<br />
areas above 1400 m.<br />
Locations Horton Plains.<br />
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Fuscopannaria<br />
Brown shingle lichen, Mouse lichens<br />
Peltigerales Pannariaceae<br />
40<br />
Fuscopannaria is mainly a temperate genus, mostly found in the Northern<br />
Hemisphere with two principal areas <strong>of</strong> speciation; Pacific North America and<br />
Atlantic-Mediterranean Europe. Some species <strong>of</strong> the genus are found in East Asia<br />
and the Himalayas. The genus is also present in the Southern Hemisphere where<br />
the species have spread to Australia, and Southeast Asian islands such as the<br />
Philippines and New Guinea and southern South America.<br />
Fuscopannaria has long been included within Pannaria, which has a foliosesquamulose<br />
to subcrustose thallus usually with grey tones, and with or without<br />
true hypothallus. The genus Parmeliella is a closely related to Fuscopannaria,<br />
but has apothecia with biatorine instead <strong>of</strong> lecanorine margins (biatorine and<br />
lecanorine are chemical compounds).<br />
Pannariaceae<br />
There are seven species found in the Indian subcontinent, Nepal and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
(Singh & Sinha 2010). Recent studies done by Weerakoon & Aptroot (2014<br />
unpublished) report three new records <strong>of</strong> this genus for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, including one<br />
species that is a new record for the Indian subcontinent.<br />
Apothecia with or without a lecanorine margin (sometime even on the same<br />
specimen), sessile; Asci: 8-spored, Spores: colourless, ellipsoid, simple with<br />
epispore (outer wall <strong>of</strong> a spore).<br />
Chemistry hymenium I+ blue green turning to reddish brown, most species<br />
lack lichen substances.<br />
Fuscopannaria coerulescens<br />
SL<br />
Description Foliose-squamulose. The thallus forms like a cushion. The upper<br />
surface is brown with white- felted margins densely beset with blue-grey lobules.<br />
Apothecia are not seen on <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n material.<br />
Status Very rare species. Known from South India and Nepal. New record for<br />
<strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
VR<br />
Fo<br />
Pannariaceae<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid forest areas above 1600 m, growing together<br />
with bryophytes on tree trunks.<br />
Locations Few places in Horton Plains.<br />
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Fo<br />
VR<br />
IC<br />
Fuscopannaria disecta<br />
Fuscopannaria siamensis<br />
SL<br />
R<br />
Fo<br />
Pannariaceae<br />
Description Foliose. Lobes are brown to reddish brown with no white edges<br />
when wet. The upper surface is grey when dry. The black hypothallus is<br />
conspicuous. Apothecia are sessile, and orange brown with thalline margin.<br />
Status Very rare species. Known from South India and Thailand. New record for<br />
the Indian subcontinent and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid forest areas above 1600 m, growing on moss or<br />
on tree trunks. This species also grows on soil and rarely on rocks.<br />
Locations Few places in Nuwara Eliya.<br />
Description Foliose. Lobes are brown to reddish brown <strong>of</strong>ten with eroded<br />
secondary lobules. Apothecia are sessile orange brown with thalline margin.<br />
Status Rare species in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. Known from South India and Thailand. New<br />
record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid forest areas above 1600 m, growing together<br />
with bryophytes on tree trunks.<br />
Locations Few places in Horton Plains.<br />
Pannariaceae<br />
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Heterodermia<br />
Fringe lichens, Centipede lichens<br />
Teloschistales Physciaceae<br />
102<br />
Heterodermia is a cosmopolitan genus. The majority <strong>of</strong> species are pantropical,<br />
whereas some species are found extending into warm temperate regions. Mostly<br />
these species are epiphytes but are also found on other substrata.<br />
Twenty five species <strong>of</strong> Heterodermia have been recorded in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> including<br />
two recently described species that are endemic to <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> and four new<br />
records (One species is a new record for Indian subcontinent). Weerakoon &<br />
Aptroot (2013) published a key to identify 20 species <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n Heterodermia.<br />
Thus far, this genus is one <strong>of</strong> the most speciose foliose lichen genera known from<br />
<strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. It is possible that more species could occur with distinct preferences for<br />
particular vegetation types, as the lichen flora <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> is not yet completely<br />
known.<br />
The genus is mainly found on trees and is sometimes seen on rocks. Heterodermia<br />
is most similar to Physcia in size and colour. It differs from Physcia by the structure<br />
<strong>of</strong> the upper cortex and spore type. The structure <strong>of</strong> the upper cortex <strong>of</strong><br />
Heterodermia gives the surface the appearance <strong>of</strong> flowing towards the lobe tips,<br />
whereas the upper surface in Physcia has a uniform, unoriented appearance.<br />
Heterodermia albicans<br />
SL<br />
R<br />
Fo<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Apothecia laminal, sessile to pedicellate, lecanorine; Asci 8-spored; Spores 2<br />
celled and mostly brown.<br />
Chemistry Cortex K+ yellow (atranorin).<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous. The upper surface is greyish<br />
white. While the lobe margins are continuously sorediate, the lobe apices are<br />
not. The lower surface is rhizinate. Apothecia are not seen in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n material.<br />
Status Rare. This species is restricted to few localities in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. It is necessary<br />
to survey species in similar localities in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Habitat Corticolous. Above 1200 m, in wet upper montane forests.<br />
Locations Kalupahana- Knuckles mountain region.<br />
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Fo<br />
R<br />
Heterodermia barbifera<br />
Heterodermia circinalis<br />
IC<br />
C<br />
Fo<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous, adnate and lobate. Lobes are<br />
sublinear to wide. The upper surface is greyish white to grey. The lower surface<br />
is white. Rhizines are present along the lobe margins. Apothecia are abundant.<br />
Status Spotted in a few localities, but not commonly found. This species is easily<br />
identified by the greyish apothecia which look like “Bunch <strong>of</strong> Flowers” and the<br />
black rhizine mat.<br />
Habitat Grows especially on twigs and branches in both moist and open sunny<br />
situations. Mostly found at forest margins.<br />
Description Foliose, grey to white, thin straps with long, black, branched hairs;<br />
turns brown when dry in exposed and dry conditions. Cilia are abundant, black<br />
and not branched. Apothecia are common, star shaped and apothecial margins<br />
lack cilia.<br />
Status This locally abundant species can be easily spotted as it forms a large<br />
colony which looks like black or brownish grey “messy hair” on the mature trunks<br />
<strong>of</strong> trees in shady interiors and roadside soil banks and moist rocks. This species<br />
is known as “fringe lichen” in the western world. New record for the Indian<br />
subcontinent and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Locations Deenston, Corbets Gap, Riverston and Knuckles mountain <strong>of</strong> Knuckles<br />
mountain region and few places in Nuwara Eliya.<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid forests and undisturbed areas above 1000 m.<br />
Locations Horton Plains , Knuckles mountain region, Nuwara Eliya and a few<br />
places in Kandy.<br />
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Fo<br />
C<br />
Heterodermia comosa<br />
Heterodermia diademata Cupped fringe lichen<br />
C<br />
Fo<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Description Foliose. The corticolous thallus is attached by basal parts. Lobes are<br />
sub-erect. The upper surface is whitish grey with dense cilia. The lower surface<br />
is pale, and sorediate apices were seen sometimes. Apothecia are not seen in <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong>n material.<br />
Status Commonly found. However, this species is restricted to certain patches<br />
within known localities and misidentified in most collections obtained from <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Corticolous, seen on twigs in both humid and exposed conditions.<br />
Above 1000m, in wet upper montane forests.<br />
Locations : Matale district.<br />
Description Foliose. Lobes are adjacent to one another, more or less plane and<br />
short. The upper surface is evenly thick and greyish to white in colour. The lower<br />
surface has a cortex and rhizines. Isidia and soredia are absent. Apothecia are<br />
numerous, brown colour, laminal, and sessile. The margin <strong>of</strong> thalline exciple is<br />
crenulate to lobulate.<br />
Status This locally abundant species can be easily spotted on the twigs and<br />
branches <strong>of</strong> trees in shaded, humid interiors. Few individuals were observed<br />
on sheltered rocks. This pretty species can be easily identified by the numerous<br />
brown crenulate to lobulate apothecia on its thallus.<br />
Habitat Common in both manmade and natural habitats above 1000m. It<br />
mostly grows together with mosses and bryophytes.<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Locations Knuckles mountain region, Horton Plains, Kandy, Kegalle, Matale, and<br />
Ratnapura districts.<br />
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Fo<br />
R<br />
Heterodermia hypochraea<br />
Heterodermia isidiophora<br />
C<br />
Fo<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Description Foliose. Lobes are slightly disjunct, convex, and ascending, with<br />
short lateral branches. The upper surface is whitish greenish grey and is uneven<br />
in thickness. The lower surface is yellow to orange. Isidia and soredia are absent.<br />
Apothecia are apically (tip) or subapically stipitate (stipe / stalk <strong>of</strong> anascomata,<br />
having a stipe or a stipes), margin <strong>of</strong> the thalline exciple is lobulate, inner surface<br />
<strong>of</strong> lobules pigmented. (refer the 2 nd picture).<br />
Status Rare. This species is restricted to few localities in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Corticolous, seen on twigs in both humid and dry conditions. Above<br />
1000m, in wet upper montane forests.<br />
Locations Fishing hut - Peak Wilderness and Hunuwala Kanda- Matale district.<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous and branched. The lobes are wide.<br />
The upper surface is greyish white, densely isidiate. Lower surface has a cortex<br />
and rhizines. Apothecia are not found in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n material.<br />
Status Common species.<br />
Habitat Found mostly on bark, but has also been occasionally observed on<br />
rocks. Above 900 m, in submontane to upper montane forests. Seen in moist,<br />
humid conditions.<br />
Locations Knuckles mountain region, Pattipola, Unulugala mountain peak,<br />
Fishing hut, Peak wilderness, and Kabaragala mountain.<br />
Physciaceae<br />
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Fo<br />
C<br />
Heterodermia japonica<br />
Heterodermia magellanica<br />
R<br />
Fo<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is variable, irregular, and dichotomously lobate.<br />
Lobes sublinear, elongated, radiating, and widen towards the apices. The upper<br />
surface is greenish white, whitish to cream-coloured, and rarely brownish.<br />
Sorediate on lateral or terminal lobes, spreading along the lobe margin. The lower<br />
surface is white to brownish or bluish black, sparsely spotted with a brownish<br />
orange-red pigment towards the lobe apices. Rhizines are marginal and simple.<br />
Status Cosmopolitan. Widespread in tropical to subtropical areas, extending<br />
to warm temperate regions. Common in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, and is easily identified by<br />
the entangled mats <strong>of</strong> elongated linear lobes bearing long black cilia and the<br />
ecorticate lower surface.<br />
Habitat On tree trunks or on rocks in open and shady situations. Species is<br />
characterized by dull upper surface, “fan-like” lobe apices and a white to blackishviolet<br />
lower surface. Lobes become elongated in shady habitats, and develop<br />
long, black marginal rhizines.<br />
Locations Knuckles mountains, Matale, Nuwara Eliya, Kandy, Hakgala,<br />
Sabaragamuwa mountain region, Peak wilderness, Laxapana and Seven Virgin<br />
Mountains and roadside banks on the Haputale- Bandarawela Road.<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous. The lobes are slightly disjunct<br />
or adjacent, more or less plane, and do not ascend, have short lateral lobes. The<br />
upper surface is greyish green. The lower surface is white. Isidia and soredia are<br />
absent. Apothecia are laminal, sessile to substipitate (short-stalked).<br />
Status Spotted in a few localities, but fairly uncommon. This species is easily<br />
identified by the greyish apothecia which look like a bunch <strong>of</strong> flowers and the<br />
black rhizine mat.<br />
Habitat Found growing especially on twigs and branches, in both moist and<br />
open, sunny places. Mostly found at forest margins.<br />
Locations Deenston, Corbet’s Gap, Riverston and Knuckles mountain <strong>of</strong> Knuckles<br />
mountain region and few places in Nuwara Eliya<br />
Physciaceae<br />
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Fo<br />
C<br />
Heterodermia obscurata<br />
Heterodermia podocarpa<br />
R<br />
Fo<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is mostly corticolous. The lobes are wide with<br />
short lateral lobules. The upper surface is greyish. The lobes are sorediate at the<br />
apices. The lower surface is yellow to orange with marginal rhizines. Apothecia<br />
are not found in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n material.<br />
Status Common species.<br />
Habitat Mostly corticolous, but also seen on wet rocky surfaces. Above 900m,<br />
submontane to upper montane forests near stream margins.<br />
Locations Galhiriya estate, Dehigolla watta upper division abandoned habitats,<br />
Nawanagala in the Knuckles mountain region.<br />
Description Foliose to subfruticose.The thallus is Irregularly lobate. Lobes are<br />
variable in width, <strong>of</strong>ten ascending and with whitish cilia along the margins. The<br />
upper surface is greyish white to grey. Soredia and isidia are absent. The lower<br />
surface is white, both sorediate and rhizinate. Rhizines are marginal, and simply<br />
to irregularly branched. Pruinose apothecia are abundant and appear terminally<br />
with well-developed squamules on the margin and a pale greyish white to dark<br />
grey disc.<br />
Status Widespread in specific areas but not a common species. This species is<br />
easily identified by the greyish apothecia and marginal rhizines.<br />
Habitat Found growing on twigs and on small branches in both moist and<br />
open, sunny conditions. Also found on dry rocks exposed to the sun.<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Locations Nawalapitiya and Laxapana areas.<br />
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Fo<br />
R<br />
Heterodermia propagulifera<br />
Heterodermia pseudospeciosa<br />
SL<br />
R<br />
Fo<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is adnate and ascends towards the margin. The<br />
upper surface is grey green. The lower surface has red spots. Cilia are black, dull,<br />
marginal and simple. Rhizines are black and simple. Soredia are mainly found on<br />
the secondary lobes. Apothecia are not seen in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n material.<br />
Status This rare species was only found once on a tree in a shaded interior.<br />
Habitat Found only in montane forests above 1400m. Grows together with<br />
mosses.<br />
Locations Horton Plains, Kalupahana in the Knuckles mountain region (only<br />
photographs were taken).<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is small, usually less than 4 cm in diameter,<br />
loosely attached and densely dichotomously branched. Lobes are long and<br />
narrow, repeatedly branched, weakly convex and widening. The upper surface<br />
is greyish white to grey to brownish grey, darker at lobe tips, sometimes weakly<br />
pruinose and sorediate. Soredia are white to bluish grey, mainly arising from small<br />
lateral knob-like structures. The lower surface has a cortex and rhizines. Rhizines<br />
are weakly developed, usually short and pale to dark brown or black. Apothecia<br />
are rare, margins are sorediate with a brown to blackish brown disc.<br />
Status This rare species is a new record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> and has only been spotted<br />
a few times. It is mostly a Northern Hemisphere species, which is scattered in<br />
various localities across all the continents. This species is characterized by the<br />
narrow, convex, long lobes and the soralia that mainly arise from the marginal<br />
knob-like structures forming small, semi-capitate soralia.<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Habitat On rocks, and more rarely on trees in open but humid situations.<br />
Locations Nawalapitiya and Laxapana areas.<br />
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Fo<br />
VR<br />
E<br />
Heterodermia queensberryi (Weerakoon & Aptroot 2014, New Species)<br />
Heterodermia rubrotricha (Weerakoon & Aptroot 2013, New Species)<br />
E<br />
VR<br />
Fo<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus forms tufts, divided into linear, grey lobes that<br />
taper at the tips and are slightly recurved and dichotomously branched. The flat<br />
upper surface is smooth, not shiny, appearing green in shaded conditions and<br />
greyish white in exposed conditions. The lower surface does not have a cortex<br />
or rhizines, yellow-orange, blackening towards the centre <strong>of</strong> the thallus. Cilia are<br />
black, dull, marginal, simple or with many perpendicular branchlets. Soredia are<br />
granular, grey and upturned at lobed tips, both in the centre <strong>of</strong> the thallus and<br />
on the margins. Apothecia are common, laminal on the upper surface, and not<br />
terminal. They are grey, white, and pruinose with a yellow-orange lower surface.<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus forms tufts up to 10 cm in diameter. Lobes are<br />
divided into linear, ascending to pendulous or nearly erect whitish lobes that<br />
have tapering tips that are dichotomously branched. The upper surface is smooth,<br />
shiny and flat to convex. The lower surface does not have rhizines and is whitish in<br />
colour. The thick cilia are black, dull, marginal, simple or with many perpendicular<br />
branchlets, mostly covered by pruina (a dark peony red pigment), usually except<br />
at the base and the very tips. Rhizines, soredia, isidia and pseudocyphellae are<br />
absent. Apothecia are common, laminal on the upper surface <strong>of</strong> the thallus lobes,<br />
not terminal, disc brownish grey, <strong>of</strong>ten, but not always, heavily white pruinose.<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Status Endemic to <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. Spotted on branches <strong>of</strong> trees in shaded, humid<br />
interior regions. Once observed on an open rock growing among mosses.<br />
Status Endemic to <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. This is a new lichen species. Known only from the<br />
type locality. Only few individuals were recorded from the type location.<br />
Habitat Found only in natural habitats above 1000m. Mostly grow together with<br />
mosses and bryophytes.<br />
Habitat Found on the smooth bark <strong>of</strong> tea (Camellia) trees in tea plantations.<br />
Known only from <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Locations The Queensberry tea estate in Nawalapitiya (6°59’ N, 80°35’ E), Horton<br />
Plains and Kalupahana in Knuckles mountain region.<br />
Locations Type locality is Nuwara Eliya -Pattipola, Mahagasthotte tea plantation<br />
upper division, 6°56’N, 80°47’E and elevation 1706 m.<br />
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Hypogymnia<br />
Tube lichens, bone lichens, pillow lichens<br />
Lecanorales Parmeliaceae<br />
45<br />
Hypogymnia is widely distributed throughout both hemispheres. It is most<br />
common all over Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and North America, and<br />
particularly in countries such as Japan and New Zealand. Most <strong>of</strong> the species<br />
are epiphytes on bark and twigs. Some species are found on rocks, dead wood<br />
and sometimes on soil in cool to cold areas in well lit, exposed habitats in high<br />
altitudes. Most species are mainly confined to the canopy and upper branches<br />
<strong>of</strong> trees.<br />
Hypogymnia species are medium to large foliose lichens, greenish grey to light<br />
brown, with more or less inflated lobes that are hollow (tube-like). The lower<br />
surface is usually blackish dark brown.<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Fo<br />
R<br />
Heterodermia speciosa Powderd fringe lichen, powdered centipede<br />
Description Foliose. Lobes are plane, not ascending. The upper surface is greyish<br />
white and sorediate. Soredia are primarily seen on the main or lateral lobes. The<br />
lower surface has a cortex and rhizines. Apothecia are not seen in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n<br />
material.<br />
Status Uncommon. Only seen at few locations.<br />
Only Hypogymnia zeylanica is common in Horton Plains and some localities close<br />
to Horton Plains in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. This species is corticolous in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. It is possible<br />
that more species occur in the highlands in montane communities which have<br />
not yet been observed. They usually grow on mature, mossy trunks.<br />
Apothecia lecanorine, red-brown; Asci: 8-spored; Spores: colourless, simple.<br />
Chemistry Cortex K+ yellow (atranorin); medulla K-, C-; most species KC+ pink<br />
(physodic acid).<br />
An epiphyte is an organism that grows non-parasitically upon a tree or shrub,<br />
and derives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, and sometimes from<br />
debris accumulating around it instead <strong>of</strong> the structure it is fastened to.<br />
Parmeliaceae<br />
Habitat Mostly corticolous. Above 1200 m, in wet upper montane forests.<br />
Locations Nawanagala in the Knuckles mountain region and Kabaragala in<br />
Matale district.<br />
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Kroswia<br />
Pixie-hair lichens<br />
Peltigerales Pannariaceae<br />
03<br />
Kroswia is a sterile lichen genus and apparently paleotropical. It is found in<br />
primeval tropical forests in South and Southeast Asia and East Africa. The genus<br />
has been recorded from subtropical East Africa, South India, <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> and Taiwan<br />
as corticolous in damp, montane forests.<br />
This genus is very small. So far, <strong>of</strong> the three species known worldwide, a single<br />
species has been observed in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> at Horton Plains, a few adjacent localities<br />
and a few places in Nuwara Eliya. Habitats are restricted to moist undisturbed<br />
conditions in montane forests in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
This species is corticolous in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. Other known species could occur in the<br />
highlands in montane communities which have not yet been observed.<br />
Parmeliaceae<br />
Fo<br />
C<br />
Hypogymnia zeylanica<br />
Description Foliose and corticolous. The lobes are wide, spreading, inflated and<br />
solid. Pinnate branching is observed in this species. The thallus is yellowish grey<br />
to brownish grey. The lower surface is wrinkled and pale brown to dark brown<br />
or blackish brown. The thallus has true isidia, which are simple to branched. The<br />
apothecia are lecanorine, rare, sessile, flat and brownish black.<br />
The species found in Horton Plains is very significant as it has true isidia (that is<br />
very unusual in Hypogymnia) and has pinnate branching. Further study <strong>of</strong> this<br />
species is needed to confirm its taxonomic status.<br />
Apothecia unknown for the genus, a conclusion about the genus requires<br />
confirmation from the apothecia or molecular data.<br />
Chemistry All reactions are negative.<br />
The Paleotropical Kingdom (Paleotropics) is a floristic kingdom comprising<br />
tropical areas <strong>of</strong> Africa, Asia and Oceania including northern Australia.<br />
Pannariaceae<br />
Status Common in Horton Plains. There could be a new species <strong>of</strong> Hypogymnia<br />
in Horton Plains. Hypogymnia zeylanica has been reported from the lower<br />
temperate region <strong>of</strong> India, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines.<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid forests areas above 1600 m.<br />
Locations Horton Plains, few places along the Pattipola road and Ohiya Road<br />
close to the Horton Plains entrance.<br />
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Lecanora<br />
Rim-lichens<br />
Lecanorales Lecanoraceae<br />
600<br />
Lecanora is one <strong>of</strong> the most speciose lichen genera. It is cosmopolitan and<br />
occurs from the tropics to the arctic. The species are found on various kinds <strong>of</strong><br />
substrates, such as bark, wood and rock. More rarely, they are found on soil or<br />
moss, mostly in open areas.<br />
The genus Lecanora includes a wide variety <strong>of</strong> growth forms and colours. It is<br />
best circumscribed by its crustose habitat, Lecanora- type asci and simple spores.<br />
Many species have lecanorine apothecia with prominent, thallus coloured<br />
apothecial margins that form the rim <strong>of</strong> the discs. Apothecia and spores always<br />
need to be examined under the microscope for the identification <strong>of</strong> the species<br />
<strong>of</strong> this genus, together with the chemistry <strong>of</strong> the species using TLC.<br />
Pannariaceae<br />
Fo<br />
R<br />
Kroswia crystallifera<br />
Description The thallus is foliose, thin, spreading and membranous. The lobes<br />
are elongated, fan-shaped (flabellate), swells considerably when wet, and is<br />
entirely composed <strong>of</strong> thread -like hyphae (homoiomerous) .The upper surface<br />
is olive grey with white marbling, with bluish grey gymnidia (non-corticate isidia<br />
that leave inconspicuous scars after falling <strong>of</strong>f ) marginally . The lower surface is<br />
veined and blackened towards the centre and with scattered tufts <strong>of</strong> blackish<br />
rhizohyphae (single hyphae on the lower thallus surface for attachment).<br />
Apothecia unknown in all the specimens collected in the world. This is a sterile<br />
species, that is to say, it does not produce reproductive structures in its life cycle.<br />
About 34 species have already been recorded in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. The three species<br />
included here are new records for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> which were recently recorded by<br />
Weerakoon and Aptroot (2014). It is possible that more species exist in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>,<br />
as there are many gaps in relation to local lichen taxonomy.<br />
Apothecia yellowish, green brown, or black, <strong>of</strong>ten pruinose, usually with<br />
lecanorine margins the same colour and texture as the thallus (sometimes with<br />
biatorine or rarely with lecideine), margins <strong>of</strong>ten contain calcium oxalate crystals;<br />
Asci: Lecanora -type; Spores: simple and colourless.<br />
Chemistry extremely variable. Atranorin or usnic acid or xanthones, and a wide<br />
range <strong>of</strong> depsides, depsidones, terpenoids and fatty acids.<br />
Lecanoraceae<br />
Status A rare lichen in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> that is restricted to specific habitats.<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid montane forests above 1400 m together with<br />
mosses on tree trunks facing the sun.<br />
Locations Horton Plains and a few places in Nuwara Eliya.<br />
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Cr<br />
C<br />
SL<br />
Lecanora helva<br />
Lecanora leprosa<br />
SL<br />
C<br />
Cr<br />
Lecanoraceae<br />
Description Crustose. The thallus is thin to thick, plane, continuous to<br />
verruculose, and entirely yellowish white to yellowish green or greenish grey.<br />
Soredia are absent. Prothallus is brownish. Apothecia are immersed when<br />
immature, but become sessile with a pale brown to orange or pale greening<br />
brown disc when mature. The apothecia margin is concolourous (same colour as<br />
the thallus), thin, entire, and verrucose.<br />
Description Crustose. The thallus is thin to thick, plane, continuous or dispersedverrucose<br />
to verruculose (delicately warted), and yellowish white to yellowish<br />
grey or greenish grey. Soredia are absent. Prothallus is not visible. Apothecia are<br />
immersed when immature, becoming sessile with a pale orange to yellowish<br />
disc. The apothecia margin is concolourous (same colour as the thallus), thin to<br />
thick, entirely, and sometimes verrucose.<br />
Lecanoraceae<br />
Chemistry Thallus and apothecial margin K+ yellow, C-, PD + pale orange.<br />
Chemistry Thallus and apothecial margin K+ yellow, C-, PD + pale orange.<br />
Status Common at high elevations, found on bark and wood. New record for<br />
<strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Status Collected from very few places in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> on bark and wood, thus far.<br />
New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid forest areas above 800 m. Occurs on the bark <strong>of</strong><br />
trees. This species is pantropical.<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid forest areas above 1000 m. Occurs on the bark <strong>of</strong><br />
trees. This species is pantropical.<br />
Locations Kandy, Kegalle, Matale, Nuwara Eliya, Nawalapitiya, and Hatton.<br />
Locations Knuckles mountain region and Matale district.<br />
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Leioderma<br />
Treepelt lichen, Mouse ears<br />
Peltigerales Pannariaceae<br />
c.10<br />
Leioderma is mainly found in the Southern Hemisphere. It is extremely rare in the<br />
Northern Hemisphere and is only known to occur in a few localities. It is a small<br />
genus. Most species are epiphytes found on shrubs and trees. They are restricted<br />
to moist habitats and found in undisturbed conditions at the scrubby margins <strong>of</strong><br />
montane forests in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Thus far, only one species, Leioderma sorediatum has been found in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Namely, in Horton Plains and a few adjacent localities, a few places in Nuwara<br />
Eliya, Kalupahana and the Knuckles Peak <strong>of</strong> the Knuckles mountain range. The<br />
distribution known so far demonstrates that this genus is confined to high<br />
elevation montane forests.<br />
Cr<br />
VC<br />
SL<br />
Lecanora tropica<br />
This species is corticolous in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. The thallus is foliose and has loosely<br />
attached rosettes. This small genus is mostly related to Pannaria and Parmeliella.<br />
It is probably most similar to Erioderma sorediatum (an extremely rare species in<br />
<strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>), but has longer lobes, is paler grey, and has many more tufted rhizines<br />
on the lower surface. It is possible that more species could occur in the highlands<br />
in montane communities which have not yet been observed.<br />
Lecanoraceae<br />
Description The thallus is dispersed-verrucose (having small rounded processes)<br />
to continuous or byssoid (thallus is comprised <strong>of</strong> loosely interwoven threads and<br />
appears rather cottony), and yellowish white grey in colour. Soredia are absent. A<br />
black prothallus is present. Apothecia are sessile, with a pale to dark brown disc.<br />
The apothecial margin is concolourous (same colour as the thallus), thick, and<br />
verrucose.<br />
Apothecia round, biatorine, disc pale to red brown; Asci: 8-spored; Spores:<br />
colourless, and simple.<br />
Chemistry hymenium I+ persistent blue (except one species in the genus)<br />
Pannariaceae<br />
Chemistry Thallus and apothecial margin K+ yellow, C+ Orange, PD + yellowish<br />
orange.<br />
Status Very common. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid forest areas above 400 m. Occurs on the bark <strong>of</strong><br />
trees. This species is pantropical.<br />
Locations Kandy, Kegalle, Sinharaja forest, Gampaha, Matale, Nuwara Eliya,<br />
Ampara, and Kurunagala.<br />
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Leptogium<br />
Jellyskin lichens, Vinyl lichens<br />
Peltigerales Collemataceae<br />
180<br />
Leptogium is most common in the tropical regions <strong>of</strong> the world but is widely<br />
distributed in warm and cool temperate regions and has a few species which<br />
reach the Arctic and Sub-Antarctic regions. It is found on bark, soil, rocks or<br />
mosses in very wet or dry habitats.<br />
This is a very conspicuous and common genus found in most natural and<br />
disturbed habitats in the various climatic regions <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. More than 20<br />
species are known from <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> in this genus. Some species are widely spread<br />
across the island. Few recent collections were studied by Gothamie Weerakoon<br />
and Andre Aptroot. Five new records <strong>of</strong> Leptogium were discovered for <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong> including one species that is a new record for the Indian subcontinent<br />
(Weerakoon & Aptroot 2014). It is probable that many undiscovered species<br />
could occur in particular montane communities. Therefore, further study is<br />
required to discover the total diversity.<br />
Pannariaceae<br />
Fo<br />
VC<br />
Leioderma sorediatum<br />
Description Small, olive grey foliose lichen found as a corticolous species in <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong>. The lobes are scalloped, and flat to slightly concave. Blue grey granular<br />
soredia develop along the lobe margins. The upper surface is dark bluish green<br />
when wet and pale olive greenish colour when dry. The lower surface has<br />
scattered tufts <strong>of</strong> rhizines that are white to bluish, buff centrally, and white at the<br />
margins. The upper surface is felt-like with tiny, very appressed hairs. Apothecia<br />
are not seen on the material from <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. Apothecia when present; are scarce,<br />
usually only seen as pinkish initials. This species is very similar to Erioderma<br />
sorediatum, but has longer lobes, is paler grey, and has many more tufted rhizines<br />
on the lower surface.<br />
In the field, this genus is difficult to distinguish from its sister genus Collema as<br />
they have much in common, especially when their thalli are moist and swollen.<br />
On the whole, Leptogium species are steel grey to grey or more reddish brown<br />
when dry, with a smoother, more skin-like texture. Collema is never shiny in dry<br />
or wet conditions, probably because it has no upper cortex.<br />
Apothecia lecanorine, sessile, common in most species after rainy seasons, disc<br />
orange-red, red brown to black; Asci: 4-8-spored; Spores: colourless, 4-celled<br />
to muriform.<br />
Chemistry All reactions negative.<br />
Collemataceae<br />
Status Very common in Horton Plains.<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid forests areas above 1400 m.<br />
Locations Horton Plains, few places along the Pattipola road and Ohiya Road,<br />
close to the Horton Plains entrance, Lover’s Leap - Nuwara Eliya, Knuckles and the<br />
Kalupahana peaks <strong>of</strong> the Knuckles mountain region.<br />
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Fo<br />
R<br />
SL<br />
Leptogium austroamericanum Dixie jellyskin<br />
Leptogium azureum Blue jellyskin<br />
C<br />
Fo<br />
Collemataceae<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is adnate, with round lobes, and steel-grey. The<br />
surface <strong>of</strong> the lobes is conspicuous but minutely wrinkled and covered with<br />
cylindrical to flattened isidia which are also present on the lobe margins. The<br />
lower surface is paler than the upper surface in colour, and is wrinkled with tufts<br />
<strong>of</strong> hyphal hair. The specimen was sterile.<br />
This species closely resembles Leptogium cyanescens except for the minutely<br />
wrinkled thallus.<br />
Status Rare. Found on bark as a corticolous species at high elevations in <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong>. Occurs in North, Central and South America and Australasia. New record<br />
for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
Habitat In humid high elevation forests above 1000 m.<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous or saxicolous, and adnate. The<br />
upper surface is blue grey, lead grey to dark grey with no isidia. Lobes are thin,<br />
folded and round at the margins. Lobe surfaces are not distinctly wrinkled, but<br />
are uneven or roughened in the older parts <strong>of</strong> the thallus. The lower surface has<br />
scattered tufts <strong>of</strong> hyphal hair. Apothecia were not observed in the material. But<br />
in this species usually cup-like apothecia with red-brown disks and thin cream<br />
coloured to pale brownish margins are commonly produced on the surface<br />
<strong>of</strong> the thallus. Asci 8-spored. Spores are muriform. Leptogium cyanescens is<br />
about the same size and colour but has marginal and laminal isidia. Leptogium<br />
austroamericanum and Leptogium corticola are <strong>of</strong>ten found in the same habitats,<br />
and have distinctly wrinkled lobes.<br />
Status Common on bark as corticolous species at mid to high elevations in <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong>. Widely distributed in the tropical to subtropical regions <strong>of</strong> the world.<br />
Collemataceae<br />
Locations Near the Matale district.<br />
Habitat In humid mid to humid high elevation interior forests above 900 m.<br />
Locations Matale and Nuwara Eliya.<br />
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Fo<br />
VC<br />
Leptogium cochleatum<br />
Leptogium cyanescens Blue jellyskin, Blue oilskin<br />
VC<br />
Fo<br />
Collemataceae<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous. Lobes are orbicular. The upper<br />
surface is lead grey and smooth. This species is not isidiate. The lobes <strong>of</strong> the<br />
lower surface are paler. Apothecia are sessile, isidiate. Asci 8-spored. Spores are<br />
muriform.<br />
Status Very common corticolous species found at high elevations in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Found on bark and sometimes on mossy, shaded rocks. Widely spread in Africa<br />
and Australia.<br />
Habitat Found in humid high elevation interior forests above 1200 m.<br />
Locations Matale and Nuwara Eliya.<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous or saxicolous, and adnate. The<br />
upper surface is blue grey to lead grey, with thin, rough spreading or folded<br />
lobes. Lobe margins are rounded or somewhat toothed or lobulate. Isidiate.<br />
Isidia are cylindrical to flattened and lobule like, <strong>of</strong>ten branched, and usually<br />
abundant on the lobe margins and upper surface. The lower surface <strong>of</strong> the lobes<br />
is smooth. Apothecia are sessile and isidiate. Asci 8-spored. Spores are muriform.<br />
Misidentifications are caused by the varying quantity <strong>of</strong> isidia produced on the<br />
lobes, or the roughness <strong>of</strong> the surface <strong>of</strong> older lobes being interpreted as wrinkles.<br />
Species <strong>of</strong>ten mistaken for L. cyanescens include L. corticola, L. austroamericanum<br />
and L. azureum. L. denticulatum is like L. cyanescens, but with thin scale-like lobes<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> cylindrical isidia occurring on the lobe surface and along the margins.<br />
Status Very common corticolous species in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> at high elevation. On all<br />
kinds <strong>of</strong> bark, and on logs or even on mossy, shaded rocks.<br />
Collemataceae<br />
Habitat In humid mid elevation to humid high elevation interior forests above<br />
900 m.<br />
Locations Kandy, Matale and Nuwara Eliya.<br />
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Fo<br />
R<br />
SL<br />
Leptogium millegranum Stretched jellyskin<br />
Leptogium phyllocarpum Frilly jellyskin<br />
C<br />
Fo<br />
Collemataceae<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous and adnate. The upper surface<br />
is dark olive grey, strongly longitudinally wrinkled and isidiate. Isidia are found<br />
on the margin <strong>of</strong> the lobes and sometimes on the ridges. Isidia are globular to<br />
cylindrical. The lower surface is wrinkled. Apothecia are common and produced<br />
on the thallus surface. They are cup-like with red-brown discs, and small<br />
compared to other species.<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is adnate, and irregularly lobate. Lobes are<br />
very irregular, elongate, and notably thickened (swelling markedly when wet).<br />
The upper surface is medium grey to dark grey to almost brown black, usually<br />
dull, and longitudinally wrinkled. The lower surface is pale to medium grey, and<br />
wrinkled. Apothecia are common, submarginal towards the lobe tips, sessile,<br />
with a brown to red disc. Asci 8-spored. Spores are colourless and muriform.<br />
Collemataceae<br />
This species can be easily identified by its large olive grey thallus whereas most<br />
others tend to be bluish grey rather than olive. Leptogium austroamericanum is<br />
very close to this species, but has rather thick isidia, sometimes lobulate, and<br />
most <strong>of</strong> the isidia are found on the lobe surface.<br />
Status Rare species. Found on tree bark at mid to high elevations in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Distributed in North, Central and South America. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Leptogium phyllocarpum is characterized by the crisp lobes on the upper surface,<br />
that swell considerably when wet. Leptogium milligranum can be confused with<br />
this species due to its dark colour, but it has granular isidia.<br />
Status Common on bark as corticolous species at high elevations in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Pantropical and subtropical, occurring in North and South America, Africa,<br />
Australasia and Asia.<br />
Habitat In humid mid to high elevation interior forests above 900 m.<br />
Habitat At high elevation in humid interior forests above 1200m.<br />
Locations Matale and Nuwara Eliya.<br />
Locations Near Horton Plains, Knuckles mountain region and Pidurutalagala.<br />
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Lobaria<br />
Lungworts, lung lichens<br />
Peltigerales Lobariaceae<br />
90<br />
Lobaria is a cosmopolitan genus, but is strictly restricted to cool temperate,<br />
subtropical and montane-tropical regions. It is mainly distributed in East Asia<br />
and South America. Species are known from bark and rocks in high elevation<br />
montane forest. They are most commonly found in shaded forest interiors. The<br />
<strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n species are only found in a few locations in the central highlands.<br />
This genus is conspicuous as it has large, broad lobes, typically with rather squarish<br />
(shape that is almost like a square) lobes. Species <strong>of</strong> this genus contain green algae<br />
and/or cyanobacteria as their photobiont. The pseudocyphellae or cyphellae are<br />
absent in Lobaria unlike the sister genera, Sticta and Pseudocyphellaria <strong>of</strong> the<br />
family. But all three genera, Lobaria, Sticta and Pseudocyphellaria are most similar<br />
to each other in size, colour and the appearance <strong>of</strong> the lower surface.<br />
Apothecia produced on the lobe surface or along the margin, lecanorine,<br />
reddish brown to brown disk; Asci: 8-spored; Spores: colourless to slightly<br />
brownish, transversely septate (spore is transversely divided).<br />
Chemistry PD+ yellow to red, K+ yellow to red, KC+ red, C+ pink.<br />
Lobaria discolor<br />
C<br />
Fo<br />
Lobariaceae<br />
Description Foliose, the thallus is loosely adnate from the centre, with wide<br />
lobes that are free at the margins. The upper surface is greyish green to olive<br />
green brown when dry, and bright green when wet. Isidia and soredia absent.<br />
The lower surface is pale tan. Rhizines are found in older central areas. Apothecia<br />
are wide and red- brown, and were abundant and conspicuous on <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n<br />
species.<br />
Lobariaceae<br />
Status This species can be easily identified due to its red brown apothecia, and<br />
is only found in cool montane forests, typically on dead logs and on tree bark.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forest areas, growing on live<br />
and dead bark. This species can be seen within the view <strong>of</strong> the casual observer,<br />
but only in specific habitats.<br />
Locations Common in Horton Plains.<br />
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Megalospora<br />
Teloschistales Megalosporaceae<br />
30<br />
Megalospora is a genus which is mainly restricted to the tropical regions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
world, but also extends into temperate regions, especially in Australasia. Species<br />
are found on bark, and rarely on wood, leaves or rock, mostly in rather humid<br />
situations. This genus is conspicuous and can be easily spotted by anyone who<br />
closely looking for lichens.<br />
Two species are widespread in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, but are <strong>of</strong>ten misidentified. Both<br />
species were already recorded in early lichen collections from many areas <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. These species are widely distributed in the wet zone, sub-montane<br />
and montane regions, both in natural and man-made vegetation types <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong>. The thallus could be green to grey or brown on both species. The thallus<br />
tends to take on shades <strong>of</strong> green in wet conditions. The thallus turns to shades<br />
<strong>of</strong> grey in open, exposed or disturbed conditions at high elevations. The thallus<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten surrounded by a black hypothallus. Both species have very similar thallus<br />
characters, so careful observation is needed.<br />
Megalosporaceae<br />
Apothecia Sessile, disc brown to black, flat, margin pale brown to black;<br />
Asci: 1-8-spored; Spores: ellipsoid, transversely septate or muriform, hyaline<br />
(transparent, colourless), and with a thick wall.<br />
Chemistry Thallus K+ yellow, P+ red, UV+ yellow.<br />
Megalospora sulphurata<br />
Description The thallus is crustose, corticate, continuous, wide, smooth, and<br />
grey to whitish grey in colour. Species present in shaded habitats can have a<br />
greenish-grey thallus. A black hypothallus is present. Soredia are not observed.<br />
Apothecia are sessile with a brownish reddish black disc, and flat, margin<br />
chocolate brown to black.<br />
Status More common than Megalospora tuberculosa. Often seen on the mature<br />
trunks <strong>of</strong> trees in shaded interiors or open forests.<br />
VC<br />
Cr<br />
Megalosporaceae<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid mid elevation to high elevation forests above<br />
700 m. Even found in disturbed sites and amidst man-made vegetation types<br />
such as chenas, tea plantations, pines and acacia plantations. Common in home<br />
gardens in high elevation areas.<br />
Locations Central highlands and high elevation wet zone forests.<br />
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Parmotrema<br />
Ruffle lichens, Scatter-rug lichens<br />
Lecanorales Parmeliaceae<br />
c.350<br />
Parmotrema is a genus <strong>of</strong> large, pale grey or grey -green to yellow green, foliose<br />
lichens with broadly rounded lobes. Most species are loosely attached, typically<br />
marginally ciliate, and have a black, rhizinate undersurface with a naked, marginal<br />
zone. This genus is best developed in tropical region. Species <strong>of</strong> this genus are<br />
large, conspicuous foliose lichens.<br />
More than 20 species are known from <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> up to date, the most common <strong>of</strong><br />
which tend to be Pantropical species. Recent research by Weerakoon and Aptroot<br />
(2014) document many new records <strong>of</strong> this genus for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, including five<br />
species that are new records for the Indian subcontinent. The <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n species<br />
<strong>of</strong> Parmotrema occur on tree trunks, twigs, canopy branches, and on rocks <strong>of</strong> rain<br />
forests, sub-montane, montane and dry deciduous forests throughout moister<br />
areas.<br />
Megalosporaceae<br />
Cr<br />
R<br />
Megalospora tuberculosa<br />
Description The thallus is crustose, corticate, continuous, wide, smooth, and<br />
grey to whitish grey. Soredia are observed on some thalli. Apothecia are sessile,<br />
and the disc is brown to black and margins yellowish brown.<br />
Status Rarer than Megalospora sulphurata. Often seen on the mature trunks <strong>of</strong><br />
trees in shaded interiors or open forests.<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid mid elevation to high elevation forests above<br />
700 m. Even found in disturbed sites and man-made vegetation types. Common<br />
in home gardens in high elevation areas.<br />
Species <strong>of</strong> Parmotrema are mainly separated by characteristics such as the<br />
presence or absence <strong>of</strong> asexual propagules, and by medullary chemistry. Most<br />
species known from <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> are overlooked and need taxonomic revision.<br />
Studies are also needed to collect and identify the total diversity <strong>of</strong> this genus<br />
in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, as it can be assumed that many more species remain undiscovered<br />
in other habitats.<br />
Apothecia laminal, lecanorine, generally pedicellate (stalked), disc brown;<br />
Asci: 8-spored; Spores: colourless, simple, ellipsoid, thick walled.<br />
Chemistry varies from species to species. Testing with K, PD and C is important<br />
for identification <strong>of</strong> species.<br />
Parmeliaceae<br />
Locations Central highlands and high elevation forests in the wet zone.<br />
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Fo<br />
R<br />
SL<br />
Parmotrema abessinicum<br />
Parmotrema clavuliferum<br />
IC<br />
R<br />
Fo<br />
Parmeliaceae<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous. Lobes are rotund, crenate and<br />
ciliate. The upper surface is greenish grey, smooth, lacking isidia and soredia. The<br />
lower side is centrally black, and the nude marginal area is mottled in pale brown<br />
or white. The medulla is white (when observed with a hand lens). Apothecia are<br />
small, disc blackish brown.<br />
Chemistry Medulla PD-, K-, KC+ red, C-<br />
Status This species is rare. It is a species which <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> shares with the tropical<br />
African lichen flora. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous and saxicolous. Lobes are ciliate.<br />
The upper surface is grey to darker grey, densely white maculate, and fissured.<br />
Soralia are on long pointed lobes. Lower surface centrally black, marginal zone<br />
white, and rhizinate up to the margin.<br />
Medulla chemistry K+ yellow turning to blood red, C-, PD+ orange-red.<br />
Parmotrema clavuliferum is distinguished by the sorediate lacinules (refer the<br />
photo <strong>of</strong> this species), white variegated lower margin under the soralia and the<br />
presence <strong>of</strong> salazinic acid (K+ yellow --> blood red).<br />
Parmeliaceae<br />
Habitat It has only been observed once on a fallen canopy branch on the<br />
ground.<br />
Locations Kikiliyamana- Nuwara Eliya.<br />
Status This species is rare. New record for the Indian subcontinent and <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat It has only been observed once at an elevation <strong>of</strong> 840m.<br />
Locations Close to Unulugala peak - Coolbone tea estate Yatiyanthota.<br />
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Fo<br />
C<br />
Parmotrema cristiferum Unwhiskered ruffle lichens<br />
Parmotrema latissimum<br />
SL<br />
VR<br />
Fo<br />
Parmeliaceae<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is adnate to loosely adnate, corticolous<br />
becoming finely cracked on the surface <strong>of</strong> older central portions. Lobes are broad<br />
and rounded, with fine soralia along the crinkled margins <strong>of</strong> the older lobes and<br />
on the lateral lobes. The upper surface is pale grey to whitish, greenish grey, and<br />
dull. The lower surface is centrally black, with a very broad brown naked edge.<br />
Marginal cilia are absent or sparse, and very short.<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous. The lobes are eciliate (no cilia).<br />
The upper surface is grey. Lacks isidia and soredia. The lower side is centrally<br />
black, and the wide marginal zone is tan and nude. The medulla is white (when<br />
observed with a hand lens). Apothecia are reddish orange brown.<br />
Chemistry Medulla K+ yellow turning red, C-, PD+ orange-red.<br />
Parmeliaceae<br />
Chemistry Cortex K+ yellow, Medulla PD+ orange, K+ yellow turning red, KC-,C-.<br />
P. gardneri is similar to P. cristiferum, but PD +red orange, K-. P. praesorediosum has<br />
narrow lobes and is PD-.<br />
Status This common species is seen on the mature bark <strong>of</strong> trees in sunlit habitats<br />
in moist conditions. This species is cosmopolitan, and is widespread throughout<br />
tropical and subtropical areas mainly as a corticolous species.<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid mid elevation to high elevation forest above<br />
800 m.<br />
Locations Nawalapitiya, Avissawella, some places in central highlands, Matale,<br />
Knuckles mountains, Horton Plains and Nuwara Eliya.<br />
Status This species occurs very rarely. Distributed in India, China, Central and<br />
South America. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Has only been observed once at an elevation <strong>of</strong> 840m.<br />
Locations Close to Unulugala peak - Coolbone tea estate- Yatiyanthota.<br />
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Fo<br />
C<br />
Parmotrema mellissii<br />
Parmotrema tinctorum Palm ruffle lichens<br />
VC<br />
Fo<br />
Parmeliaceae<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is corticolous and loosely adnate. Lobes are wide,<br />
crenate or dissected, and ciliate. The upper surface is pale grey to whitish grey or<br />
green grey, dull and fissured with the older parts flaking <strong>of</strong>f. The medulla is white,<br />
with patches <strong>of</strong> yellow- brown to orange-brown. Isidiate or sorediate, especially<br />
near the lobe margins. Sometimes isidia or soredia can be submarginal. The<br />
lower surface is centrally black, and the narrow marginal zone is brown to white<br />
mottled, and nude. Rhizines simple, slender, long, and form scattered groups.<br />
Chemistry Cortex K+ yellow, Medulla (white part) K-, C-. KC+ red, PD-. Medulla<br />
(pigmented part) K+ purple.<br />
Status Common species. Mostly seen on the mature bark <strong>of</strong> trees in shaded<br />
interiors, or rarely growing on moist rocky substrates.<br />
Habitat Found in humid mid elevation to high elevation forests above 800 m.<br />
Locations Central highlands, wet zone high elevation forests and along the<br />
rocky stream margins <strong>of</strong> sub montane and montane forests.<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is loosely adnate, corticolous or saxicolous and<br />
large (even up to 20 cm across). Most conspicuous species <strong>of</strong> this genus in <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong>. The lobes are broad and wide (10-20-30 mm). Lobes do not have marginal<br />
cilia, but are covered with granular to cylindrical, branched isidia. The dull upper<br />
surface varies from pale grey to darker grey. The lower surface is centrally black,<br />
with a very broad tan to brown naked edge.<br />
Chemistry Cortex K+ yellow, Medulla PD-, K-, KC+ red, C+ blood red. This lichen<br />
is easily identified by the broad, pale isidiate lobes and C+ red reaction.<br />
Status Very common species in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. On mature bark <strong>of</strong> trees and on rocks<br />
in all sorts <strong>of</strong> habitats. Cosmopolitan, and widespread throughout the tropical<br />
and temperate regions.<br />
Habitat Common on bark. In humid mid elevation to high elevation forest<br />
above 600 m.<br />
Locations Avissawella to Hatton, Kegalle to Kandy, abundant in the central<br />
highlands, Matale, Knuckles, Horton Plains, Pidurutalagala, Sabaragamuwa hill<br />
range, Ratnapura, Haputale, Bandarawela, Badulla and Nuwara Eliya.<br />
Parmeliaceae<br />
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Phaeophyscia<br />
shadow lichens<br />
Teloschistales Physciaceae<br />
28<br />
Phaeophyscia is a genus characteristic <strong>of</strong> cool wet temperate areas and montane<br />
rainforests in tropical and subtropical areas. They are epiphytes, and grow on<br />
bark, wood or rocks <strong>of</strong> all type. This genus includes rather small foliose lichens<br />
with olive to brown, yellowish thalli that have radiating lobes, and a black<br />
rhizinate lower surface.<br />
Only Phaeophyscia hispidula, which is a new record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> with very<br />
restricted distribution in montane areas, included here was observed. Other<br />
species which have not yet been observed could occur with a distinct preference<br />
for particular montane communities. This species usually grows on mature,<br />
mossy trunks.<br />
The closely related genus Physcia can <strong>of</strong>ten be confused with Phaeophyscia.<br />
Species <strong>of</strong> Physcia all contain atranorin, (K+ yellow) in the upper cortex and,<br />
except for few sub-tropical species, lack rhizines on the apothecial margins.<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Apothecia laminal, lecanorine, mostly rhizinate at base, greyish to reddish disc<br />
brown to black; Asci: 8-spored; Spores: brown, 2-celled, unevenly thickened<br />
walls.<br />
Chemistry Negative reactions in cortex and medulla (if any species have<br />
pigmented medulla orange or red it will give K+ red purple reaction).<br />
Phaeophyscia hispidula Whiskered shadow lichens<br />
SL<br />
Description Fruticose. The thallus is corticolous, and pale greyish brown or<br />
yellow brown with, relatively broad lobes, rather concave tips, and a white<br />
medulla. Soredia are present mainly on the margins and lobe surface. The lower<br />
surface is black. Black rhizines are abundant and long, projecting beyond the<br />
lobes, and <strong>of</strong>ten coalesce in to a mat, and appear as a fringe <strong>of</strong> “whiskers” when<br />
viewed from above. Apothecia are not observed on the <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n material.<br />
R<br />
Fr<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Status This rare species can be easily found as it forms a large colony on the<br />
mature trunks <strong>of</strong> trees in shaded interiors. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1200 m.<br />
Locations Horton Plains and Hakgala strict nature reserve.<br />
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Phyllopsora<br />
Lace- scale lichens<br />
Lecanorales Ramalinaceae<br />
c.70<br />
Phyllopsora is a crustose to squamulose genus. The genus consists <strong>of</strong> species<br />
growing primarily on the bark <strong>of</strong> tree trunks and main branches in tropical and<br />
subtropical humid montane forest to rainforests. However, Phyllopsora is still<br />
poorly known in many parts <strong>of</strong> the world.<br />
Most species have a thallus with corticate and loosely to closely appressed<br />
squamules usually green to greyish green or grey. There is a white to reddish<br />
brown hypothallus present. More than 15 species are known from <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
up to date, the most common <strong>of</strong> which tend to be Pantropical species. Recent<br />
research by Weerakoon and Aptroot (2014) documents eight new records <strong>of</strong> this<br />
genus for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, including five species that are new records for the Indian<br />
subcontinent. The <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n species <strong>of</strong> Phyllopsora occur on tree trunks, wood,<br />
and on rocks <strong>of</strong> rainforests, sub-montane, and montane forests throughout<br />
humid areas.<br />
Ramalinaceae<br />
Most species known from <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> are overlooked and need taxonomic revision.<br />
Studies are also needed to collect and identify the total diversity <strong>of</strong> this genus<br />
in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, as it can be assumed that many more species remain undiscovered<br />
in other habitats.<br />
Apothecia biatorine, disc reddish brown; Asci: mostly8-spored; Spores:<br />
colourless, ellipsoid, usually simple.<br />
Chemistry Various substances.<br />
Phyllopsora borbonica<br />
Description The thallus is formed <strong>of</strong> small, adnate, isodiametric areolae (an<br />
island <strong>of</strong> thalli that develop on hypothallus) which are discrete to adjoined<br />
peripherally, and forms a more or less continuous crust centrally. Areoles are<br />
pale green and glabrous (smooth, not hairy). Isidia are absent. The prothallus is<br />
brownish black. Apothecia are abundant, rounded, simple, plane to moderately<br />
convex and reddish brown.<br />
IC<br />
R<br />
Sq<br />
Ramalinaceae<br />
Chemistry No lichen substances<br />
Status Mostly seen on mature tree trunks in very humid, shaded interiors. New<br />
record for the Indian sub continent and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid mid elevation to high elevation forests above<br />
1300 m.<br />
Locations Few places in Nuwara Eliya and Adam’s Peak trail.<br />
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Sq<br />
VC<br />
SL<br />
Phyllopsora breviuscula<br />
Phyllopsora confusa<br />
SL C Sq<br />
Ramalinaceae<br />
Description The thallus forms incomplete circular patches, squamules large,<br />
adnate, elongated, contiguous or partly imbricate, becoming deeply divided,<br />
distinctly convex, medium green or <strong>of</strong>ten with brown patches. Isidia are absent.<br />
Prothallus is thick, reddish brown. Apothecia are common, rounded, simple,<br />
plane to moderately convex, medium brown, with a paler and indistinct margin.<br />
Can be confused with Phyllopsora parvifolia.<br />
Description The thallus has small, narrow ascending squamules, and is bluish<br />
green in colour. Isidia are absent. The prothallus is thin, but <strong>of</strong>ten well developed,<br />
white to partly reddish brown. Apothecia are rounded to irregular, simple, plane<br />
to moderately convex, and pale to medium brown.<br />
Chemistry No lichen substances.<br />
Ramalinaceae<br />
Chemistry No lichen substances.<br />
Status This species is Pantropical. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Status Very common species. Mostly found on mature tree trunks in very humid,<br />
shaded interiors and on moist rocky substrates. This species is pantropical. New<br />
record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Found in humid rain forest and humid sub montane areas.<br />
Locations Avissawella, Nawalapitiya ,Hatton and Knuckles mountain range.<br />
Habitat Mostly found in humid mid elevation to high elevation forests above<br />
1000 m.<br />
Locations Central highlands, high elevation rain forests and along the rocky<br />
stream margins <strong>of</strong> sub montane and montane forests.<br />
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Sq<br />
R<br />
IC<br />
Phyllopsora furfuracea<br />
Phyllopsora kiiensis<br />
IC<br />
R<br />
Sq<br />
Ramalinaceae<br />
Description The thallus is partly formed <strong>of</strong> minute areolae which <strong>of</strong>ten fuse<br />
and form a continuous pale green to dark green crust. Isidia develop directly<br />
from the prothallus. Isidia are <strong>of</strong>ten dominating. The prothallus is indistinct to<br />
well developed and white to reddish brown. Apothecia are not seen in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n<br />
material.<br />
Chemistry Chemotype 1: furfuraceic acid; Chemotype 2: no lichen substances.<br />
Status This species is Pantropical. New record for the Indian sub continent<br />
and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Found in humid rain forest and humid sub montane areas.<br />
Description The thallus has squamules that are medium sized, adnate, and pale<br />
green. Isidia are usually abundant, attached marginally to the squamules, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
long, and simple to slightly branched. This species can be easily identified due<br />
to its well developed, reddish brown prothallus. Apothecia are not seen in <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong>n material.<br />
This species resembles Phyllopsora corallina, but contains furfuraceic acid like<br />
Phyllopsora furfuracea. It differs from the latter in forming a squamulose, not<br />
areolate, thallus.<br />
Status Recorded from Japan, Kenya, Tanzania, and Australia. New record for the<br />
Indian sub continent and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Ramalinaceae<br />
Locations Avissawella, Nawalapitiya and Hatton.<br />
Habitat Found in dry to humid rain forest.<br />
Locations Ratnapura and Mathugama.<br />
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Physcia<br />
Rosette lichens<br />
Teloschistales Physciaceae<br />
70<br />
Physcia is a cosmopolitan genus. This genus is found in cool, wet, temperate<br />
areas and montane rainforests in tropical and sub-tropical areas. This genus is<br />
most diverse in the Neotropics. Species <strong>of</strong> this genus grow on various substrates.<br />
Many species are widespread in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. However, these species have not yet<br />
been correctly identified due to the lack <strong>of</strong> apothecia. Descriptive keys available<br />
for the region are not very helpful in identifying species collected from <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
as they are related to African, Australian, North and South American, East Asian<br />
and European species. This genus needs extensive studies and fresh collections<br />
towards correct identification and to inventory the total diversity in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Few species were analyzed by Weerakoon and Aptroot (2014), leading to the<br />
discovery <strong>of</strong> seven new records for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> including three species that are<br />
new records for the Indian subcontinent. The recently identified Physcia krogiae<br />
is also a new record for the Indian subcontinent and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> (Weerakoon and<br />
Aptroot unpublished). These species in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> usually grow on mossy trunks,<br />
twigs, rocks and dead wood. Some species are found on living leaves. This is<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the most speciose micr<strong>of</strong>oliose genera in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. Most small, light grey<br />
foliose lichens with a pale undersurface and K+ yellow upper surface are species<br />
<strong>of</strong> Physcia.<br />
Apothecia laminal, lecanorine with dark brown to black disks; Asci: 8-spored;<br />
Spores: dark brown, 2 celled, thick walled, with angular to oval locules.<br />
Chemistry Upper cortex PD- or pale yellow, K+ yellow, KC-, C-; medulla PD- or<br />
PD +pale yellow, K- or K+ yellow, KC-, C-.<br />
Physcia alba<br />
SL<br />
Description Micr<strong>of</strong>oliose. The thallus is adnate, has fragile lobes. Lobes radiating,<br />
flat, narrower, distinctly separate, tips <strong>of</strong>ten ascending. The upper surface is<br />
whitish grey to cream-coloured. Soredia and isidia are absent. The lower surface<br />
is white to pale graphite grey. Rhizines are concolourous with the lower surface.<br />
Apothecia are abundant and variable in size. Margins are thick and weakly<br />
crenulate, with a brown to black disc.<br />
R<br />
Fo<br />
Physciaceae<br />
This species is predominately tropical and is recognized by its narrow, truncate<br />
lobes, the abundant apothecia with thick margins and the pale lower surface.<br />
Status Rare species in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mainly corticolous growing in open forests on solitary trees, and also<br />
found on rocks in exposed sites above 900m.<br />
Locations Matale District- Nawanagala and Kabaragala.<br />
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Fo<br />
R<br />
IC<br />
Physcia atrostriata<br />
Physcia integrata<br />
SL<br />
VC<br />
Fo<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Description Micr<strong>of</strong>oliose. The thallus is orbicular to irregular. The upper side<br />
whitish grey, shiny to matte, sometimes with a pruina or a “frosty” coating on the<br />
lobe margins. Lobes are usually narrower, short and rounded, with the tips usually<br />
ascending. Soralia are marginal, mainly on the inner parts <strong>of</strong> the lobes, <strong>of</strong>ten best<br />
developed in the lobe angles. The underside is black and usually striate, in part<br />
brownish grey. Nearer to the lobe tips, it becomes more distinctly striate. Rhizines<br />
are grey to black or brown. Apothecia are not seen on the <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n material.<br />
Status Rare species in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. This is another unique species found in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>,<br />
which is shared with the African continent. The species was first discovered in<br />
East Africa. New record for the Indian subcontinent and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mainly corticolous species found growing in open forests on solitary<br />
trees, above 900m.<br />
Description Micr<strong>of</strong>oliose. The thallus is orbicular (rounded convex or globular<br />
shape) to irregular, 5 cm in diameter, and closely adnate to the substrate. Lobe<br />
tips are rounded. The upper surface is whitish grey to grey, usually shiny, and<br />
sometimes scattered with white dots. The lower surface is black except for the<br />
pale lobe tips, with copious black rhizines. Apothecia are usually abundant with a<br />
dark brown to black disc, and sometimes covered with a white pruina.<br />
Status One <strong>of</strong> most common species. This species is easily identified by its<br />
appearance; the black lower cortex and the shiny upper surface. In some<br />
specimens the thallus is dissected into narrow lobes. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid mid to high elevation forests above 1000<br />
m and man-made vegetation. Found growing on tree trunks and rocks in rather<br />
open but moist, subtropical situations.<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Locations Matale district- Nawanagala.<br />
Locations Avissawella, Ratnapura, Pidurutalagala, Horton Plains, Matale,<br />
Kegalle, Kandy, Knuckles mountains, Hinuduma Kanda, Hakgala and Peradeniya,<br />
Sabaragamuwa mountains, Sinharaja-Sinhagala and Athwalthota.<br />
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Fo<br />
R<br />
IC<br />
Physcia krogiae<br />
Physcia sorediosa<br />
SL<br />
RL<br />
LC Fo<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Description Micr<strong>of</strong>oliose. The thallus is closely adnate to the substrate. Lobes<br />
up to 2-3 mm, flat, considerably branched, radiate, usually widening at the tips<br />
and becoming lobulate. The upper surface is whitish bluish grey to grey, and<br />
dull with a “frosty” surface, especially at the lobe margins. Extreme margins are<br />
paler in colour and thus, more distinct. Soralia are laminal to marginal, mostly<br />
forming large patches <strong>of</strong> soralia. The lower surface is black, in part dark brown,<br />
rarely greyish brown, matte, lobe margins white. Rhizines black. Apothecia are<br />
not observed on the <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n material.<br />
Status Rare species in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. This is another unique species found in in <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong> which is also shared with the African continent. This species was first<br />
discovered in East Africa. New record for the Indian subcontinent.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1000 m. Found<br />
growing on tree trunks in moist montane areas.<br />
Description Micr<strong>of</strong>oliose. The thallus is orbicular to irregular. Lobes are usually<br />
broadest near the tips, and typically overlap. The upper surface is whitish grey<br />
to grey, shiny or rarely pruinose, and sorediate. Soredia are marginal, granular<br />
and small. The lower surface is black, with dark grey lobe tips. Rhizines are black.<br />
Apothecia are not common, margins are crenulated, disc black and with or<br />
without pruina.<br />
Status Rare species in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. This species is known from South America, East<br />
Africa and Southeast Asia. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Grows on both on rocks and on tree trunks in open areas above 900m.<br />
Locations Few locations in the Matale district.<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Locations Matale district- Maussakanda estate and Kabaragala.<br />
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Pseudocyphellaria<br />
Specklebelly lichens<br />
Peltigerales Lobariaceae<br />
120<br />
Pseudocyphellaria is most diverse in the Southern Hemisphere as a cool<br />
temperate forest genus, but is considered as cosmopolitan, comprising some <strong>of</strong><br />
the largest, most beautiful and conspicuous foliose lichens.<br />
Different species <strong>of</strong> this genus have distinct ecological preference. Most<br />
commonly found in the shaded forest interior, these lichens give the impression<br />
<strong>of</strong> green lushness as expressed by their abundance and lettuce-like thalli. Some<br />
species may be found on upper trunks, because they tend to grow high in<br />
the trees and beyond the view <strong>of</strong> the casual observer, usually in rather humid<br />
areas. They are found rarely on mossy rocks. Species <strong>of</strong> this genus either contain<br />
cyanobacteria or green algae as their photobionts. Cyanobacterial species are<br />
capable <strong>of</strong> fixing atmospheric nitrogen, contributing significantly to the nutrient<br />
budget <strong>of</strong> forest ecosystems.<br />
Lobariaceae<br />
Pseudocyphellaria is closely related to Sticta and Lobaria, and the species resemble<br />
each other very closely. The principal distinguishing character unique to this<br />
genus is the presence <strong>of</strong> conspicuous pseudocyphellae on the lower surface<br />
<strong>of</strong> the lobes. As Pseudocyphellaria species are <strong>of</strong>ten associated with old humid<br />
forests in undisturbed settings, they are <strong>of</strong>ten used as indicators <strong>of</strong> valuable old<br />
growth forests.<br />
Apothecia on the surface <strong>of</strong> the thallus or along the margins; Asci: 8-spored;<br />
Spores: colourless, 2- many celled, with pointed ends.<br />
Chemistry No lichen substances.<br />
Pseudocyphella (Pseudocyphellae): A break or opening in the cortex where<br />
medullary hyphae protrude; it may be round, irregular, angular, or a minuscule<br />
pore<br />
Pseudocyphella<br />
Pseudocyphellaria beccarii<br />
Description Foliose. Lobes are dark brownish and dirty green-grey, dichotomously<br />
and irregularly branching. Apices are red-brown. The lower surface is pale redbrown<br />
to blackish. Apothecia are red brown, and usually numerous.<br />
Status This common species can be readily identified by its orange brown<br />
apothecia when present.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid, high elevation forest areas. Also found in<br />
fragmented forest patches at high elevations (above 1200m), tea estates, and<br />
along streams, growing on upper portions <strong>of</strong> tree trunks within the view <strong>of</strong><br />
casual observer. Easily spotted on moist rocky boulders, and mainly prefers the<br />
shaded forest interior.<br />
Locations Horton Plains (common), Knuckles upper montane forest ( common<br />
in Kalupahana, Knuckles, Riverston, Dotalugala, Gombaniya areas), Adam’s Peak<br />
montane forest, Kikiliyamana, Ambewela, Pattipola, Seetha Eliya, Hakgala strict<br />
nature reserve and Kandapola in the Nuwara Eliya district.<br />
C<br />
Fo<br />
Lobariaceae<br />
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Fo<br />
R<br />
Pseudocyphellaria desfontainii<br />
Pseudocyphellaria intricata<br />
R<br />
Fo<br />
Lobariaceae<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is pale greyish, dirty green-grey brown. Thallus<br />
forms a rosette or could be spreading. Lobe margins isidiate. Isidia are yellow,<br />
and the lower surface is pale yellowish, buff or reddish dirty brown. Apothecia are<br />
rare, with red brown to grey-white disc.<br />
Status This rarely spotted species can be identified by the yellowish isidia on the<br />
margin <strong>of</strong> its lobes.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forest areas. It is also found in<br />
fragmented forest patches at high elevations (above 1200m), growing on upper<br />
trunks and dead bark within the view <strong>of</strong> casual observer. Easily spotted in well lit<br />
situation.<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus forms a rosette and spreads irregularly. The<br />
lobes are loosely attached, dark greenish brown to greyish when dry, and<br />
bluish black to dirty green after the rain. The margins <strong>of</strong> the lobes are sorediate,<br />
and the soredia are white to grey. The lower surface is pale chocolate brown.<br />
Pseudocyphellae are white and scattered. Apothecia have not yet been observed<br />
on the specimens collected in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Status This cosmopolitan species can be identified by its white marginal soredia<br />
on the margin <strong>of</strong> the lobes.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid forest areas, growing on dead wood and<br />
bark in sheltered sites within the view <strong>of</strong> casual observer. Occasionally saxicolous.<br />
Lobariaceae<br />
Locations Horton Plains (common), Kikiliyamana, Ambewela, Pattipola,<br />
Seethaeliya, Hakgala strict nature reserve (SNR) and Kandapola in the Nuwara<br />
Eliya District.<br />
Locations Horton Plains (common), Pattipola, Hakgala strict nature reserve and<br />
Pidurutalagala peak in the Nuwara Eliya district. Laxapana water fall, Hiniduama<br />
Kanda, and Kitulgala forest.<br />
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Ramalina<br />
Lecanorales Ramalinaceae<br />
200<br />
Ramalina is a cosmopolitan fruticose lichen genus found in cool, wet, temperate<br />
areas and montane rainforests in tropical and subtropical regions. Its species are<br />
mostly epiphytes but some species occur on rocks. Most diverse in the Pacific<br />
and the Neotropics.<br />
Species <strong>of</strong> the genus Ramalina have been used to make dye and perfumes in<br />
Europe and for dye and foodstuffs in India. Some species are used as nesting<br />
material by birds, such as warblers, especially where Ramalina replaces Usnea as<br />
the dominant epiphyte.<br />
Ramalinaceae<br />
The most slender to almost filamentous species <strong>of</strong> this genus have been<br />
misidentified as Usnea in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. Two species have been newly recorded for <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong> by Weerakoon and Aptroot (2014).This genus is represented by pendent<br />
or shrubby fruticose lichens with long, more or less flattened branches which<br />
can be broad or slender. The thalli are usually rather stiff, solid throughout or<br />
hollow close to the base, and have a yellowish green to yellowish thallus.<br />
Apothecia lecanorine, with pale yellowish, <strong>of</strong>ten pruinose discs; Asci: 8-spored;<br />
Spores: colourless, 2-celled, ellipsoid.<br />
Chemistry Cortex PD-,K-,KC+ dark yellow, C -, medulla and Soralia with various<br />
reactions.<br />
Ramalina conduplicans<br />
Description The fruticose thallus is corticolous, rarely saxicolous, 3-5-10 cm<br />
long, erect, greenish grey to yellowish brown, and branched. The upper side is<br />
smooth. The lower side is rugose (roughened) with raised, round, and prominent<br />
pseudocyphellae. Soredia are absent. Medulla is solid. Apothecia are not found<br />
in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n specimens.<br />
Status Very common species. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
SL<br />
VC<br />
Fr<br />
Ramalinaceae<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1400 m. Also<br />
collected in low elevation in sunlit habitats.<br />
Locations Horton Plains and Nuwara Eliya. Low elevation areas such as in<br />
Divulapitiya-Gampaha, and Negombo.<br />
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Sclerophyton<br />
Arthoniales Roccellaceae<br />
15<br />
Sclerophyton is a genus confined to the tropical and oceanic areas <strong>of</strong> the world.<br />
But it is possible that this genus is found in all parts <strong>of</strong> the world below an altitude<br />
<strong>of</strong> 1500m, with a mean temperature over 5° C and an annual precipitation over<br />
500mm. In Sclerophyton, the highest species diversity occurs in South and Central<br />
America and tropical Asia. Temperate Europe, Central America, Australia and<br />
Southeast Asia have their own species. Out <strong>of</strong> all known species <strong>of</strong> Sclerophyton,<br />
only four are considered as widespread.<br />
Typically, corticolous species <strong>of</strong> this genus are found on palm beaches, coastal<br />
scrublands and in woodlands. Saxicolous species grow on shaded, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
overhanging rocks. Some species grow in tropical rainforests. Most species are<br />
distributed within a small area. All species <strong>of</strong> Sclerophyton grow on nutrient poor<br />
to nutrient rich, acid to neutral or inert substrates, such as smooth, acidic bark,<br />
hard wood and sclerophyll leaves (hard leaves with short internodes).<br />
Ramalinaceae<br />
Fr<br />
VC<br />
Ramalina usnea<br />
Description The fruticose thallus is corticolous, pendulous, long, yellowish<br />
brown, and branched with ribbon-like branches that are spirally twisted, and are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten cracked. Pseudocyphellae are linear. Soralia are absent. Medulla is solid.<br />
Apothecia are not found in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n specimens.<br />
Status Very common species.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forest above 1400 m.<br />
Locations Horton Plains and Nuwara Eliya.<br />
Though this genus is mostly found in dry habitats, the species included here is<br />
observed in an upper montane area above 1300 m, along the Pattipola road in<br />
the Nuwara Eliya District. This is the first species <strong>of</strong> this genus to be recorded<br />
in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> (Weerakoon & Aptroot unpublished). It is possible that many other<br />
species <strong>of</strong> this genus could be present in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, as other genera <strong>of</strong> the family<br />
Roccellaceae are frequently recorded.<br />
Apothecia round to elongate or asteroid, immersed, generally in groups or lines,<br />
disc exposed, pink or pale to dark brown to black, <strong>of</strong>ten pruinose, margins white<br />
to grey, <strong>of</strong>ten fusing to form stromata (a thick compact wad <strong>of</strong> hyphae, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
covering or supporting a group <strong>of</strong> ascomata); Asci: 8-spored; Spores: colourless,<br />
clavate, septate (3-10) or muriform.<br />
Chemistry Thallus UV- or UV+ yellow , PD+ yellow or PD+ orange , K+ Yellow or<br />
K+ yellow turning red, C+ red.<br />
Roccellaceae<br />
Oceanic areas: Pertaining to a climate characterized by mild, wet winters, cool,<br />
moist summers, and frequent fogs.<br />
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Siphula<br />
Waterfingers<br />
Pertusariales Icmadophilaceae<br />
30<br />
Siphula is a lichen genus found mainly on soil exposed to sun in humid high<br />
elevations, with centres <strong>of</strong> diversity in South America, South Africa, and<br />
Australasia. One other species has been recorded from Sikkim -India.<br />
No species <strong>of</strong> Siphula is known to produce apothecia, however several studies<br />
have used molecular data. This genus has very beautiful fruticose species that are<br />
fragile, and become attached to substrates by a stolone-like rhizine. The thallus<br />
is erect, has branched to unbranched white grey stalks in dense clumps that are<br />
more or less scattered. The stalks are blunt at the tips, usually with long furrows.<br />
No isidia, soredia or apothecia are seen on any <strong>of</strong> the species known so far.<br />
Cr<br />
R<br />
Sclerophyton elegans<br />
The species included here was found at an open soil bank on a moss mat, and on<br />
dead wood among mosses along the Pattipola road -Nuwara Eliya. This is a new<br />
record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> and the Indian subcontinent (Weerakoon & Aptroot 2014)<br />
and has a very restricted distribution in a few habitats in montane areas. Further<br />
field studies need to be carried out in similar habitats in upper montane regions<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> to discover the total diversity <strong>of</strong> this genus.<br />
Roccellaceae<br />
Description The thallus is corticolous, smooth to uneven, pale grey to greyish<br />
white. The prothallus is thin and grey to black. Ascomata are lirelliform, aggregated<br />
in a stroma, and the disc is pale to dark brown. The thalline margin exists in line<br />
with the ascomatal disc, but is slightly raised above the sterile part <strong>of</strong> the thallus,<br />
and is paler in colour.<br />
Chemistry Thallus C-, K+ yellowish or brownish, PD+ yellow, UV-<br />
Apothecia Not known.<br />
Chemistry Varies from species to species.<br />
A dorsiventral organ is one that has two surfaces differing from each other in<br />
appearence and structure, as an ordinary leaf.<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Status Rare species.<br />
Habitat as a corticolous species in humid high elevation forest edges above<br />
1200 m.<br />
Locations Pattipola road- Nuwara Eliya.<br />
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Stereocaulon<br />
Foam lichens, Easter lichens<br />
Lecanorales Stereocaulaceae<br />
125<br />
Physciaceae<br />
Fr<br />
VR<br />
IC<br />
Siphula decumbens<br />
Description Fruticose. The thallus is whitish grey, broad, and with lobes that<br />
are frequently dorsiventral with one side more markedly scabrid (rough with<br />
irregular, delicate projections), irregularly branched and lobed in several planes,<br />
attached to the substrate by a rhizine like rooting system, fragile and erect.<br />
Medulla is solid. This is a sterile species.<br />
Chemistry K+ bright- yellow turning brownish red.<br />
This species is varied significantly over a range <strong>of</strong> habitats, exhibiting considerable<br />
morphological variation.<br />
Stereocaulon cosmopolitan genus found mainly on rocks and soil commonly<br />
mixed with mosses covering large areas <strong>of</strong> soil or rocks. Species <strong>of</strong> Stereocaulon<br />
produce cephalodia (brown and pink-purple structures seen on the following<br />
photos included under this genus), that are important in the nitrogen cycling<br />
<strong>of</strong> habitats. Cephalodia are structures which form on the surface or inside <strong>of</strong> a<br />
lichen thallus, containing cyanobacteria as a secondary photobiont that fixes<br />
nitrogen.<br />
So far, six species are known from the upper montane habitats <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Recent work carried out in the Nuwara Eliya District, led to the discovery <strong>of</strong> one<br />
species that is a new record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> by Weerakoon and Aptroot (2014) which<br />
was previously only known from high elevation sites in Sikkim - India. The two<br />
species included here were found in montane open soil banks in Nuwara Eliya,<br />
and have restricted distribution in montane areas. Further field studies in similar<br />
habitats in the upper montane regions <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> are required to estimate the<br />
total diversity <strong>of</strong> this genus.<br />
This genus includes dimorphic fruticose lichens, with a granular to squamulose<br />
horizontal primary thallus that is disappearing in most species. The secondary<br />
thallus is vertical and fruticose. The branched stalks are generally seen in thick<br />
clumps or tight cushions and attached by a basal holdfast.<br />
Stereocaulon replaces reindeer lichens (Cladonia) as the dominant ground cover<br />
in some parts <strong>of</strong> the boreal forest. In these regions, it becomes an important<br />
component <strong>of</strong> the caribou winter diet. Some species <strong>of</strong> Stereocaulon have been<br />
used as medicine in China and India by mountainous tribal people.<br />
Apothecia lateral or terminal, rounded, brown to black, central cone compact;<br />
Asci: 4-8 spored; Spores: colourless, needle shape, elongate, 2-30 septate.<br />
Chemistry cortex K+ yellow in all species, PD+ orange, KC-, C- or PD-, KC+ pink<br />
or violet, C- in most species.<br />
Stereocaulaceae<br />
Status Very rare species. Can be easily spotted, as the species forms a conspicuous<br />
grey colony among moss mats on well lit soil banks and logs. New record for the<br />
Indian subcontinent and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1200 m to<br />
1400m on soil banks and on few mossy logs.<br />
Locations Few locations along the Pattipola Station to Horton plains.<br />
Primary thallus; A<br />
squamulose or<br />
crustose thallus<br />
from which fruticose<br />
stalks or podetia<br />
arise as secondary<br />
components.<br />
Podetia ; lichenized<br />
stem- like portion <strong>of</strong> an<br />
apothecium, this forms<br />
the fruticose part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
thallus, and apothecia<br />
discs are absent. (Pseudopodetia=<br />
Fake podetiate)<br />
Phyllocladia; squamule<br />
-like structure occurring<br />
in Stereocaulon<br />
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Fr<br />
R<br />
Stereocaulon austroindicum<br />
Stereocaulon foliolosum<br />
SL<br />
R<br />
Fr<br />
Stereocaulaceae<br />
Description Fruticose. The primary thallus is terricolous to saxicolous (on<br />
decomposing rocks) and persistent. Pseudopodetia are erect, up to 2 cm tall,<br />
aggregated, simple to branched, whitish brown, apices white. Phyllocladia are<br />
pseudo-sorediate. Cephalodia are brown to dark brown enclosing cyanobacteria<br />
(Stigonema, rarely Gloeocapsa). Apothecia are terminal.<br />
Chemistry Phyllocladia K+ yellow, PD+ pale yellow.<br />
Status This rare species can be easily recognized as the species forms a<br />
conspicuous grey brown colony on well lit soil banks and on the decomposing<br />
substrates <strong>of</strong> rocks.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forest above 1200 m to<br />
1400m on soil banks.<br />
Locations Few locations along Pattipola station to Horton plains, Kikiliyamana<br />
forest and few localities in Nuwara Eliya district.<br />
Description Fruticose. Pseudopodetia terricolous (on the ground) or rarely<br />
saxicolous, up to 4 cm tall, sparingly branched and brownish white. Phyllocladia<br />
flattened, leafy like. Cephalodia brown enclosing cyanobacteria (Nostoc).<br />
Apothecia terminal (apothecia form, or are situated on the surface).<br />
Chemistry Phyllocladia K+ yellow, PD+ pale yellow.<br />
Status This rare species can be readily identified as the species forms a<br />
conspicuous whitish brown colony on well lit soil banks. New record for <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1300 m, and<br />
on soil banks.<br />
Locations Very few locations along Pattipola station to Horton plains.<br />
Stereocaulaceae<br />
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Sticta<br />
Moon lichens, Crater lichens<br />
Peltigerales Lobariaceae<br />
100<br />
Sticta is a cosmopolitan genus. The genus is most diverse in subtropical and<br />
tropical regions. It is found mostly on tree bark and dead wood, and sometimes<br />
on rocks and soil. Most Sticta species have cyanobacterial photobionts, while<br />
some have green algae. It is commonly found in highly humid habitats and is<br />
typically absent in drier parts <strong>of</strong> the country.<br />
Sticta is a genus <strong>of</strong> large foliose lichens. It is characterized by the presence <strong>of</strong><br />
distinctive crater-like pits known as cyphellae in the lower surface <strong>of</strong> the thallus.<br />
This genus can be distinguished by violet colour in a simple chemical test using<br />
potassium hydroxide (KOH). This genus can be easily identified in its natural<br />
habitat even by a non-lichenologist. The presence <strong>of</strong> cyphellae on the lower<br />
surface immediately distinguishes Sticta from the closely related Lobaria and<br />
Pseudocyphellaria.<br />
Lobariaceae<br />
Apothecia marginal to laminal, disc red brown- brown black, lecanorine or<br />
biatorine, crenate or entire margin; Asci: 8-spored; Spores: colourless to brown,<br />
fusiform, septate.<br />
Chemistry No substance detected on <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>n materials.<br />
Sticta limbata<br />
SL<br />
Description Foliose. The thallus is reniform (kidney like) to irregular, and loosely<br />
attached at one point. The lobes are broad, round, margins thickened and<br />
densely sorediate. The upper surface is greyish green to brown when dry, and<br />
greyish-brown to reddish when wet. The lower surface is pale yellowish brown to<br />
grey-brown to dark reddish brown, Cyphellae sparse and rounded. Apothecia are<br />
not seen on the material collected in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
R<br />
Fo<br />
Lobariaceae<br />
Status Rare species. Careful observation is needed, as it has only been spotted<br />
only once. New record for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Seen in the humid high elevation montane forest <strong>of</strong> the Kalupahana-<br />
Knuckles region only. This species could be restricted to montane forests. Found<br />
at shady, highly humid sites, growing together with mosses.<br />
Locations Kalupahana area in the Knuckles mountain region.<br />
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Usnea<br />
Beard lichens, Old man’s beard<br />
Lecanorales Usneaceae<br />
c.500<br />
Usnea is a cosmopolitan genus found in cool, wet, temperate areas and montane<br />
rainforests in tropical and sub tropical areas. Species <strong>of</strong> Usnea are collectively<br />
referred as old man’s beard. This is a very large genus <strong>of</strong> conspicuous fruticose<br />
lichens comprising more than 500-600 species. It is found on rocks, bark, wood,<br />
canopy branches, twigs, shrubs, and soil in a very wide range <strong>of</strong> habitats. Also<br />
it is noteworthy that some species have been observed on sign boards, power<br />
poles, fence posts and grave tombs etc. invading man-made structures in moist,<br />
humid high elevation areas.<br />
This genus is under revision at the moment due to the molecular data change<br />
causing the delimitation <strong>of</strong> species within the genus. Many species which were<br />
known under one common name have been identified as consisting distinct<br />
lineages. In <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, the genus remains very poorly known.<br />
Lobariaceae<br />
Fo<br />
C<br />
Sticta weigelii<br />
Description Foliose, dark brownish black when dry, becomes reddish chocolate<br />
brown when wet, broadly rounded lobes which resembles an arrangement <strong>of</strong><br />
cabbage leaves. Lobe margins are densely isidiate. Isidia are small. The lower<br />
surface is dark brown to pinkish brown. Cyphellae are scattered. Apothecia are<br />
reddish and numerous.<br />
Status Common species. Can be easily recognized due to its reddish apothecia<br />
and broad brown lobes.<br />
In montane forests <strong>of</strong> the central highlands, Usnea is a dominant component<br />
<strong>of</strong> the forest canopy, which is one <strong>of</strong> the least studied habitats in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Recent work carried out by Weerakoon and Aptroot (2014) recorded six new<br />
Usnea species for <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> including four species that are new records for the<br />
Indian subcontinent. Around 15-20 species are known from <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, that need<br />
taxonomic revision using molecular and chemical data.<br />
Usnea can be easily distinguished from similar genera by having a characteristic<br />
central cord. Usnea is one <strong>of</strong> the most commercially important lichens because<br />
<strong>of</strong> its use in the production <strong>of</strong> usnic acid, an effective antibiotic against certain<br />
bacteria. Some species <strong>of</strong> Usnea are used in dye-making and are also used to<br />
brew beer (in Mexico). Usnea species are also important to wildlife as both food<br />
and nesting material.<br />
Usneaceae<br />
Habitat Mostly seen in humid high elevation forest areas. However, this is a rare<br />
species occurring on high elevation rainforests and montane forests. When the<br />
thallus is young, it is not easy to spot among mosses.<br />
Locations Horton Plains (common), Knuckles upper montane forest- common<br />
in Kalupahana, and Gombaniya areas, Hakgala strict nature reserve and<br />
Pidurutalagala peak.<br />
Apothecia lecanorine, lateral, subterminal or terminal, disc pruinose, concave<br />
to plane, usually pale lemon green; Asci: 8-spored; Spores: colourless, simple<br />
ellipsoid.<br />
Chemistry Usnic acid present in cortex <strong>of</strong> all species KC+ dark yellow, medulla<br />
with a varied chemistry. Many different chemotypes are present even within<br />
the same species, therefore TLC is essential for the correct identification <strong>of</strong> the<br />
species.<br />
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Usneaceae<br />
Fr<br />
VC<br />
Misidentification Usnea barbata<br />
Possible Species Ramalina thrausta OR Ramalina usnea<br />
Description for Usnea barbata Fruticose. The thallus is pendulous and long,<br />
and may partly be divided into irregular segments by annular cracks. The<br />
branches are uneven in thickness, <strong>of</strong>ten with depressions and/or ridges. Fibrils<br />
are short ranging from few to numerous. Isidia are few or absent. Papillae could<br />
be abundant, sparse or absent. Soralia are punctiform (with small spots or pits)<br />
irregular, few to abundant, develop on the top <strong>of</strong> eroded papillae, tubercles or<br />
ridges. The cortex is thin. The medulla is thick and loose. Apothecia are not seen.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> the Usnea species collected from <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> are identified as Usnea<br />
barbata by most <strong>of</strong> the collectors, but is not in actuality the aforementioned<br />
species. The lichen Usnea barbata has been referred to as a common lichen in<br />
Horton Plains in the historical records <strong>of</strong> hunters and explorers. However, this is<br />
a misidentification.<br />
Status Recorded as a very common species especially at Horton Plains as “old<br />
man’s beard” lichen. Further studies using molecular, morphology and chemistry<br />
is recommended for the correct identification <strong>of</strong> the Usnea and Ramalina species<br />
in Horton Plains and similar habitats.<br />
Usneaceae<br />
This species is very polymorphic and may represent a collection <strong>of</strong> intergrading<br />
taxa (species that pass into another form by a series <strong>of</strong> intervening forms). Several<br />
characteristics (e.g. presence <strong>of</strong> fibrils, papillae, isidia, degree <strong>of</strong> depressions and<br />
ridges) vary greatly. Careful observation under the microscope is required.<br />
Medullary chemistry Two chemotypes have been recorded for Usnea barbata:<br />
(1) with salazinic acid as a main substance (K+ yellow, orange or red, Pd+ yellow to<br />
orange) and protocetraric acid as an accessory substance; (2) without medullary<br />
substances (K–, Pd–).<br />
Habitat Usnea barbata is mostly restricted to humid high elevation forests as<br />
a corticolous species. Reported in Europe: Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic,<br />
Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland,<br />
Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine and<br />
Estonia. However, it is worth noting that this species has not been recorded in<br />
India, Nepal or other South Asian regions.<br />
Locations Historical identification <strong>of</strong> locations lists Horton Plains and the<br />
Nuwara Eliya district.<br />
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Fr<br />
R<br />
IC<br />
Usnea cornuta<br />
Usnea steineri<br />
IC<br />
R<br />
Fr<br />
Usneaceae<br />
Description Fruticose. The thallus is corticolous or saxicolous. The thallus is erect<br />
and shrubby, with main branches inflated, secondary branches tapering and<br />
distinctly constricted at their base, and curved. The whole thallus is dichotomously<br />
branched. The base is the same colour as the branches, or paler. Fibrils are thick,<br />
short and <strong>of</strong>ten numerous on the tips. Papillae are few to numerous. Soralia are<br />
concentrated at branch tips. The cortex is glossy and thin. The medulla is white,<br />
thick and loose.<br />
Medullary chemistry Chemotypes : (1) salazinic acid (K+ red, Pd+ yellow to<br />
orange) (2) stictic and norstictic acids (K+ yellow to orange, Pd+ yellow to orange)<br />
(3) lobaric and norstictic (4) norstictic acid (5) protocetraric acid (6) chemotype<br />
with no medullary compounds.<br />
Status Rare species. ‘New record for the Indian subcontinent and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1200 m. Observed on<br />
trees, rocks and shrubs in open, humid forests.<br />
Description Fruticose. The thallus is corticolous, reddish, erect and shrubby.<br />
The trunk is concolourous and black at its base. The branching is dichotomous,<br />
with the branches tapering to irregular and reddish. Spinules are sparse. The<br />
medulla also has a reddish pigment. Papillae (small, wart-like protuberance) are<br />
numerous. Pseudocyphellae are present on the tubercles (small wart-like tubes).<br />
The cortex is shiny. The medulla is whitish orange. Apothecia are usually present<br />
with numerous cilia. Spores are colourless.<br />
Medullary chemistry (1) Protocetraric acid, related substances, pigment, (2)<br />
norstictic acid, pigment, (3) salazinic acid, pigment. In all three chemotypes<br />
barbatic acid has been frequently found in the apothecia only.<br />
Status Rare species. ‘New record for the Indian subcontinent and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Restricted to high elevation humid montane forests above 1400 m. On<br />
twigs and small branches in the tree canopy. Also in open habitats, forest relics,<br />
shrubby areas, and along roads within secondary montane cloud forests.<br />
Usneaceae<br />
Locations Horton Plains and Nuwara Eliya district.<br />
Locations Horton Plains and Nuwara Eliya district.<br />
160 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
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5. Graphidaceae:<br />
the most speciose lichen<br />
family in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
Genera 103+<br />
Ostropales Graphidaceae<br />
c.2500<br />
Graphidaceae is the largest family <strong>of</strong> tropical crustose lichens, with 103 genera<br />
known to date comprising 2500 accepted species. Recent phylogenic and<br />
statistical analysis showed that <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> and South India are the Graphidaceae<br />
hotspots in the world with 499 species (Lücking et al. 2014).<br />
Usneaceae<br />
Fr R IC<br />
Usnea subcornuta<br />
Description Fruticose. The species is found on bark or rocks. The thallus is erectshrubby<br />
to subpendent and small. The trunk is <strong>of</strong> the same colour as the tapering<br />
branches. Lateral branches with annular cracks that are constricted at the point<br />
<strong>of</strong> attachment. Bases are pale. Long and slender fibrils are present, and are scarce<br />
to abundant. Soralia are usually large. The cortex is glossy and thin. The medulla is<br />
loose, and contains an orange-reddish pigment sub-cortically (inside the cortex).<br />
Medullary chemistry Stictic and norstictic acids as main substances (K+ yellow<br />
to red, Pd+ orange).<br />
Has been considered as identical to U. cornuta, however, it is indicated that this<br />
is a distinct species characterized by the presence <strong>of</strong> orange-reddish pigment in<br />
the cortical layers.<br />
Status Rare species. ‘New record for the Indian subcontinent and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Habitat Restricted to humid high elevation forests above 1400 m. Found on the<br />
exposed branches <strong>of</strong> young trees, on bark or wood in open places, forest relics,<br />
evergreen lower montane forests, and secondary montane cloud forests.<br />
Locations Kalupahana area- Knuckles mountain region.<br />
This is the most speciose lichen family in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> with c.400 species known<br />
from over 40 genera. More than 175 species in this family are new records for the<br />
country (Weerakoon et al. in preparation). Since 2012, over 42 new species have<br />
been discovered in family Graphidaceae by local lichenologists from <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
(Weerakoon et al. 2012 a & b; Weerakoon et al. 2014; Weerakoon et al. A in press,<br />
Wijeyaratne et al. 2012). Out <strong>of</strong> the recently described species, 97% are endemic<br />
to <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, with majority retaining point endemics.<br />
Hale’s (1981) extensive monograph <strong>of</strong> the species, which at the time included<br />
Thelotremataceae, but now forms part <strong>of</strong> the Graphidaceae, no doubt represents<br />
the turning point <strong>of</strong> monographic work on lichen fungi in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. Several<br />
recent publications now in press (Weerakoon et al. 2014; Weerakoon et al. A, &<br />
B, in preparation) continue the inventory <strong>of</strong> the Graphidaceae <strong>of</strong> the country,<br />
confirming the extraordinary diversity in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
As the family is extremely diverse and includes over 40 genera, trained<br />
lichenologists should identify the species using advanced morphological and<br />
chemical characters. Most <strong>of</strong> the species are inconspicuous crustose lichens<br />
in Graphidaceae, therefore only a few conspicuous species that are within the<br />
reach <strong>of</strong> the casual observer in natural habitat are included in this book. Except<br />
for the genus Diploschistes (single most easily identified species known for <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong>), generic and species descriptions are not given. Readers who wish to<br />
confidently identify the species <strong>of</strong> this family should use recent keys. However, I<br />
hope the colourful photos included in the book will give you an idea about the<br />
diversity <strong>of</strong> family Graphidaceae in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Graphidaceae<br />
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Acanthothecis<br />
Acanthothecis<br />
aurantiacodiscus<br />
at Kabaragala- Matale<br />
Carbacanthographis<br />
marcescens at Nawula- Matale<br />
Chapsa<br />
Carbacanthographis<br />
Ampliotrema<br />
Ampliotrema auratum<br />
at Badulla<br />
Graphidaceae<br />
Chapsa thambapanni<br />
at Horton Plains<br />
Chapsa magnifica<br />
at Sinharaja rain forest<br />
Graphidaceae<br />
Astrochapsa<br />
Astrochapsa wolseleyana<br />
at Kalupahana-Kunckles<br />
mountain range<br />
Chapsa isidiata<br />
at Nawanagala<br />
Chapsa pulchella<br />
at Hewainna- Avissawella<br />
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Fissurina<br />
Clandestinotrema<br />
Clandestinotrema stylothecium<br />
at Raththotta-Matale<br />
Diorygma<br />
Fissurina srilankensis<br />
at Hulankanda-Knuckles<br />
mountain region<br />
Glyphis<br />
Fissurina tuberculifera<br />
at Horton Plains<br />
Graphidaceae<br />
Diorygma erythrellum<br />
at Hewahata road -Kandy<br />
Diorygma junghuhnii<br />
at Lagalla -Matale<br />
Fibrillithecis<br />
Graphis<br />
Glyphis aff. cicatricosa<br />
at Knuckles mountain region<br />
Graphidaceae<br />
The highest number <strong>of</strong> new species in family Graphidaceae in <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong> are described from this genus. Out <strong>of</strong> the 380 species known to<br />
date in the world, over 100 species have been recorded from part <strong>of</strong><br />
the central highlands and a few locations in the wet zone <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Therefore, the total diversity <strong>of</strong> this genus is expected to be higher in<br />
<strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. This is the most speciose lichen genus in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Fibrillithecis argentea<br />
at Anuradhapura<br />
Fibrillithecis gibbosa<br />
at Rangama- Kurunagala<br />
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Graphis<br />
Graphis<br />
Graphis allugallenensis<br />
at Allugallena trail-Knuckles<br />
mountain region<br />
Graphis dotalugalensis<br />
at Dotalugala mountain-<br />
Knuckles mountain region<br />
Graphis srilankensis<br />
Found all over <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>. Recorded<br />
as most common Graphis species<br />
for the country. Described in<br />
2012,and recently reported from<br />
Singapore, Vietnam and Borneo.<br />
Halegrapha<br />
Halegrapha masoniana<br />
at Cottaganga Ella-Knuckles<br />
mountain region. Named after Dr<br />
Mason E. Hale. Looks very similar<br />
to Graphis srilankensis. Only this<br />
species is known so far for the genus<br />
Halegrapha in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Graphidaceae<br />
Graphis dupaxana<br />
at Knuckles mountain region<br />
Graphis knucklensis<br />
at Knuckles -Knuckles<br />
mountain region<br />
Hemithecium<br />
Graphidaceae<br />
Graphis mahaeliyensis<br />
at Horton Plains<br />
Graphis subtenella<br />
at Horton Plains<br />
Hemithecium aphanes<br />
at Divulapitiya- Gampha<br />
Hemithecium<br />
chlorocarpum at Ragama<br />
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Myriotrema<br />
Leptotrema<br />
Leptotrema wightii<br />
at Kadapola-Kandy<br />
Leucodecton<br />
Myriotrema microporum<br />
at Matale<br />
Myriotrema polytretum<br />
at Ratnapura<br />
Nadvornikia<br />
Nadvornikia hawaiiensis<br />
at Matale<br />
Graphidaceae<br />
Leucodecton canescens<br />
at Maussakanda-Matale<br />
Leucodecton fuscomarginatum<br />
at Kikiliyamana -Nuwara Eliya<br />
Melanotrema<br />
Ocellularia<br />
Graphidaceae<br />
Melanotrema lirelliforme<br />
at Badulla<br />
Melanotrema platystomum<br />
at Dambulla<br />
Ocellularia balangoda<br />
at Hunasgiriya-Kandy<br />
Ocellularia cloonanii<br />
at Fishing hut- Adams Peak<br />
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Pallidogramme<br />
Reimnitzia<br />
Reimnitzia santensis<br />
at Nuwara Eliya<br />
Pallidogramme chrysenteron<br />
at Nuwara Eliya<br />
Pallidogramme chlorocarpoides<br />
at Knuckles mountain region<br />
Phaeographis<br />
Rhabdodiscus<br />
Phaeographis intricans<br />
at Knuckles mountain region,<br />
common species<br />
Rhabdodiscus isidiatus<br />
at Elkaduwa -Matale<br />
Graphidaceae<br />
Platythecium<br />
Sarcographa<br />
Graphidaceae<br />
Platythecium dimorphodes<br />
at Knuckles mountain region<br />
Platythecium sripadakandense<br />
at Fishing Hut- Adams Peak<br />
Sarcographa labyrinthica<br />
at Hinudama kanda-Ratnapura<br />
Sarcographa tricosa<br />
at Hunnas falls-Kandy<br />
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Thelotrema<br />
Schizotrema<br />
Schizotrema guadeloupense<br />
at Kadugannawa- Kandy<br />
Thalloloma<br />
Thelotrema heladiwensis<br />
at Horton Plains<br />
Thelotrema pseudosimilans<br />
at Dotalugala -Knuckles<br />
mountain region<br />
Topeliopsis<br />
Graphidaceae<br />
Thalloloma haemographum<br />
at Knuckles mountain region<br />
Thalloloma pedespulii<br />
at Nawula-ManikDena, Matale<br />
Topeliopsis subtuberculifera<br />
at Horton Plains<br />
Graphidaceae<br />
Thecaria<br />
Wirthiotrema<br />
Thecaria quassiicola<br />
at Knuckles mountain region<br />
Wirthiotrema glaucopallens<br />
at Dikoya- Kandy<br />
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Glossary<br />
Entire Without teeth; more or less smooth on the margin<br />
Epruinose Lacking pruina<br />
Exciple The margin around the apothecial disk<br />
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Acuminate Gradually narrowing to a point, like a spade on a playing card<br />
Adnate Attached tightly to the surface<br />
Alga (Algae) A simple plant composed <strong>of</strong> a single cell or a string <strong>of</strong> cells<br />
Apothecium (Apothecia) A disk- or cup-shaped spore-producing organ<br />
Appressed Lying flat or pressed, closely against the substrate<br />
Areolate A lichen thallus that is broken into patches (areoles), <strong>of</strong>ten like tiny tiles<br />
Ascus (Asci) Asac-like structure in which spores are formed<br />
Byssoid made up <strong>of</strong> delicate threads, cotton-like<br />
Cephalodium (Cephalodia) A small growth like gall, containing cyanobacteria, that<br />
occurs in some lichens with green algae as the main photobiont and cyanobacteria as<br />
secondary photobiont<br />
Chemotype A form <strong>of</strong> a particular species that has distinctive chemistry but is otherwise<br />
the same<br />
Cilia Small hair like appendages on the margins <strong>of</strong> the thallus or apothecia <strong>of</strong> many lichens<br />
Concolourous Of the same colour throughout<br />
Cortex The outermost layer <strong>of</strong> the thallus, which, if present, consists <strong>of</strong> hyphae which may<br />
appear either cellular or fibrous<br />
Corticolous Growing on bark<br />
Crenate With a scalloped or round-toothed edge<br />
Crenulate having the edge finely toothed with rounded teeth<br />
Crustose Crust-like lichens that are closely attached to their substrate and lack a lower<br />
cortex<br />
Cyanobacterium (Cyanobacteria) Prokaryoticphotosynthesizing organisms that can fix<br />
atmospheric nitrogen and serve as a photobiont in lichen associations (also called bluegreen<br />
algae)<br />
Cyphella (Cyphellae) A round pore in the lower surface <strong>of</strong> some lichens where medullary<br />
hyphae protrude<br />
Disc The upper surface <strong>of</strong> a lichen apothecium enclosed by, but not including, the margin<br />
Dorsiventral Flattened, with upper and lower surfaces<br />
Ecorticate Without a cortex and never having had one, cf. decorticate<br />
Endemic Found only in a certain area<br />
Foliose Having leaf-like lobes with distinct upper and lower surfaces<br />
Fruticose A shrubby or hair-like growth form attached only at the base or free growing and<br />
normally with no clearly distinguishable upper and lower surfaces<br />
Globose Globe-shaped<br />
Hypha (Hyphae) Fungal filaments, <strong>of</strong>ten modified and resembling round or angular cells<br />
Hypothallus The first and purely fungal (without photobiont) layer upon which an algaecontaining<br />
thallus may develop, sometimes appearing as radiating, branched hyphae or<br />
hyphal bundles, <strong>of</strong>ten projecting beyond the thallus onto substrate<strong>of</strong>ten with a distinctive<br />
colour or texture but sometimes merging with the exciple<br />
Imbricate With overlapping layers<br />
Immersed Embedded in the substratum<br />
Isidium (Isidia) Small, asexual reproductive structures on lichens that are minute and<br />
finger-like, covered with a cortex and contain the photobiont<br />
Isidioid Resembling isidia<br />
Isidiate Having isidia<br />
Laminal In the middle, or main part, <strong>of</strong> the thallus surface, rather than on the margins<br />
Lecanorine An apothecial margin which usually contains a photobiont and <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
re¬sembles the thallus, but not the disk, in colour and texture<br />
Lecideine An apothecial margin with no photobiont cells that <strong>of</strong>ten resembles the disk,<br />
but not the thallus, in colour and texture<br />
Lichen Composite organism made up <strong>of</strong> a fungus and an alga, a cyanobacterium, or all<br />
three<br />
Lirella (Lirellae) A type <strong>of</strong> apothecium that is elongated, sometimes branched<br />
Lobate Bearing lobes<br />
Lobe A flattened branch or projection<br />
Lobulate Having lobules<br />
Lobule Tiny, lobe-like, dorsiventral asexual reproductive outgrowths<br />
Maculate Spotted or blotched<br />
Margin Referring either to the outer edge <strong>of</strong> foliose or crustose lichen thalli or the outer<br />
boundary <strong>of</strong> apothecia<br />
Medulla Whitish (rarely orange or yellow) internal layer <strong>of</strong> most lichens, generally<br />
composed <strong>of</strong> loosely packed fungal hyphae<br />
Mycobiont The fungal component <strong>of</strong> a lichen<br />
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Oblong Proportioned about 1:3-6 with the margins more or less parallel; rectangular but<br />
ends not necessarily squared <strong>of</strong>f<br />
Ovate Egg-shaped with the larger end at the base<br />
Obovate Inversely ovate, with the narrower end at the base<br />
Ostiole A small opening or pore<br />
Papilla (Papillae) Minute protuberance on the surface <strong>of</strong> a cell<br />
Papillose Having papillae<br />
Perithecium (Perithecia) A globose or flask-shaped fruiting body (ascoma) completely<br />
enclosed with protective sterile tissue and with an opening pore<br />
Photobiont The photosynthetic component in a lichen, either algae in the strict sense<br />
(e.g., green algae) or cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), or both<br />
Squamulose Composed <strong>of</strong> or characterized by having squamules—an intermediate<br />
growth form between crustose and foliose<br />
Sterile Without sexual reproductive structures<br />
Stratified Differentiated into layers<br />
Subfoliose Almost foliose, pertaining to the overall growth form <strong>of</strong> a crustose thallus that<br />
has marginal lobes showing some tendency to curve upwards<br />
Thallus (Thalli) The vegetative body consisting <strong>of</strong> both algal and fungal components, not<br />
differentiated into a stem and leaves<br />
TLC Thin layer chromatography—a technique used to separate chemical compounds<br />
Verrucose Having small rounded processes or ‘ warts’<br />
Verruculose Delicately warted<br />
Podetium (Podetia) The upright, hollow stalk formed by an elongated apothecium<br />
Prothallus A fringe <strong>of</strong> purely fungal tissue, white, black, or pigmented, usually seen at<br />
the edge <strong>of</strong> certain crustose lichens, but also visible between the areoles <strong>of</strong> some lichens<br />
Pruina Powdery frost-like deposit, typically composed <strong>of</strong> calcium oxalate, sometimes<br />
dead cells, usually white or pale grey, on the surface <strong>of</strong> many lichens or on their apothecia<br />
Pruinose Having a frosted appearance caused by a deposit <strong>of</strong> pruina<br />
Pseudocyphella (Pseudocyphellae) A tiny white break or opening in the cortex where<br />
medullary hyphae protrude; it may be round, irregular, angular, or a minuscule pore<br />
Pycnidium (Pycnidia) Minute, flask-shaped, fungal structure producing vegetative<br />
propagules and/or spermatia<br />
Recurved Curved downward or backward<br />
Rhizine Root-like hyphae on the lower side <strong>of</strong> a foliose lichen thallus<br />
Rosette A flower-like pattern arrayed around a common point <strong>of</strong> attachment<br />
Sessile Attached directly to the thallus surface without a stalk <strong>of</strong> any kind<br />
Simple Not divided; unbranched<br />
Soralium (Soralia) An area <strong>of</strong> the thallus in which the cortex has broken down or cracked<br />
and soredia are produced<br />
Soredium (Soredia) Asexual reproductive structure that is powdery to granular, not<br />
covered with a well-defined cortex, and contains both algal (photobiont) and fungal<br />
(mycobiont) components<br />
Sorediate Having soredia<br />
Spores Microscopic reproductive bodies released from the sporophyte capsule <strong>of</strong> a moss<br />
or liverwort, or from the apothecia <strong>of</strong> a lichen<br />
Spot test Tests for colour reactions obtained by applying a liquid chemical reagent to a<br />
lichen<br />
Squamule Small flakes or scales <strong>of</strong> a lichen, lifting from the substrate, at least at the edges,<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten rounded, ear-like, or lobed<br />
178 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
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180 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
Bibliography and Resources<br />
The resources below are listed by author. Some have direct relevance to the study <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong><br />
<strong>Lanka</strong>n lichens and others are more general references. These are more recent references<br />
and are far from a complete list.<br />
Awasthi, DD 1965, Catalogue <strong>of</strong> lichens from India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Ceylon, Beiheftezur<br />
Nova Hedwigia, vol. 17, pp.1–137.<br />
Awasthi, DD 1991,A Key to the Microlichens <strong>of</strong> India, Nepal and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, Bibliotheca<br />
Lichenologica, vol. 40,pp. 1–340.<br />
Awasthi, DD 2007, A Compendium <strong>of</strong> the Macrolichens from India, Nepal and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, Bishen<br />
Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra-Dun, India.<br />
Frisch A, Kalb K & Grube, M 2006, Contributions Towards a New Systematics <strong>of</strong> the Lichen<br />
Family Thelotremataceae, Bibliotheca Lichenologica, vol. 92, pp. 1-556.<br />
Hale, ME 1980, The lichen genus Relicina (Parmeliaceae) in India and <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, Bryologist,<br />
vol.83,pp. 77 - 78.<br />
Hale, ME 1981, A revision <strong>of</strong> the lichen family Thelotremataceae in <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, Bulletin <strong>of</strong> the<br />
British Museum (Natural History), vol. 8, pp. 227–332.<br />
Jayalal, RGU 2010, Study <strong>of</strong> Diversity and Taxonomy <strong>of</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> in the Horton Plains National<br />
Park with a view to biomonitering the ecosystem health, PhD thesis, University <strong>of</strong> Peradeniya,<br />
<strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>.<br />
Jayalal, RGU, Wolseley, P, Gueidan, C, Aptroot,A, Wijesundara, S &Karunaratne, V 2012,<br />
Anziamahaeliyensis and Anziaflavotenuis, two new lichen species from <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong>, Lichenologist,<br />
vol.44,no.5,pp.381-389.<br />
JørgensenP 2002, Kroswia, a new genus in the Pannariaceae (lichenized ascomycetes), The<br />
Lichenologist, vol. 34, pp.297-303.<br />
Kantvilas, G & Jarman, SJ 1999, <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> Rainforest in Tasmania and south –eastern Australia,<br />
The Australian Biological Resources Study, Australia.<br />
Kantvilas, G, Elix JA & Jarman, SJ 2002, ‘Tasmanian <strong>Lichens</strong>, 1.Parmeliaceae, The Australian<br />
Biological Resources Study, Australia.<br />
Kurokawa, S & Mineta, M 1973, Enumeration <strong>of</strong> Parmeliae <strong>of</strong> Ceylon, Annual report <strong>of</strong> the Nato<br />
Marine Laboratory, vol.13, pp.71-76.<br />
Kurokawa, S 1973, Supplementary notes on the genus Anaptychia, Journal <strong>of</strong> the Hattori<br />
Botanical Laboratory, vol. 37, pp. 563-607.<br />
Leighton, WA 1869, The <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> Ceylon, collected by G. H. K. Thwaites, Transactions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Linnean Society London, vol.27, pp.161–185.<br />
Lücking, R, Archer, AW & Aptroot, A 2009, A world-wide key to the genus Graphis(Ostropales:<br />
Graphidaceae), Lichenologist, vol.41,no.4,pp. 363–452.<br />
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Index<br />
Scientific Names<br />
Acanthothecis aurantiacodiscus 164<br />
Ampliotrema auratum 164<br />
Astrochapsa wolseleyana 164<br />
Bunodophoron diplotypum 45<br />
Bunodophoron formosanum 46<br />
Carbacanthographis marcescens 165<br />
Chapsa isidiata 165<br />
Chapsa magnifica 165<br />
Chapsa pulchella 165<br />
Chapsa thambapanni 165<br />
Cladonia cartilaginea 48<br />
Cladonia coccifera 49<br />
Cladonia corniculata 50<br />
Cladonia didyma 51<br />
Cladonia fruticulosa 52<br />
Cladonia humilis 53<br />
Cladonia kurokawae 54<br />
Cladonia mauritiana 55<br />
Cladonia phyllopoda 56<br />
Cladonia poeciloclada 57<br />
Cladonia singhii 58<br />
Cladonia subdelicatula 59<br />
Cladonia submultiformis 60<br />
Clandestinotrema stylothecium 166<br />
Coccocarpia erythroxyli 62<br />
Coccocarpia pellita 63<br />
Coccocarpia stellata 64<br />
Coenogonium linkii 66<br />
Coenogonium luteum 67<br />
Collema coilocarpum 69<br />
Dendriscosticta platyphylloides 71<br />
Diorygma junghuhnii 166<br />
Diorygma erythrellum 166<br />
Diploschistes muscorum 73<br />
Everniastrum cirrhatum 75<br />
Fibrillithecis gibbosa 166<br />
Fibrillithecis argentea 166<br />
Fissurina srilankensis 167<br />
Fissurina tuberculifera 167<br />
Fuscopannaria coerulescens 77<br />
Fuscopannaria disecta 78<br />
Fuscopannaria siamensis 79<br />
Glyphis aff. cicatricosa 167<br />
Graphis allugallenensis 168<br />
Graphis dotalugalensis 168<br />
Graphis dupaxana 168<br />
Graphis knucklensis 168<br />
Graphis mahaeliyensis 168<br />
Graphis srilankensis 168<br />
Graphis subtenella 168<br />
Halegrapha masoniana 169<br />
Hemithecium aphanes 169<br />
Hemithecium chlorocarpum 169<br />
Heterodermia albicans 81<br />
Heterodermia barbifera 82<br />
Heterodermia circinalis 83<br />
Heterodermia comosa 84<br />
Heterodermia diademata 85<br />
Heterodermia hypochraea 86<br />
Heterodermia isidiophora 87<br />
Heterodermia japonica 88<br />
Heterodermia magellanica 89<br />
Heterodermia obscurata 90<br />
Heterodermia podocarpa 91<br />
Heterodermia propagulifera 92<br />
Heterodermia pseudospeciosa 93<br />
Heterodermia queensberryi 94<br />
Heterodermia rubrotricha 95<br />
Heterodermia speciosa 96<br />
Hypogymnia zeylanica 98<br />
Kroswia crystallifera 100<br />
Lecanora helva 102<br />
Lecanora leprosa 103<br />
Lecanora tropica 104<br />
Leioderma sorediatum 106<br />
Leptogium austroamericanum 108<br />
Leptogium azureum 109<br />
Leptogium cochleatum 110<br />
Leptogium cyanescens 111<br />
Leptogium millegranum 112<br />
<strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> 183
Leptogium phyllocarpum 113<br />
Leptotrema wightii 170<br />
Leucodecton canescens 170<br />
Leucodecton fuscomarginatum 170<br />
Lobaria discolor 115<br />
Megalospora sulphurata 117<br />
Megalospora tuberculosa 118<br />
Melanotrema lirelliforme 170<br />
Melanotrema platystomum 170<br />
Myriotrema microporum 171<br />
Myriotrema polytretum 171<br />
Nadvornikia hawaiiensis 171<br />
Ocellularia cloonanii 171<br />
Ocellularia balangoda 171<br />
Pallidogramme chlorocarpoides 172<br />
Pallidogramme chrysenteron 172<br />
Parmotrema abessinicum 120<br />
Parmotrema clavuliferum 121<br />
Parmotrema cristiferum 122<br />
Parmotrema latissimum 123<br />
Parmotrema mellissii 124<br />
Parmotrema tinctorum 125<br />
Phaeographis intricans 172<br />
Phaeophyscia hispidula 127<br />
Phyllopsora borbonica 129<br />
Phyllopsora breviuscula 130<br />
Phyllopsora confusa 131<br />
Phyllopsora furfuracea 132<br />
Phyllopsora kiiensis 133<br />
Physcia alba 135<br />
Physcia atrostriata 136<br />
Physcia integrata 137<br />
Physcia krogiae 138<br />
Physcia sorediosa 139<br />
Platythecium dimorphodes 172<br />
Platythecium sripadakandense 172<br />
Pseudocyphellaria beccarii 141<br />
Pseudocyphellaria desfontainii 142<br />
Pseudocyphellaria intricata 143<br />
Ramalina conduplicans 145<br />
Ramalina usnea 146<br />
Reimnitzia santensis 173<br />
Rhabdodiscus isidiatus 173<br />
Sarcographa labyrinthica 173<br />
Sarcographa tricosa 173<br />
Schizotrema guadeloupense 174<br />
Sclerophyton elegans 148<br />
Siphula decumbens 150<br />
Stereocaulon austroindicum 152<br />
Stereocaulon foliolosum 153<br />
Sticta limbata 155<br />
Sticta weigelii 156<br />
Thalloloma haemographum 174<br />
Thalloloma pedespulii 174<br />
Thecaria quassiicola 174<br />
Thelotrema heladiwensis 175<br />
Thelotrema pseudosimilans 175<br />
Topeliopsis subtuberculifera 175<br />
Usnea barbata 158<br />
Usnea cornuta 160<br />
Usnea steineri 161<br />
Usnea subcornuta 162<br />
Wirthiotrema glaucopallens 175<br />
184 <strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong><br />
<strong>Fascinating</strong> <strong>Lichens</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sri</strong> <strong>Lanka</strong> 185