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2.6 Crime and the population’s sense of security Jüri Saar Controlling crime should be viewed as defending the fundamental values of a society. Being focused directly on criminal behaviour, both a secure social and a certain cultural environment is reproduced, while social capital is also being created. The civilising process is expressed in both the particularities of crime, as well as in the methods for controlling crime: “today we may be living in the most peaceable era in our species’ existence”(see Pinker 2011, xix). The deepening, even fundamental, opposition to violence as a means of achieving goals is one of the “landmarks” of human development over long stretches of time. Below, we examine Estonia’s situation and the trends that have been expressed on three indicators that are usually used in the international comparisons of the level and control of crime. These are the homicide rate, the prison rate, and the population’s sense of security. 2.6.1 Homicides Despite the variations of the definitions of homicides in various jurisdictions, 1 this crime category has become the indicator that is compared by country – homicides per 100,000 inhabitants. The data for intentional homicides are characterised by a relatively small dependency on lawmaking, a low level of statistical manipulation by the states, a low rate of registration latency, and a high clearance rate. Therefore, comparing crime in different states by using intentional homicide statistics has become the tradition in criminology. The level of homicides has become the indicator in the most general social sciences approaches, where this crime category is used to assess the criminal situation and level of security, as well as to characterise human development. In a complex way, the frequency of intentional homicides is an expression of the violence in human relations, thereby reflecting the “symbolic value” of human life. The UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime) and WHO (World Health Organization) have the longest traditions in the collection and analysis of intentional homicide data. The UN relies on law enforcement (crime) statistics; the WHO relies on statistics related to the victims of violent crime. In addition, several regional/ international organisations collect data on intentional homicides (e.g. Eurostat, UNICEF, and Interpol). When assessing the level of intentional homicides, sometimes, various indicators are combined in order to get a more complete picture. Since the principles for compiling statistics differ, the specific numbers may vary. In some Table 2.6.1 Number of intentional homicides and rate per 100,000 inhabitants in Estonia, 1991–2012 Year Number of homicides and attempted homicides Per 100.000 inhabitants Number of victims* 1991 136 8.7 170 1992 239 15.6 302 1993 327 21.9 389 1994 365 25.0 426 1995 304 21.2 328 1996 268 18.9 293 1997 247 17.6 237 1998 248 17.9 267 1999 200 14.5 227 2000 189 13.8 190 2001 137 10.8 207 2002 155 11.4 159 2003 188 13.9 148 2004 127 9.4 109 2005 156 11.6 123 2006 119 8.8 99 2007 110 8.2 95 2008 104 7.8 91 2009 95 7.0 82 2010 84 6.3 64 2011 100 7.5 65 2012 80 6.0 57 Source: Police Board, since 2003, the Ministry of Justice. Statistics Estonia countries, there are great differences between healthcare data and crime data related to homicides. According to UN statistics, the number of homicide victims in the entire world was about 490,000 people in 2004, which made the average indicator 7.6 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants (Geneva Declaration 2009). The level of homicides in Europe, Asia and North America are persistently relatively low, based on both the health statistics and criminal justice statistics. Central and South America, the Caribbean area, and South Africa are charac terised by higher rates. The corresponding indicators in these areas exceed the ones in Western Europe by 7 to 40 times (Malby 2009). 1 In some states, for example, “killings of honour” are treated differently than other intentional homicides; in Finland, for instance, homicides that occur in the course of fights are not considered to be intentional homicides. 86 Estonian Human Development Report 2012/2013
2.6.2 Intentional homicides in Estonia, 1991–2011 A clear dynamic appears in the intentional homicides committed in Estonia, during the last 20 years of independence. The number of homicides increased sharply in the early 1990s, and achieved their maximum level in 1994, when 365 homicides were committed (25.0 per 100,000 inhabitants). In the mid 1990s, intentional homicides started to decrease steadily, and this general trend has not been disrupted by the temporary increases in particular years. The level of intentional homicides committed in Estonia, in the 1990s, attracted international attention, because, based on this indicator, Estonia ended up among the states that are known for the highest levels of violence in the world. Based on the 1994 data of the UN Demographic Yearbook, the four states in the world with the highest ratios of homicide victims were Colombia (89.6), Russia (30.3), El Salvador (28.1) and Estonia (25.8). The data on homicides, from 1994, was published in the 1999 UN Human Development Report. In it, Estonia (24.4) was in seventh position from the top, and placed higher than Russia (21.8). Without exception, the countries with higher intentional homicide rates were exotic Third World states (e.g. Jamaica with 27.1, The Bahamas, 85.5 and Lesotho, 70.4). Estonia’s position in the international homicide picture has for the present constantly improved on the global scale. Based on the newest statistical data, Estonia is among the states with below average homicide rates, being significantly behind such “top countries” like Honduras (82.1 per 100,000 inhabitants), El Salvador (66.0), and Jamaica (52.1). Since the countries of Western and Northern Europe are among those with very low homicide rates, Estonia’s rank against this background is still relatively poor (Table 2.6.2) 2.6.3 Number of prisoners The number of prisoners per 100,000 inhabitants is a recognised indicator that is used as an input in global peace indices (see sub-chapter 2.9). This reflects the criminal situation and the government’s reaction to crime in a comprehensive way. The confinement becoming the main form of punishment, instead of various previously employed punishments (corporal punishment, death sentences) marked a turning point in the relations between people and the state. Today, in the Western world, imprisonment is considered to be a manifestation of state violence, and the rate of imprisonment demonstrates the readiness and capability of the government to legitimately employ violence in order to control crime. The number of prisoners has become an indicator of the type of human development and social cohesion, which is used for comparing states in more general social analyses. There are several problems with international comparisons of the number of prisoners. The quality Source: UNODC 2011 Figure 2.6.1 Intentional homicides per 100,000 inhabitants in Estonia, 1991–2012 Intentional homicides per 100,000 inhabitants 25 20 15 10 5 0 Table 2.6.2 Homicides in Estonia and the reference countries State 1991 1994 1997 2000 Homicides per 100,000 inhabitants 2003 2006 Number of victims 2009 2012 Year the data was collected Austria 0.5 43 2009 Singapore 0.5 25 2009 Slovenia 0.6 13 2009 Switzerland 0.7 54 2009 Denmark 0.9 47 2009 Czech Republic 0.9 92 2009 Netherlands 1.1 179 2009 Ireland 1.2 53 2010 Hungary 1.4 139 2009 Slovakia 1.5 84 2009 New Zealand 1.5 65 2009 Israel 2.1 158 2010 Finland 2.3 121 2009 South Korea 2.9 1374 2009 Taiwan 3.6 832 2009 Chile 3.7 630 2009 Latvia 4.8 108 2009 Estonia 5.2 70 2009 Uruguay 6.1 205 2010 Leedu 7.5 252 2009 Costa Rica 11.3 527 2010 Estonian Human Development Report 2012/2013 87
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ESTONIAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2
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Table of Contents 1 Human Capital /
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Dear Reader Since the moment when E
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1Human Capital Estonian Human Devel
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the HDI’s content has also been h
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Figure 1.1.1 The human development
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Figure 1.1.7 The income sub-index:
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The results of the Princeton Projec
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the hypothetical generation. The to
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Figure 1.2.3 Life expectancy. Eston
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Table 1.2.2 also presents the most
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The new trends that are appearing i
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Figure 1.2.8 Components of populati
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New features were introduced into E
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Initiation of Voluntary Birth Contr
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Table 1.3.1 Best-known educational
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(OECD 2012b). Therefore a certain r
Page 37 and 38: The reciprocal dependence of the pr
Page 39 and 40: Figure 1.3.8 Percentage of students
Page 41 and 42: Table 1.3.4 The quality of educatio
Page 43 and 44: 1.4 Health Raul-Allan Kiivet Change
Page 45 and 46: Table 1.4.1 Usage of prescription m
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Page 49 and 50: promote healthy lifestyles among th
Page 51 and 52: Figure 1.5.1 The World Values Surve
Page 53 and 54: Table 1.5.2 Estonia’s participati
Page 55 and 56: Figure 1.5.3 The percentage of the
Page 57 and 58: Figure 1.5.5 Percentage of the Esto
Page 59 and 60: The fact that Estonia’s position
Page 61 and 62: Summary Mati Heidmets The global vi
Page 63 and 64: 2People and Society Estonian Human
Page 65 and 66: Table 2.1.1 Structure of the Bertel
Page 67 and 68: tioning market economies (15 states
Page 69 and 70: 2.2 Freedom and democracy Martin M
Page 71 and 72: Table 2.2.1 Democracy indicators Po
Page 73 and 74: Figure 2.2.2 The distribution of th
Page 75 and 76: would be something that none of the
Page 77 and 78: political participation are general
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Page 83 and 84: Figure 2.4.2 Average circulation of
Page 85 and 86: 2.5 Corruption Jüri Saar In accord
Page 87: Lithuania, 61%; and in Russia, 69%.
Page 91 and 92: crime. And thirdly, there was a wis
Page 93 and 94: References 1. Ahven, A. & Tabur, L.
Page 95 and 96: states included in the EU Kids Onli
Page 97 and 98: 2.8 Public assessments of the state
Page 99 and 100: Figure 2.8.4 Changes releated to tr
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Page 103 and 104: Table 2.9.1 The positions of Estoni
Page 105 and 106: 3. IEP (2011). Structures of Peace.
Page 107 and 108: 3Welfare and the Quality of Life Es
Page 109 and 110: choices made, not what people say t
Page 111 and 112: Figure 3.1.5 Public social spending
Page 113 and 114: tion agreed upon the social contrac
Page 115 and 116: References 1. Aidukaite, J. (2006).
Page 117 and 118: hand, to the “inequality of acces
Page 119 and 120: and explanations of the extent of i
Page 121 and 122: 5- much more than I deserve. Some d
Page 123 and 124: people in Estonia consider the inco
Page 125 and 126: Table 3.3.1 Experienced Well-Being
Page 127 and 128: at about 70%. In Latvia and Lithuan
Page 129 and 130: sign. It seems that the usual view
Page 131 and 132: 3.4 Quality of life Anu Toots 3.4.1
Page 133 and 134: a uniform composite indicator has n
Page 135 and 136: 3.4.6 The components of life qualit
Page 137 and 138: Figure 3.4.4c Perceived quality of
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Figure 3.4.5 Changes in the depriva
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3.5 Environment dimension of well-b
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Figure 3.5.1.b Estonia’s position
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3.5.4 Energy intensity The energy i
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productivity, which is defined as t
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perceive themselves as worse off th
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4The Economy Estonian Human Develop
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vide a valuable connection for maki
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Figure 4.1.3 Components of economic
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ule of law, the sub-indicators for
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References 1. Acemoglu, D.; Robinso
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Development Report employs generali
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and pasture land, and this was capi
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Basing the total and net savings re
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4.3 Labour market Reelika Leetmaa,
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The problems include the very limit
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• Expenditures for active labour
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who lose their jobs. These ensure i
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4.4 Productivity and the economic s
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labour costs at the company level r
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Table 4.4.4 Comparison of the produ
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Figure 4.4.1 Annual average increas
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4.5 Innovation Erik Terk, Katrin M
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Table 4.5.2 Comparison of innovatio
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Table 4.5.4 Comparison of the indic
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in order to make the R&D potential
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It is characteristic of the South K
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mechanisms for increasing their sta
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Globalisation and Policy Patterns 5
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When Estonia regained its independe
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5.2 The impacts of globalisation an
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Table 5.2.2 Support of the differen
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5.3 Development policies Erik Terk,
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• C -the “Estonia-centred” su
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Figure 5.4.1 Support for the possib
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Summary Erik Terk Estonia is part o
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ehavioural patterns. Therefore, it
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EDR 2012/2013 authors Clemens Buche
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EDR 2012/2013 authors Alari Purju i
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Editor-in-Chief: Mati Heidmets Prod
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