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Table 2.4.6 Availability of national government information in Estonia and the reference countries Budget Ministerial annual reports Audit results Introductions of politicians Commercial contracts of state agencies Names and salaries of employees Databases Content and rules for the use of data collected by the state Internal procedures and instructions of the administrative agencies Descriptions of the structure and functions of government agencies Annual report on the freedom of information Introduction of the procedures for ensuring freedom of information Disclosure index*: Max 24 Estonia 24 Hungary 22 South Korea 22 Slovenia 20 Finland 18 USA 16 Russia 16 Chile 13 Czech Republic 12 Great Britain 12 New Zealand 11 Slovakia 11 Netherlands 10 Denmark 8 Ireland 8 Poland 8 Sweden 8 Switzerland 7 Austria 6 Source: OECD Factbook 2011 * Author’s calculations: required by law – 2 points; usually disclosed – 1 point In conclusion, it can be said that Estonian society stands out for its great freedom of media and its very active information consumption. The general level of media use in Estonia is significantly higher than the EU average. The media use in all the other European reference states being compared to Estonia is also higher, except for Hungary. Estonia is characterised by a very liberal media environment, good availability of public information and a high level of IT. In addition to the broader availability of information technology, the maximum level of freedom is guaranteed to the consumer, the most illustrative expression of which is Estonia’s first place in the world in Internet freedom. The high level of media freedom, and the high level of information use by the population, along with the availability of public information, which is ensured by legislation, forms a good basis for the transparency in governance, and for fighting corruption. References 1. BNS press release 18.12.2012. “Eesti on veebiuudiste tarbimiselt Euroopas teisel kohal,” www.postimees.ee/1079074/print/eesti-on-veebiuudiste-tarbimisel-Euroopas-teisel-kohal. 2. Kadastik, Mart. (2012). “Enesepeksu raske töö,” Postimees, 28.05.2012. 3. Lauk, Epp (2012). “What is Happening to (Foreign) Ownership in the Baltic Media Markets?” Baltic Rim Economies, Quarterly Review, 2 (31.5.2012). www.tse.si/pei 4. Media use in the European Union. Standard Eurobarometer 76, Autumn 2011. http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/index_en.htm 5. OECD Factbook 2011. www.oecd-library.com 6. Raudsaar, Mart (2012). “Heldur Tõnisson ja tema sajand,” Eesti Päevaleht, 26.06.2012. 7. World Press Trends 2010. Paris: World Association of Newspapers/ZenithOptimedia. 82 Estonian Human Development Report 2012/2013
2.5 Corruption Jüri Saar In accordance with the generally accepted definition, corruption is the abuse of public power for private gain at the expense of the public interest. In the Western political culture, corruption is a central theme for the relationships between people and authority, because “power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely”. Corruption, as a negative co-phenomenon of power, is considered to have an inhibitory impact on social development, and it is degrading to people. Corruption poses a danger to the state’s security by causing inequitable treatment, by damaging competition and by inhibiting economic development. This phenomenon reduces the legitimacy of the political and institutional system, decreases social cohesion and undermines people’s opportunities to influence collective decision-making. Several studies (see Lipset, Lenz 1999; Arlington, Sandholtz, Taagepera 2005) have demonstrated that the level of corruption can be ascertained by using cultural characteristics. Corruption, being based on a monopolistic freedom of decision making and on deficit of transparency and reporting obligations, (Corruption = Monopoly + Discretion – Accountability) is more tolerated in some governing traditions than in others. The type of culture that promotes institutionalised corruption, where the entire power system revolves around a patron-client relationship, is called clientelistic (Mauss 2000/1924). In the case of institutionalised corruption, corrupt behaviour, in the Western sense, ensures a position in the informal structure of the collective body, without which it is not possible to procure formal power. In societies with clientelistic traditions, corrupt persons are also not unknown, but they are defined as people who are not able to draw a line or follow the rules, according to which “you do not bite the hand that feeds you.” Such an understanding of corruption does not coincide with the principles adopted in the Western cultural space, where the main efforts to prevent corruption are focused on the transparency of the functioning of authority, and on responsibility that is directed downward. 2.5.1 The spread of corruption in Estonia and the reference states A large number of international surveys conducted in the last two decades provide a comparative assessment of corruption in Estonia. An incomplete list includes evaluations by GRECO (Group of States Against Corruption), the World Bank, the OECD, and Freedom House. Transparency International has been comparing states by utilising an index that characterises the Figure 2.5.1 Perception of corruption in Estonia and reference countries, 2012 1 1 1 5 6 9 20 20 25 25 32 37 37 39 45 46 48 48 54 54 index Denmark Finland New Zealand Singapore Switzerland Netherlands Chile Uruguay Austria Ireland Estonia Slovenia Taiwan Israel South-Korea Hungary Costa Rica Lithuania Czech Rep. Latvia 62 Slovakia 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 index 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Source: 2012 Corruption Perceptions Index perceptions of corruption since 1995. Direct indicators could, for example, be the number of corruption-related crimes and the punishments that are imposed, the initiation of criminal proceedings, guilty verdicts, and other characteristics related to the criminal justice system. However, these are all unique to each state, and this makes it difficult to compare states on the international level. When developing the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI), an attempt has been made to take into account the variances in the definitions of corruption and different cultural backgrounds. The composite index ranks countries based on how corrupt a country’s public sector is perceived to be, based on at least three surveys that are carried out by independent institutions (experts). The Corruption Perceptions Index was scored on a scale of 0 to 10, with 0 being highly corrupt. In Estonian Human Development Report 2012/2013 83
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ESTONIAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2
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Table of Contents 1 Human Capital /
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Dear Reader Since the moment when E
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1Human Capital Estonian Human Devel
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the HDI’s content has also been h
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Figure 1.1.1 The human development
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Figure 1.1.7 The income sub-index:
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The results of the Princeton Projec
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the hypothetical generation. The to
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Figure 1.2.3 Life expectancy. Eston
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Table 1.2.2 also presents the most
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The new trends that are appearing i
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Figure 1.2.8 Components of populati
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New features were introduced into E
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Initiation of Voluntary Birth Contr
Page 33 and 34: Table 1.3.1 Best-known educational
Page 35 and 36: (OECD 2012b). Therefore a certain r
Page 37 and 38: The reciprocal dependence of the pr
Page 39 and 40: Figure 1.3.8 Percentage of students
Page 41 and 42: Table 1.3.4 The quality of educatio
Page 43 and 44: 1.4 Health Raul-Allan Kiivet Change
Page 45 and 46: Table 1.4.1 Usage of prescription m
Page 47 and 48: allude to the fact that approximate
Page 49 and 50: promote healthy lifestyles among th
Page 51 and 52: Figure 1.5.1 The World Values Surve
Page 53 and 54: Table 1.5.2 Estonia’s participati
Page 55 and 56: Figure 1.5.3 The percentage of the
Page 57 and 58: Figure 1.5.5 Percentage of the Esto
Page 59 and 60: The fact that Estonia’s position
Page 61 and 62: Summary Mati Heidmets The global vi
Page 63 and 64: 2People and Society Estonian Human
Page 65 and 66: Table 2.1.1 Structure of the Bertel
Page 67 and 68: tioning market economies (15 states
Page 69 and 70: 2.2 Freedom and democracy Martin M
Page 71 and 72: Table 2.2.1 Democracy indicators Po
Page 73 and 74: Figure 2.2.2 The distribution of th
Page 75 and 76: would be something that none of the
Page 77 and 78: political participation are general
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Page 83: Figure 2.4.2 Average circulation of
Page 87 and 88: Lithuania, 61%; and in Russia, 69%.
Page 89 and 90: 2.6.2 Intentional homicides in Esto
Page 91 and 92: crime. And thirdly, there was a wis
Page 93 and 94: References 1. Ahven, A. & Tabur, L.
Page 95 and 96: states included in the EU Kids Onli
Page 97 and 98: 2.8 Public assessments of the state
Page 99 and 100: Figure 2.8.4 Changes releated to tr
Page 101 and 102: of the state’s development are en
Page 103 and 104: Table 2.9.1 The positions of Estoni
Page 105 and 106: 3. IEP (2011). Structures of Peace.
Page 107 and 108: 3Welfare and the Quality of Life Es
Page 109 and 110: choices made, not what people say t
Page 111 and 112: Figure 3.1.5 Public social spending
Page 113 and 114: tion agreed upon the social contrac
Page 115 and 116: References 1. Aidukaite, J. (2006).
Page 117 and 118: hand, to the “inequality of acces
Page 119 and 120: and explanations of the extent of i
Page 121 and 122: 5- much more than I deserve. Some d
Page 123 and 124: people in Estonia consider the inco
Page 125 and 126: Table 3.3.1 Experienced Well-Being
Page 127 and 128: at about 70%. In Latvia and Lithuan
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Page 131 and 132: 3.4 Quality of life Anu Toots 3.4.1
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3.4.6 The components of life qualit
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Figure 3.4.4c Perceived quality of
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Figure 3.4.5 Changes in the depriva
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3.5 Environment dimension of well-b
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Figure 3.5.1.b Estonia’s position
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3.5.4 Energy intensity The energy i
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productivity, which is defined as t
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perceive themselves as worse off th
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4The Economy Estonian Human Develop
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vide a valuable connection for maki
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Figure 4.1.3 Components of economic
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ule of law, the sub-indicators for
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References 1. Acemoglu, D.; Robinso
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Development Report employs generali
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and pasture land, and this was capi
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Basing the total and net savings re
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4.3 Labour market Reelika Leetmaa,
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The problems include the very limit
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• Expenditures for active labour
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who lose their jobs. These ensure i
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4.4 Productivity and the economic s
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labour costs at the company level r
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Table 4.4.4 Comparison of the produ
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Figure 4.4.1 Annual average increas
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4.5 Innovation Erik Terk, Katrin M
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Table 4.5.2 Comparison of innovatio
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Table 4.5.4 Comparison of the indic
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in order to make the R&D potential
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It is characteristic of the South K
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mechanisms for increasing their sta
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Globalisation and Policy Patterns 5
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When Estonia regained its independe
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5.2 The impacts of globalisation an
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Table 5.2.2 Support of the differen
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5.3 Development policies Erik Terk,
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• C -the “Estonia-centred” su
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Figure 5.4.1 Support for the possib
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Summary Erik Terk Estonia is part o
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ehavioural patterns. Therefore, it
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EDR 2012/2013 authors Clemens Buche
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EDR 2012/2013 authors Alari Purju i
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Editor-in-Chief: Mati Heidmets Prod
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