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Figure 2.2.1 Assessments of Estonia’s democracy in the temporal perspective Freedom in the World Polity IV Nations in Transit Economist 100 100 95 95 90 90 85 85 80 80 75 75 70 70 65 65 68 Estonian Human Development Report 2012/2013 a composite scale of -10 (fully institutionalized autocracies) since it makes Estonia the state with almost the high- to +10 (fully institutionalized democracies). In est level of democracy among the (post-Communist) addition to democracies and autocracies, “anocracies” states under observation. The Economist’s assessment of are evaluated on a scale of -5 to +5, as an interim category Estonia’s democracy has remained at a somewhat lower between the first two. The index is comprised of level, placing it between 75% and 80%. In the global six measures, which form the basis for evaluating the context, this places Estonia in the 40s, in the category execution of executive authority, constraints on executive of flawed democracies. At the same time, it should be authority, and political competition. Therefore, mentioned that, even in this index, Estonia’s position, the emphasis of this index is primarily on institutional at least among the post-Communist states, is good – in processes and the balance between them, and less on 2011, only the Czech Republic and Slovenia achieved the direct measurements of freedom. a better result. The main categories, which the given indices focus Therefore, Estonia’s result in the context of all the on, are shown in the following Table 2.2.1. indices under observation is very positive, and we can conclude that, in the category of states with similar short histories, Estonia is one of the most successfully democratized states. The comparative data (the point scores of the 2.2.2 Estonia’s position in the democracy indices indices and the percentage of possible maximum values) If we convert Estonia’s position, based on the assessments on Estonia’s results in the context of Central and Eastern of the indices (to achieve comparability), into Europe, as well as the former Soviet Union, are shown in percentages of the maximum possible result, we get Table 2.2.2. As far as the states in the world with a higher the picture shown in Figure 2.2.1. The Freedom in the level of democracy is concerned, it is worth remembering World and Polity IV indices, which cover the longest that in the Freedom in the World and Polity IV indices, periods of time, both produce a very similar trajectory these states are assigned practically the maximum possible in regard to the end of Estonia’s political transition, value, and in The Economist’s index, values higher and the consolidation of the democratic political system, than 8 points. during the 1990s. Currently, the values of both It is possible to obtain more information about indices have stabilised at the best possible result. The Estonia’s position from these indices if we concentrate Nations in Transit and The Economist’s index, which on the indices that have a greater degree of differentiation. cover a shorter period, does not indicate the same Therefore, we should set aside the Freedom change, and based thereon, Estonia’s political system in the World and maybe, at first glance, the Polity IV gets a relatively stable assessment, in the covered index, since a result that is close to the maximum generally period, from all four indices. means that, based on this index, the state has It would be important, at this point, to mention fulfilled all the criteria of democracy to the maximum the differences between the indices, since they cannot degree, or has come very close to doing so. This, in always be interpreted on a one-to-one basis. Freedom turn, means that the two indices do not enable one to in the World and Polity IV give Estonia an almost focus on the possible shortcomings of the democracy, maximum result, which means that, currently, Estonia since the index is not sensitive to these shortcomings. has achieved the highest level of democracy that can Among the four indices under consideration, The Economist’s be determined based on these indices. In the given index and Nations in Transit have the greatest period, Nations in Transit gives Estonia an assessment degree of differentiation, and, by examining the subscores, that is between 80–85% of the index’s maximum it is possible to focus on the weaknesses of value, and this is a very good result in the given index, Estonia’s democracy. 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Table 2.2.1 Democracy indicators Polity IV Governance Constraints on executive authority. Executive recruitment (elections) Competitiveness of political participation, regulation of political participation, the openness and competiveness of the execution of executive authority. Economist Electoral process and pluralism Functioning of government Political participation Free and fair elections; transfer of power; political rights and the freedom of assembly. Power of elected authorities; balance of powers; responsibility and transparency of the government; corruption; accountability and transparency of the government; corruption; public service capability; corresponding attitudes of the general public. Electoral and political participation; participation of minorities; promotion of participation; corresponding attitudes of the general public. Political culture Social cohesion; corresponding attitudes of the general public; separation of church and state. Civil liberties Free media and freedom of expression; occupational organisations; protection of rights; court system; freedom of belief; equality before the law; private property; personal liberties. Freedom in the World Electoral process Election of the executive authority; election of the legislative authority; electoral system. Political pluralism and participation Functioning of government Freedom of expression and belief Associational and organisational rights Rule of law Personal autonomy and individual rights Freedom of assembly, existence of an opposition, freedom of political choices; rights of minorities. Actual power of elected authorities; lack of corruption; accountability and transparency of government. Free media; freedom of belief; academic freedom and educational system; open and free private discussion. Freedom of assembly and demonstration; freedom for nongovernmental organisations; occupational organisations. Independent judiciary; prevalence of the rule of law; protection against political persecution; equal treatment. Freedom of travel or choice of employment; rights of property and enterprise; personal social freedoms; equal opportunity and absence of economic exploitation. Nations in Transit National governance Democracy of the governmental system; stability of the governmental system; oversight of the military and security services. Electoral process Free and fair elections; political pluralism and participation; freedom of political choices. Civil society Independent media Local democratic governance Judicial framework Corruption An independent and vital civil society; lack of extremism; participation of nongovernmental organisations; trade unions; educational system. Media freedom; responsible media; diversity of the media landscape; establishment of occupational organisations; Internet. Existence and rights of local governments; free and fair elections; citizen participation; autonomy of local governance; resources; transparency and accountability. Protection of fundamental rights; equality before the law; judicial independence; compliance with judicial decisions. Anti-corruption initiatives; state’s intervention in the economy; efficiency and transparency of the public sector; financial disclosure; protection for those exposing corruption; attitudes of the media and the public. Here only the general, summarised categories have been included. The specific indicators for the indices have been formulated significantly more precisely and to learn more about them, one must examine the information available on the websites for these indices. Estonian Human Development Report 2012/2013 69
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ESTONIAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2
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Table of Contents 1 Human Capital /
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Dear Reader Since the moment when E
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1Human Capital Estonian Human Devel
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the HDI’s content has also been h
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Figure 1.1.1 The human development
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Figure 1.1.7 The income sub-index:
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The results of the Princeton Projec
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Page 21 and 22: Figure 1.2.3 Life expectancy. Eston
Page 23 and 24: Table 1.2.2 also presents the most
Page 25 and 26: The new trends that are appearing i
Page 27 and 28: Figure 1.2.8 Components of populati
Page 29 and 30: New features were introduced into E
Page 31 and 32: Initiation of Voluntary Birth Contr
Page 33 and 34: Table 1.3.1 Best-known educational
Page 35 and 36: (OECD 2012b). Therefore a certain r
Page 37 and 38: The reciprocal dependence of the pr
Page 39 and 40: Figure 1.3.8 Percentage of students
Page 41 and 42: Table 1.3.4 The quality of educatio
Page 43 and 44: 1.4 Health Raul-Allan Kiivet Change
Page 45 and 46: Table 1.4.1 Usage of prescription m
Page 47 and 48: allude to the fact that approximate
Page 49 and 50: promote healthy lifestyles among th
Page 51 and 52: Figure 1.5.1 The World Values Surve
Page 53 and 54: Table 1.5.2 Estonia’s participati
Page 55 and 56: Figure 1.5.3 The percentage of the
Page 57 and 58: Figure 1.5.5 Percentage of the Esto
Page 59 and 60: The fact that Estonia’s position
Page 61 and 62: Summary Mati Heidmets The global vi
Page 63 and 64: 2People and Society Estonian Human
Page 65 and 66: Table 2.1.1 Structure of the Bertel
Page 67 and 68: tioning market economies (15 states
Page 69: 2.2 Freedom and democracy Martin M
Page 73 and 74: Figure 2.2.2 The distribution of th
Page 75 and 76: would be something that none of the
Page 77 and 78: political participation are general
Page 79 and 80: strongest, while a very small perce
Page 81 and 82: is concerned, Estonia is one of the
Page 83 and 84: Figure 2.4.2 Average circulation of
Page 85 and 86: 2.5 Corruption Jüri Saar In accord
Page 87 and 88: Lithuania, 61%; and in Russia, 69%.
Page 89 and 90: 2.6.2 Intentional homicides in Esto
Page 91 and 92: crime. And thirdly, there was a wis
Page 93 and 94: References 1. Ahven, A. & Tabur, L.
Page 95 and 96: states included in the EU Kids Onli
Page 97 and 98: 2.8 Public assessments of the state
Page 99 and 100: Figure 2.8.4 Changes releated to tr
Page 101 and 102: of the state’s development are en
Page 103 and 104: Table 2.9.1 The positions of Estoni
Page 105 and 106: 3. IEP (2011). Structures of Peace.
Page 107 and 108: 3Welfare and the Quality of Life Es
Page 109 and 110: choices made, not what people say t
Page 111 and 112: Figure 3.1.5 Public social spending
Page 113 and 114: tion agreed upon the social contrac
Page 115 and 116: References 1. Aidukaite, J. (2006).
Page 117 and 118: hand, to the “inequality of acces
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5- much more than I deserve. Some d
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people in Estonia consider the inco
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Table 3.3.1 Experienced Well-Being
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at about 70%. In Latvia and Lithuan
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sign. It seems that the usual view
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3.4 Quality of life Anu Toots 3.4.1
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a uniform composite indicator has n
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3.4.6 The components of life qualit
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Figure 3.4.4c Perceived quality of
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Figure 3.4.5 Changes in the depriva
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3.5 Environment dimension of well-b
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Figure 3.5.1.b Estonia’s position
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3.5.4 Energy intensity The energy i
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productivity, which is defined as t
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perceive themselves as worse off th
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4The Economy Estonian Human Develop
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vide a valuable connection for maki
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Figure 4.1.3 Components of economic
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ule of law, the sub-indicators for
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References 1. Acemoglu, D.; Robinso
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Development Report employs generali
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and pasture land, and this was capi
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Basing the total and net savings re
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4.3 Labour market Reelika Leetmaa,
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The problems include the very limit
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• Expenditures for active labour
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who lose their jobs. These ensure i
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4.4 Productivity and the economic s
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labour costs at the company level r
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Table 4.4.4 Comparison of the produ
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Figure 4.4.1 Annual average increas
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4.5 Innovation Erik Terk, Katrin M
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Table 4.5.2 Comparison of innovatio
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Table 4.5.4 Comparison of the indic
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in order to make the R&D potential
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It is characteristic of the South K
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mechanisms for increasing their sta
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Globalisation and Policy Patterns 5
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When Estonia regained its independe
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5.2 The impacts of globalisation an
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Table 5.2.2 Support of the differen
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5.3 Development policies Erik Terk,
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• C -the “Estonia-centred” su
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Figure 5.4.1 Support for the possib
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Summary Erik Terk Estonia is part o
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ehavioural patterns. Therefore, it
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EDR 2012/2013 authors Clemens Buche
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EDR 2012/2013 authors Alari Purju i
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Editor-in-Chief: Mati Heidmets Prod
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