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Table 1.3.5 Strengths and weaknesses of Estonian education based on international indicators compared to the domestic debates. Strengths of Estonian education based on international reports Small percentage of children with low performance Relatively small differences between schools; small impact of socio-economic background on study performance Children’s enrolment in pre-school education at the saturation level (almost 90%) Problems presented in domestic debates Teachers’ low salaries High drop-out rate Poor level and volume of vocational education; poor preparation of the graduates of all schools for vocational work Meaning of examination results, admission tests, “elite schools” Shortage of kindergarten places Insufficient teaching of creativity and entrepreneurship Weaknesses of Estonian education based on international reports Teachers’ low salaries Weak connection to the labour market (i.e. many people do simpler work than one might assume from their qualifications; salary gap to the detriment of women) Extremely high dependence of financing on government resources Small percentage of men compared to women among both students and teachers at all educational levels Sources: Education at a Glance 2012; Progress Towards the Common Objectives in Education and Training 2010/2011; The Five Challenges for Estonian Education 2012 References 1. European Commission (2012). Key Data on Education in Europe. Brussels: Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency. 2. European Commission (2012b). Enterpreunership in the EU and beyond. Flash Eurobarometer 354. http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/flash/fl_354_en.pdf 3. European Commission (2011). Progress Towards the Common European Objectives in Education and Training. Indicators and Benchmarks – 2010/2011. Luxembourg: Publication Office of the European Union. 4. European Commission (2009). Gender Differences in Educational Outcomes: Study on the Measures Taken and the Current Situation in Europe. Brussels: Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency. 5. European Parliament (2011). Reducing Early School Living in the EU. Brussels. 6. Cunha, F; James J; Heckman, L. L; Dimitriy V. Masterov (2006). Interpreting the Evidence on Life Cycle Skill Formation. in: Eric A. Hanushek, Finis Welch (eds.), Handbook of the Economics of Education. Amsterdam: North-Holland. NBER Working Paper 11331, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2005. 7. Furlong, J; Cochran-Smith, M;Brennan, M. (2009). Policy and Politics in Teacher Education. International Perspectives. London, New York: Routledge. 8. Grossmann, M. (2000). The Human Capital Model. In: A.J. Culyer, J.P. Newhouse (eds.), Handbook of Health Economics. Volume 1A: 347-408. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 9. Heidmets, M; Kangro, A; Ruus, V; Matulionis, A; Loogma, K; Zilinksaite, V; Autio, T. (2011) Haridus. Eesti inimarengu Aruanne 2010/2011. Inimarengu Balti rajad: muutust kaks aastakümmet. Tallinn: Eesti koostöö kogu, 96-115. 10. Kitsing, M. (2012). Kõrgemate ja madalamate tulemustega koolide võrdlus. Kogumikus Eesti PISA 2009 kontekstis: tugevused ja probleemid. Programmi Eduko uuringutoetuse kasutamise lepingu aruanne”. 11. Martens, K. Rusconi, A; Leuze, K. (2007). New Arenas of Education Governance. The Impact of International Organizations and Markets on Educational Policy Making. Palgrave Mcmillian. 12. Martens, K; Nagel, A. K; Windzio, M; Weymann, A. (2010). Transformation of Education Policy. Palgrave Macmillian. 13. Põder, K. Lauri, T. (2013). When Public Acts Like Private: the Failure of Estonia’s School Choice Mechanism. European Educational Research Journal (ilmumas). 14. Toots, A. (2009). Brussels comes via Helsinki: The Role of Finland in Europeanisation of Estonian Education Policy. Haldus kultuur, vol 10, . 58-73. 15. OECD (2011). Against the Odds. Disadvantaged Students who Succed in School. Paris: OECD. 16. OECD (2012a) Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators 2012. 17. OECD (2012b). Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators 2012. Estonia. Country note. http://www.oecd.org/edu/eag2012.htm (vaadatud 30.12.2012). 18. Ozga, J; Dahler-Larsen, P; Segerholm, C; Simola, H. (2011). Fabricating Quality in Education. Data and governance in Europe. London: Routledge. 19. Putnam, Robert D; John F. Helliwell (1999). Education and Social Capital. NBER Working Paper 7121. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. 20. Põder, K.; Kerem, K.; Lauri, T. (2013). Efficiency and equity within European education systems and school choice policy: Bridging qualitative and quantitative approches. Journal of School Choice, 440–470. 21. WEF (2012). Global Competitevness Report. http:// www.weforum.org/reports/global-competitiveness-report-2012–2013 22. Woessmann, L.; Schütz, G. (2006). Efficiency and Equity in European Education and Training Systems, Analytical Report for the European Commission, EENE. 40 Estonian Human Development Report 2012/2013
1.4 Health Raul-Allan Kiivet Changes and developments in the population’s health can be illustrated using very different indicators, of which each is informative in its own way. The indicators that have been chosen for this chapter characterise the events in Estonia from three viewpoints, in an attempt to answer the following questions: • How much, and based on what, is life expectancy in Estonia increasing? • How can the illness-related behaviour of the Estonian population be changed, based on the example of the use of prescription drugs? • What is the future prognosis for the health indicators of Estonian schoolchildren? 1.4.1 Life expectancy In international comparisons, life expectancy, which is based on mortality data, and is one of the three components of the Human Development Index, is the indicator most often used to assess the state of the population’s health. Life expectancy shows, in years, how long a person of a certain age will live if the current mortality rate or the distribution of deaths based on gender and age persists. For instance, in 2010, the average life expectancy for men in Estonia was 70.6 years, i.e. a boy born in that year would live that long if the mortality rate for the given year did not change. In the UN Human Development Reports, Estonia’s persistent characteristic is the fact that its health indicators lag significantly behind its general standard of living and level of education; and Estonia was ranked between 80 th and 90 th place in the life expectancy rankings until the beginning of the 21 st century. The people in all the states wealthier than us, and also those in the 40 poorer states lived longer than the people in Estonia. During the last decade, life expectancy in Estonia has increased dramatically, and, in 2010, achieved an all-time record for both men and women. Between 2004 and 2010, the average life expectancy of women increased by 3 years (from 77.8 to 80.8 years) and 4.2 years for men (from 66.4 years to 70.6 years). Life expectancy increased because, during this time, the accidental deaths, and deaths caused by other outside factors, of young people were reduced significantly, along with the deaths of middle-aged people from heart disease and cardiovascular diseases. Life expectancy can be calculated for every age group, and as age increases, life expectancy, understandably, decreases – in 2010, for 65-year-old men it was 14.2 years and 19.4 years for women, thereby lagging behind the European average by 3.1 and 1.7 years, respectively. In other words, although, if based on the adjusted life expectancy at birth, Estonia continues to be among the last five in the European Union, the prognosis for those over 65 is as good as in the rest of Europe. Comparing the gap between the life expectancies in various age groups, we see that two-thirds of the difference falls in the 20- to 65-year age group, and reducing deaths among the young and middle-aged continues to provide the greatest reserves for lengthening life expectancy. 1.4.2 Living healthy during one’s remaining years Life expectancy, which is calculated on the basis of mortality data, does not tell us anything about the health, illnesses, or the health-related quality of life of the living. The incidence of illness and the health-related quality of life can be measured using many indicators, and this is done from various points of view. However, since we are interested in the question of whether a longer life (which is definitely a value onto itself) is a full and healthy life, the concept of living a healthy life (Aru 2012) can be of help. This concept assesses both the duration of life, as well as the health-related quality of life, and takes into account the incidence of good and bad health in people of various ages. In this case, mortality statistics are derived from data obtained by survey research, in which people of various ages assess the state of their health, and the life expectancy is multiplied by the percentage of healthy people in the corresponding gender-age group. Since health can be measured in several ways, the definitions of a healthy life can also vary. The European Union’s official statistics use a definition that is based on every-day limitations, or the concept that living healthy means a disability-free life expectancy. A definition like this does not reflect people’s subjective feelings about their health, but rather, their ability to cope on their own and manage their own affairs. The incidence of bad health in the population can be overestimated if health-related limitations are used as an excuse in situations where coping is actually hindered by other factors, for instance socio-economic reasons. Despite the possibilities for various interpretations, this method is appropriate for compiling time-series data and international comparisons. Compared to the data for 2004, the number of years of disability-free life for Estonian boys born in 2010 had increased by 4.1 years and by 4.4 years for Estonian Human Development Report 2012/2013 41
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Page 4 and 5: Table of Contents 1 Human Capital /
Page 6 and 7: Dear Reader Since the moment when E
Page 9 and 10: 1Human Capital Estonian Human Devel
Page 11 and 12: the HDI’s content has also been h
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Page 17 and 18: The results of the Princeton Projec
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Page 61 and 62: Summary Mati Heidmets The global vi
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References 1. Ahven, A. & Tabur, L.
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states included in the EU Kids Onli
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2.8 Public assessments of the state
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Figure 2.8.4 Changes releated to tr
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of the state’s development are en
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Table 2.9.1 The positions of Estoni
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3. IEP (2011). Structures of Peace.
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3Welfare and the Quality of Life Es
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choices made, not what people say t
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Figure 3.1.5 Public social spending
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tion agreed upon the social contrac
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References 1. Aidukaite, J. (2006).
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hand, to the “inequality of acces
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and explanations of the extent of i
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5- much more than I deserve. Some d
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people in Estonia consider the inco
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Table 3.3.1 Experienced Well-Being
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at about 70%. In Latvia and Lithuan
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sign. It seems that the usual view
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3.4 Quality of life Anu Toots 3.4.1
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a uniform composite indicator has n
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3.4.6 The components of life qualit
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Figure 3.4.4c Perceived quality of
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Figure 3.4.5 Changes in the depriva
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3.5 Environment dimension of well-b
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Figure 3.5.1.b Estonia’s position
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3.5.4 Energy intensity The energy i
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productivity, which is defined as t
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perceive themselves as worse off th
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4The Economy Estonian Human Develop
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vide a valuable connection for maki
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Figure 4.1.3 Components of economic
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ule of law, the sub-indicators for
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References 1. Acemoglu, D.; Robinso
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Development Report employs generali
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and pasture land, and this was capi
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Basing the total and net savings re
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4.3 Labour market Reelika Leetmaa,
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The problems include the very limit
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• Expenditures for active labour
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who lose their jobs. These ensure i
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4.4 Productivity and the economic s
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labour costs at the company level r
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Table 4.4.4 Comparison of the produ
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Figure 4.4.1 Annual average increas
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4.5 Innovation Erik Terk, Katrin M
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Table 4.5.2 Comparison of innovatio
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Table 4.5.4 Comparison of the indic
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in order to make the R&D potential
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It is characteristic of the South K
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mechanisms for increasing their sta
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Globalisation and Policy Patterns 5
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When Estonia regained its independe
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5.2 The impacts of globalisation an
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Table 5.2.2 Support of the differen
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5.3 Development policies Erik Terk,
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• C -the “Estonia-centred” su
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Figure 5.4.1 Support for the possib
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Summary Erik Terk Estonia is part o
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ehavioural patterns. Therefore, it
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EDR 2012/2013 authors Clemens Buche
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EDR 2012/2013 authors Alari Purju i
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Editor-in-Chief: Mati Heidmets Prod
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