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1.3.2 Estonia’s position in the education indices Below, we analyse Estonia’s position in the most popular measures of education. First we deal with the measures of quantity, which describe the parameters and trends of the population enrolled in education. Secondly, we examine the measures of educational quality, which indicate the knowledge and skills of the students, as well as the assessments of experts in the labour market in this regard. Educational enrolment The UN/UNDP tradition has been to measure the quantity of education based on the enrolment of a certain age cohort in the age-appropriate level of education (based on the ISCED). If on the global scale, it may be important to ensure that at least a basic education (level 1) is provided to a large part of the population, in the developed countries the enrolment in level 2 (secondary education) and level 3 (higher education) is measured. Based on the principle of lifelong learning, the enrolment of children in early childhood education is also measured (ISCED 0) as is the enrolment of adults in-service training. Besides enrolment, the OECD and the European Union place great importance on the attainment of educational levels, thus the percentage of people with higher education in specific age groups is measured. The EU, in its Europa 2020: Europe’s growth strategy, gave two education benchmarks the special status of headline targets, since their achievement is considered to be especially important for the achievement of a “smart economy”. Based on these two educational headline targets, by 2020 the following should apply to all the member countries: • at least 40% of 30- to 34-year-olds completing third level education; • not more than 10% of the 18- to 24-year-olds have only a basic education or less (i.e. reducing school drop-out rates). Estonia’s position in the international comparison of educational enrolment seems good, i.e. enrolment in early childhood, basic and secondary education is among the top 30 in the world. If we remove the economic wealth indicator from the UN Human Development Index, Estonia rises from 34 th to 26 th place in the ranking. In regard to the two European Union headline targets, Estonia exceeds the average level in the European Union, although the goal for 2020 has yet to be achieved. The percentage of young people with a only a basic education or less has constantly decreased during the last decade, but the pace of the decrease is slower than in many other member countries (European Parliament 2011) In addition to the percentage share of the age cohorts enrolled in education, the education sub-index of the UN Human Development Report also measures the expected years of education for small children and Figure 1.3.1 Comparison of the data for 2009 for the European reference countries based on the benchmarks that that measure educational enrolment, % Adult enrolment in lifelong learning (among 26- to 64-year-old) Acquired a secondary education (20- to 24-year-olds) Enrolment in pre-school education ET 2020 Percentage Hungary Czech Rep. Denmark Finland Slovenia Slovakia Ireland Netherlands Estonia Austria Hungary Czech Rep. Denmark Finland Slovenia Slovakia Ireland Netherlands Estonia Austria Hungary Czech Rep. Denmark Finland Slovenia Slovakia Ireland Netherlands Estonia Austria Percentage Source: Eurostat 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 the average number of school years for adults. An Estonian adult attends school for an average of 12 years, which places us in 8 th place in the world. However, the number of expected years of education for Estonia’s 7-year-olds leaves Estonia in 24 th place. If the average forecast for New Zealand, Australia, Ireland, Iceland, Finland, South Korea, Denmark, Slovenia and the Netherlands is 17 to 18 years of school, for Estonia, it is only 15.7. The calculation of the expected years of education is based on two factors – enrolment by age at all level of education and the percentage of school-aged children in the population at each level of education. The decline in Estonia’s indicator for expected years of education is probably caused by population ageing processes. However, not everything is related to population processes. The last OECD education survey brings forth the fact that the number of young people with secondary educations has decreased considerably faster than in other countries; and there has not been a similar increase in 25- to 34-year-olds who have acquired higher educations, as has happened in the South Korea, Ireland or Poland 32 Estonian Human Development Report 2012/2013
(OECD 2012b). Therefore a certain risk exists that Estonia is relying on its past indicators for its success and in the future will not be able to sustain its current high position. More important than the indicators of educational enrolment as a whole is the great gender imbalance, which starts already at the basic school level and continues on through vocational, secondary and higher education. Generally, many international indices consider it important to increase the enrolment of women. One of the targets of the EU education strategy titled Education and Training 2010 was to increase the percentage of women among graduates in the sciences. It probably is not surprising that Estonia placed first, exceeding the European Union average by 10%. In 2009, almost half (42%) of the graduates in the sciences were women (European Commission, 2011). Increasing the percentage of women in higher education is a general trend, which is characteristic of all the OECD countries and of almost all specialities. Of the cohort of 20-year-olds, 42% of the women and 30% of the men are studying at university. Starting from 2000, the percentage of women at university has steadily increased (almost 10% per year), which has resulted in there being 124 female university students for every 100 male students in the European Union. Estonia is also the leader in this measure, with 156 women for every 100 men. As expected, the percentage of women also increased among the graduates of schools of higher education. If in Europe, on average, 55% of the total students are women, and among graduates, 59% are women, in Estonia and Latvia even 70% of the graduates of schools of higher education are women, which shows that there are more men among the drop-outs from schools of higher education (European Commission 2009). The gender imbalance is also noteworthy by field of study. In six fields out of eight, women comprised half or more of the higher education school graduates. In Estonia, women comprise over 90% of the graduates in the educational and welfare services fields, which is the highest indicator in the EU. The situation in higher education is influenced by the imbalance at the lower levels of the education system, and this, in turn, affects the subsequent gender (a)symmetry in the workplace. The boys’ problems apparently already get their start in basic school, because, compared to girls, more boys limit themselves to only a basic education or even less. There are great differences between countries in this regard. If in Slovakia and the Czech Republic, a relatively small segment of boys and girls (ca. 5%) drop out after completing basic school, in Estonia, Poland and Slovenia, the difference is almost double, to the detriment of the boys. However, one must recognise that in the period between 2004 and 2010, the situation in Estonia has improved, since the percentage of boys that drop out has decreased from 20% to 15%; about 8% of girls still drop out. Estonia along with Lithuania, Latvia, Hungary, Ireland, and the United Kingdom and a few more countries belong to the group of countries where more than 60% of the young people study at general secondary schools; vocational education is less popular. The fact that there are always more females in general education (in Estonia Figure 1.3.2 The position of the EU member states related to the headline targets for the education in Europa 2020 as of 2011. Drop-outs (20- to 24-year-olds) Acquired a higher education (30- to 34-year-olds) EU 2020 target Percentage Ireland Luxembourg Sweden Finland Cyprus Great Britain Lithuania France Belgium Denmark Netherlands Spain Estonia Slovenia Poland Latvia Germany Greece Hungary Bulgaria Portugal Austria Czech Rep. Slovakia Malta Romania Italy EU-27 Percentage Source: Eurostat 2013 Estonia Slovakia Poland Denmark Slovenia Czech Republic Hungary EU-27 Finland Austria Ireland Netherlands Switzerland Index 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 Figure 1.3.3 The number of female students for 100 male students in higher education (ISCED 5-6), 2010 Source: Eurostat 2012 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 Estonian Human Development Report 2012/2013 33
Page 1: ESTONIAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2
Page 4 and 5: Table of Contents 1 Human Capital /
Page 6 and 7: Dear Reader Since the moment when E
Page 9 and 10: 1Human Capital Estonian Human Devel
Page 11 and 12: the HDI’s content has also been h
Page 13 and 14: Figure 1.1.1 The human development
Page 15 and 16: Figure 1.1.7 The income sub-index:
Page 17 and 18: The results of the Princeton Projec
Page 19 and 20: the hypothetical generation. The to
Page 21 and 22: Figure 1.2.3 Life expectancy. Eston
Page 23 and 24: Table 1.2.2 also presents the most
Page 25 and 26: The new trends that are appearing i
Page 27 and 28: Figure 1.2.8 Components of populati
Page 29 and 30: New features were introduced into E
Page 31 and 32: Initiation of Voluntary Birth Contr
Page 33: Table 1.3.1 Best-known educational
Page 37 and 38: The reciprocal dependence of the pr
Page 39 and 40: Figure 1.3.8 Percentage of students
Page 41 and 42: Table 1.3.4 The quality of educatio
Page 43 and 44: 1.4 Health Raul-Allan Kiivet Change
Page 45 and 46: Table 1.4.1 Usage of prescription m
Page 47 and 48: allude to the fact that approximate
Page 49 and 50: promote healthy lifestyles among th
Page 51 and 52: Figure 1.5.1 The World Values Surve
Page 53 and 54: Table 1.5.2 Estonia’s participati
Page 55 and 56: Figure 1.5.3 The percentage of the
Page 57 and 58: Figure 1.5.5 Percentage of the Esto
Page 59 and 60: The fact that Estonia’s position
Page 61 and 62: Summary Mati Heidmets The global vi
Page 63 and 64: 2People and Society Estonian Human
Page 65 and 66: Table 2.1.1 Structure of the Bertel
Page 67 and 68: tioning market economies (15 states
Page 69 and 70: 2.2 Freedom and democracy Martin M
Page 71 and 72: Table 2.2.1 Democracy indicators Po
Page 73 and 74: Figure 2.2.2 The distribution of th
Page 75 and 76: would be something that none of the
Page 77 and 78: political participation are general
Page 79 and 80: strongest, while a very small perce
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Page 83 and 84: Figure 2.4.2 Average circulation of
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2.5 Corruption Jüri Saar In accord
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Lithuania, 61%; and in Russia, 69%.
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2.6.2 Intentional homicides in Esto
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crime. And thirdly, there was a wis
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References 1. Ahven, A. & Tabur, L.
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states included in the EU Kids Onli
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2.8 Public assessments of the state
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Figure 2.8.4 Changes releated to tr
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of the state’s development are en
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Table 2.9.1 The positions of Estoni
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3. IEP (2011). Structures of Peace.
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3Welfare and the Quality of Life Es
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choices made, not what people say t
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Figure 3.1.5 Public social spending
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tion agreed upon the social contrac
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References 1. Aidukaite, J. (2006).
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hand, to the “inequality of acces
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and explanations of the extent of i
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5- much more than I deserve. Some d
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people in Estonia consider the inco
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Table 3.3.1 Experienced Well-Being
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at about 70%. In Latvia and Lithuan
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sign. It seems that the usual view
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3.4 Quality of life Anu Toots 3.4.1
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a uniform composite indicator has n
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3.4.6 The components of life qualit
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Figure 3.4.4c Perceived quality of
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Figure 3.4.5 Changes in the depriva
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3.5 Environment dimension of well-b
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Figure 3.5.1.b Estonia’s position
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3.5.4 Energy intensity The energy i
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productivity, which is defined as t
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perceive themselves as worse off th
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4The Economy Estonian Human Develop
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vide a valuable connection for maki
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Figure 4.1.3 Components of economic
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ule of law, the sub-indicators for
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References 1. Acemoglu, D.; Robinso
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Development Report employs generali
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and pasture land, and this was capi
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Basing the total and net savings re
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4.3 Labour market Reelika Leetmaa,
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The problems include the very limit
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• Expenditures for active labour
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who lose their jobs. These ensure i
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4.4 Productivity and the economic s
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labour costs at the company level r
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Table 4.4.4 Comparison of the produ
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Figure 4.4.1 Annual average increas
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4.5 Innovation Erik Terk, Katrin M
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Table 4.5.2 Comparison of innovatio
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Table 4.5.4 Comparison of the indic
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in order to make the R&D potential
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It is characteristic of the South K
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mechanisms for increasing their sta
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Globalisation and Policy Patterns 5
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When Estonia regained its independe
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5.2 The impacts of globalisation an
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Table 5.2.2 Support of the differen
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5.3 Development policies Erik Terk,
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• C -the “Estonia-centred” su
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Figure 5.4.1 Support for the possib
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Summary Erik Terk Estonia is part o
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ehavioural patterns. Therefore, it
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EDR 2012/2013 authors Clemens Buche
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EDR 2012/2013 authors Alari Purju i
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Editor-in-Chief: Mati Heidmets Prod
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