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1.3 Education Anu Toots, Triin Lauri Today, expectations have increased considerably for the contribution that education can make to the development of society. We often hear people speak about education as a cure for absolutely all our worries. In this century, the subject of education has appeared on the agendas of several international organisations that previously did not deal with education (OECD, EU, WB, and WTO). To date, education as a factor of cultural integration has been considered to be part of the domestic sphere, but the ascendancy of international organisations in educational governance 1 alludes to the globalisation of education and education policy. Generally, we can talk about two tasks that are assigned to the modern governance of education. Firstly, the economic role, according to which good education is the key to a country’s economic competitiveness and sustainability. This point of view explains why, along with the UN, international organisations that are focused on the economy, such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Bank (WB) and the World Economic Forum (WEF) have started to show interest in the measuring and (ranking) education. Education’s second, cultural and political task is to increase social cohesion. This perspective has also become markedly more multifaceted than the initial approach of the UN, which focused on human rights. Education is, of course, part of an individual’s capital and this approach is amply stressed on the neoliberal worldview, but in addition to this, education is an efficient tool for promoting the understanding and a meeting of minds between people. According to several studies, educated people are more tolerant, are greater supporters of democracy (Mc Mahon 2004), behave more constructively in regard to their health (Grossmann 2000), are happier (Putnam, Helliwell 1999) and cope better on the labour market. The economic and social functions of education are intertwined, because modern economies and democracies presuppose the existence of socially sensitive people with open mindsets, who are able to quickly adapt to new working collectives and cultures, and to intelligently and actively participate in public life. The attempt to reconcile the rational and social functions of education are characteristic primarily of the European Union, the educational objectives of which (ET2020) are aimed at smart economic growth, and do so through education’s social indicators (e.g. by reducing the percentage of early leaving and children with meagre basic skills). Along with knowledge-based and global economies, population ageing also an important impact on educational development, and has caused widespread tensions related to the financing of education. The ageing of populations has introduced the philosophy of lifelong learning into education, according to which a person must learn from the cradle to the grave. This, in turn, has been accompanied by the measurement of educational enrolment in the context of every sphere of life. Thus, the European Union and the World Economic Forum measure the rate of adult educational enrolment, and in 2011, the OECD conducted the first comparative PIAAC survey, known as the “adult PISA”, in order to measure the adults’ knowledge and skills related to coping in the workplace. 2 The EU and OECD measure the rate of educational enrolment among pre-schoolers (3- to 5-yearolds); and the IEA is planning a survey to measure the knowledge and skills of children in the same age group. The emphasis of the importance of early childhood education in EU and OECD materials is motivated by the conviction that, at this stage of education, the efficiency of outcome and equity of the investments complement each other. The further in time that the investments in education are postponed, the greater the risk that the aspiration for equity will come at the expense of efficiency. (Cunha et al. 2005). Along with early childhood education and lifelong learning, an important change is the expansion of higher education. Once the privilege of the few, today higher education is an opportunity for the majority, and the European Union has set a goal of having a society in which 40% of the population has a higher education. The latter has, in turn, caused tensions related to the financing of education and accelerated the debate about the nature of higher education (is it a public or private commodity) and the cross-border providers of education (export of educational services). 1.3.1 International measures of education Education is measured by many international composite indices and rankings. This confirms the importance of educational indicators in the measurement of a society’s developmental levels and trends. Generally, we can speak about composite indices, one sub-index of which is some measure of education or the indicators that come directly from indices/rankings that measure 1 “Governance” is a term that has recently gained popularity in academic literature and the notions of its use and meanings are quite blurred. Here governance alludes to a new type of governing, in which the state has a steering role rather than an implementative role, and in which partners from the private and non-profit sector are involved from the local to the global level. 2 Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies, in Estonia known under the name “Tean ja oskan”. 30 Estonian Human Development Report 2012/2013
Table 1.3.1 Best-known educational indices and their indicators Compiler of the index Name of the index and English acronym Indicators Composite indices, which include an education sub-index JUN (UNDP) HDI – UN Human Development Index (1/3)* WEF GCI– Global Competitiveness Index (1/12) OECD BLI –Better Life Index (1/11) Average number of years of education of adults; expected years of education for 7-year-olds Enrolment in ISCED 2nd and 3rd level education, conformity of education to economic needs, quality of teaching of the sciences, level of the schools of economics and management, training possibilities for workers Percentage of people with at least a secondary education among 24- to 64-year olds; PISA 2009 score; expected years of education for 5-year-olds Legatum Institute LPI – Legatum Prosperity Index (1/8) Enrolment in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd levels of education; quality of education; human capital (average education level of the workforce) The most important indices measuring the efficiency of education OECD PISA – Programme for International Student Assessment Knowledge of 15-year-olds in mathematics, sciences, and functional literacy OECD PIAAC – Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies Adults’ cognitive and communicative skills for coping in the labour market IEA TIMSS – Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study Knowledge of 4th and 8th graders in mathematics and sciences IEA Progress in International Reading Literacy Study Reading skills of 4th graders IEA ICCS –International Civic and Citizenship Study Knowledge and attitudes of 8th graders related to democracy Targets of the Education and Training 2020, the education sub-strategy of the Lisbon Strategy EL Participation in early childhood education at least 95% Percentage of low achieving students less than 15% **percentage of early school leavers (aged 18 to 24) less than 10% **Percentage of young people with higher educations (aged 30 to 40) at least 40% Adults enrolled in lifelong learning (aged 26 to 64) at least 15% *number of sub-indices **education targets that are included among the five headline targets for the EU’s 10-year growth strategy, Europe 2020 educational performance (Table 1.3.1). A separate group is comprised of the uniform education and training goals and benchmarks of the European Union’s Lisbon Strategy. Usually, the measurement of the educational situation is based on government statistics, although some of the indices also use expert opinions on the quality of education, (Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) – expert assessments; Legatum Prosperity Index (LPI) – public opinion polls). A separate category is comprised of the large international surveys of educational stakeholders, which measure both the actual performance of the students in various subjects as well as the attitudes of the teachers and students toward learning and teaching. Some surveys (PIRLS) also query the parents. The International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) already started conducting these types of comparative surveys in 1960. Today, the IEA is known primarily as the organiser of the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS). Besides the IEA, the OECD, with its PISA surveys that were first conduced in 2000, has become an influential organiser of education research. Both the IEA and the OECD surveys are cyclical (repeated after 3- to 5-year intervals), making it possible to monitor the developmental trends in education. The number of participants in the IEA and OECD surveys has increased steadily, based primarily on the emerging economies and developing countries. If 46 countries took part in the TIMSS in 1995, the total was 77 in 2011. Estonian Human Development Report 2012/2013 31
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Page 4 and 5: Table of Contents 1 Human Capital /
Page 6 and 7: Dear Reader Since the moment when E
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Figure 2.4.2 Average circulation of
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2.5 Corruption Jüri Saar In accord
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Lithuania, 61%; and in Russia, 69%.
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2.6.2 Intentional homicides in Esto
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crime. And thirdly, there was a wis
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References 1. Ahven, A. & Tabur, L.
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states included in the EU Kids Onli
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2.8 Public assessments of the state
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Figure 2.8.4 Changes releated to tr
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of the state’s development are en
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Table 2.9.1 The positions of Estoni
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3. IEP (2011). Structures of Peace.
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3Welfare and the Quality of Life Es
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choices made, not what people say t
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Figure 3.1.5 Public social spending
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tion agreed upon the social contrac
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References 1. Aidukaite, J. (2006).
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hand, to the “inequality of acces
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and explanations of the extent of i
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5- much more than I deserve. Some d
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people in Estonia consider the inco
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Table 3.3.1 Experienced Well-Being
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at about 70%. In Latvia and Lithuan
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sign. It seems that the usual view
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3.4 Quality of life Anu Toots 3.4.1
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a uniform composite indicator has n
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3.4.6 The components of life qualit
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Figure 3.4.4c Perceived quality of
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Figure 3.4.5 Changes in the depriva
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3.5 Environment dimension of well-b
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Figure 3.5.1.b Estonia’s position
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3.5.4 Energy intensity The energy i
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productivity, which is defined as t
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perceive themselves as worse off th
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4The Economy Estonian Human Develop
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vide a valuable connection for maki
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Figure 4.1.3 Components of economic
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ule of law, the sub-indicators for
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References 1. Acemoglu, D.; Robinso
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Development Report employs generali
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and pasture land, and this was capi
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Basing the total and net savings re
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4.3 Labour market Reelika Leetmaa,
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The problems include the very limit
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• Expenditures for active labour
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who lose their jobs. These ensure i
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4.4 Productivity and the economic s
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labour costs at the company level r
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Table 4.4.4 Comparison of the produ
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Figure 4.4.1 Annual average increas
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4.5 Innovation Erik Terk, Katrin M
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Table 4.5.2 Comparison of innovatio
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Table 4.5.4 Comparison of the indic
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in order to make the R&D potential
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It is characteristic of the South K
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mechanisms for increasing their sta
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Globalisation and Policy Patterns 5
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When Estonia regained its independe
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5.2 The impacts of globalisation an
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Table 5.2.2 Support of the differen
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5.3 Development policies Erik Terk,
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• C -the “Estonia-centred” su
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Figure 5.4.1 Support for the possib
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Summary Erik Terk Estonia is part o
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ehavioural patterns. Therefore, it
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EDR 2012/2013 authors Clemens Buche
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EDR 2012/2013 authors Alari Purju i
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Editor-in-Chief: Mati Heidmets Prod
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