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Table 1.2.2 Main indicators of population development. Estonia and the comparative countries Country Population (people) Population change (% of the 2000 population) 2000 -2011 Natural increase (% of the 2000 population) 2000 -2011 Net migration (% of the 2000 population) 2000 -2011 Total fertility rate (children per woman) Tempo-adjusted total fertility rate (children per woman) 2011 2008 Mother’s age at first birth (years) 2008 -2010 Percentage of non-marital births (%) Life expectancy, men (years) Life expectancy, women (years) Infant mortality rate (‰) Percentage of the elderly 65+ (%) Percentage of urban population (%) 2011 2011 2011 2011 2011 2010 Austria 8,443,018 5.5 0.3 5.2 1.42 1.67 28.2 40 78.3 83.9 3.6 17.6 67 Belgium 11,041,266 7.8 2.0 5.8 1.84 1.93 ... 49 77.6 83.0 3.3 17.1 97 Bulgaria 7,327,224 -10.5 -5.7 -4.8 1.51 1.64 25.1 56 70.7 77.8 8.5 18.5 73 Estonia 1,294,544 -5.7 -2.5 -3.2 1.52 1.93 26.4 60 71.2 81.1 2.5 17.7 69 Spain 46,196,276 15.3 2.5 12.8 1.36 1.54 29.3 34 79.4 85.4 3.2 17.1 77 The Netherlands 16,730,348 5.5 4.1 1.4 1.76 1.83 29.2 45 79.4 83.1 3.6 15.6 83 Ireland 4,582,769 21.3 11.8 9.5 2.05 2.10 ... 34 78.3 82.8 3.5 11.5 62 Iceland 319,575 14.5 11 3.5 2.02 2.41 26.4 65 80.7 84.1 0.9 12.3 94 Italy 60,820,764 6.8 -0.3 7.1 1.39 1.51 ... 26 79.4 84.6 3.7 20.3 68 Greece 11,290,935 3.6 0.3 3.3 1.43 1.66 28.5 8 78.5 83.1 3.7 19.3 61 Cyprus 862,011 24.8 6.1 18.7 1.35 1.73 27.5 17 79.3 83.1 3.1 12.7 70 Lithuania 3,007,758 -14.4 -3.2 -11.2 1.76 1.84 26.6 30 68.1 79.3 4.2 17.9 67 Latvia 2,041,763 -14.3 -5.4 -8.9 1.34 1.70 24.4 45 68.6 78.8 6.6 18.4 68 Luxembourg 524,853 21.0 4.9 16.1 1.52 2.05 29.0 34 78.5 83.6 4.3 13.9 85 Malta 416,110 9.4 2.9 6.5 1.38 1.60 ... 23 79.2 83.6 6.1 15.5 95 Moldova 3,559,541 -2.3 -1.3 -1.0 1.27 1.49 ... 23 66.9 75.0 11.0 10.0 47 Norway 4,985,870 11.3 4.4 6.9 1.88 2.08 27.7 55 79.1 83.6 2.4 15.1 79 Poland 38,538,447 0.7 0.3 0.4 1.30 1.60 25.8 21 72.6 81.1 4.7 13.5 61 Portugal 10,541,840 3.4 0.3 3.1 1.35 1.61 27.9 43 77.6 84.0 3.1 19.1 61 France 63,460,768 7.8 5.1 2.7 2.03 2.12 28.6 55 78.3 85.3 3.5 16.9 85 Sweden 9,482,855 7.0 1.6 5.4 1.90 1.97 28.9 54 79.9 83.8 2.1 18.5 85 Romania 21,355,849 -4.9 -2.2 -2.7 1.25 1.46 24.8 30 71.0 78.2 9.4 14.9 53 Germany 81,843,743 -0.4 -2.1 1.7 1.36 1.68 29.1 34 78.4 83.2 3.6 20.6 74 Slovakia 5,404,322 0.1 0.6 -0.5 1.45 1.70 26.7 34 72.3 79.8 4.9 12.6 55 Slovenia 2,055,496 3.4 0.5 2.9 1.56 1.71 28.2 57 76.8 83.3 2.9 16.5 50 Finland 5,401,267 4.4 2.1 2.3 1.83 1.91 28.2 41 77.3 83.8 2.4 17.5 84 Great Britain 62,989,550 7.2 3.2 4.0 1.97 2.12 ... 47 78.7 82.6 4.3 16.7 80 Switzerland 7,954,662 11 2.3 8.7 1.52 1.69 29.9 19 80.5 85.0 3.8 16.9 74 Denmark 5,580,516 4.7 1.9 2.8 1.75 1.98 28.4 49 77.8 81.9 3.5 16.8 87 Czech Republic 10,505,445 2.2 -0.3 2.5 1.43 1.81 27.4 42 74.8 81.1 2.7 15.6 73 Ukraine 45,453,282 -8.0 -7.2 -0.8 1.46 1.60 ... 22 66.0 76.0 9.0 15.3 69 Hungary 9,957,731 -2.6 -4.3 1.7 1.23 1.66 27.7 42 71.2 78.7 4.9 16.7 69 Belarus 9,465,150 -5.5 -4.8 -0.7 1.51 1.68 ... 19 64.7 76.9 3.8 13.8 75 Russia 143,056,383 -1.7 -5.2 3.5 1.54 1.66 24.8 25 63.0 74.8 7.3 12.8 74 Sources: Council of Europe (2006). Recent Demographic Developments in Europe 2005. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing; Eurostat (2012). Statistics database.(http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu); Human Fertility Database (2012) (www.humanfertility.org); Human Mortality Database (2012) (www.mortality.org); United Nations (2011). World Population Prospects. New York: United Nations Population Division; Vienna Institute of Demography (2012). European Demographic Data Sheet 2012. Statistical offices in Estonia and elsewhere; the authors calculations. 16 Estonian Human Development Report 2012/2013
the hypothetical generation. The total fertility rate is related to the concept of the replacement level, which defines the average number of children necessary for the replacement of the parental generation. Somewhat paradoxically, the replacement level does not depend on fertility but rather on mortality. In contemporary low mortality settings, the replacement levels is slightly less than 2.1 births per woman (in the developed countries more than 99% of children survive to adulthood), while in pre-modern settings it took 3.5 to 6, or even more births, depending on the infant and child mortality, to replace the parents. Against the background of the major regions of Europe, Estonia’s fertility development stands out with several particularities. Firstly, from the end of World War II until the second half of the 1960s, the Estonian fertility remained below the recovery level, being one of the lowest in Europe and the world in that period. This deviation was presumably caused by the forced reorganisation of the society (Klesment 2010). In the Northern and Western European countries, with the early onset of demographic modernisation that was similar to Estonia, and where, in the 1930s, the fertility had also fallen below the replacement level, a baby boom occurred after the war, which brought fertility above the replacement level for 20 to 25 years (depending on the country, the total fertility rate reached 2.5 to 2.9 births per woman). The fertility in Southern Europe was at the same level, but for another reason – namely the transition to a modern demographic regime was still underway. Contrary to popular conceptions about the demographic differences between East and West, Eastern Europe’s birth rate, in the 1960s, was lower than in the remaining regions. The situation profoundly changed in the 1970s and 1980s. The Estonian fertility gradually moved its ranking upward, from among the lowest countries. The same applies to Eastern Europe as a whole. One driving force underlying this changes was the increase in fertility (8%, compared to the 1960s), which raised the total fertility rate of the 1970s and 1980s to the replacement level. However, no less important role in the change was the concurrent fertility decrease in the other regions of Europe. Thus, the post-war baby boom was followed by a new wave of changes in population development. This wave, known today as the second demographic transition (SDT), brought fertility below the replacement level (van de Kaa 1987; Lesthaeghe 1995). Like the “first” demographic transition, the SDT started in Northern and Western Europe after the mid-1960s, and later spread to other regions. Although in several Eastern European countries fertility had fallen slightly below replacement already in the 1980s, a sudden drop in fertility rates was initiated by the social changes of the 1990s. This also applies to Estonia, where, due to the relatively high fertility levels in the 1980s, the decline appeared greater than the average for the region. The early 1990s was a period of the most rapid decrease in fertility in Estonia, and the total fertility rate fell to its lowest level in 1998 (1.28 children). At the beginning of the 21 st century, fertility started to increase. This increase in the fertility rates Figure 1.2.1 Total fertility rate. Estonia and the European regions 1960–2011 TFR, children per woman Age, years Western Europe Northern Europe 2,75 2,50 2,25 2,00 1,75 1,50 1,25 1,00 Southern Europe Northern Europe 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 1960 1960 1965 1965 1970 1970 1975 Western Europe Eastern Europe 1975 Southern Europe Eastern Europe 1980 1980 1985 1985 1990 1990 1995 1995 2000 Estonia 2000 Estonia In this chapter, the breakdown of the main European regions is the following: Northern Europe — DNK, FIN, NOR, SWE; Western Europe — AUT, BEL, CHE, DEU, GBR, FRA, IRL, LUX, NLD; Eastern Europe — BGR, CZE, HUN, LTU, LVA, POL, ROM, SVK, SVN; Southern Europe — ESP, GRC, ITA, PRT. To prevent the larger countries dominating the pattern, the indicators for the regions have been computed as an unweighted arithmetical average of the country indicators. Figure 1.2.2 Mother’s age at first birth. Estonia and the European regions 1960–2011 2005 2005 2010 2010 Estonian Human Development Report 2012/2013 17
Page 1: ESTONIAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2
Page 4 and 5: Table of Contents 1 Human Capital /
Page 6 and 7: Dear Reader Since the moment when E
Page 9 and 10: 1Human Capital Estonian Human Devel
Page 11 and 12: the HDI’s content has also been h
Page 13 and 14: Figure 1.1.1 The human development
Page 15 and 16: Figure 1.1.7 The income sub-index:
Page 17: The results of the Princeton Projec
Page 21 and 22: Figure 1.2.3 Life expectancy. Eston
Page 23 and 24: Table 1.2.2 also presents the most
Page 25 and 26: The new trends that are appearing i
Page 27 and 28: Figure 1.2.8 Components of populati
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Page 31 and 32: Initiation of Voluntary Birth Contr
Page 33 and 34: Table 1.3.1 Best-known educational
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Page 37 and 38: The reciprocal dependence of the pr
Page 39 and 40: Figure 1.3.8 Percentage of students
Page 41 and 42: Table 1.3.4 The quality of educatio
Page 43 and 44: 1.4 Health Raul-Allan Kiivet Change
Page 45 and 46: Table 1.4.1 Usage of prescription m
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Page 49 and 50: promote healthy lifestyles among th
Page 51 and 52: Figure 1.5.1 The World Values Surve
Page 53 and 54: Table 1.5.2 Estonia’s participati
Page 55 and 56: Figure 1.5.3 The percentage of the
Page 57 and 58: Figure 1.5.5 Percentage of the Esto
Page 59 and 60: The fact that Estonia’s position
Page 61 and 62: Summary Mati Heidmets The global vi
Page 63 and 64: 2People and Society Estonian Human
Page 65 and 66: Table 2.1.1 Structure of the Bertel
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2.2 Freedom and democracy Martin M
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Table 2.2.1 Democracy indicators Po
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Figure 2.2.2 The distribution of th
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would be something that none of the
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political participation are general
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strongest, while a very small perce
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is concerned, Estonia is one of the
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Figure 2.4.2 Average circulation of
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2.5 Corruption Jüri Saar In accord
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Lithuania, 61%; and in Russia, 69%.
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2.6.2 Intentional homicides in Esto
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crime. And thirdly, there was a wis
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References 1. Ahven, A. & Tabur, L.
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states included in the EU Kids Onli
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2.8 Public assessments of the state
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Figure 2.8.4 Changes releated to tr
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of the state’s development are en
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Table 2.9.1 The positions of Estoni
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3. IEP (2011). Structures of Peace.
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3Welfare and the Quality of Life Es
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choices made, not what people say t
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Figure 3.1.5 Public social spending
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tion agreed upon the social contrac
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References 1. Aidukaite, J. (2006).
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hand, to the “inequality of acces
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and explanations of the extent of i
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5- much more than I deserve. Some d
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people in Estonia consider the inco
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Table 3.3.1 Experienced Well-Being
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at about 70%. In Latvia and Lithuan
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sign. It seems that the usual view
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3.4 Quality of life Anu Toots 3.4.1
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a uniform composite indicator has n
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3.4.6 The components of life qualit
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Figure 3.4.4c Perceived quality of
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Figure 3.4.5 Changes in the depriva
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3.5 Environment dimension of well-b
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Figure 3.5.1.b Estonia’s position
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3.5.4 Energy intensity The energy i
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productivity, which is defined as t
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perceive themselves as worse off th
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4The Economy Estonian Human Develop
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vide a valuable connection for maki
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Figure 4.1.3 Components of economic
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ule of law, the sub-indicators for
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References 1. Acemoglu, D.; Robinso
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Development Report employs generali
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and pasture land, and this was capi
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Basing the total and net savings re
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4.3 Labour market Reelika Leetmaa,
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The problems include the very limit
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• Expenditures for active labour
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who lose their jobs. These ensure i
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4.4 Productivity and the economic s
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labour costs at the company level r
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Table 4.4.4 Comparison of the produ
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Figure 4.4.1 Annual average increas
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4.5 Innovation Erik Terk, Katrin M
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Table 4.5.2 Comparison of innovatio
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Table 4.5.4 Comparison of the indic
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in order to make the R&D potential
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It is characteristic of the South K
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mechanisms for increasing their sta
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Globalisation and Policy Patterns 5
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When Estonia regained its independe
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5.2 The impacts of globalisation an
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Table 5.2.2 Support of the differen
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5.3 Development policies Erik Terk,
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• C -the “Estonia-centred” su
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Figure 5.4.1 Support for the possib
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Summary Erik Terk Estonia is part o
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ehavioural patterns. Therefore, it
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EDR 2012/2013 authors Clemens Buche
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EDR 2012/2013 authors Alari Purju i
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Editor-in-Chief: Mati Heidmets Prod
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DEVELOPMENT

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