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situation. At the same time, a series of reference states (Austria, Israel, Slovenia and Hungary) have achieved, by today, economic development that exceeds their position, based on as many as four indicators of institutional development. In these states, if other conditions remain the same, a slowdown of development could occur. The extent of the potential is illustrated in Figure 4.1.5, which shows the deviation in the positions of the states, based on the average of five economic development and institutional development indicators. The greatest differences occur in New Zealand, Chile and Estonia – in all three, the gap between the indices indicating their potential, and the achieved economic level (GNI), is more than twentyfold. However, it cannot be precluded that something objective exists, i.e. a geographic factor (distance, smallness of the market), which does not allow the found potential to be realised. In the case of New Zealand, it could be assumed that geographic remoteness has a negative impact. On the negative side, Slovenia stands out, with an income level that is 17 times better than could be assumed, based on the average of institutional indicators. It is not very believable that this position is sustainable. In principle, in this case, there are two paths – either to reconcile oneself to a deceleration of economic development, or to deal with institutional reforms. In the case of Israel and Singapore, the large deviation is related, primarily, to problems with the political environment, which reduces the results related to the quality of govern tance, which has a relatively indirect connection to economic development. Annex. Leading states based on four indicators of the economic environment Competitiveness GCI Quality of governance WGI Economic freedom FI Business freedom DB 1 Switzerland New Zealand Hong Kong Singapore 2 Singapore Finland Singapore Hong Kong 3 Finland Sweden New Zealand New Zealand 4 Sweden Denmark Switzerland USA 5 The Netherlands Luxembourg Canada Denmark 6 Germany Norway Australia Norway 7 USA Switzerland Bahrain Great Britain 8 Great Britain The Netherlands Finland South Korea 9 Hong Kong Liechtenstein Mauritius Georgia 10 Japan Canada United Arab Emirates Australia 11 Qata Austria Chile Finland 12 Denmark Australia Estonia Malaysia 13 Taiwan Andorra Ireland Sweden 14 Canada Iceland United Kingdom Iceland 15 Norway Ireland Denmark Ireland 16 Austria Guernsey and Jersey (Channel Islands) Taiwan Taiwan 17 Belgium Anguilla USA Canada 18 Saudi Arabia Greenland Qatar Thailand 19 South Korea Germany Japan Mauritius 20 Australia Belgium Cyprus Germany 21 France Aruba Jordan Estonia 22 Luxembourg Great Britain Oman Saudi Arabia 23 New Zealand Hong Kong Kuwait Macedonia 24 United Arab Emirates Barbados Norway Japan 25 Malaysia Singapore Austria Latvia 26 Israel France Peru United Arab Emirates 27 Ireland USA Sweden Lithuania 28 Brunei Bermuda Germany Switzerland 29 China Chile Lithuania Austria 30 Iceland Malta Malta Portugal 31 Puerto Rico Japan Montenegro The Netherlands 32 Oman Cayman Islands Luxembourg Armenia 33 Chile Estonia South Korea Belgium 34 Estonia Cyprus Panama France 35 Bahrain Czech Republic The Netherland Slovenia 156 Estonian Human Development Report 2012/2013
References 1. Acemoglu, D.; Robinson, J. (2012) Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity and Poverty. Profile Books Ltd. 2. Apolte, T.; Peters, H. (2009) Governance, Demokratie und wirtschaftliche Entwicklung in den ehemaligen sozialistischen Staaten. IÖB-Diskussionspapier, No. 1/09, http://hdl.handle. net/10419/39080. 3. Eicher, T.; Röhn, O. (2007), “Institutional Determinants of Economic Performance in OECD Countries – An Institutions Climate Index”, CESifo DICE Report 5(1), 38–49. 4. Gwartney, J., Lawson, R. (2007) Economic Freedom of the World: 2005 Annual Report. Vancouver et al.: Fraser Institute et al. 5. Heritage Foundation (HF). Index of Economic Freedom. http:// www.heritage.org/index/ 6. Homann, K.; Suchanek, A. (2012). Sissejuhatus ökonoomikasse. TÜ Kirjastus. E-raamat. 7. Human Development Report (HDR). http://hdr.undp.org/en/ 8. IMD. World Competitivness Yearbook. http://www.imd.org/ research/publications/wcy/index.cfm 9. Kuncic, A. (2012). Institutional quality database, online statistical appendix. http://sites.google.com/site/aljazkuncic/institutional-factor-scores. [Online; accessed 01-February-2012]. 10. Leschke, M. (2011). Ökonomik der Entwicklung – Eine Einführung aus institutionenökonomischen Sicht. Verlag NMP. 11. North, D. (1990) Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Estonian translation: Institutsioonid, institutsiooniline muutus ja majandusedu. Tartu: Fontes Publishers, 2004. 12. North, D.; Wallis, J.; Weingast, B. (2006) Violence and Social Orders: A Conceptual Framework for Interpreting Recorded Human History. Cambridge University Press. 13. Sepp, Jüri (2006). “Effects of Institutional Factors and Human Capital on Countries’ Economic Potential and Growth,” Business Interaction in a Global Economy. Wilkes, Beijing: COPE International, 69 –82. 14. Sepp, J.; Eerma, D. (2007). “Institutional Factors Impact on Countries Economic Growth.” Economic Development, Environment, Energy and Ethics in a Global Economy. Wilkes, COPE International, 269 – 278. 15. Sepp, J.; Eerma, D. (2011). “Why Economic Development Deviates from Human Development,” Central European Review of Economics and Finance, 1(1), 11 – 25. 16. Trabold, H. (1995) “Die internationale Wettbewerbsfähigkeit einer Volkswirtschaft,” Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung, Vierteljahreshefte zur Wirtschaftsforschung, Heft 2, 64. Jg. Berlin, 169. 17. World Bank. Doing Business. http://www.doingbusiness.org/ 18. World Bank. Worldwide Governance Indicators. http://info. worldbank.org/governance/wgi/index.asp 19. World Economic Forum. The Global Competitiveness Report. http://www.weforum.org/issues/global-competitiveness 20. Wrobel, R. (2000) Estland und Europa: Die Bedeutung des Systemwttbewerbs für die Evolution und Transformation von Wirtschaftssysteme. University of Tartu Press. 21. Wölfl, A., I. Wanner, T. Kozluk, G. Nicoletti (2009), “Ten years of product market reform in OECD countries – insights from a revised PMR indicator”, OECD Economics Department Working Paper No 695, OECD, Paris. Estonian Human Development Report 2012/2013 157
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ESTONIAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2
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Table of Contents 1 Human Capital /
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Dear Reader Since the moment when E
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1Human Capital Estonian Human Devel
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the HDI’s content has also been h
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Figure 1.1.1 The human development
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Figure 1.1.7 The income sub-index:
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The results of the Princeton Projec
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the hypothetical generation. The to
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Figure 1.2.3 Life expectancy. Eston
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Table 1.2.2 also presents the most
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The new trends that are appearing i
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Figure 1.2.8 Components of populati
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New features were introduced into E
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Initiation of Voluntary Birth Contr
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Table 1.3.1 Best-known educational
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(OECD 2012b). Therefore a certain r
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The reciprocal dependence of the pr
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Figure 1.3.8 Percentage of students
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Table 1.3.4 The quality of educatio
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1.4 Health Raul-Allan Kiivet Change
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Table 1.4.1 Usage of prescription m
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allude to the fact that approximate
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promote healthy lifestyles among th
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Figure 1.5.1 The World Values Surve
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Table 1.5.2 Estonia’s participati
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Figure 1.5.3 The percentage of the
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Figure 1.5.5 Percentage of the Esto
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The fact that Estonia’s position
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Summary Mati Heidmets The global vi
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2People and Society Estonian Human
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Table 2.1.1 Structure of the Bertel
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tioning market economies (15 states
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2.2 Freedom and democracy Martin M
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Table 2.2.1 Democracy indicators Po
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Figure 2.2.2 The distribution of th
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would be something that none of the
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political participation are general
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strongest, while a very small perce
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is concerned, Estonia is one of the
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Figure 2.4.2 Average circulation of
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2.5 Corruption Jüri Saar In accord
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Lithuania, 61%; and in Russia, 69%.
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2.6.2 Intentional homicides in Esto
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crime. And thirdly, there was a wis
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References 1. Ahven, A. & Tabur, L.
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states included in the EU Kids Onli
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2.8 Public assessments of the state
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Figure 2.8.4 Changes releated to tr
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of the state’s development are en
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Table 2.9.1 The positions of Estoni
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3. IEP (2011). Structures of Peace.
Page 107 and 108: 3Welfare and the Quality of Life Es
Page 109 and 110: choices made, not what people say t
Page 111 and 112: Figure 3.1.5 Public social spending
Page 113 and 114: tion agreed upon the social contrac
Page 115 and 116: References 1. Aidukaite, J. (2006).
Page 117 and 118: hand, to the “inequality of acces
Page 119 and 120: and explanations of the extent of i
Page 121 and 122: 5- much more than I deserve. Some d
Page 123 and 124: people in Estonia consider the inco
Page 125 and 126: Table 3.3.1 Experienced Well-Being
Page 127 and 128: at about 70%. In Latvia and Lithuan
Page 129 and 130: sign. It seems that the usual view
Page 131 and 132: 3.4 Quality of life Anu Toots 3.4.1
Page 133 and 134: a uniform composite indicator has n
Page 135 and 136: 3.4.6 The components of life qualit
Page 137 and 138: Figure 3.4.4c Perceived quality of
Page 139 and 140: Figure 3.4.5 Changes in the depriva
Page 141 and 142: 3.5 Environment dimension of well-b
Page 143 and 144: Figure 3.5.1.b Estonia’s position
Page 145 and 146: 3.5.4 Energy intensity The energy i
Page 147 and 148: productivity, which is defined as t
Page 149 and 150: perceive themselves as worse off th
Page 151 and 152: 4The Economy Estonian Human Develop
Page 153 and 154: vide a valuable connection for maki
Page 155 and 156: Figure 4.1.3 Components of economic
Page 157: ule of law, the sub-indicators for
Page 161 and 162: Development Report employs generali
Page 163 and 164: and pasture land, and this was capi
Page 165 and 166: Basing the total and net savings re
Page 167 and 168: 4.3 Labour market Reelika Leetmaa,
Page 169 and 170: The problems include the very limit
Page 171 and 172: • Expenditures for active labour
Page 173 and 174: who lose their jobs. These ensure i
Page 175 and 176: 4.4 Productivity and the economic s
Page 177 and 178: labour costs at the company level r
Page 179 and 180: Table 4.4.4 Comparison of the produ
Page 181 and 182: Figure 4.4.1 Annual average increas
Page 183 and 184: 4.5 Innovation Erik Terk, Katrin M
Page 185 and 186: Table 4.5.2 Comparison of innovatio
Page 187 and 188: Table 4.5.4 Comparison of the indic
Page 189 and 190: in order to make the R&D potential
Page 191 and 192: It is characteristic of the South K
Page 193 and 194: mechanisms for increasing their sta
Page 195 and 196: Globalisation and Policy Patterns 5
Page 197 and 198: When Estonia regained its independe
Page 199 and 200: 5.2 The impacts of globalisation an
Page 201 and 202: Table 5.2.2 Support of the differen
Page 203 and 204: 5.3 Development policies Erik Terk,
Page 205 and 206: • C -the “Estonia-centred” su
Page 207 and 208: Figure 5.4.1 Support for the possib
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Summary Erik Terk Estonia is part o
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ehavioural patterns. Therefore, it
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EDR 2012/2013 authors Clemens Buche
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EDR 2012/2013 authors Alari Purju i
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Editor-in-Chief: Mati Heidmets Prod
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