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indicators with those for women’s participation in the labour market. The fewer women that there are in the labour market, the more probable it is that working women’s careers will follow a manly trajectory, and that jobs and working conditions intended especially for women will not be created. Instead, it will be assumed that working women are orientated to their jobs and careers, and therefore, will receive a “man’s wages”. This rule could explain the small pay gaps in states like Italy, Malta and Belgium, where a traditional gender regime applies. On the other hand, in the countries where the majority of women are in the labour market, jobs that are intended for women have developed, along with working conditions that are appropriate for combining work and family life. Often, these areas of employment have low wage levels, and therefore, women’s wages are generally lower than men’s. This could explain why the gender pay gap in Sweden, Norway, Denmark and France is quite considerable. If we turn our attention to the pay differences that occur within the framework of the same occupation, several factors must be considered. Wages are affected, to a great degree, by the worker’s general competitiveness; personal suitability for the job, including (appropriate) preparation; sufficient efforts and dedication to work. However, the working conditions offered by the employer, for the specific work and position, are also important. In Estonia, the gender pay gap has been thoroughly researched, and although some part of the pay gap can be attributed to structural or individual factors, a large part of the pay gap cannot be explained objectively (Anspal et al., 2010). This provides a basis for asserting that women’s unequal pay is the result of the prevalence of old-fashioned gender roles, and the behavioural choices based thereon. How has the recent economic crisis affected the gender pay gap? In Figure 3.2.7 we see that, although the pay gap has not increased in Estonia between 2006 and 2010, the decrease is also marginal. We see a similar stability in many other states, which once again confirms that the differences in women’s and men’s wages are, to a great extent, related to non-economic factors. For example, it is evident that the states where the gender pay gap has sharply decreased, during the last decade, are Catholic and Greek Orthodox countries (Poland, Slovenia, Ireland and Cyprus). Only in Portugal is the development moving in the opposite direction. In the European states generally, the developments in gender inequality have moved in different directions, and therefore, it is hard to indicate a general trend. 3.2.5 In conclusion Based on the Gini coefficient, income inequality in Estonia lags behind the best performers in Europe and is thus close to the European average, and a slight decrease in inequality is noticeable on favourable reading. A totally different situation exists in regard to the assessments of the population related to inequality, with the people in Estonia being among the most critical. Two thirds of the Figure 3.2.7 Changes in the gender pay gap in the European countries, 2006-2010. Changes during the economic crisis, 2008-2010 Trend in the changes before the economic crisis, 2006-2008 Total change, 2006-2010 Percentage Slovenia Poland Netherlands Slovakia Cyprus Great Britain Ireland Luxembourg Lithuania Spain Denmark Estonia Sweden Austria Finland Germany Norway France Latvia Switzerland Bulgaria Greece Belgium Czech Republic Romania Italy Hungary Malta Portugal Percentage -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 Source: Eurostat, author’s calculations 120 Estonian Human Development Report 2012/2013
people in Estonia consider the income difference in Estonia to be too large. The inequality is also illustrated by the relatively high proportion of working poor, with Estonia being only at the average level for Europe, an indicator that has not been increased by the economic crisis. At the same time, very many people in Estonia find that they are being paid considerably less than what they deserve. In the perception of this inequality, Estonia’s is one of the most critical in Europe. In regard to gender inequality, an “unprecedented” gender regime prevails in Estonia. This is characterised by the clearly weaker economic position of women; this is also accompanied by progressive gender behaviour in other fields of activity (family life, education), which is even comparable to the Scandinavian countries. Therefore, Europe’s largest gender pay gap is very difficult to explain. In addition to understanding this contradiction, we should make an effort to try to find possibilities for reducing gender inequality in the society, in a situation where there are no direct parallels. It is possible that it is those aspects – general perceptions of inequality and unfair wages in general – that explain why the gender pay gap remains, as it is considered to be of a lesser importance. On the other hand, it may indeed be this gender pay gap that is behind the large income inequality and sizeable numbers in working poor in Estonia. References 1. Anspal, S, Kraut, L, Rõõm, T. (2010) Sooline palgalõhe Eestis. Empiiriline analüüs. Study report. Tallinn: Praxis Centre for Policy Studies, Ministry of Social Affairs. Web. http://www. sm.ee/fileadmin/meedia/Dokumendid/Sotsiaalvaldkond/kogumik/2_raport.pdf 2. CIA (2012) The World Factbook 2011. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency. Web. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html 3. Evans MDR, Kelley, J. and Kolosi, T. (1992) “Images of Class: Public perceptions in Hungary and Australia,” American Sociological Review 57(4): 461-482. 4. Evans MDR and Kelley, J. (2004) “Subjective Social Location: Data from 21 Nations” International Journal of Public Opinion Research 16(1): 3-38. 5. ISSP Research Group (2013) International Social Survey Programme: Social Inequality IV, ISSP 2009. GESIS Data Archive, Cologne. ZA5400. Data file Version 3.0.0. Web. http://www. gesis.org/issp/issp-modules-profiles/social-inequality/2009/ 6. Kalm, G (2012) “Ebavõrdsuse hind. Joseph Stiglitzi sõnul kahjustab majanduslik ebavõrdsus nii majandust kui ka demokraatiat” Diplomaatia no. 110, October 2012 7. Kutsar, D (2010) Vaesus Eestis/Poverty in Estonia. Tallinn: Statistics Estonia. Web. http://www.stat.ee/38021 8. Lindemann, K (2011). “The Changing Perception of Social Position,” Towards a Normal Stratification Order: Actual and Perceived Social Stratification in Post-Socialist Estonia. Ed. Ellu Saar. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 481 – 499. 9. Lindemann, K; Saar, E (2010). “Social Stratification According to People’s Subjective Assessments,” Estonian Human Development Report 2009. Ed. Marju Lauristin. Tallinn: Estonian Cooperation Assembly, 75 - 78. 10. Magun, V (2013) “Töömotivatsiooni tegurid Euroopa riikides.” Presentation at the Labour Market, Education, Stratification, Consumption, Migration Roundtable, at the European Sociology Association Research Network 36 Interim seminar on the Sociology of Transformations: East and West, in Tartu, 22-24 March 2013 11. Mateju, P; Vecernik, J. (1999) “The Renewal of the Middle Class and Its Political Circumstances,” Ten Years of Rebuilding Capitalism: Czech Society after 1989. Prague: Academia, 207–227 12. Nimmerfeldt, G. (2012) “Sotsiaalne tõrjutus,” Eesti Statistika Aastaraamat 2012. Tallinn: Statistics Estonia, 105-108. http:// www.stat.ee/57659 13. OECD (2012a). Trends in Income Inequality. OECD Factbook 2011-2012: Economic, Environmental and Social Statistics. http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/factbook-2011-en/ 14. OECD (2012b) “Income Distribution and Poverty: Data, Figures, Methods and Concepts,” Web. www.oecd.org/els/social/ inequality 15. OECD (2011) Divided We Stand. Why Inequality Keeps Rising. OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264119536-en 16. Paškov, M, Dewilde, C (2012). “Income Inequality and Solidarity in Europe,” Research in Social Stratification and Mobility. Volume 30, Issue 4, December 2012: 415–432 17. Plotnik, H. (toim.) (2008) Sotsiaalse õigluse arusaamad. Tartu: Tartu University Press 18. Saar, E. (2011). Towards A Normal Stratification Order: Actual and Perceived Social Stratification in Post-Socialist Estonia. Bern: Peter Lang Publishers 19. Saar, E (2010) “Sotsiaalne ebavõrdsus ja põlvkondadevaheline mobiilsus,” Sotsiaaltöö, 13:6, 24-29. 20. Schmitt, J, Zipperer, B (2006) “Is the U.S. a Good Model for Reducing Social Exclusion in Europe?” post-autistic economics review 40, 1 December 2006, article 1, 2-17 http://www.paecon. net/PAEReview/issue40/SchmittZipper40.htm 21. Stiglitz, J. E. (2011). The Price of Inequality: How Today’s Divided Society Endangers Our Future. New York, London: W.W. Norton and Company 22. Toomse, M (2007) Sotsiaalne ebavõrdsus/Social Inequality. Tallinn: Statistics Estonia. http://rahvatervis.ut.ee/bitstream/1/883/1/ES2007_3.pdf 23. UNDP (2010). Measuring Key Disparities in Human Development: The Gender Inequality Index http://hdr.undp.org/en/ reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_46.pdf 24. United Nations (2012). UN Conference on Trade And Development, Geneva. Trade And Development Report 2012. New York and Geneva: UN. Web. http://unctad.org/en/PublicationChapters/tdr2012ch3_en.pdf 25. van de Werfhorst, H.G, Salverda, W. (2012) “Consequences of Economic Inequality: Introduction to a Special Issue” Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, Volume 30, Issue 4, December 2012, 377–387. Estonian Human Development Report 2012/2013 121
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ESTONIAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2
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Table of Contents 1 Human Capital /
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Dear Reader Since the moment when E
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1Human Capital Estonian Human Devel
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the HDI’s content has also been h
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Figure 1.1.1 The human development
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Figure 1.1.7 The income sub-index:
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The results of the Princeton Projec
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the hypothetical generation. The to
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Figure 1.2.3 Life expectancy. Eston
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Table 1.2.2 also presents the most
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The new trends that are appearing i
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Figure 1.2.8 Components of populati
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New features were introduced into E
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Initiation of Voluntary Birth Contr
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Table 1.3.1 Best-known educational
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(OECD 2012b). Therefore a certain r
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The reciprocal dependence of the pr
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Figure 1.3.8 Percentage of students
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Table 1.3.4 The quality of educatio
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1.4 Health Raul-Allan Kiivet Change
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Table 1.4.1 Usage of prescription m
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allude to the fact that approximate
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promote healthy lifestyles among th
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Figure 1.5.1 The World Values Surve
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Table 1.5.2 Estonia’s participati
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Figure 1.5.3 The percentage of the
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Figure 1.5.5 Percentage of the Esto
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The fact that Estonia’s position
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Summary Mati Heidmets The global vi
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2People and Society Estonian Human
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Table 2.1.1 Structure of the Bertel
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tioning market economies (15 states
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2.2 Freedom and democracy Martin M
Page 71 and 72: Table 2.2.1 Democracy indicators Po
Page 73 and 74: Figure 2.2.2 The distribution of th
Page 75 and 76: would be something that none of the
Page 77 and 78: political participation are general
Page 79 and 80: strongest, while a very small perce
Page 81 and 82: is concerned, Estonia is one of the
Page 83 and 84: Figure 2.4.2 Average circulation of
Page 85 and 86: 2.5 Corruption Jüri Saar In accord
Page 87 and 88: Lithuania, 61%; and in Russia, 69%.
Page 89 and 90: 2.6.2 Intentional homicides in Esto
Page 91 and 92: crime. And thirdly, there was a wis
Page 93 and 94: References 1. Ahven, A. & Tabur, L.
Page 95 and 96: states included in the EU Kids Onli
Page 97 and 98: 2.8 Public assessments of the state
Page 99 and 100: Figure 2.8.4 Changes releated to tr
Page 101 and 102: of the state’s development are en
Page 103 and 104: Table 2.9.1 The positions of Estoni
Page 105 and 106: 3. IEP (2011). Structures of Peace.
Page 107 and 108: 3Welfare and the Quality of Life Es
Page 109 and 110: choices made, not what people say t
Page 111 and 112: Figure 3.1.5 Public social spending
Page 113 and 114: tion agreed upon the social contrac
Page 115 and 116: References 1. Aidukaite, J. (2006).
Page 117 and 118: hand, to the “inequality of acces
Page 119 and 120: and explanations of the extent of i
Page 121: 5- much more than I deserve. Some d
Page 125 and 126: Table 3.3.1 Experienced Well-Being
Page 127 and 128: at about 70%. In Latvia and Lithuan
Page 129 and 130: sign. It seems that the usual view
Page 131 and 132: 3.4 Quality of life Anu Toots 3.4.1
Page 133 and 134: a uniform composite indicator has n
Page 135 and 136: 3.4.6 The components of life qualit
Page 137 and 138: Figure 3.4.4c Perceived quality of
Page 139 and 140: Figure 3.4.5 Changes in the depriva
Page 141 and 142: 3.5 Environment dimension of well-b
Page 143 and 144: Figure 3.5.1.b Estonia’s position
Page 145 and 146: 3.5.4 Energy intensity The energy i
Page 147 and 148: productivity, which is defined as t
Page 149 and 150: perceive themselves as worse off th
Page 151 and 152: 4The Economy Estonian Human Develop
Page 153 and 154: vide a valuable connection for maki
Page 155 and 156: Figure 4.1.3 Components of economic
Page 157 and 158: ule of law, the sub-indicators for
Page 159 and 160: References 1. Acemoglu, D.; Robinso
Page 161 and 162: Development Report employs generali
Page 163 and 164: and pasture land, and this was capi
Page 165 and 166: Basing the total and net savings re
Page 167 and 168: 4.3 Labour market Reelika Leetmaa,
Page 169 and 170: The problems include the very limit
Page 171 and 172: • Expenditures for active labour
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who lose their jobs. These ensure i
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4.4 Productivity and the economic s
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labour costs at the company level r
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Table 4.4.4 Comparison of the produ
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Figure 4.4.1 Annual average increas
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4.5 Innovation Erik Terk, Katrin M
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Table 4.5.2 Comparison of innovatio
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Table 4.5.4 Comparison of the indic
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in order to make the R&D potential
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It is characteristic of the South K
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mechanisms for increasing their sta
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Globalisation and Policy Patterns 5
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When Estonia regained its independe
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5.2 The impacts of globalisation an
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Table 5.2.2 Support of the differen
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5.3 Development policies Erik Terk,
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• C -the “Estonia-centred” su
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Figure 5.4.1 Support for the possib
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Summary Erik Terk Estonia is part o
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ehavioural patterns. Therefore, it
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EDR 2012/2013 authors Clemens Buche
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EDR 2012/2013 authors Alari Purju i
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Editor-in-Chief: Mati Heidmets Prod
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