Estonian Human Development Report

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Figure 3.3.4. Percentage of people who are satisfied or very satisfied with their lives by monthly net household income (%) 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 51 61 0 5,000 and less 5001–10000 10001–15000 15001–20000 20,000 and more Household net income in the month preceding the survey (EEK) Source: European Social Survey 2006. Figure 3.3.5. Percentage of people satisfied or very satisfied with their lives by state-of-health assessment (%) 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 90 79 0 Very good Good Satisfactory Bad Very bad How would you rate your overall state of health? Source: European Social Survey 2006. 72 56 among Estonian residents with higher education than among respondents with basic education. The level of education affects people’s assessments of their satisfaction with life even if the effect of age and income has been taken into account. As many earlier studies (Lucas 2007; Realo 2006) have indicated, people’s work-related status is another significant factor influencing their satisfaction with life: the rate of satisfaction with life is lower in the case of unemployed people (27%) and those who are not able to work due to a disability (42%), whereas nearly 88% of students are satisfied or very satisfied with their lives. To what degree do wealth and material well-being increase the happiness of Estonian residents? Many researchers are of the opinion that most people in the world are sufficiently happy regardless of their income and material situation (Biswas-Diener et al. 2005). There is, however, a moderate positive connection between people’s level of income and their satisfaction with life, and this connection increases in strength in economically less well-to-do countries (Diener & Biswas-Diener 2002). If Estonian residents are divided into groups based on their income, a clear connection between income and satisfaction with life becomes apparent: only half of the people whose family’s monthly net income is lower than 5000 kroons (Figure 3.3.4.) are satisfied with their lives. 82 34 85 30 The rate of satisfaction is more than 30% higher among Estonian residents whose monthly income exceeds 20,000 kroons. This indicates that an increase in income also increases people’s sense of happiness and satisfaction. At the same time, according to a study conducted in the spring of 2008 (Arakas 2008), the richest people in Estonia, i.e. the ones who ranked among the first 150 of the list of top 500 richest people in Estonia compiled by the business newspaper Äripäev in 2007 (Raidla et al. 2007), did not prove to be happier than people whose family’s monthly net income exceeded 30,000 kroons. This means that there is a certain point up to which money can buy happiness and when that point is surpassed, any further increase in wealth does not automatically bring about a greater sense of happiness and satisfaction. Or in other words: money does not equal happiness, but neither do economic hardship and poverty. Is there a connection between Estonian residents’ satisfaction with life and their state of health? Generally people who believe they are healthy are more satisfied with life (or inversely, the happier people are, the healthier they believe themselves to be). The percentage of people satisfied with their life is three times smaller (30%) among Estonian residents who believe their state of health to be very bad than among residents who believe their state of health to be very good (90%; Figure 3.3.5.). Yet the connection between health and subjective well-being exists only if the respondents are asked to assess their own health. As soon as researchers consider more objective indicators of the respondents’ state of health or assessments of their state of health provided by doctors, the connection becomes weaker or disappears completely (Diener & Biswas-Diener 2008; Johansson 2008; Okun & George 1984). It can be concluded that an individual’s satisfaction with life is affected more by how they perceive their own state of health (i.e. if they consider themselves to be unwell or healthy) than by their actual state of health as characterized by certain objective indicators. Conclusion Compared to, for example, Denmark, Sweden or the Netherlands, where 98% and 96% of respondents, respectively, were satisfied with their lives in the autumn of 2007, life in Estonia seems somewhat more dismal. It is naturally conspicuous that satisfaction with life is generally lower in the newer and/or poorer EU member states. The easiest explanation for this is that Estonia, along with the other stragglers, has not yet reached (or has only just entered) the “post-materialist” stage of development where more money does not equal more happiness. This is confirmed by Estonia’s position on the World Values Survey map prepared by Ronald Inglehart (1997): the people of Estonia are still fighting for security and survival and do not have enough time or means to devote to self-education and selfexpression, which in turn are necessary for achieving satisfaction with life. Meanwhile, Estonian residents’ satisfaction with life has increased significantly during the past four or five years, thus reflecting Estonia’s economic development and the considerable positive social changes that have occurred. | 66
Although people’s sense of happiness and satisfaction is based to a large degree on what is happening in their hearts and souls, a full measure of happiness and satisfaction with life is achievable in our cultural context only through an References 1. Arakas, A. (2008). Eluga rahulolu mõjutavad tegurid eesti ärieliidi seas: Kas raha teeb õnnelikuks? [Factors Influencing Satisfaction with Life Among the Estonian Business Elite: Does Money Make Us Happy?] Seminar paper, University of Tartu, Institute of Psychology. Manuscript. 2. Biswas-Diener, R., & Diener, E. (2001). Making the best of a bad situation: Satisfaction in the slums of Calcutta. Social Indicators Research, 55, 329–352. 3. Biswas-Diener, R., Vittersø, J., & Diener, E. (2005). Most people are pretty happy, but there is cultural variation: The Inughuit, the Amish, and the Maasai. Journal of Happiness Studies, 6, 205–226. 4. Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 403–425. 5. Diener, E., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2008). Happiness: Unlocking the mysteries of the psychological wealth. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. 6. Hansson, A., Hillerås, P., & Forsell, Y. (2005). Well-being in an adult Swedish population. Social Indicators Research, 74, 313–325. 7. Inglehart, R. (1997). Modernization and postmodernization: Cultural, economic and political change in 43 Societies. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 8. Inglehart, R., & Baker, W. E. (2000). Modernization, cultural change and the persistence of traditional values. American Sociological Review, 65, 19–55. economically secure, egalitarian and democratic society. While it is true that no country can automatically make its residents happy by enacting a law or a programme, it can create the conditions that allow people to be happy. 9. Johansson, J. (2008). Osteoartroosiga patsientide subjektiivne heaolu enne liigese endoproteesimist. [Subjective Well-Being of Osteoarthrosis Patients Before the Mounting of the Joint Endoprosthesis], Seminar paper, University of Tartu, Institute of Psychology. Manuscript. 10. Kuppens, P., Realo, A., & Diener, E. (2008). The role of positive and negative emotions in life satisfaction judgment across nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 66–75. 11. Lucas, R. E. (2007). Adaptation and the set-point model of subjective well-being: Does happiness change after major life events? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 75–78. 12. Lyubomirsky, S., King. L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855. 13. Okun, M. A., & George, L. K. (1984). Physician- and self-ratings of health, neuroticism and subjective well-being among men and women. Personality and Individual Differences, 5, 533–539. 14. Raidla, P., Hanson, M., Brinkman, K. (2007). Eesti rikaste TOP 500 – Kuraditosin miljardäri rohkem kui mullu. [TOP 500 Rich Estonians – Thirteen More Billionaires Than Last Year] Äripäev, November 23, 2007. online: http://www.ap3.ee/Default2. aspx?ArticleID=7d296789-9550-441c-bc66-36f05b1caf3f. 15. Realo, A. (2006). Mis paneb eestlase elust rõõmu tundma? [What Makes an Estonian Happy?] Horisont, 2, 24–28. 3.4. Typology of quality of life Previously, we looked at the current level of quality of life as well as its development over time on the basis of separate indicators relevant to shaping quality of life. Material well-being, having a job, social relations as well as general satisfaction and happiness with life proved to be the most important dimensions related to quality of life. Economic security has improved considerably over the last 15 years along with living conditions. In addition, the progress made with regard to objective indicators related to quality of life is reflected in people’s assessments of their satisfaction. Furthermore, the social ties that connect people have become stronger and there has been an increase in social activity. Individual quality of life, which consists of many different components, varies both in terms of the level of quality of life (high, low, medium) and substance. Thus the quality of life of different people may comprise different elements, the importance of which in the overall quality of life varies greatly. In order to provide a generalized characterization of the quality of life of Estonian residents, a cluster analysis was carried out based on the data of Integration of Estonian Society: Monitoring 2008. The analysis divided the respondents into several types of quality of life on the basis of eight attributes used for measuring quality of life (economic opportunities, satisfaction with one’s dwelling, satisfaction with the general material means of one’s family, satisfaction with family life and relations with friends, satisfaction with one’s own security, perceived social position, and perceived social involvement). An evaluation of different models revealed a four-type model to be the most appropriate for the purpose of interpreting the results of the cluster analysis. Estonian residents with a high quality of life. The first type of quality of life is characteristic of 37% of the population and indicates an equally high quality of life with regard to every attribute analyzed. The people who belong to this group have very good economic opportunities and are able to live on their incomes without any problems (a third of the people in this group live well at their current level of income and two thirds are able to cope); their satisfaction with all areas of life taken into consideration in the analysis (dwelling, security, family life, friends) is higher than 90%; they do not feel alienated from society and have a higher than average social position (66% place themselves between the 6 th and 10 th rung of the social ladder) (Figure 3.4.1.). Higher quality of life is also related to higher than average trust in social institutions, positive and optimistic attitudes towards Estonia’s current socioeconomic situation and prospects for future development, as well as a greater tendency to associate one’s life with Estonia (nearly ¾ do not wish to leave Estonia temporarily or permanently) and greater involvement in citizens’ associations. This group primarily includes younger people (more than half of all people aged below 40) and is more likely to include Estonians (more than 40% of all Estonians) than non-Estonians (23%). In terms of social status, high quality of life is characteristic of managers and special- 67 |
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Estonian Human Development Report
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Estonian Human Development Report T
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4.2. Ethnic differentiations in sat
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Preface This year, the Estonian Hum
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CHAPTER 1 Estonian Human Developmen
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Figure 1.1.3. Life expectancy in co
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Figure 1.2.2. Life expectancy at bi
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Page 32 and 33: 1.5. Changes in the Estonian Human
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Page 40 and 41: Figure 2.4.4. Various accidents, tr
Page 42 and 43: 2.5. Lifestyle and behaviour as a s
Page 44 and 45: Figure 2.5.5. Smoking in Estonia in
Page 46 and 47: Figure 2.6.1. Overview of the compo
Page 48 and 49: Table 2.6.2. Use of specialized med
Page 50 and 51: dren. The majority of services are
Page 52 and 53: Figure 2.8.2. How much a health dis
Page 54 and 55: 2.10. Policy recommendations aimed
Page 56 and 57: CHAPTER 3 Quality of life and life
Page 58 and 59: Table 3.2.1. Characteristics of liv
Page 60 and 61: Table 3.2.4. An assessment of the e
Page 62 and 63: Figure 3.2.4. Difference in the job
Page 64 and 65: Table 3.2.6. Agreement with stateme
Page 66 and 67: Figure 3.3.1. Satisfaction with lif
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Page 72 and 73: Figure 3.5.1. Percentage of teenage
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Page 76 and 77: Arieh A., Conti C., Kutsar D., Nicg
Page 78 and 79: Figure 3.6.2. Subjective quality of
Page 80 and 81: Pieper, A. Sixsmith, Care related q
Page 82 and 83: Figure 3.7.1. The placement of Euro
Page 84 and 85: Figure 4.2.1. Life satisfaction by
Page 86 and 87: Table 4.2.1. Factors forming genera
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Page 90 and 91: Figure 4.3.1. Changes in the assess
Page 92 and 93: Figure 4.3.4. Attitudes of the Esto
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Page 100 and 101: Figure 4.5.4. Certainty of Estonian
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Page 104 and 105: CHAPTER 5 Quality of life in a cons
Page 106 and 107: Figure 5.2.1. GDP and AIC per capit
Page 108 and 109: Figure 5.2.3. Distribution of consu
Page 110 and 111: Figure 5.2.4. Indexes of environmen
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Table 5.4.1. Who and what are the f
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Table 5.4.3. Young people’s asses
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Figure 5.4.6. Time spent on the con
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Table 5.4.6. The perception of prob
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5.6. Summary To briefly summarize t
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Table 6.2.1. Objective and subjecti
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Figure 6.2.4. Relationship between
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Figure 6.2.7. Difference between th
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Figure 6.3.1. GDP, government secto
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Figure 6.3.3. Employed 15-74-year-o
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Figure 6.3.8. Percentage of social
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References 1. Aaviksoo, A., G. Paat
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Figure 6.4.1. Labour market flexibi
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Figure 6.4.3. Creations of jobs ind
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Figure 6.4.5. Public expenditures o
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Figure 6.4.6. Ratio of the particip
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6.5. Cities as development engines
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Table 6.5.2. Existence of developme
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have been underfinanced or are not
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Table 7.1. Factors that favour and
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Table 7.2. Potential economic devel
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Authors Chapter 1 Ene-Margit Tiit,
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Margit Keller (PhD) is a Senior Res
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Special prizes Estonian Human Devel
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Estonian Human Development Report H
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Estonian Human Development Report H
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Honorable mentions Estonian Human D
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Estonian Human Development Report P
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Estonian Human Development Report A
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Estonian Human Development Report

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