Estonian Human Development Report

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Figure 2.5.5. Smoking in Estonia in 1990–2006 60 50 40 30 20 45 28 15 49 34 19 52 36 24 48 33 22 10 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 Source: Health behaviour study of adults 2006 Figure 2.5.6. 15-year-olds who started smoking when they were 13 or younger 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Estonia Latvia Lithuania Finland United Kingdom Source: HBSC 42 29 20 Men Women Total ure 2.5.5.). In the Eastern European context, this is a middling result, while in developed Western European countries men tend to smoke less (34%) and women more (25%) than in Estonia (WHO 2002). With regard to the quality of life, a very important change occurred in 2006 which affected the time spent in smoke-filled rooms in the workplace: the percentage of respondents who come into contact with smoke at work has fallen from 54% to 22% among adult men (ages 16–64) and from 30% to 8% among women when compared with 1992 (Tekkel et al. 2007). At home, contact with smoke has decreased during the same time period from 49% to 34% in the case of men and from 47% to 30% in the case of women (ibid). In 2006, 40% of men and 30% of women in Estonia spent time in smoke-filled public spaces on a daily basis, although the amount of time spent in such environments was less than one hour per day in most cases (ibid). People usually start smoking at a young age. A significant percentage of smokers report that they started smoking and already became addicted in their youth. Health problems caused by smoking are related to the length and intensity of one’s smoking habit. It is a public health objective to prevent or at least postpone smoking among young people. The longer smoking can be postponed, the less likely people are to become addicted. On the one hand, the number of young people in Estonia who are experimenting with tobacco as well as those who are regular smokers has decreased significantly both among both boys and girls compared to the last ESPAD study (ESPAD, 2008). On the other hand, both Estonian 44 29 20 44 28 18 USA 48 33 21 Boys Girls 41 28 20 Iceland boys and girls tend to start smoking earlier than their peers in other countries. In Estonia, 43% of girls and 65% of boys started smoking when they were 13 or younger (Figure 2.5.6.) (HBSC 2005/2006). Young people themselves consider smoking to be very harmful to their health, and this opinion has become increasingly widespread in recent years. Nearly three quarters of young people thought that if they only smoked cigarettes occasionally, the risk to their health would be low to medium. The health risk associated with regular smoking (a pack a day or more) was considered high by the young respondents. Among girls, 78% considered the risk of regular smoking to be high, while 63% of the boys thought the same. The damage associated with smoking is sometimes considered even more serious than the damage connected to experimenting with illegal drugs (ESPAD, 2008). This is a result not only of a massive explanation campaign, but also of the transference of interest in experimentation, characteristic of young people, to addictive substances other than tobacco. Drugs According to data gathered in 2006, 25% of Estonian residents aged 15–64 had experimented with cannabis. Experimentation was most common among the 16–24 age group where 50% of men and 29% of women reported having tried cannabis (Tekkel et al. 2007). According to a study conducted in 2005, there are approximately 13,800 injecting drug users in Estonia, 62% of whom are HIV positive. Since the 1960s, the use of both legal and illegal drugs has increased among the school students of all developed countries of Europe and most developed countries in the rest of the world. However, the indicators related to young people in Estonia surpass the average European figures in several cases (ESPAD 2008). A large percentage of Estonian youth aged 15–16 smoke, drink, and experiment with illegal narcotics (ESPAD, 2008). The previously fast growth in this trend has slowed in recent years, however. The experimentation with drugs, including alcohol, in Estonia is affected by the comparatively low price of the substances and their easy accessibility. Yet, after the fast increase in 1995–2003, which resulted in young people in Estonia passing the average European indicators with regard to addictive substance use, there has been no further significant growth in the number of users/experimenters according to 2007 study results. To the contrary, the percentage of users of legal drugs as well as some illegal drugs has fallen, despite still being higher than the European average (ESPAD). The percentage of people experimenting with illegal drugs has increased compared to 2003, but long-term trends indicate that the rate of growth has slowed down. The drug used by the largest share of teenagers is still cannabis, and an increasing number of school students buy their first drug from a friend. Similarly, there has been an increase in tolerance regarding drug use – the percentage of young people who are successful at school and have experimented with illegal drugs has grown. In some Estonian regions, including larger cities and the surroundings of the capital, the percentage of young people experimenting with drugs is even higher than that of excessive alcohol consumers. As an interesting change, the percentage of people who experiment with illegal drugs has decreased | 42
significantly among Russian-speaking youth in recent years, while the corresponding percentage among Estonian-speaking youth has increased noticeably (ESPAD). In most countries, the percentage of cannabis users among young people falls between 10% and 20%. The indicators of 14 countries fall inside the 20–30% interval (including Estonia, where 31% of boys and 19% of girls have consumed cannabis) (Figure 2.5.7.). Cannabis use is not connected to the wealth of one’s family in most countries. Sexual behaviour Figure 2.5.7. Percentage of 15-year-olds who have consumed cannabis in Estonia as compared to some other countries 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 The incidence and distribution of sexually transmitted disease cases shows a growing trend, both among young people as well as other age groups. Young people are also a risk group with regard to HIV/AIDS, as approximately 25% of all new cases are diagnosed among those who are 21 or younger. The use of condoms is widely recognized as an effective method for avoiding the spreading of sexually transmitted diseases (including HIV/AIDS), although the inconsistent use of prophylactics increases the danger of contracting sexually transmitted diseases as well as unwanted pregnancies. Condoms are the most common type of contraceptive among young people. The tendency for risky sexual behaviour has fallen somewhat in the case of young people in recent years. A comparison of the data for 2005 and 2003, for example, indicates that the percentage of young men who have had sex with more than one partner during the past year has decreased in all age groups (ages 14–29) and the percentage of young women who have had more than one sexual partner in the past years has decreased in the 14–18 age group. Furthermore, condom use has increased across all age groups in the case of both young men and women. Young people in the 16–18 age group were most likely to use a condom when having sex for the first time (nearly 75%), while young people aged 25–29 were the least likely to use one (approximately 40%); about 60% of all respondents used a condom during their first sexual intercourse with a new partner in the 14–15 and 19–24 age groups (Lõhmus & Trummal, 2007). On the other hand, a comparison of the same sets of data from 2005 and 2003 reveals that the number of young people who have had a sexual relationship with a random partner has increased. The percentage of young people who consistently use condoms has increased among the 16–18 age group. However, the percentage of those who always use a condom when having sex with random partners has fallen in the three other age groups. According to the comparison of the two years, the share of 14–15-year-olds who used a condom every time when having sex with their stable part- Switzerland Source: HBSC 2005/2006 Boys Girls USA ESTONIA Latvia Lithuania Finland Sweden Figure 2.5.8. Percentage of 15-year-olds who used a condom during their last sexual intercourse in Estonia as compared to some other countries 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Spain ESTONIA United Kingdom Source: HBSC 2005/2006 Boys Girls Latvia Lithuania Germany Finland Sweden ner during the past 12 months has decreased by 12%, while the corresponding figure for young adults (ages 19–29) has remained the same (Lõhmus & Trummal, 2007). In international comparison, young people in Estonia are more rational than most with regard to sexual behaviour (Figure 2.5.8.). The highest percentage of youth used a condom during their last sexual intercourse in Spain (89%) and the lowest percentage used a condom in Sweden (65%). Among Estonian respondents, 88% of the boys and 81% of the girls confirmed having used a condom during their last sexual intercourse. Boys generally report having used a condom during their last sexual intercourse more frequently than girls (HBSC 2005/2006). 2.6. Health services and their availability Health services are a set of all public and private organizations, institutions and resources devoted primarily to improving, maintaining and restoring health. Health systems include services aimed both at private individuals and the public, as well as activities for influencing the policies and arrangements of other fields in order for the latter to take into account social, environmental and economic health factors (WHO 2007). A graphic depiction of the health system’s different levels is provided in Figure 2.6.1. Personal services include both medical and public 43 |
Page 1 and 2: Estonian Human Development Report
Page 3 and 4: Estonian Human Development Report T
Page 5: 4.2. Ethnic differentiations in sat
Page 9: Preface This year, the Estonian Hum
Page 12 and 13: CHAPTER 1 Estonian Human Developmen
Page 14 and 15: Figure 1.1.3. Life expectancy in co
Page 16 and 17: Figure 1.2.2. Life expectancy at bi
Page 18 and 19: to reality. The greatest inaccuracy
Page 20 and 21: Figure 1.2.9. Internal migration ev
Page 22 and 23: 12. Marksoo, A. 1992. “Dynamics o
Page 24 and 25: Table 1.3.1. PISA 2006 study result
Page 26 and 27: Table 1.3.2. Number of students in
Page 28 and 29: 1.4. The gross domestic product and
Page 30 and 31: Figure 1.4.3. Estonian GDP (right a
Page 32 and 33: 1.5. Changes in the Estonian Human
Page 34 and 35: 2.2. Health of Estonian residents i
Page 36 and 37: Table 2.2.4. Differences in life ex
Page 38 and 39: Figure 2.4.1. Healthy life years of
Page 40 and 41: Figure 2.4.4. Various accidents, tr
Page 42 and 43: 2.5. Lifestyle and behaviour as a s
Page 46 and 47: Figure 2.6.1. Overview of the compo
Page 48 and 49: Table 2.6.2. Use of specialized med
Page 50 and 51: dren. The majority of services are
Page 52 and 53: Figure 2.8.2. How much a health dis
Page 54 and 55: 2.10. Policy recommendations aimed
Page 56 and 57: CHAPTER 3 Quality of life and life
Page 58 and 59: Table 3.2.1. Characteristics of liv
Page 60 and 61: Table 3.2.4. An assessment of the e
Page 62 and 63: Figure 3.2.4. Difference in the job
Page 64 and 65: Table 3.2.6. Agreement with stateme
Page 66 and 67: Figure 3.3.1. Satisfaction with lif
Page 68 and 69: Figure 3.3.4. Percentage of people
Page 70 and 71: Figure 3.4.1. Types of quality of l
Page 72 and 73: Figure 3.5.1. Percentage of teenage
Page 74 and 75: Figure 3.5.4. Percentage of respond
Page 76 and 77: Arieh A., Conti C., Kutsar D., Nicg
Page 78 and 79: Figure 3.6.2. Subjective quality of
Page 80 and 81: Pieper, A. Sixsmith, Care related q
Page 82 and 83: Figure 3.7.1. The placement of Euro
Page 84 and 85: Figure 4.2.1. Life satisfaction by
Page 86 and 87: Table 4.2.1. Factors forming genera
Page 88 and 89: Annexes Annex 4.2.1. Socio-demograp
Page 90 and 91: Figure 4.3.1. Changes in the assess
Page 92 and 93: Figure 4.3.4. Attitudes of the Esto
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olds considered themselves to be pa
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Table 4.4.3. Agreement of the Russi
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Table 4.5.2. The prospects of non-E
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Figure 4.5.4. Certainty of Estonian
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mote equal opportunities. At the (e
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CHAPTER 5 Quality of life in a cons
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Figure 5.2.1. GDP and AIC per capit
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Figure 5.2.3. Distribution of consu
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Figure 5.2.4. Indexes of environmen
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Table 5.3.1. Comparison of countrie
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Figure 5.3.3. Comparison of types o
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Table 5.3.5. Connections between po
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Table 5.4.1. Who and what are the f
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Table 5.4.3. Young people’s asses
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Figure 5.4.6. Time spent on the con
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Table 5.4.6. The perception of prob
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5.6. Summary To briefly summarize t
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Table 6.2.1. Objective and subjecti
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Figure 6.2.4. Relationship between
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Figure 6.2.7. Difference between th
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Figure 6.3.1. GDP, government secto
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Figure 6.3.3. Employed 15-74-year-o
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Figure 6.3.8. Percentage of social
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References 1. Aaviksoo, A., G. Paat
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Figure 6.4.1. Labour market flexibi
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Figure 6.4.3. Creations of jobs ind
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Figure 6.4.5. Public expenditures o
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Figure 6.4.6. Ratio of the particip
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6.5. Cities as development engines
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Table 6.5.2. Existence of developme
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have been underfinanced or are not
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Table 7.1. Factors that favour and
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Table 7.2. Potential economic devel
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Authors Chapter 1 Ene-Margit Tiit,
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Margit Keller (PhD) is a Senior Res
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Special prizes Estonian Human Devel
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Estonian Human Development Report H
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Estonian Human Development Report H
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Estonian Human Development Report T
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Honorable mentions Estonian Human D
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Estonian Human Development Report P
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Estonian Human Development Report A
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Estonian Human Development Report T
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Estonian Human Development Report

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