Status of Coral Reefs of the World 2000

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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000 Given the extensive urbanisation of coastal areas in Hawaii, the number of motor vehicles used on these small islands, and the channelisation of streams and storm drains into nearshore reef environments, the introduction of toxic chemicals (heavy metals, oils, PCBs, PAHs, tributyltin, pesticides and herbicides) in nearshore environments has the potential to affect biodiversity and fisheries stocks. High concentrations of dieldrin and chlordane were found in oyster tissues sampled near stream mouths in Kane’ohe Bay in 1991, five years after their use was banned in Hawaii. In the NWHI, lead and PCBs have been detected in monk seals, possibly resulting from decaying seawalls at French Frigate Shoals and from dumps established by the U. S. Coast Guard in the past. As a response to increasing shore-based chemical spills (e.g. sulphuric acid, PCBs, and refrigerants), the Hawaii Coral Reef Emergency Response Team (HCRERT) is being created to help assess impacts of these events to the environment. Sediment and Runoff Sedimentation from runoff continues to be a chronic problem throughout the MHI as a result of poor land-use practices upslope of reefs. Sediment runoff is estimated at more than 1 million tons per year from agricultural, ranching, urban and industrial activities. ‘Slash and burn’ agriculture (sugar and pineapple) has decreased, and alternatives such as coffee, macadamia, cocoa and fruit trees may also result in a long-term decrease in sedimentation. This decrease, along with the relatively rapid removal of sediments along exposed coasts into deep water by strong current and wave action, will improve conditions for reef growth in the coming decades. Stream channeling, and paving of coastal and upland areas has also contributed to urban impacts on reefs. Two major freshwater kills of corals occurred in Kane’ohe Bay, O’ahu in 1965 and 1987 from ‘100 year storms’. Salinity within 1-2m of the surface was reduced to less than half (15ppt) for 2-3 days, causing mass mortality of corals and invertebrates on shallow reefs. Ship Groundings With over 16,000 commercial and recreational vessels registered in Hawaii, and numerous others passing through the islands, groundings are a persistent problem. A long-line fishing vessel ran aground on a fringing reef of Kaua’i in 1999 and portions of the vessel still remain; no restitution for damage was made. Large inter-island cruise ships make over 400 port calls a year; such traffic is expected to triple in the next 4 years and with it the potential for groundings and spills. Although longline fishing vessels are not allowed to operate within a 50-mile zone around the NWHI, two have run aground on these pristine reefs in the past couple years. Tourism and Leisure These constitute the largest industry, employer and revenue generator in Hawaii, with marine tourism bringing in over US$800 million per year and employing over 7,000 people in over 1000 small businesses. Rodale’s Scuba Diving Magazine rated Hawaii as one of the 5 most popular diving destinations in the world, with the small islet of Molokini (and its 1km 2 coral reef) being rated as the third best dive site in the world for the year 2000. Damage from tourism activities includes: boating impacts; coastal developments; and overuse of reef resources by commercial dive and snorkel tours. These concerns have triggered limitations on carrying capacity in Hanauma Bay, and restrictions on mooring permits for Molokini e.g. 40 commercial tour boats may be moored at one time. Anchor 228
Status of Coral Reefs in the Hawaiian Archipelago damage has been reduced at major dive sites through the installation of day-use mooring buoys by the government and dive industry. New technologies such as tourist submarines, underwater propulsion units, ‘seawalkers’ (a type of surface-supplied helmet rig), and rebreathers are being introduced without assessment of their potential impacts. Currently there is insufficient monitoring to assess damage and the marine parks do not have resident rangers or managers. In contrast, tourism activity is minimal in the NWHI. However, the fragile nature of these small reef areas is evidenced by observations that populations of large jacks appear to have been reduced compared to unfished reefs, although the number of visitors are limited and a catch-and-release fishery is encouraged at Midway Atoll. Urbanisation Most (85%) of the State’s growing resident population resides on O’ahu and Maui. Many segments of coastlines have been extensively altered by filling of reef flats for coastal development and airstrips, dredging of ship channels and harbours, and construction of seawalls. This has resulted in a loss of coastal wetlands and estuaries, which were important fish nurseries. Modifications have increased erosion rates and sedimentation. In contrast, the only recent construction in the NWHI was a Naval Air Station on Midway Atoll and other modifications for military use. CURRENT AND POTENTIAL CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS Because the location of the Hawaiian chain is favoured by oceanic gyres and deep water surrounding all the islands, these are predicted to be among the last reefs to experience major bleaching events. There were declines in seabirds, monk seals, reef fishes, and phytoplankton in the NWHI in the 1980s, which may have resulted from regional decreases in oceanic productivity caused by climate shifts or decadal oscillations. Early indications suggest that NWHI populations may now be in recovery. CURRENT MPAS, MONITORING AND CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT CAPACITY Current MPAs Hawaiians traditionally closed areas to fishing (kapu) to ensure catches for special events or as replenishment areas for regular fishing grounds. Several types of protected status exist today for Hawaiian reefs, including: Marine Life Conservation Districts (MLCDs); Fisheries Management Areas (FMAs); Marine Laboratory Refuge; Natural Area Reserves (NARs); and National Wildlife Refuges. Several no-take MLCDs have proven to increase fish standing stocks, and some less restrictive MLCDs have provided limited protection from fishing, but fish populations have not increased significantly. Other MLCDs are popular tourist destinations featuring fish-feeding and large-scale commercial activities. A FMA on the Kona Coast restricts collecting for the ornamental trade and has increasing stocks of targeted fish species compared to nearby unprotected areas. 229
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World:
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FOREWORD Over the past few years, I
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CONTENTS COUNTRIES, STATES AND TERR
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COUNTRIES, STATES AND TERRITORIES A
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Countries, States and Territories T
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY CLIVE WILKINSON T
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Executive Summary CORAL BLEACHING I
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Executive Summary South Asia Most r
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Executive Summary parts of Fiji and
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Executive Summary management and mo
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Executive Summary tourism developme
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Executive Summary problem is loomin
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6. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN SOUTH A
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Status of Coral Reefs in South Asia
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8. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF EAST AN
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Status of Coral Reefs of East and N
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9. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF AUSTRAL
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Status of Coral Reefs of Australasi
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10. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE SO
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Status of Coral Reefs in the Southw
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17. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE EA
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Status of Coral Reefs in the Easter
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18. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN SOUTHE
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Status of Coral Reefs in Southern T
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19. SPONSORING ORGANISATIONS, CORAL
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Sponsoring Organisations, Coral Ree
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LIST OF ACRONYMS AGRRA AIMS ASEAN B
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