Status of Coral Reefs of the World 2000

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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000 ANTHROPOGENIC THREATS TO CORAL REEF BIODIVERSITY Anthropogenic pressures are high on coral reefs of the MHI because most reefs are close to urban centres, but impacts are variable: Alien Species At least 19 species of macroalgae have been introduced to O’ahu since 1950 with 4 of these being highly successful and now prevalent throughout the MHI. One alien species, Kappaphycus alvarezii, is overgrowing and killing corals in Kane’ohe Bay, some invertebrates have also been introduced, but there are no reports of damage to coral reefs. At least 13 species of marine fishes have been introduced, mostly target species of fishers (6 groupers, 4 snappers, and 1 emperor), with the blueline (Lutjanus kasmira) and blacktail (Lutjanus fulvus) snapper, and the bluespotted grouper (Cephalopholis argus) being the most successful and damaging fish introductions. Other introductions include sardines, herrings, mullet, tilapia and goatfish, which are displacing local species. Destructive Fishing Practices Dynamite and cyanide fishing are not problems in Hawaii, but there have been recent cases of chlorine being used to capture lobster or fish. This is highly damaging as it destroys the habitat for all species. Long gill nets are used extensively throughout the Hawaiian Islands and cause localised depletion of fish stocks, including endangered species as bycatch (sea turtles, Hawaiian monk seals), and continual damage to fragile coral colonies through nets being lost, abandoned, or improperly used. State laws require that nets be checked every 2 hours and removed after 4 hours. Eutrophication In the MHI, high nutrient levels are known to encourage algal blooms, which can out compete and overgrow living corals. Algal blooms have been a recurring problem on reef flats off the southern and western coasts of Maui for almost 10 years; Hypnea, Sargassum, Dictyota and Cladophora have all dominated reef flat areas at various times, presumably due to leaching of nutrients from cesspools, injection wells or other non-point sources. The Federal Clean Water Act requires a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination (NPDES) permit for any pollutant discharged into nearshore waters, and the Hawaii Coastal Zone Management Program and the Hawaii Department of Health are developing a pollution control plan to address discharges not covered under NPDES permits. Marine Debris Marine debris from beach goers, storm drains, industrial facilities and waste disposal sites is common on reefs and shores throughout the MHI. In the last 10 years, the amount of derelict fishing gear washing ashore has increased e.g. in 1998, a 3 day community clean up removed over 3,000kg of nets and debris from Kane’ohe Bay and Wai’anae waters. The major marine debris problem in the NWHI is from derelict fishing gear, including drift nets, trawls, traps and lines. These result in dislodging and breaking of coral colonies, and entangling and killing of seabirds, monk seals, turtles and fish. Drifting marine debris may also serve as a vector for alien species introductions. In 1998 and 1999, NMFS lead multiagency project teams which removed 39 tons of marine debris from French Frigate Shoals, 226
Status of Coral Reefs in the Hawaiian Archipelago Stress and (score) Hawaii Maui O’ahu Kauai NWHI Overfishing (18) 4 4 5 3 2 Coastal Alteration (16) 4 4 5 3 0 Tourism (15) 3 4 4 2 2 Alien Species (13) 2 4 5 1 1 Urbanisation (14) 2 4 5 3 0 Marine Ornamental (14) 4 3 4 2 1 Trade Sedimentation (12) 1 4 4 3 0 Pollution (12) 2 3 4 2 1 Destructive Fishing (10) 2 2 3 2 1 Hurricanes (10) 2 2 2 3 1 Oil Spills (9) 1 1 3 2 2 Climate Change (5) 1 1 1 1 1 Coral Bleaching (5) 1 1 2 1 0 Acanthaster planci (1) 0 1 0 0 0 TOTAL IMPACT 33 42 52 31 14 12 RATINGS This is a summary to the major causes of coral reef degradation in the US NE Pacific with 0 = no threat; 1 = low threat; 2 = localised low threat; 3 = average threat; 4 = localised major threat;5 = general major threat. Lisianski, Pearl & Hermes and Midway. It is estimated that over 4,000 tons of marine debris still remain in the NWHI. Military Impacts The island of Kaho’olawe was used as a military firing and bombing range, which contributed to extensive sedimentation and debris on nearby reef areas. The island is now managed by the Kaho’olawe Island Reserve Commission (KIRC) which is assessing damage and cleaning up debris. Kaula Rock, a small islet located off the southern tip of the island of Ni’ihau, is currently used as a live-firing and bombing target by the US military. Military amphibious vessels have run aground on reefs off the windward side of O’ahu, and last year (1999) a large military troop vessel smashed into a patch reef in Kane’ohe Bay. As with most ship groundings in the MHI, no penalties were assessed or paid. Installation of a US Navy-supported low frequency transmitter near Kaua’i is raising concerns about possible behavioural disruptions to reef fish, turtles, monk seals and humpback whales. Oil and Chemical Spills Hawaii has been increasingly reliant on imported crude oil (52 billion barrels/year) for electricity generation and transportation. Large tankers use MHI ports that are immediately adjacent to coral reefs, and there was a 200% increase in the number of oil spills between 1980 to 1990. While 40% of reported spills are small, larger spills have resulted from ship groundings or offloading accidents. In a recent case, an oil spill near O’ahu caused reef damage when it washed ashore 75 miles northwest on Kaua’i. Recent oil spills in the NWHI are almost entirely due to groundings of fishing vessels on the isolated atolls. The October 1998 grounding of a 25m fishing vessel at Kure Atoll released over half of its 11,000 gallons of diesel onto the shallow reef environment. 227
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FOREWORD Over the past few years, I
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CONTENTS COUNTRIES, STATES AND TERR
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COUNTRIES, STATES AND TERRITORIES A
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Countries, States and Territories T
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY CLIVE WILKINSON T
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Executive Summary CORAL BLEACHING I
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Executive Summary South Asia Most r
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Executive Summary parts of Fiji and
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Executive Summary management and mo
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Executive Summary tourism developme
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Executive Summary problem is loomin
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6. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN SOUTH A
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Status of Coral Reefs in South Asia
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8. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF EAST AN
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Status of Coral Reefs of East and N
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9. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF AUSTRAL
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Status of Coral Reefs of Australasi
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10. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE SO
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17. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE EA
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Status of Coral Reefs in the Easter
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18. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN SOUTHE
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Status of Coral Reefs in Southern T
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19. SPONSORING ORGANISATIONS, CORAL
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Sponsoring Organisations, Coral Ree
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LIST OF ACRONYMS AGRRA AIMS ASEAN B
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