MOUNTAIN GEOMORPHOLOGY - Department of Geography

CATENA vol. 18, p. 427-437 Cremlingen 1991 ! 

Summary 

MOUNTAIN GEOMORPHOLOGY: 

A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR 

MEASUREMENT PROGRAMMES 

Ten distinctive mountain geomorphic 

systems, identified on the basis of struc- 

tural elements and spatial scale, are con- 

sidered. Questions and approaches to 

measurement programmes that are most 

appropriate to each system are discussed 

with the aid of illustrative examples from 

the literature. 

1 Introduction 

Numerous hierarchical classification sys- 

tems of geomorphological features are 

available (e.g. TRICART 1965, CHOR- 

LEY et al. 1984, SELBY 1985). Tab. 1 

is a summary of a variety of such sys- 

tems. Because mountain geomorphology 

is a "regional component within geomor- 

phology" (BARSCH & CAINE 1984) 

distinctive mountain geomorphic signals 

can be anticipated at the macro- and 

mesoscale only the gigascales are too 

large to resolve mountain responses and 

micro and nano scales are too small. 

Because this volume concerns the geo- 

morphology of unstable regions, a typol- 

ogy of geomorphic systems is helpful as 

a starting point for considering appro- 

ISSN 0341-8162 

@1991 by CATENA VERLAG, 

W-3302 Cremlingen-Destedt, Germany 

0341 8162/91/5011851/US$ 2.00 + 0.25 

O. Slaymaker, Vancouver 

('A'[ [INA An Interdisciplinary 3ournaJ of.SOIL SCIENCE HYDROLOGY GEOMORPHOLOGY 

priate measurement programmes. The 

typology of CHORLEY & KENNEDY 

(1971) modified to include an additional 

category of "morphologic evolutionary" 

systems, is adopted here (fig. 1). We 

have thereby defined ten geomorphic 

systems (five categories at each of two 

scales). Different questions and measure- 

ment programmes may be appropriate 

for each system, though it is recognized 

that the system categories are abstrac- 

tions and that, in the field, considerable 

overlap of systems is evident. 

Tab. 2 identifies the ten mountain geo- 

morphic systems of interest as follows' 

a. Macro and mesoscale morpholog- 

ical systems i.e. systems that are 

characterized by their morphologi- 

cal properties and the interrelation- 

ship between these properties. 

b. Macro and mesoscale morphologic 

evolutionary systems i.e. systems 

that are characterized by morpho- 

logical properties that are associated 

with more than one period of for- 

mation. 

c. Macro and mesoscale cascading sys- 

tems i.e. systems that are character- 

ized by flow of mass or energy. 

d. Macro and mesoscale process-re- 

sponse systems i.e. systems that

428 Slaymaker 

are characterized by the relation- 

ship between the cascades of mass 

or energy and resulting morpholog- 

ical properties. 

e. Macro and mesoscale control systems 

i.e. systems that are characterized by 

the way in which process-response 

systems can be manipulated by the 

application of intelligence. 

1. morphological system 

2. morphologic evolutionary system 

~ T2 

3. cascading system 

4. process-response system 

5. control system 

Fig. 1: Typology of geomorphic systems. 

2 Macroscale morphological 

systems 

These systems are characterized by their 

morphological properties and the in- 

terrelationship between these properties. 

The use of orbital remote sensing sys- 

tems has transformed our ability to make 

measurements of whole mountain sys- 

tems and to characterize their morphol- 

ogy (tab. 2). Analysis of regional distinc- 

tives of mountain morphology in rela- 

tion to the major continental plates, the 

discovery of fault lines previously unsus- 

pected and the ability to resolve broad 

landform and river network associations 

have generated new questions in geo- 

morphology (SHORT & BLAIR 1986). 

As BAKER has pointed out (SHORT & 

BLAIR 1986) "geomorphology is being 

stimulated by the need to explain enig- 

matic landscapes". 

Questions characteristically asked of 

these systems concern the nature of the 

mountain region, its relief, the concavity, 

convexity or straightness of its slopes, the 

geometry of its drainage networks, and 

the morphology of geomorphic surfaces 

both erosional and aggradational. 

Applications are found in the explo- 

ration of planetary and mountain re- 

sources (SHORT & BLAIR 1986). Mea- 

surement programmes that are likely to 

yield the richest scientific returns in un- 

derstanding geomorphic systems such as 

these must take advantage of satellite 

technology and could usefully locus on 

contrasting the morphological character- 

istics of mountain systems at plate mar- 

gins with those in plate interiors. 

CATENA An Interdisciplinary Journal of SOIL SCIENCE HYDROLOGY (;EOMORP[IOLO(;y

Mountain Geomorphology, Framework for Measurement 429 

Tricart Order Spatial Scale 

Verbal Time Scale Characteristic Units 

m 2 

km 2 

Persistence (yrs) 

1~4 

59 

10 

10 2 _ 10 8 

10 1o _ 10-2 

10 ts_ 10 lO 

> 108 Giga 

102 - 108 Macro 

10 -8 - 102 Meso 

10 16 I0 8 Micro 

10 24_10 16 Nano 

? 

107-.- 

10 2 _ 10 6 

Planets and Galaxies 

Tectonic Units, Orogens, 

Physiographic Regions, 

Planetary Surfaces 

Pools and Riffles, Deltas, 

Hillslopes, 

Zero order Basins 

Clay Particles, Pores, 

Striations, Ripples 

Atomic Structure 

Tab. 1 : A hierarchical classification of geomorphological .features. 

Macroscale Appropriate Mesoscale Appropriate 

System Category Example Approaches to Example Approaches to 

Measurements Measurements 

Morphological 1. Regional Remote sensing 2. Terrain and Mapping and 

geomorphic and land systems air photos 

tectonic framework analysis 

Zero order basins 

Morphologic 3. Relief evolution Surface 4. Kinematics of Surface 

evolutionary and paleoenvironmental chronology landform change chronology 

reconstruction Sediments Sediments 

Geochronology Geochronology 

Cascading 5. Regional water, Monitoring 6. Basin water, Monitoring 

solute and sediment solute, sediment Pathway 

budgets budgets identification 

Storage volumes 

Process-response 7. Energy input Physical models 8. Process Experiments 

and landform response Neotectonics studies Strength of 

response 

Control 9. Global change Environmental 10. Geomorphic Mapping and 

management and indicators hazards zoning 

prediction Global Climate Magnitude 

Models frequency analysis 

Tab. 2: Mountain geomorphic systems and appropriate approaches to measurement. 

CAI'ENA An Interdisciplinary Journal of SOIL SCIENCE HYDROLOGY GEOMORPHOLOGY

430 Slaymaker 

3 Mesoscale morphological 

systems 

Zero-order drainage basins, slopes and 

river reaches constitute typical systems 

at this scale. Measurements from dig- 

itized aerial imagery make possible de- 

tailed characterization of morphology. 

Topographic boundaries between adja- 

cent systems can be more rapidly and 

cheaply determined from the air than by 

land based surveying techniques. At this 

scale, measurements need to be made 

from specially flown imagery or balloon 

carried platforms (eg. HOGAN 1987) to 

ensure the appropriate resolution. At- 

tempts to describe the arrangement of 

large organic debris in the steep river 

channels of the mountains of the Pacific 

Northwest have been intensified during 

the 1980's. In earlier work the organic 

debris was often ignored on the assump- 

tion that the gravel and finer sediments 

were the only channel forming materials 

in transit; with the growing recognition 

of the importance of large organic de- 

bris in regulating the hydrology and the 

morphology of mountain rivers, atten- 

tion has turned to ways of describing 

and measuring its regularities (ROBIN- 

SON & BESCHTA 1990). 

The new interest in zero order 

drainage basins which occurred in the 

1980's (see DIETRICH et al. 1987) 

is another interesting example of the 

importance of measuring morphological 

systems. These same features are re- 

ferred to by a variety of other names, 

the most common of which is colluvium 

filled bedrock depressions (CROZIER et 

al. 1990). During the 1960's and 1970's 

much work was done on drainage basin 

morphometry using stream ordering sys- 

tems that designated all channels down 

to the size of the smallest finger tip trib- 

utary. It was then recognized that one 

of the most dynamic parts of a moun- 

tain basin both hydrologically and ge- 

omorphically is the topographic hollow 

that lies upstream of the smallest fin- 

ger tip tributary i.e. the zero order 

drainage basin. Subsequently, measure- 

ment programmes to characterize such 

basins have been developed (FRANK & 

THORN 1985). 

Questions characteristically asked of 

these systems, which include terrain and 

land systems at this scale, concern the 

topographic roughness, the homogene- 

ity of the units identified, the physical 

arrangement of the various landform el- 

ements and the relationship between alti- 

tude (z), gradient (z') and convexity (z"). 

Some questions of precision and accu- 

racy have been explored (eg. SMITH & 

CAMPBELL 1989) but it is evident that 

more attention should be paid to such 

problems by geomorphologists (CHOR- 

LEY 1972). 

Applications are found in terms of re- 

gional mapping programmes, land use 

allocation and resource inventory. Ad- 

equate characterization of system mor- 

phology is also a basis fi~r interpretation 

of system behaviour. 

4 Macroscale morphologic 

evolutionary systems 

These systems are characterized by mor- 

phological properties that are associated 

with more than one period of formation. 

Relief evolution and paleoenvironmen- 

tal reconstruction of whole mountain re- 

gions focusses on late Quaternary and 

Holocene periods in mountains at plate 

margins (eg. FORT 1980 and PORTER 

1982) and earlier Quaternary or even 

Cambrian periods in plate interiors (eg. 

(ATENA An Interdisciplinary Journal of SOIL SCIEN(I HYDROLOGY (~EOMORPHOI~DGY

Mountain Geomorphology, Framework For Measurement 431 

STEWART et al. 1986). 

A whole range of measurements in- 

volving erosion surface identification and 

stratigraphic correlation plus standard 

geochronologic technique is appropriate 

for investigating these systems. Char- 

acteristically, this kind of investigation 

involves pursuing a series of evidences, 

frequently located at some distance from 

each other, and collating the evidence 

to produce a most probable evolutionary 

scenario. 

The crux problem is that the evidence 

is discontinuous over space and time; it 

resembles a series of snapshots taken at 

different times and (commonly) at dif- 

ferent locations within the system. Nev- 

ertheless, during the 1980's interest in 

such systems has increased enormously, 

possibly for two main reasons. Power- 

ful dating tools have become available, 

thereby making possible the accumula- 

tion of larger numbers of dated snap- 

shots; but possibly more important is the 

sense of urgency induced by the growing 

awareness of global change and a be- 

lief that the Quaternary and especially 

the Holocene contain the best climatic 

analogues that will allow us to inter- 

pret likely future environmental changes. 

Hence an interest in paleoenvironmental 

reconstruction at a global and mountain 

system scale. 

PENCK (1919) used this framework 

by systematically exploring the distribu- 

tion of summit accordances in the Alps; 

WALCOTT (1984) has demonstrated the 

kinematics of the plate boundary zone 

in New Zealand. Questions character- 

istically asked for these systems con- 

cern representative relief evolutionary se- 

quences over time and the variety of 

former mountain environments that has 

occurred during the Quaternary and in 

earlier geological time. 

CA1 ENA An Interdisciplinary Journal of SOIL SCIENCE HYDROLOGY GEOMORPHOLOGY 

Applications are found in mineral 

prospecting and in global change pre- 

diction. 

5 Mesoseale morphologie 

evolutionary systems 

These systems provide valuable data on 

the kinematics of landform change i.e. 

sequential form change without compre- 

hensive measurement of energy changes. 

Traditional studies of glacial history and 

terrace chronology in individual basins 

fall into this category. Increased empha- 

sis on soil stratigraphy, sedimentation in 

lake basins and new dating techniques 

(eg. BIRKELAND 1984, SOUCH & 

SLAYMAKER 1986, GASCOYNE et al. 

1983, and TONKIN et al. 1981). Al- 

though these systems are, by definition, 

discontinuous over time, in that datable 

evidence is preserved from certain peri- 

ods only, they are more tractable than 

the macroscale systems because evidence 

is more continuous over space. For ex- 

ample, soil, ash and sedimentation hori- 

zons, as well as terraces and erosion sur- 

faces, can usually be traced throughout 

the system investigated. 

The interpretation of misfit streams 

and the subject of river metamorphosis 

in general (SCHUMM 1977) illustrates 

the central problem of such systems. If 

the change of behaviour occurred in one 

step jump, then the presence of a misfit 

stream documents one paleoenvironment 

only and all evidence of transitional con- 

ditions has been removed. OKUNISHI 

(1982) is a classic study of the kinemat- 

ics of landslide transformation and illus- 

trates both the power and the limitations 

of this framework. 

Questions characteristically asked for 

these systems concern paleoenvironmen-

432 Slaymaker 

tal interpretation at the local scale and 

the kinematics of landform change. The 

answers provide insights into the most 

recent chapter of geological history and 

material for input to simulation models 

of landform change. 

6 Macroscale cascading systems 

These systems are characterized exclu- 

sively by flows of mass or energy. Re- 

gional water, solute and sediment bud- 

gets are still poorly understood. The 

primary measurement problem is that 

of assessing the lag or response time 

of macroscale systems and attention fo- 

cusses on the storage term (ALFORD 

1985, SLAYMAKER 1987, CHURCH 

& SLAYMAKER 1989). In any applica- 

tion of input-output models of the form 

I_+AS = 0, (where I is input, 0 is out- 

put and S is storage) the two unknowns 

are most commonly the time period over 

which the model applies and the sign 

and magnitude of the storage term. At 

the macroscale, there are also non trivial 

measurement problems to determine the 

input, whether water, solute or sediment. 

Usually, the output is confined to one 

or a finite number of channels and is 

therefore more accurately monitored. 

When attempting to use a budgetary 

framework to understand regional land- 

forms it is necessary to incorporate the 

geophysical cascade, or the vertical fluxes 

of sediment provoked by diastrophic 

processes, Such information is rarely 

available for the mountain region under 

study, though SCHUMM (1963) com- 

pared denudation and geophysical cas- 

cades; WALLING (1983) has researched 

the denudation cascade and WELL- 

MAN (1979) has researched the geo- 

physical cascade at relevant scales. 

Questions characteristically asked 

about these systems concern the over- 

all rate of mountain denudation and the 

prediction of future rates of mountain 

evolution. Applications are found in the 

interpretation of natural hazard magni- 

tude and frequency in mountain regions. 

Even so, the measurement problem re- 

mains daunting. 

7 Mesoscale cascading systems 

By contrast with the macroscale case, 

considerable progress has been made in 

understanding mesoscale cascading sys- 

tems. Water and sediment budgeting is 

seen by some, including the writer, as 

the most powerful potential integrating 

tool in geomorphology. The origins of 

this approach can be seen in the work of 

HORTON (1932) and RAPP (1960) but 

it was not codified until DIETRICH & 

DUNNE (1978) and SWANSON et al. 

(1982). 

As indicated in the previous section, 

interest focusses on the time scale of 

integration and the nature of the stor- 

age term. Studies by ROBERTS & 

CHURCH (1982) on the Queen Char- 

lotte Islands have illustrated the power 

of the method for smaller scale systems. 

Questions characteristically posed of 

these systems concern the role of the 

storage term in the geomorphic system. 

On a slope feeding sediment directly into 

a river channel, the role of storage is 

negligible; in a basin with a floodplain, 

flanked by fluvial and fluvioglacial ter- 

races and alluvial fans, storage domi- 

nates the system. 

Applications are numerous in that the 

influence of society on a drainage basin 

system can be evaluated through mea- 

sured changes in the sediment and/or so- 

lute budget. In particular, the pathways 

by which sediment, solutes and poilu- 

CATENA--An Interdisciplinary Journal of SOIL SCIENCIz HYDROLO(IY G/cOMORPHOLOGY


tants move from one part of the land- 

scape to another have to be evaluated in 

order to balance the budget accurately 

(SLAYMAKER 1988). 

8 Macroscale process-response 

systems 

Process-response systems are character- 

ized by the relationship between cascades 

of mass or energy and morphology. Un- 

derstanding of the dynamics of climate, 

relief, plate and erosion intractions in 

mountain regions is a central objective 

of such system analysis. The challenge 

is to define the energy inputs and the 

nature of the landform region response. 

GLEICK (1986) has listed the response 

parameters that should be monitored 

as indices of regional climate change; 

PAYETTE et al. (1989) showed the re- 

gional response characteristics of treeline 

to climate change; THOMPSON (1990) 

has tried to illustrate regionally distinc- 

tive mountain landscapes as a function 

of climate. But until we have better 

understanding of macroscale cascading 

systems, it is impossible to understand 

macroscale process-response systems ad- 

equately. 

Questions which will be asked of such 

systems concern the nature of the im- 

pacts of climate change on geomorphic 

response. It is clear that the first impact 

of climate change will be reflected in the 

hydrology, then the glaciology and the 

ecology and finally in the geomorphol- 

ogy of mountain systems. There is a 

major research challenge in sharpening 

up the focus of such questions at the 

macroscale (SLAYMAKER 1990). 

Regional mountain geomorphologies 

such as those of British Columbia's 

Coast Mountains (RYDER 1981), the 

( AI ENA An Interdisciplinary J¢,urnal of SOIL SCIENCE tlYDROLOGY GEOMORPHOLOC_iY 

Himalayas (BRUNSDEN et al. 1981), 

New Zealand (SOONS & SELBY 1982), 

Tasmania (CAINE 1983) and Papua 

New Guinea (LOFFLER 1977) require 

a mix of regional mapping and geophys- 

ical data. 

These studies are representative of the 

best attempts to characterize regional ge- 

omorphology as the aggregate form re- 

sponse to spatially and temporally vari- 

able processes. 

9 Mesoscale process response 

systems 

This is the category of system most 

mountain geomorphologists have em- 

phasized over every other category de- 

fined in this paper. This is understand- 

able because of the tractability of such 

spatial units and because of the measur- 

ing devices traditionally available; but it 

has also led to a certain lack of flexi- 

bility, both technical and intellectual, in 

tackling global and planetary problems. 

These are what have come to be 

known as geomorphic process studies. 

Much of the discussion on experimen- 

tation and the importance of under- 

standing microscale physical processes 

derives from a distorted emphasis on 

mesoscale process response systems in 

geomorphology. CHURCH & SLAY- 

MAKER (1980) discussed the curious 

way in which by convention, geomorphic 

process studies have come to be defined 

as studies of the dynamics and kinet- 

ics of landform change and are seen as 

largely restricted to small and mesoscale 

problems. 

The strength of this emphasis has been 

that much of modern geomorphology 

has allied itself with geophysics and en- 

gineering - and substantial progress

434 Slaymaker 

in the discipline can be attributed to 

this. Problems of slope and river chan- 

nel evolution are properly approached 

through the application of Coulomb 

and Bernoulli equations and a force- 

resistance, stress-strain, energy-material 

strength or process-response framework. 

The following examples are illustra- 

tive only. CAINE & SWANSON (1989) 

showed the coupling of hillslope and 

channel systems through water and sedi- 

ment fluxes and the resultant morpho- 

logic response; MACKAY & SLAY- 

MAKER (1989) demonstrated the rela- 

tionship between fluvial, slope, coastal 

processes and permafrost response in the 

Canadian Arctic; FERGUSON (1986) 

discussed the relationship between hy- 

draulics (process) and hydraulic geome- 

try (response). 

Questions characteristically posed of 

these systems include: precisely how 

much stress is required before a land sur- 

face fails? and with what magnitude and 

frequency must a force operate in order 

to overcome landform resistance'? The 

answers to these questions lead to solu- 

tions to a wide variety of natural hazard 

problems. 

10 Macroscale control systems 

Control systems are characterized by the 

way in which process-response systems 

can be manipulated by the application of 

intelligence. The management of global 

change and prediction of the impacts of 

global change involves many scientists 

and social scientists, not just geomor- 

phologists. The development of environ- 

mental indicators and of Global Climate 

Models are central concerns. 

KELLERHALS & CHURCH (1989) 

for large river systems, O'LOUGHLIN 

& PEARCE (1984) for forest manage- 

ment and TAKEI (1985) for debris flow 

and erosion control have demonstrated 

the regulators that can be manipulated. 

EYBERGEN & IMESON (1989) and 

KLEMES (1985) have engaged the dis- 

cussion on what to do in the face of 

upcoming climate change. 

If microscale cascading and process- 

response systems are not well under- 

stood, it follows that control systems are 

even less well understood. Society faces 

the threat of global change with remark- 

ably few reliable tools to help us to pre- 

pare. 

Geomorphologists, together with 

other environmental scientists, should be 

leading the search for environmental in- 

dicators of the state of mountain region 

control systems as well as working on 

the regional and macroscale mountain 

system implications of global change. 

Questions which we will need to ask 

of such systems are where are the regu- 

lators, valves and levers that will allow 

mountain systems to continue to support 

two hundred million people under proba- 

ble climate change scenarios? The future 

well-being of our planet is at issue. 

11 Mesoscale control systems 

Mountain geomorphologists are cen- 

tral to questions, such as general log- 

ging impacts (SWANSTON 1981), for- 

est road surfaces and erosion (REID & 

DUNNE 1984), hazard mapping (IVES 

& MESSERLI 1981) sediment source 

mapping (MOSLEY 1980) and moun- 

tain river engineering and management 

(GRIFFITHS & McSAVENEY 1986). 

They are important in advising manage- 

ment and in predicting the impacts of 

action taken. 

Geomorphic hazards constitute a cen- 

tral theme for application of our under- 

(AI'ENA An Interdisciplinary Journal of SOIl ('IINCE HYDIaOLI)GY (;[OM()RPHOLOGY


standing of mesoscale control systems 

(SIDLE et al. 1985). There are questions 

of sustainable development to which geo- 

morphologists can no longer afford to 

turn a blind eye. We need to come to 

grips with the most urgent questions of 

the relationship between economic devel- 

opment and environmental sustainabil- 

ity. 

What is the geomorphic discussion 

about thresholds if not one that is highly 

relevant to the idea of transmitting to 

succeeding generations a geomorphic en- 

vironment which offers them the same 

range of opportunities that we have had? 

Do we not, through our understanding 

of mesoscale cascading and process re- 

sponse systems, have a major potential 

input to land allocation decisions and is 

there not an ethical obligation to join the 

questions of wilderness use, waste man- 

agement, logging, urbanization and the 

like as examples of tractable mesoscale 

control systems'? The Sabo works con- 

trol programme in Japan is an example 

for other nations to consider. 

12 Conclusion 

This typology of geomorphic systems, 

though only slightly modified from that 

of CHORLEY & KENNEDY (1971), 

is flexible and allows initial identifica- 

tion of appropriate measurement pro- 

grammes to deal with questions com- 

monly asked of such systems in moun- 

tain regions. 

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CAIENA An Interdisciplinary JournM of SOIL SCIENCE HYDROLOGY GEOMORPHOLOGY 

Address of author: 

Olav Slaymaker 

Department of Geography 

University of British Columbia 

Vancouver, Canada V6T IZ2

MOUNTAIN GEOMORPHOLOGY - Department of Geography

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