AIR POLLUTION – MONITORING MODELLING AND HEALTH

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370 Air Pollution <strong>–</strong> Monitoring, Modelling and Health undergo a variety of chemical and physical transformations after they have been released into the atmosphere (Robinson, Donahue et al. 2007). Particulates are emitted directly from various sources such as fossil fuel combustion (primary particles) like diesel and gasoline exhaust particles or are formed from gases through chemical reactions involving atmospheric oxygen (O 2 ), water vapor (H 2 O), free radicals such as nitrate (NO 3 -) and hydroxyl ( . OH) radicals, reactive species such as ozone (O 3 ), organic gases from anthropogenic and natural sources and pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) (U.S.EPA 2004). As shown in Table 1, various sources are involved in the generation of particles via different mechanisms that result in particles with distinct lognormal modes in the particle-size distributions by number and volume (nucleation, Aitken, accumulation and coarse modes). Nucleation and Aitken modes contain particles derived from the combustion of fossil fuels and are due to the nucleation of gas-phase compounds to form condensed-phase species in particles that are newly formed with little chance to grow (nucleation mode) or in newly formed particles in the process of coagulation (Aitken mode). These modes of generation are responsible for the ultrafine particles, emitted indeed from the combustion of fuels such as diesel and gasoline used in the operation of motor vehicles, aircrafts and ships. In the accumulation mode, particles grow in size and accumulate either by coagulation or by condensation, responsible for the generation of the bigger fine particles that are also emitted Particles Sources Mode of generation Ultrafine particles (UFP) Fine particles (FP) Coarse particles (CP) Thoracic particles (TP) Combustion of fossil fuels (gasoline & diesel) and emissions from mobile sources (aircrafts, ships, motor vehicles) Residential fuel combustion, power plants, tailpipe and brake emissions and Oil refineries Suspension from construction, plant and animal fragments, disturbed soil (mining, farming) Fresh emissions, secondary photochemical reactions (nucleation mode) Condensation, coagulation conversion of gas-toparticle (accumulation mode) Evaporation of sprays, suspension of dusts, mechanical disruption (crushing, grinding, abrasion of surfaces) Aerodynamic Atmospheric diameter (µm) half-life < 0.1 Minutes to hours
Particulate Matter and Cardiovascular Health Effects 371 from fuel combustion as well as power plants, oil refineries, tail pipe and brake emissions. The coarse mode contains coarse particles (PM 2.5-10 ) derived from the suspension of material from construction, disturbed soil as well as plant and animal fragments. Most of the coarse particles in the PM 10 are emitted into the atmosphere from the process and open dust sources of fugitive emissions. The process sources are associated with industrial operations such as rock crushing while the open dust sources are those that produce non-ducted emissions of solid particles formed from forces of wind or machinery acting on exposed material. The latter include particulate emissions from industrial sources associated with the open transport, storage, transfer of raw, intermediate and waste aggregate materials and nonindustrial sources such as unpaved roads and parking lots, paved streets and highways, agricultural tilling and heavy construction activities (WRAP 2004). Different sources involved in the generation of ambient particulate can be classified depending on their mobility, into mobile vs. non-mobile sources, as shown in table 2. Sources Mobile Sources * 1. On-road Mobile Sources i. Heavy Gasoline Vehicles ii. Light Gasoline Trucks iii. Cars& Motorcycles iv. Diesel Vehicles Percentage contribution (% total/ % within category) 28% 10% 3% 10% 15% 72 % 2. Non-road Mobile Sources i. Railroads ii. Aircraft iii. Marine iv. Gasoline Equipment v. Diesel Equipment Not Mobile Sources * 72% PM 2.5 Emissions by Source Sector ** 18% 7% 7% 10% 20% 56% Road Dust Industrial Processes Electricity Generation Fires Residential Wood combustion Waste Disposal Non-road Equipment Fossil fuel combustion On road vehicles Solvent Use Fertilizer and Livestock Miscellaneous 21.5% 12.1% 11.5% 9.2% 8.5% 6.2% 6.0% 4.8% 3.0% 0.2% 0.03% 17.0% * Based on data from the 1999 National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report (U.S.EPA 1999). ** Based on data from the 2005 National Summary of Particulate matter emissions by source sector (U.S.EPA 2005). Table 2. Different sources of PM 2.5 emissions into the atmosphere.
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AIR POLLUTION - MONITORING, MODELLI
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Contents Preface IX Chapter 1 Urban
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Preface This book provides a compre
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2 Air Pollution - Monitoring, Model
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AIR POLLUTION – MONITORING MODELLING AND HEALTH

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