AIR POLLUTION – MONITORING MODELLING AND HEALTH

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336 Air Pollution – Monitoring, Modelling and Health Ware J.H., Ferris, B.G., Dockery D.W, Spengler J.D., Stram D.O. (1986). Effects of ambient sulfur oxides and suspended particles on respiratory health of preadolescent children. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., Vol.133(5): 834-842. Warner J.A. (2000). Controlling indoor allergens. Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, Vol. 11: 208-219. Waterland R.A., Jirtle R.L. (2003). Transposable elements: targets for early nutritional effects on epigenetic gene regulation. Mol. Cell. Biol., Vol.23(15): 5293-5300. Weaver I.C., Cervoni N., Champagne F.A., D'Alessio A.C., Sharma S., Seckl J.R., Dymov S., Szyf M., Meaney M.J. (2004). Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior. Nat. Neurosci., Vol.7(8): 847-854. Willett W.C. (2002). Balancing Life-Style and Genomics Research for Disease Prevention. Science, Vol.296(5568): 695-698. Wolff G.L., Kodell R.L., Moore S.R., Cooney C.A. (1998). Maternal epigenetics and methyl supplements affect agouti gene expression in Agouti mice. FASEB J., Vol.12(11): 949-957. Yazdanbakhsh M., van den Biggelaar A., Maizels R.M. (2001). Th2 responses without atopy: immunoregulation in chronic helminth infections and reduced allergic disease. Trends Immunol., Vol.22(7): 372-377. Yauk C., Polyzos A., Rowan-Caroll A., Somers C.M., Godshalk R.W., Schooten F.J., Berndt M.L., Pobribny I.P., Koturbash I., Williams A., Douglas G.R., Kovalchuk O. (2008). Germ-line mutations, DNA damage and hypermethylation in mice exposed to particulate air pollution in an urban / industrial location. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, Vol.105(2):605-610. Yang B., House M.G., Guo M., Herman J.G., Clark D.P. (2005) Promoter methylation profiles of tumor suppressor genes in intrahepatic and extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. Mod. Pathol., Vol.18(3):412-420. Ying A.K., Hassanain H.H., Roos C.M., Smiraglia D.J., Issa J.J., Michler R.E., Caligiuri M., Plass C., Goldschmidt-Clermont P.J. (2000). Methylation of the estrogen receptoralpha gene promoter is selectively increased in proliferating human aortic smooth muscle cells. Cardiovasc. Res., Vol.46(1): 172-179. Yip M. (2003). Exposure Assessment in a Busway Canyon. MSc Thesis. University of Salzburg. Available online (accessed, in February 2012): http://biophysics.sbg.ac.at/exotica/thesis-mari.pdf Yu Z.B. (2007). Non-coding RNAs in gene regulation. In: Epigenetics, Ch 7. Tost J. (ed.). Caister Academic Press Norfolk - UK. Zhang J., Perry G., Smith M.A., Robertson D., Olson S.J., Graham D.G., Montine T.J. (1999). Parkinson's disease is associated with oxidative damage to cytoplasmic DNA and RNA in substantia nigra neurons. Am. J. Pathol., Vol.154(5):1423-1429. Zhu Z.Z., Sparrow D., Hou L., Tarantini L., Bollati V., Litonjua A.A., Zanobetti A., Vokonas P., Wright R.O., Baccarelli A., Schwartz J. (2011). Repetitive element hypomethylation in blood leukocyte DNA and cancer incidence, prevalence, and mortality in elderly individuals: the Normative Aging Study. Cancer Causes Control., Vol.22(3):437-447. Zoghbi H.Y., Beaudet A.L. (2007). Epigenetics and Human Disease. Ch.21. Reinberg D., Allis C.D., Jenuwein T., eds. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, New York - USA.

15 Air Pollution and Health Effects in Children Yungling Leo Lee 1 and Guang-Hui Dong 2 1 Institute of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Public Health, National Taiwan University, Taipei 2 Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology and Department of Environmental and Occupational, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang 1 Taiwan 2 PR China 1. Introduction Asthma, which is characterized by reversible airway obstruction and inflammation, is the most frequent chronic disease in children. Recent global studies showed, although the rising trends in occurrence of allergic diseases in children appear to have leveled off or even reversed in many developed countries, while in many developing countries, the increase in prevalence has only recently started (Asher et al. 2006; Bjorksten et al. 2008; Pearce et al. 2007). These findings indicate that the global burden of asthma is continuing to be rising with the global prevalence differences lessening (Pearce et al. 2007). It has been suggested that this increase can not be explained by genetic factors and improvements in diagnostic methods alone. Comparative studies of the population of the same ethnic background living in different environments revealed important environmental risk factors for asthma, especially for ambient air pollution, which may play an important role in the development of asthma symptoms (Asher et al. 2010; Berhane et al. 2011; Samoli et al. 2011; McConnell et al. 2010). A systematic review concluded that, although weather, pollen, and environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) are important risk factors for asthma, each has been found to act independently of air pollution, and thus they do not explain the association between air pollution and asthma (Leikauf 2002). Comparing with the adults, children appear to be most vulnerable to the harmful effects of air pollutants exposure due to their stage of physical growth, immature immune system, and development of lung function with increased permeability of the respiratory epithelium (Dietert et al. 2000). Children also inhale a higher volume of air per body weight compared with adults (Oyana and Rivers 2005), delivering higher doses of different compositions that may remain in the lung for a longer duration (Bateson and Schwartz 2008). Another source of increased sensitivity of children to air pollution may be the qualitative and quantitative differences in the respiratory, immune, endocrine, and nervous systems during stages of rapid growth and development (Selgrade et al. 2006). Although epidemiologic studies have shown associations between asthma outcomes and routinely monitored air pollutants including particulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), nitrogen oxides (NO 2 ) and ozone (O 3 ), the contribution of ambient air pollution exposure to children’s asthma seems to vary

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