In the Beginning was Information

3. Formal artificial languages: logical and mathematical calculi,chemical symbols, musical notation, algorithmic languages,programming languages like Ada, Algol, APL, BASIC, C, C++,Fortran, Pascal, and PL/1.4. Special technical languages: building and construction plans,block diagrams, diagrams depicting the structure of chemicalcompounds, and electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic circuit diagrams.5. Special languages found in living organisms: genetic languages,bee gyrations, pheromonal languages of various insects, hormonallanguages, signalling systems in the webs of spiders, thelanguage of dolphins, and instincts (e. g. the migration routes ofbirds, salmon, and eels). As is explained in Appendix A2, thelatter examples should rather be regarded as communicationsystems.A common property of all languages is that defined sets of symbolsare used, and that definite agreed-upon rules and meanings areallocated to the single signs or language elements. Every languagecomprises units like morphemes, lexemes, expressions, and entiresentences (in natural languages), that serve as carriers of meaning(formatives). Meanings are internally assigned to the formatives ofa language, and both the sender and the recipient should be inaccord about these meanings. The following can be employed forencoding meanings in natural languages: morphology, syntax(grammar and stylistics), phonetics, intonation, and gesticulation,as well as numerous other supplementary aids like homonyms,homophones, metaphors, synonyms, polysemes, antonyms, paraphrasing,anomalies, metonymy, and irony, etc.Every communication process between sender and recipient consistsof formulating and understanding the sememes (Greek sema =sign) in one and the same language. In the formulation process theinformation to be transmitted is generated in a suitable language inthe mind of the sender. And in the comprehension process the symbolcombinations are analysed by the recipient and converted intothe corresponding ideas. It is universally accepted that the senderand the recipient are both intelligent beings, or that a particular72