Preserving Art and the Environment through Sustainable Museum ...

Preserving Art and the Environmentthrough Sustainable Museum BuildingsbySara L. FrantzMay 25, 2007Submitted in Partial Fulfillmentof the Requirements for the Degree ofMaster of ArtsinMuseum Studiesin theSchool of Education and Liberal ArtsatJohn F. Kennedy UniversityApproved:Department ChairDate

AcknowledgementsThis Master’s degree required 196 trips between Reno, Nevada, toBerkeley, California. The mileage averaged 440 miles per trip resulting in86,240 miles traveled over the Sierra Nevada Mountains. This wasprobably the least sustainable way I could have ever obtained my Master’sdegree, but it cemented the relationship between Roger Frantz, my friend,savior, and now my husband, as he drove every single of those 86,240miles. He jokes about writing a book about every pothole between Renoand Berkeley. But really, this is about dedication.Without the dedication and belief of certain individuals, none ofthis could have been accomplished. Marjorie Schwarzer, DepartmentChair of the Museums Studies Program, taught me that support andencouragement are irreplaceable. Susan Spero, Associate Chair,Department Chair of the Museums Studies Program, taught me thatenthusiasm and enjoyment are admirable.Then there are those individuals that took time out of their busylives to educate me, read the thesis draft, or even both. I would love tothank my readers: Ruth Berson, Deputy Director for Programs andCollections for San Francisco Museum of Modern Art and Garth Elliot,Engineer for Nevada Museum of Art. I would also like to thank myi

interviewees: Robert Workman, Executive Director of Crystal BridgesMuseum of American Art in Bentonville, Arkansas; Dan Ruby, AssociateDirector of Fleischmann Planetarium and Science Center, Reno, Nevada;Joseba Zulaika, Professor for the Center for Basque Studies at Universityof Nevada, Reno; Alina Remba, Professor for John F. KennedyUniversity, Berkeley California, and contract painting conservator for SanFrancisco Museum of Modern Art; Steven High, former Director/CEO ofNevada Museum of Art, Reno, Nevada, currently Director of TelfairMuseum of Art, Savannah, Georgia; Lauren Siegel, Executive Director ofNevada Econet, Reno, Nevada; Dietmar Lorenz, Associate Architect forDSA Architects, Berkeley, California; and Jeremy Fisher, ProjectManager and Green Building Coordinator of Canyon Construction,Moraga, California; Garth Elliot, Engineer for Nevada Museum of Art,Reno, Nevada; and Richard McRay, Vice President of Engineering,Advanced Ion Beam Technology, Inc., Danvers, Massachusetts.Finally, I would like to thank my mother, Carol Juhl, for instillingin me a love for museums from an early age.ii

Table of ContentsExecutive Summary 1Project Plan 7Purpose of Study 7Research Questions and Objectives 7Methodology 8Limitations of Methodology 16Literature Review 21Global Warming & Museums 21Art Museum Architecture: A Brief History 29Art Conservation 39Renewable Energy 49Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) 56Building Strategies 59Lighting 66Concluding Thoughts 71Findings 73Patagonia Distribution Center 74Tahoe Center for Environmental Sciences 89California Academy of Sciences 88Conclusion and Recommendations 94Glossary 108Bibliography 117Appendices 129Appendix A 129Appendix B 135Appendix C 141Product 151

Executive SummaryBureaucracy defends the status quo long past the time when the quo has lost its status.~ Laurence J. PeterWhile humanity lives on, the environmental bottom of our world isfalling out. The estranged relationship civilization has established withthe natural world is yielding negative results, often in the form ofcatastrophe such as Hurricane Katrina that made landfall on August 29,2005 and devastated central Gulf Coast states of the United States, or thetsunami of December 26, 2004 that inundated the coasts of Indonesia,India, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives.Less visible than these obvious disasters are other apparently smallchanges that create ominous consequences. In the last century, the sealevel has risen five to six inches. Rising temperatures are causing portionsof Greenland and the Antarctic ice sheets to melt – thus exacerbating therise of the sea, which in turn increases salinity of ground water and surfacewater. 1 The cause of these climatic changes is attributed to greenhousegases emitted into the atmosphere through burning of fossil fuels,agricultural and industrial activities, emissions from livestock, and decay1 http://epa.gov/climatechange/effects/coastal/index.html, accessed May 15, 2007.2

of organic waste, all processes that create carbon dioxide, methane, andnitrous oxide. These greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation and trapit in the earth’s atmosphere. They have increased about 25 % since 1850,which coincides with the occurrence of large-scale industrial development.In the United States, industry is responsible for 25 % of annual carbondioxide emissions, transportation is responsible for 27 %, but the largestproducer is buildings, which are responsible for 48 % of annual carbondioxide emissions. 2Museums are beginning to respond to this global crisis. In 2006,the National Building Museum created an exhibition titled “The GreenHouse: New Directions in Sustainable Architecture.” This exhibitionhighlighted a full scale replica of the Glidehouse, a residence that requiresno electricity from the grid, is made of non-toxic components, and featuresan on-demand water heater. 3 In an article for the September/October 2006edition of Museum News Sarah Brophy and Elizabeth Wylie report that “inthe last decade 20 or more organizations under the museum umbrella haveadded green buildings or were born green.” 4The 2007 AmericanAssociation of Museums Annual Meeting included a session called“Creating the Green” Museum: Making Museum Matter for the2 http://www.architecture2030.org/building_sector/index.html, accessed May 15, 2007.3 Sonja Carlborg. “Green Living.” Museum News, September/October 2006, 31.4 Sara Brophy and Elizabeth Wylie. “It’s Easy Being Green: Museums and the GreenMovement.” Museum News, September/October 2006, 40.3

Community Sustainability.” Despite this recent dialog about sustainabilityissues, museums often cite economic and environmental control barriers tocreating environmentally sustainable buildings. The economic barrier isthe subject of a Ph.D. dissertation by John W. Mogge Jr. of GeorgiaInstitute of Technology, Breaking Through the First Cost Barriers ofSustainable Planning, Design, and Construction. Mogge notes that “Thegeneral thinking within the U.S. construction market was that the bearer ofa construction requirement desiring it to be accomplished as a greenproject should be prepared to pay a premium for the delivery of the workin that manner.” 5However, as the construction and architecture industriesbecome more familiar with sustainable building practices, it is slowlybeing absorbed into the building paradigm. As that process occurs, thecost of sustainable building will decrease to the point where sustainablesystems will be considered much more viable.Although many types of museums and archival organizations suchas libraries, archives, science museums, and natural history museums havespecialized environmental controls for collections, art museums inparticular cite the highly specialized light and atmospheric controls as animpediment to sustainable building. A recent article by Charmaine Picardquotes the cost factor and the environmental controls necessary for5 John W. Mogge Jr. “Breaking Through the First Cost Barriers of Sustainable Planning,Design, and Construction.” (Ph. D. diss., Georgia Institute of Technology, 2004), 3.4

collections care as the two reasons art museums choose not to buildgreen. 6 The purpose of this Master’s project is to focus on sustainablebuilding practices and the special needs of art museums. In order toascertain this information, I conducted an extensive literature review, andin-depth interviews. I also performed three site visits to three highlyspecialized sustainable buildings. Each building was chosen because of itsphysical site, purpose and usage, and the application of sustainabletechnology.The following paper is divided into three main sections: a literaturereview, findings, and conclusions and recommendations. The first section,the extended literature review, focuses on several sub-themes: 1) globalwarming and the role of museums regarding sustainable architecture, 2)art conservation especially light and atmospheric needs, and 3) renewableenergy, Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design sustainablebuilding guidelines, and sustainable building strategies.The second section of this project describes my three site visitsusing five LEED guidelines to frame the results: sustainable sites, waterefficiency, energy & atmosphere, materials & resources, and indoorenvironmental quality. The sites are: Patagonia Incorporated, a warehouse6 Charmaine Picard. “Why it Pays to Go Green,” The Art Newspaper 176 (January2007): 31.5

facility located in the high desert of Reno Nevada; The Tahoe Center forEnvironmental Sciences, a Sierra Nevada College campus building thathouses classrooms, offices, science laboratories and an exhibition space,located in Tahoe alpine forest; and the California Academy of Sciences,located in San Francisco.The final section offers conclusions and recommendations basedupon the site findings. This research revealed that most sustainablebuilding practices are applicable to art museum needs, but some practicesdo not currently fit within conservation needs as set forth by museums formaintaining collections. For example, natural ventilation, whichencourages flushing non-filtered external air through the building vianatural means, is not a viable practice for art museums. The use of naturalventilation also allows the building’s internal temperature to fluctuatemore widely than the accepted practice of 70° ± 2°. Overall, however,most sustainable building practices are applicable to art museum buildingsand need not serve as an impediment to building sustainably.In order to disseminate these findings, I will present my findings atSierra Nevada College in September 2007, and I will summarize myfindings and recommendations in an article to be submitted to Collections:A Journal for Museum and Archives Professionals.6

Project PlanAt first people refuse to believe that a strange new thing can be done. Then they begin tohope it can be done. Then they see it can be done. Then it is done and all the worldwonders why it was not done centuries ago.~ Frances Hodgson BurnettPurpose of StudyThe purpose of this project was to analyze the intersection betweentwo highly specialized fields, sustainable building practices and the highlyspecialized environmental needs for art museum buildings for the purposeof art conservation. These environmental needs include constant andconsistent temperature and humidity control as well as protection fromultraviolet light. My goal is to bring these fields more closely together sothat art museums can build sustainable facilities that simultaneously causeless harm to the environment than current building practices while meetingart conservation needs.Research QuestionsThe following research questions guided this study:1. What is the role of an art museum’s building and how has itevolved? What is sustainable architecture and how has thispractice evolved?7

2. What are the issues that deter art museums from buildingsustainable buildings and how can these issues be addressed?What sustainable building practices have been successfullyimplemented in other types of buildings that art museums candraw from?3. Are existing sustainable building practices and the highlyspecialized environmental needs for art conservationincompatible? If not, how can both practices better align?4. What sustainable products or innovative technology works bestfor art museums?5. What do museum trustees, directors, architects, and engineersneed to know about the intersection between art conservationin museums and sustainable building practices in order to buildsustainable art museum facilities that meet art conservationneeds?MethodologyThree methodologies were used to complete this project: an indepthliterature review, site visits to three sustainable building projects,and interviews with twelve professionals. Approaching the projectthrough the utilization of these three methods provided in depthunderstanding of the fields of sustainable architecture and artconservation. The site visits complimented and built upon the extendedliterature review.Much has been published about museum architecture, sustainablearchitecture, art conservation, alternative and renewable energy, and8

ecology, thus substantiating the need for an extended literature review.Most of this written information is current since these topics are presentlygenerating immense interest. Yet, in my initial preview of these sources,it has become evident that little has been published about sustainablearchitecture specific to museums. An exception was an insightful articlein the September/October 2006 issue of Museum News, “It’s Easy BeingGreen: Museums and the Green Movement” by Sarah Brophy andElizabeth Wylie. In this article, the authors highlight museums that havebeen “born green” or are building additions that employ green technology.This article also notes that museum buildings are not like office buildings;museums use twice as much energy than typical office buildings.Museum HVAC systems (HVAC is the heating, ventilating, and airconditioning system) provide the constant temperature and humiditycontrols that aid in preserving art. These mechanical systems are quitecomplex, require constant monitoring, and are the cause of museums’excessive energy use. In addition, 77% of new and planned museumprojects do not apply for LEED certification, (Leadership in Energy andEnvironmental Design) a green building rating system designed by theU.S. Green Building Council and implemented in August 1998, a pointhighlighted by a recent article in The Art Newspaper titled “Why it Pays togo Green.” This article states that “maintaining the strict conditions9

necessary for collection management is the primary reason museumofficials give for not building green.” 7It became quickly evident thatthere is disconnect between the highly specialized fields of sustainablebuilding practices and art conservation in museums. Individualsresponsible for designing, overseeing, funding, promoting, or initiating theprocess of building a new art museum need to have written resources andexamples in the field to draw from.Another source of literature came from the renewable energy fieldand writings about the possible fuel sources that may drive future museumHVAC systems. In the field of art conservation, a great deal has beenwritten concerning the environmental controls necessary to maintain andpreserve artwork for future generations. Art conservation is a constantlychanging field as scientific research uncovers more information which iswhy any conservation treatment performed upon artwork is designed intheory to be 100% reversible. Optimally, the first approach to artconservation is to mitigate the need for any intervention by providing anenvironment to house and display artwork that is free from knownmechanisms of deterioration. These destructive mechanisms includesudden or abrupt variations in temperature and humidity, exposure to light,7 Charmaine Picard, “Why it Pays to Go Green,” The Art Newspaper 176 (January 2007): 31.10

and ultimately, exposure to air. Air as a destructive force is the mostdifficult to mitigate.A leader in the conservation field is The Getty ConservationInstitute. The Institute researches art conservation through scientificresearch, field projects, and provides education and training throughelectronic means and traditional publication. It is this organization that Ifeel would be most able to perform the testing required for new orrecycled materials that have appeared in sustainable buildings. However,this thesis concentrates upon the need to provide a controlled environmentto slow the deterioration of artwork.Because the literature uses much technical language, most ofwhich is unique to the fields of sustainability and art conservation, Iprepared a glossary of terms that can be found on page 109 of thisdocument. The sustainable building field is continually changing due toexperimentation in green building technology and scientific discoveriesabout the environment. The understanding of a building as a “wholesystem” combined with application of green technology in sustainablebuildings offers opportunity for case studies that assess the successes andfailures of new technologies and ideas through application. I chose to visitthree sustainable building projects to see “theory in action.” Of thesethree projects, two were non-museum projects located in the Reno/Tahoe11

area: Patagonia Incorporated’s Distribution Center in Reno, Nevada; andThe Tahoe Center for Environmental Sciences located in Incline Village,Nevada. The third project is a science museum, the California Academyof Sciences. What follows, is a brief introduction to each facility and itsimportance to this project.The Reno/Tahoe area of Nevada, the area in which I currentlyreside, has two sustainable building projects that have obtained LEED-NC(LEED New Construction) certification. The first project I visited isowned by Patagonia Inc., and is a distribution center located in west Reno,a 171,000 square foot facility that achieved a LEED gold certificationrating on March 1 st , 2007. I toured the facility on March 21, 2007. Someof the building’s strategies that assisted in its gold rating achievement area storm water runoff management plan that uses pervious pavers in theparking lot, detention ponds, and underground separation tanks, whilesimultaneously planting native plants that require little water. Due to thelocation of the building in high altitude desert, the architects used a whiteroof membrane to mitigate heat retention, a night flush ventilation systemthat takes advantage of cool night temperatures, and exterior light fixturesthat produce zero light beyond the property. As water efficiency isessential in the desert, waterless urinals and water efficiency toilets wereinstalled. As a big proponent of recycling, the company used 10%12

ecycled materials, 50% materials produced within 500 miles of thefacility, and certified sustainable wood. Finally, all possible materialsproduced and used in daily operations are recycled, and the building has amonitoring system for the building systems, a hybrid car for business use,and uses non-toxic products for cleaning. Many of the strategies used bythis company turned out to be directly applicable to museum buildings.The Tahoe Center for Environmental Sciences, which opened withgreat fanfare on October 14, 2006, is a $33 million dollar three storybuilding project created through collaboration between University ofCalifornia, Davis and Sierra Nevada College in Incline Village, Nevada.The bottom floor houses the Thomas J. Long Foundation EducationCenter that has a venue specifically designed for education and outreach toschool-age children and the general public. It currently seeks LEED goldcertification but has amassed enough points to possibly obtain platinumlevel. Awaiting a certification award by the USGBC (United States GreenBuilding Council) this building boasts recycled “blue jean” deniminsulation, rooftop electricity producing photovoltaic panels, heat recoverysystems, rain and snow melt fed low flow toilets and waterless urinals, aircooledwater radiant air conditioning, radiant heat, and uses Trex(Recycled plastic and wood) for its outdoor enclosures. I toured thisfacility on March 20, 2007.13

The California Academy of Sciences’ new facility designed byArchitect Renzo Piano in collaboration with Gordon Chong & Partners, isa 370,000 square foot facility that houses the Morrison Planetarium, theSteinhart Aquarium, and the Natural History Museum. It is currentlyunder construction and has an anticipated opening date of fall 2008. It isseeking LEED platinum certification and if it achieves this rating, itanticipates becoming the tenth building in California to achieve this ratingand the 23 rd in the United States. Amazingly, 100% of the old buildingmaterials were recycled in the first step towards achieving the platinumrating.The most visible sustainable feature of this new facility is perhapsits most invisible, the living roof. This living roof will prevent twomillion gallons of rainwater per years from becoming storm water run-off,which carries contaminates into ecosystems, and will be planted with ninenative California species that will not require artificial irrigation.The footprint of the new Academy returns almost one acre of greenspace back to its Golden Gate Park, as it lessens its ecological footprint,quite literally. Other strategies for footprint reduction come from effortsto reclaim water, use renewable energy, and make use of natural lightingthrough daylight and outside views, while simultaneously usingautomating dimming that adjusts interior lighting based on exterior14

daylight levels, and the use of photovoltaic cells to produce 213,000kilowatts of electricity per year. This facility also takes advantage of theavailability of recycled blue jeans for insulation, which does not containformaldehyde, a toxin known to exist in regular insulation.The temperature and humidity control system is aided by openingsin the roof domes that draw in cool air from below and exhale warm airout the roof. The California Academy of Sciences will maintain strictenvironmental humidity controls in specified areas within the museum. Itoured the construction site on May 11, 2007.These research methodologies were selected after eightpreliminary interviews with professionals in the museum field, thesustainable building field, and art conservation field. My intervieweesincluded Robert Workman, Executive Director of Crystal Bridges inBentonville, Arkansas; Dan Ruby, Associate Director of FleischmannPlanetarium and Science Center, Reno, Nevada; Joseba Zulaika, Professor,Center for Basque Studies at University of Nevada, Reno; Alina Remba,Instructor for John F. Kennedy University, Berkeley California, andcontract painting conservator for San Francisco Museum of Modern Art,San Francisco, California; Steven High, former Director/CEO of NevadaMuseum of Art, Reno, Nevada, currently Director of Telfair Museum ofArt, Savannah, Georgia; Lauren Siegel, Executive Director of Nevada15

Econet, Reno, Nevada; Dietmar Lorenz, Associate Architect for DSAArchitects, Berkeley, California; and Jeremy Fisher, Project Manager andGreen Building Coordinator of Canyon Construction, Moraga, California.Limitations of MethodologyThe intention of this project is to introduce and discuss theintersection between two highly specialized fields: art conservation andsustainable architecture. As mentioned above, I conducted site visits tothree buildings that are completed and fully operable or in the case ofCalifornia Academy of Sciences, in the construction phase. The choice ofsites was limited by time constraints, financial resources, and travellogistics to the Reno, Nevada, South Lake Tahoe, California, and the SanFrancisco Bay Area. In addition, I did not review construction documentsor talk to contractors, but rather look a broad look at application ofsustainable building technologies and materials specific to each site.While acknowledging that I conducted site visits, it is important torecognize that the base of sustainable architecture is the physical site. Thecontinental United States includes a myriad of physical terrain andclimates that make solutions for sustainable building dependent upon thesespecifics. Therefore, all possible proposed solutions cannot be applied in16

a universal manner. Indeed, one of the costs of building green is theattention required to the specifics of the physical site for each building.Architects and designers must include in a holistic approach that addressesunique variables such as temperature, humidity, soil composite,availability of natural resources and energy sources, and exposure topossible natural disaster such as earthquakes, fire, or flooding, etc. AsKen Yeang explains in his book Designing with Nature, “…each locationis ecologically heterogeneous.” 8This project is limited to new construction. Retrofitting existingconstruction with sustainable technology is a completely differentdiscussion that would serve as an excellent topic in its own right, but willnot be addressed in this thesis. Furthermore, any discussion of LEED(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) a program launched bythe U.S. Green Building Council to promote a whole building approach todesign and sustainability in order to reduce negative environmentalimpact, refers only to LEED-NC, which is LEED for new construction.This topic has focused upon art museums. The need to address thelimitations of all collections that require special environmental controls,such as libraries, archives and other museums with collections such as8 Ken Yeang, Designing with Nature: The Ecological Basis for Architectural Design. (New York:McGraw-Hill, 1995), np.17

natural history museums is not addressed. I also did not analyze specificcosts as well as how decisions to amortize costs impact green buildingprojects. For example, Crystal Bridges Museum of Art in Bentonville,Arkansas, had planned to build an iconic building that utilized geothermalenergy for their HVAC needs until a miscalculation was discovered thatincreased the cost of the system so dramatically, the entire concept ofusing geothermal design was tabled for further review. The cost ofbuilding sustainably as an impediment and the length of time needed toamortize these costs offer another deciding factor in the decision to buildsustainably. This factor deserves further study, but falls outside the scopeof this project.The question of whether innovative sustainable building practices,many of which are highly experimental, can potentially harm the longterm conservation of artwork does not fall within the scope of this projectalthough it is highly pertinent. New techniques and products arecontinually tested in the art conservation field. The testing of new productsis best performed by those with appropriate training and the resources toconduct this research, such as The Getty Conservation Institute, asmentioned earlier.This thesis project does not address the educational aspects ofgreen technology and sustainable building construction. It is beneficial for18

art museums to communicate their commitment to renewable energysources and sustainable building practices to their visitors since theevolution of sustainable building emanates from the process of culturalchange that modifies the relationship between humanity and theenvironment as an ongoing dynamic. This ongoing dynamic cultivatesnew perspectives and creates opportunity for change and museums wouldbe imprudent not to promote this educational perspective. However,addressing this exciting public educational opportunity is beyond thescope of this project.This topic will focuses solely upon sustainable building for artmuseums. There are many other sustainable opportunities within themuseum field opportunities such as recycling within the officeenvironment, recycling exhibition materials, conserving fuel, power andwater, minimizing waste, encouraging visitors to use alternativetransportation, etc. These efforts have been widely reported in othervenues. As far back as 1971, Museum News published an article writtenby Malcolm B. Wells on these themes as the cornerstone of sustainablemuseum practices.The current political debate regarding global warming isaccelerating. For example, the Reno Gazette Journal, the local paper forthe Reno/Sparks area of Northern Nevada, has featured articles aboutglobal warming and sustainable building with increasing frequency duringthe last year. The top headline on January 19 th , 2007 read “Reno Joins19

Alliance to Reduce Emissions,” which is an article about The Reno CityCouncil joining a nationwide coalition of cities to reduce global warming,essentially supporting the Kyoto Protocol that President George W. Bushhas refused to sign. A topic as vast as the political nature of globalwarming is so complex that the thesis topic I am addressing is merely asmall factor contributing to a much broader issue. However, any projectlarge or small is ultimately the sum of its parts. Therefore, this projectseeks to explore the role art museums can play in addressing theoverriding concerns of global warming and ecological balance throughsustainable building while not sacrificing their raison d’etre: the art.20

Literature Review“The story of architecture and building is a story of man’s struggle with nature.”~ Renzo Piano, Architect, 1999Global Warming & MuseumsThe signs of global warming are all around us. Reminders areemblazoned across the pages of daily newspapers across the nation, andthe topic has become incorporated into mainstream entertainment media.Examples include the weather channel’s program hosted by Dr. HeidiCullen called The Climate Code, designed to educate their audience aboutglobal warming; the award winning movie “Happy Feet” which endedwith an environmental message designed to draw attention to the issue ofover-fishing in Antarctica; and the Academy Award winning film “AnInconvenient Truth” starring former vice-president Al Gore which isdedicated to the topic of climate change and global warming. Newsweek’sJuly 17 th, 2006 cover story was “The New Greening of America: FromPolitics to Lifestyle, Why Saving the Environment is Suddenly Hot.” Thisarticle essentially popularized the words “green” and “sustainable,” andreflected increasing concerns about the environment and its degradation,21

implicating greenhouse gas emissions and unsustainable living practices asthe cause.What is the driving force behind the recent world attention towardthe issue of global warming? Gore reminds us that “what changed in theU.S. with Hurricane Katrina was a feeling that we have entered upon aperiod of consequences…” Andrew Revkin, environmental reporter forthe New York Times reminded listeners in a February 7, 2007 videopresentation that global warming has become an issue of legacy more thanpolicy. 9Global warming is an issue that is not in the future; it is now.The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) anorganization formed in 1988 to assess the risks of climate change releasedtheir fourth world climate assessment report on February 2, 2007. Thisreport is a comprehensive assessment of peer-reviewed scientific andtechnical research of over 600 scientists around the world. According tothe IPCC, “global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methaneand nitrous oxide have increased markedly as a result of human activitiessince 1750, and now far exceed pre-industrial values.” 10This same reportstates that eleven of the last twelve years (1995 – 2006) rank among the9 Climate Report Predicts Rising Seas, New York Times, February 6, 2007. Availablefrom http://video.on.nytimes.com/, accessed on February 6, 2007.10 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: The PhysicalScience Basis, (Switzerland: IPCC, February 2007), Available fromhttp://www.ipcc.ch/SPM2feb07.pdf, accessed February 10, 2007, 2.22

twelve warmest years of global surface temperature since 1850. Anothersobering statistic is IPCC’s belief that the Panel is 90% positive that globalwarming has been caused by human activity.Global warming has caused the average temperature of the oceanto increase to depths as far as 3,000 meters, since the ocean has absorbed80% of the heat added to the climate system since 1961. 11 This warmthcauses seawater to expand, which contributes to an overall rise in sea levelcompounded by glacier and snow cover melting around the world. Whileincreases are measured in millimeters, the overall result – including thedisruption of the ocean ecosystem – can produce disastrous results.Changes in sea temperature can be linked to more intense and longerperiods of drought in some areas of the world, while other areas areexperiencing significantly increased precipitation, including an increase ofcyclone activity in North America. Even more alarming is that warmingreduces land and ocean uptake of carbon dioxide, increasing the emissionsthat remain in the atmosphere, which in turns leads to an acidification ofthe world’s oceans. The IPCC also projects major shifts in worldprecipitation patterns, causing precipitation increases in high altitude landwhile simultaneously causing decreased precipitation in subtropical land.11 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: The PhysicalScience Basis, (Switzerland: IPCC, February 2007), Available fromhttp://www.ipcc.ch/SPM2feb07.pdf, accessed February 10, 2007, 7.23

While all of these statistics may seem to lean towards an alarmisttendency, the IPCC predicts that global warming is a cycle that has beenput into motion and that its severity and magnitude depends upon theamount of continued carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere. Inattempting to predict future ramifications of global warming, the IPCC hasdeveloped six scenarios to predict the effects of global warming basedupon factors such as economic growth, population statistics, technologicalchange in the energy system, but do not include climate initiatives, such asthe Kyoto Protocol, an amendment to the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change.Other concerns related to global warming include an explodingworld population. In 1959, the world’s population was 3 billion; by 1999,it had doubled to 6 billion and by 2042, the estimated world populationwill be 9 billion. As developing countries enter the industrialized age,particularly those with large populations such as China and India,excessive carbon dioxide emissions and dependence upon fossil fuels willincrease exponentially. As humanity spans the globe, building structures,and loss of natural habitat coupled with species extinction continues tooccur at a rapid pace. The stress humanity has placed upon our fragileecosphere is alarming. How is the earth to support this drain upon itsnatural resources?24

Global warming is the result of a long legacy. Humankind hasalways seen nature as a force to be dominated or controlled. Coupled withthis concept was the belief that humankind’s activities could never upsetthe earth’s ecosystems. The Industrial Revolution was based upon thedevelopment of technology to mass produce products that were affordable,desirable, and could be produced cheaply and quickly. Domination ofnature was its cornerstone. This revolution was based upon a perceivedendless supply of “natural capital” and “neither the health of naturalsystems, nor an awareness of their delicacy, complexity, andinterconnectedness, [were] part of the industrial design agenda.” 12These recent concerns about the environment and its degradationhave planted seeds for the next industrial revolution – not a revolution ofmass production based on the perception of infinite natural resources – buta redesign revolution based on redesigning and rebuilding the methods,processes, and paradigms pioneered during in the first industrialrevolution. The concept of the redesign revolution is thoroughly exploredin the book Cradle to Cradle, by architect William McDonough, a leaderin sustainable building design, and scientist Michael Braungart. Thisvolume provides an eye-opening point of view that requires a completerethinking of humanity’s role and relationship with our planet. One major12 William McDonough and Michael Braungart. Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the WayWe Make Things. (North Point Press, New York, 2002), 26.25

concept that this redesign revolution addresses is the role buildings play inour lives and our environment.What role can museums play in the redesign revolution? Will therole of the museum expand from presenter of history, art, or science toexplorer of current issues in these fields? Does the word “museum” reallysignify the past or does it embody the present – and perhaps even thefuture? Originally exhibitors of the past, museums have recently beencharged with leading the future by involving themselves with recentdevelopments in science, or by acquiring artworks before emerging artistshave “hit the big time” and their works are famous. Museums are literally“moving up in the world.”With this new function in mind, museums are afforded theopportunity to educate and become role models for the future. As theSeptember/October 2006 issue of Museum News article “It’s Easy BeingGreen: Museums and the Green Movement” states, “Why shouldn’tmuseums – as places of learning, exploration and demonstration, asmodels of community-minded behavior – be ahead of the curve?” 13Theauthors of this article, Sarah Brophy and Elizabeth Wylie, point out thatthere are already many museum facilities built to accomplish just that –twenty museums have either added green buildings or built new green13 Brophy, Sarah and Elizabeth Wylie. “It’s Easy Being Green: Museums and the GreenMovement.” Museum News, (September/October 2006), 39.26

uildings in the last decade. 14But are museums really participatingwholeheartedly in the redesign-revolution? They are starting to. In May2006, the National Building Museum in Washington D.C. opened itsexhibition “The Green House: New Directions in Sustainable Architectureand Design.” This exhibition explores the relationship between homedesign and environmental responsibility by presenting a full-scale replicaof architect Michelle Kaufmann’s Glidehouse, a prefabricated, greenhouse. Visitors can walk through the Glidehouse to experience and learnabout the five principles of sustainable architecture and the benefits to theenvironment. Supplementing the exhibition is a fully developed websitethat provides links to green news and information, as well as additionalprogramming including a lecture series, film series, school programs, atwo day symposia about sustainable home renovation and affordable greenhousing, and green activities for children and their families. 15Douglas Worts of the Art Gallery of Ontario in Toronto, Canada,discusses the role of museums in his article “Museums and SustainableCommunities.” Worts writes that museums need to foster “consciousnesswithin society of the needs and impacts of human life on this planet, asthey work towards meeting the cultural needs of individuals, communities,14 Brophy, Sarah and Elizabeth Wylie. “It’s Easy Being Green: Museums and the GreenMovement.” Museum News, (September/October 2006), 40.15 http://www.nbm.org/Exhibits/greenHouse2/greenHouse.htm, accessed March 18, 2007.27

countries, humanity and the environment.” 16He believes that museumsneed to reinvent themselves in more relevant form – “negotiating andfacilitating our collective futures” through a shift in vision andphilosophical position. A manifestation of this shift in philosophy issustainable building: simultaneously a concept, product, and an operation.Museums are uniquely positioned to assist in this paradigmredefinition. Not only can museums teach the public about sustainablebuilding, but they can also practice sustainable building practices.Opportunity abounds. As John Hazelhurst of the Colorado SpringsBusiness Journal writes “While the last decade of the 20th century likelywill be remembered for the Internet boom, the first decade of the 21st justmight be remembered for … the art museum boom.” 17But have artmuseums considered building green?16 Douglas Worts. “On Museums, Culture, and Sustainable Communities” Available fromhttp://www.chin.gc.ca/Resources/Icom/English/Collection/e_texte_d.html, accessedJanuary 20, 2007, 2.17 John Hazelhurst, “Museum Growth, Rehab Fueling Building Boom,” (ColoradoSprings Business Journal. June 30, 2006). Available fromhttp://www.csbj.com/story.cfm?id=9338&searchString=art%20and%20museum%20and%20boom, accessed February 5, 2007.28

Art Museum Architecture: A Brief HistoryThe history of art museum architecture and museum philosophy isinterrelated. Both of which undergone drastic changes over the past twocenturies. Early museums were reserved for the aristocracy in Europe andthe concept of the public museum wasn’t universally established until1793 when the Louvre’s Grande Galerie in Paris became the world’s firstnational collection. The first building built expressly as a public museumwas Karl Friedrich Schinkel’s Altesmuseum in Berlin. The building’spurpose was to “give people the space where they could contemplateworks of aesthetic purity without forgetting their obligation to theeveryday world.” 18So began a history of art museum building thatresonated with authority and dominating presence drawing from the pastto establish its ties to long established values.In the United States, an architectural style known as Beaux-Artswas routinely chosen for civic art museum buildings. Also known asClassical Revival, this style was based upon ideas advanced at the Écoledes Beaux-Arts in Paris that combined motifs drawn from various ancientarchitectural traditions of the Greeks and Romans, the Renaissance, andBaroque tradition. The resulting ensemble was grandiose, elaborate and18 Marjorie Schwarzer, Riches, Rivals & Radicals: 100 Years of Museums in America.(Washington D.C.: American Association of Museums, 2006), 31.29

perfectly suited for buildings that needed to offer a sense of aristocraticpretension. Museums such as the Cooper-Hewitt Museum in New York,and the Palace of the Legion of Honor in San Francisco are beautifulexamples of the Beaux –Arts style. Perhaps, the most famous Americanexamples of this architectural style are not museums but libraries such asNew York City’s Public Library.Beaux-Arts style was predominantly used in the United Statesfrom the end of the Civil War, when the country needed the sense ofpermanence that the Classical Revival style offered, to just before WorldWar II, when the sensibilities of modern society were beginning toestablish themselves. Beaux-Arts architecture began to fall out of style,and was replaced with two concepts, one new and one old. The first was arevivalist style that harkened to traditional American architectural style; inthe East, colonial style architecture experienced resurgence while in theWest, Spanish colonial revival architecture experienced a similarresurgence.Simultaneously, there was another architectural concept that wasalso beginning to take hold in the United States, one fueled by a post-wareconomy and a desire for things “modern”, as well as the flight ofEuropean architects to America in the 1930’s. This trend was supportedby the surplus of wartime goods and materials such as concrete, steel, and30

glass, which were cheaper than the materials required to build a Beauxartsfortress made of stone, marble, and bronze. Modernism had arrived.In 1932, an exhibition at MOMA (Museum of Modern Art) called thisstyle the International Style, since it was a style unconcerned with site andlocale.The International Style assumed that there was a genericarchitectural solution that was appropriate to all people, in all places, at alltimes. Following the Swiss Modernist Le Corbusier, the modernist idealwas "one single building for all nations and climates." 19What is mostnotable about this style was that “The buildings of the International Stylewere object buildings that had no desire to fit within an existing urbanfabric.” 20This generic approach eventually derailed this architecturalstyle and Modernism was followed by Post-modernism in the 1970’s.Post-modernism can be viewed as a reaction to the simple austerity andinsensitivity of Modernism by reviving pluralism and eclecticism. Finally,in the 1990’s another great museum building boom decade began andiconic architecture arose to meet museum needs. 2119 Nikos Salingaros, “Darwinian Processes and Memes in Architecture: A MemeticTheory of Modernism”, 2002, Available from http://cfpm.org/jomemit/2002/vol6/salingaros_na&mikiten_tm.html,accessed April 1, 2007.20Arthur Paul Butts, “The Portable Particular: An Integral Theory of Place.” (Ph.D. diss.,University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 2004), 9.21 Marjorie Schwarzer. Riches, Rivals & Radicals: 100 Years of Museums in America.(Washington D.C.: American Association of Museums, 2006).31

Despite the 1990’s building boom that produced such iconicbuildings as SFMOMA (San Francisco Museum of Modern Art), theGetty, and the Guggenheim Bilbao, art museums are late in arriving on theeco-architecture scene. Even with a growing emphasis upon sustainablebuilding, the recent trend among art museums has been to construct“iconic” buildings, resulting in museum buildings that are “most resistantto a common denominator and consequently allows architects unusualfreedom to reflect their period.” 22 As art museums compete with otherentertainment and cultural pursuits in their quest to attract visitors, aniconic building and highly visible or famous architect seems to be part ofthe formula for success. Catherine Donzel, author of New Museums,discusses “the current of the theatrical requirements of today’smuseography,” 23 when she highlights the antithesis of this concept foundin the new museum of modern art Moderna Museet, in Stockholm,Sweden. James Wines, in his book Green Architecture, sums up inseveral paragraphs the state of art museum architecture today. Withexceptional astuteness, Wines discusses the ascendancy of the art museumas a cultural icon – one sought after by architects with “unprecedentedfervor” yet he remarks that at the same time “rarely do the sponsors of art22 Victoria Newhouse, Towards a New Museum. (New York: The Monacelli Press, Inc.,1998), 12.23 Catherine Donzel, New Museums. (Telleri, Paris, 1998), 106.32

museums demonstrate even a shred of environmental fervor.” Winesstates that art museums’ “negative significance has been to serve as theopposite of environmental thinking.” 24Wines is supported in his thinking by such edifices asSpain’s Guggenheim Bilbao. In the late 1980’s, Thomas Krens, Directorof New York’s Guggenheim Museum, began to envision Guggenheim“franchises” dotting the world and set about globetrotting to make real thisvision. On October 19, 1997, the now world famous iconic buildingopened its doors to the public. Located on the edge of the Nervión River,clad with softly shimmering titanium skin, this vision of otherworldlinessactually disregards the environment. The beauty of the titanium shouldnot lull the viewer into believing the building is eco-responsible.Titanium, the main cladding of the building, is one of the most lethalmaterials available due to production manufacturing methods andtechnology, and the industrial pollution created during its production.Wines astutely comments that Gehry’s work is the “pinnacle of designcenteredarchitecture today [that] may also be among the leastconscionable from an ecological standpoint.” 25Architectural critic Mimi Zeiger, in her book New Museums,specifically explores the “Bilbao-effect” on the invention or reinvention of24 James Wines, Green Architecture. (Jodidio, Philip, ed. Italy: Taschen, 2000), 216.25 Ibid., 92.33

the museum, noting that “In a post-Bilbao Effect age, both signaturearchitecture and the commercial viability it endeavors to achieve are takenfor granted.” 26Zieger’s book focuses on the mesmerizing features of newmuseum architecture, and neglects the environmental concerns that thesenew buildings might possibly raise, thus furthering the role of artmuseums as removed from environmental thinking.Despite Zeiger’s kind words for Gehry’s influence on the museumarchitecture world, Wines’ harsh observation of environmental callousnesshas acuity. Gehry’s architecture does not seem to reflect any sense ofecological stirrings. If there was ever hope of finding eco-friendlyresponse to the environment in Gehry’s work, it was perhaps best reflectedin Gehry’s own house. By using inexpensive materials in unconventionalways, Gehry began a renovation project of his house in 1978. Theresulting assemblage of chain link fence, corrugated metal, unfinishedplywood, and glass, leaned on his tradition of transforming humbleinexpensive materials into striking geometric designs, harking back to hisyears of designing an inexpensive cardboard furniture line from 1969 –1973, known as Easy Edges Furniture Line. In this renovation, Gehryleaned upon the second “R” in the maxim “Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle.”26 Mimi Zeiger, New Museums, Contemporary Museums around the World. (RizzoliInternational Publications Inc., New York, 2005), 15.34

Unfortunately, this was a likely reflection of restricted personal finances,rather than an ecological awakening.The purpose of the Guggenheim as flagship development on theother hand, was to alter the city’s image, to erase or de-emphasize thedeindustrialization and decline that had ultimately tarnished Bilbao’simage, associating it with the image of a dying city. The ruins of AltosHornos, the blast furnaces located on the banks of the river were thephysical manifestation of the incentive for restoration. This “Bilbaoeffect” thrust iconic architecture to the forefront of attention. It threatensto continue as a trend counter to sustainable architecture. Even now, in2007, Krens envisions a new Guggenheim museum, set for a new culturalcenter in Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates as part of a $27 billiondollar cultural district known as Cultural District of Saadiyat Island. Thisnew cultural center would include four museums, a performing arts center,an art institute, and as many as nineteen art pavilions, as “cross-culturalpollination.” 27A New York Times article also points out that a largeportion of the plan is devoted to the Guggenheim, “a blunt reminder ofhow architecture has been used as a marketing gambit.”27 Nicolai Ouroussoff, “A Vision in the Desert,” New York Times. (February 1, 2007)Available fromhttp://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/01/arts/design/04ouro.html?pagewanted=1&ei=5088&en=96da203ecb9a1fb4&ex=1327986000&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss, accessed February 1,2007.35

The same New York Times article highlighting this proposedcultural center offers a shred of hope. Reflecting a recent trend of artmuseum architecture, art museums are beginning to draw from theirphysical site and environment “as a basis for finding form.” 28ArchitectJean Nouvel’s proposed classical museum uses a shallow lacelike domeover the open air courts, which helps alleviate the intense heat andsunlight produced in that region. Gehry’s proposed Guggenheim willdraw upon an ancient cooling method derived from traditional Islamicwind towers that draw hot air up through the interiors, thereby cooling thespaces.No one can argue that the subtle forms of the Guggenheim inBilbao allude to the history of the site chosen for the building. The formershipyards and blast furnaces are echoed in the building Gehry designed:first through the use of titanium for the building’s exterior, which reflectsa multitude of nuanced colors depending upon the weather, time of day,and lighting. Consider, for example, the image of the buildingemblazoned across the cover of the New York Times Magazine onSeptember 7 th , 1997. The image reflected the fiery glow of sunset as if thebuilding was the reconstituted blast furnaces of Altos Hornos. Secondly,28 Fred A. Stitt, Ecological Design Handbook: Sustainable Strategies for Architecture,Landscape Architecture, Interior Design, and Planning. (New York: McGraw Hill,1999), 17.36

the forms of the building are meant to evoke an image of billowing sails,suggesting an “allusion to ships and fish of the inlet’s maritime heyday.” 29Donzel likens it to a modern cathedral that ends that “age-old quarrelbetween the contents and the container by offering, for once, anappropriate setting.” 30There are other examples of late 20 th century art museums thatreflect their physical sites and landscapes. The Miho Museum in Japan,quietly nestled in the forest reserve area of the Shigaraki Mountains wasdesigned by I.M. Pei and Kibokan International in 1996. This museum is80 % underground in order to preserve the natural beauty of the site. Theinner space is designed to bring nature into the space and the resultingviews are inspirational. Light filters into the space through the use ofaluminum filters designed to look like wood. 31The Nevada Museum of Art, in Reno, Nevada, which opened inMay 2003, also took its inspiration from its natural setting. Designed byWill Bruder, an architect based out of Phoenix, Arizona, is based upon amagnificent rock formation in the nearby Black Rock Desert. TheMuseum’s south-western side which curves both horizontally andvertically is formed of anthrax-zinc, also known as Quartz-Zinc®, a29 Justin Crumbaugh, “Last Resorts: Tourist Economies in Contemporary Spain’sCinema, Narrative, and Culture.” (Ph.D. diss., Kalamazoo College, 1995), 231.30 Catherine Donzel, New Museums. (Telleri, Paris, 1998),154.31 http://www.miho.or.jp/ENGLISH/DEFAULT.HTM, accessed February 25, 2007.37

previously unused material for building cladding in the United States.Anthrax-zinc is easily recycled, has a long life, is non-poisonous, andrequires significantly less energy to refine than other metals traditionallyused in building production. The zinc applied to the south-western wall ofthe Nevada Museum of Art stands off the structural building side byapproximately ten inches. This design allows for sun heated air to rise upand escape harmlessly into the atmosphere instead of allowing it topenetrate into the building envelope, which would cause additional heatingand cooling load.Likewise, the Beyeler Foundation building in Basel, Switzerland,designed by Renzo Piano in 1997, used style “to serve art, and not theother way around.” 32This building highlights an English style garden andaquatic garden terraces. The architect responded to the client’s request toincorporate natural lighting and low energy consumption by creating atransparency that allows the building’s occupants to view framed exteriorgardens and vistas through transparent glass and colonnades, recallingdistant visions of ancient Roman vistas. A long wall appearing similar tolocal sandstone, somewhat reminiscent of a walled garden shields themuseum from traffic noise.32 Catherine Donzel, New Museums. (Telleri, Paris, 1998), 130.38

Not all of these museums indicate a paradigm shift – one that isrequired to change how society understands and views sustainablebuilding, but they do reflect a new understanding of the role that physicalsite plays in architecture. No longer placed on a physical site as amonument to isolation, art museums are beginning to recognize andincorporate their ties to the land, certainly a step in the right direction.However, merging the iconic focus of museum architecture with that ofsustainable architecture seems to be the best strategy art museums couldendorse.Art ConservationIn The Art Newspaper a January 2007 article titled “Why it Pays togo Green,” the primary reason art museum officials gave for not buildinggreen was need to maintain the strict environmental conditions necessaryfor managing and preserving an art collection. 33As a consequence ofthese specific conservation needs, art museums have been less inclined toexplore green building museum options. Just what are these strictenvironmental conditions these museum officials speak of?33 Charmaine Picard, “Why it Pays to Go Green,” The Art Newspaper 176 (January2007): 31.39

As the Getty Institute discusses in The Nature of Conservation: ARace Against Time, museums classically have performed four basicfunctions: collecting, preserving, conducting research, and presenting orinterpreting their findings to the public. 34Preservation of the collection ofobjects is the most primary of these functions.The science of conservation is relatively new in the museumworld, beginning in the 1920’s. By the 1940’s, the philosophy ofpreservation through the prevention of damage prior to the need of repairwas engendered. This concept is the fundamental basis or cornerstone ofconservation, which is the science and art of artifact repair. As Philip R.Ward declares in The Nature of Conservation, “Restoration is a raceagainst time for the maximum extension of the life of the material, andthus that of the work of art.” 35The major causes of object deterioration are environmental;consisting of atmospheric gases, light, temperature and humidity, all ofwhich can cause biological and chemical damage. These major causes areexacerbated by mishandling and inappropriate storage and supporttechniques. Damage to artifacts caused by environmental gases, chieflyair, is extremely difficult to control and usually requires great cost to34 Philip R. Ward, The Nature of Conservation: A Race Against Time. (Marina del Ray,California: Getty Conservation Institute, 1989), 2.35 Ibid., 3.40

construct a housing that replaces air with a different environmental gasthat causes less harm to an object.Light also poses difficulties because objects must be exposed tolight in order to be viewed. Light damage is cumulative and cannot bereversed. The type of light and duration of exposure are important factorsin light damage: illuminance plus time equal total exposure. Light isdivided into three sections; ultraviolet (UV), visible, and infrared (IR).Most damage to artwork is caused by the UV, which is beyond the humaneye’s ability to see, and the violet/blue and green end of the visible lightspectrum. These light wavelengths cause damage to objects throughphotochemical reaction, which can result in damage such as fading,discoloration, and embrittlement. Damage caused by IR wavelengths andthe orange/red end of the visible light spectrum cause damage throughheat.Natural light produced by sunlight is full spectrum, which includesUV, visible, and IR light, and is therefore most damaging to art. Tomitigate this damaging factor, many types of filtering materials areavailable to control the most damaging types of light from entering thegalleries. However, it should be noted that the “shelf life” of filteringmaterials vary from manufacturer to manufacturer. Artificial lighting also41

produces harmful light rays and many types of filters have been producedto alleviate light damage from various artificial light sources.Fluctuations in humidity also damage artwork. Art objects arecreated from organic products made of plants and animals, which arecomprised of a great deal of water in their physical makeup. The artobjects made from these natural sources also contain a great deal ofmoisture. If moisture is removed from an object, the result could becracking, splitting or warping of the object. On the other hand, if toomuch moisture is added, the resulting damage could be microbial growthsuch as mold or fungi, or swelling and warping of the object. Materials donot react equally to similar moisture exposures, causing compoundobjects, those made up of more than one material type, to potentially crackor break at the joints.The potential damage of humidity upon objects is so great thatmoisture fluctuations must be controlled in order to preserve objects.However, moisture does not act alone. A combination of the factors ofmoisture and temperature, known as relative humidity, plays a role in thedeterioration of materials. Strict monitoring of temperature and humidityand their ratio to one another, is necessary to control relative humidity toprevent artwork damage. Towards this aim, museums use complex42

heating, air conditioning, and humidification systems to maintain stablerelative humidity conditions within their galleries and art storage areas.Central to art conservation is art preservation, and the key topreservation is to maintain constant temperature and humidity control.These controls are maintained through a system known as HVAC, heating,ventilation and air conditioning. Actually, the concept of HVAC is quitesimple. Controlled by an energy management control system, a computercontroller, are three systems that work together to adjust the airtemperature. In any system, air needs either to be cooled or heated. As itis cooled or heated, it needs to be circulated and purified of contaminants.The heating system is designed to warm the air through heatedwater or steam. This hot water or steam is heated through the use ofboilers. Boilers can use a fuel such as gas, coal or oil, or electricity. Thewater that is boiled is circulated throughout the system by the use ofelectrically run pumps. Boilers can be high temperature, which boil waterat 250° to create steam, or low temperature, which operate at 170° to 200°to create hot water. The hot water or steam created by the boilers will beused to heat the air that passes through the air circulation system known asthe air handler.The air cooling system is designed to cool the air through chilledwater. This water is chilled through the use of a chiller, which is run43

through the use of electricity. Chillers use refrigerants, which can be anon-ozone depleting substance, compressors, fans, and a pump system tochill water. The water is run over fins or coils that contain the refrigerantin order to cool the water. Naturally, this process warms the refrigerant,which is then compressed in order to enable its reuse. The heat removedfrom the refrigerant is then vented out through exhaust fans located on topof the unit. This chilled water is then pumped throughout the systemthrough the use of electric pumps. The chilled water will be used to coolthe air that passes through the air circulation system known as the airhandler.Each of these water heating and cooling systems has 100%redundancy to protect against failure. This ensures a system that will notexperience 100% failure when failure occurs in a boiler or chiller. In otherwords, each system is produced in duplicate. The chiller has two chillerunits that switch back and forth. Yet, should one half fail, the other half is100% capable of maintaining the facilities chiller needs until the other halfcan be repaired. The same concept is true for the boiler system. Theboiler system has two boilers that switch back and forth. Yet should oneboiler fail, the other boiler is 100% capable of maintaining the facilitiesboiler needs until the other one is repaired.44

Now that the heating and cooling mechanisms have beenaddressed, the air must be moved across these systems to be heated orcooled. This involves air handling units that handle the air volume neededto create good indoor air quality based upon heating, cooling, andventilation loads. Large buildings use several air handling units in orderto accommodate separate floors or zones within a building. Air handlersgenerally have two large fans – an intake fan (return air fan or RAF) andan output fan (supply air fan or SAF). Air enters the air handler though asystem of ducts to the return air fan. It then passes through damperswhich expels to the building exterior a certain percentage of exhaust airand pulls in a similar amount of exterior or fresh air. This system is inplace to prevent continual circulation of the same air through out thebuilding, which can result in a CO2 level higher than normal. The airhandling system also maintains positive pressurization of the system,which prevents the building from pulling in unfiltered outside air thoroughopenings in or around windows or doors.Once the air has passed through the dampers, and has mixed in anarea known as the plenum, it enters the filter section. The NevadaMuseum of Art has three sets of filters in place. The first set of filters iscoarse and called pre-filters, which is actually a misnomer. Pre-filtersfilter out 30% to 40% filtration and remove particulates from the air. The45

second set of filters is carbon filters, which are the filters that removeairborne contaminants and gasses. Carbon filters themselves produce acarbon dust that requires the air to pass through a third set of filters whichideally should be HEPA (high efficiency particulate air) filters. Thesefilters remove the carbon dust created by the second set of filters andremove 99.97% of airborne particles.At this point in time, the air level has an appropriate mix of reusedand new air and has passed through all of the filters. Now it is time topass the air over the cooling coil unit followed by the heating coil unit.These coil units are fed by the boiler or chiller systems previouslydiscussed. Should the air require chilling, the cooling coil unit is on andthe heating coil system is off. And vice versa: should the air need heating,the cooling coil unit is off and the heating coil unit is on. After the air hasbeen heated or chilled, it is pulled out of the air handler through the use ofthe supply air fan that sends it throughout the ducting system of thebuilding.The air handler unit puts out a certain amount of air volume whoseoutput into occupied spaces is controlled through devices known asVariable Air Volume Units (VAV Units). These units balance air flowfrom room to room and even have heating coils to raise the air temperatureat each point as needed as controlled by the central computer to assure46

accuracy. These units offer site point control, allowing for fine tuning oftemperature control that museums need for art preservation.Museums have a further control that most buildings do not. Mosttypical office buildings do not have humidity control, although airconditioning involves the removal of humidity during the cooling process.Since museum collections require humidity control, humidifiers that areelectric water heaters or boilers are used to create steam. The steamcreated is injected into the air stream as it enters the galleries or art storageareas. This process is also controlled by the central computer system. Justlike the boiler and chiller systems, the humidity system also has 100%redundancy built into it to prevent failure.This presents the typical scenario for HVAC in an art museumbuilding. Clearly, the system uses a great deal of resources and electricity.Yet, inn terms of achieving sustainability, there many ways to approachthis issue. First, there is fuel type. Some fuel types are consideredsustainable and some are not.Natural gas, geothermal, and solar energyare considered sustainable because they have a rate of renewal that isregenerative and cannot be depleted. Oil and electricity are notconsidered sustainable because they are finite and cannot be replaced.However, options to create or purchase sustainable electricity areincreasing. Sustainable options vary according to region in which the47

museum is located. For instance, desert or arid regions can createelectricity through the use of solar photovoltaic cells because sun isplentiful. Coastal regions can rely on wind power, and other regions canrely on geothermal power. For regions that have no clear cut options, acombination of methods may be employed. Some power companies areoffering consumers the option to purchase renewable energy or a portionof renewable energy, such as energy derived from wind turbines, insteadof traditional energy sources. Of course, this solution requires the optionbe offered to consumers to purchase renewable energy.Next, there is the option of using natural resources when designingthe system. Regions that reach cold temperatures at night can takeadvantage of the cooling properties of cold air by cooling the waterrequired for the next day’s usage. Systems such as this require the spaceto store the cooled water for usage and that is a consideration for such asystem. Areas that experience high temperatures during the day can takeadvantage of solar warming to heat the water required for the HVACsystem or even the heated water requirements for the domestic waterheater usage. This water heater is outside the HVAC system and is usedto run showers, dishwashers, hot water from the tap for office and patronuse during the day. Cooling towers are another low technological solution48

that takes advantage of evaporative cooling which is discussed further inthe Building Strategy Section. 36Renewable EnergyHumanity currently depends upon non-renewable fossil fuels suchas oil, coal, and natural gas, which are finite and cannot be replaced onceconsumed necessitating the need to seek an alternative to these fuels.However alternate energy and renewable energy are not the same things.Alternate energy is energy that has a different source than fossil fuels.Renewable energy is energy that is sustainable because it renews itself.Each form of renewable energy renews itself at different rates. Forinstance, geothermal energy is not strictly renewable because its rate ofrenewal is thousands of years for the earth to replace the heat removedfrom geothermal sources. As in fossil fuels, the key to its usage is not todeplete the resource.Alternative fuels come from many different sources and processes.Current discussion of alternative fuels revolves around the use ofhydrogen, methane, ethanol, and biodiesel. As in any fuel source, thereadvantages and disadvantages to each type. As the world seeks the36 Garth Elliot, Nevada Museum of Art Engineer, Interview by author, 13 February 2007,Nevada Museum of Art, Reno, Nevada.49

optimum alternative fuel source to fossil fuels, we must be cognizant ofthe short and long term affects of fuel choice upon the world economy,and the effects of fuel production in the world on a large scale. Whatfollows is a brief exploration of alternate fuels.Methane, also known as biogas, is produced from the fermentationor composting of plant and animal waste. This process allows biogas to beproduced in small scale plants, which mitigates the need for transporting itlarge distances. Unfortunately, the production of methane createsdisagreeable odors. Methane powered engines are more efficient thangasoline powered engines.Ethanol is another form of biofuel that is produced through theprocess of fermentation. Generally it is made through the fermentation ofgrains such as corn, sugar cane, or even wheatgrass. Ethanol is alreadyused as an extender in most gasoline and it reduces the emissions of COgas. It is not as flammable as regular gas, but it also has a lower energydensity than gasoline. The other concern is that the use of ethanol for fuelwill compete with the need to grow crops for food. This debate is ongoingand has yet to be resolved.Biodiesel is a diesel fuel derived from vegetable sources of oil,rather than petroleum. It can be manufactured through the extraction ofoil from soybeans, oil palm, vegetable oil, or even cooking grease. The50

drawback to biodiesel is similar to that of ethanol. There is concern thatcountries will clear cut tropical forests in order to obtain the economicbenefits of growing oil palm. Additionally, although biodiesel producesless CO2 (carbon dioxide) and SO2 (sulfur dioxide), nitrous oxideemissions are increased, but one benefit is that biodiesel is not toxic whenspilled, unlike petroleum diesel. Some biodiesel concerns can be offset bythe production of biodiesel from algae, which uses waste CO 2 and createsnatural oil from it. Biodiesel for algae can be grown in mass production,an algae farm. This concept was thoroughly researched by the NationalRenewable Energy Laboratory, which is a department of the U.S.Department of Energy, from 1978 to 1996 in a program called TheAquatic Species Program: Biodiesel from Algae. 37Although hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, itdoes not exist naturally in a pure state, which means it must be produced.If hydrogen is produced using a renewable source, it is consideredrenewable, but if it is produced through the use of a nonrenewableresource than it cannot be considered renewable. Hydrogen can beproduced from water, methane, ethanol, as a byproduct of refiningpetroleum and chemical production processes, or it may be producedthrough a process called steam reforming, which produces CO gas as a37 http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pdfs/biodiesel_from_algae.pdf, accessed April20, 2007.51

yproduct, or through electrolysis, an expensive and inefficient process.Most hydrogen is currently produced from natural gas, a non-renewableresource, in a process where 30% of energy within the gas is lost to obtain70% of the energy in the hydrogen. 38The other difficulty that hydrogen presents is its combustibility atordinary room temperature, which creates transporting, handling, andstorage concerns. However, hydrogen does offer flexibility. It can eitherbe a fuel or converted to electricity via fuel cells. Hydrogen as a fuelsource is more efficient than methane and when burned with pure oxygen,is 100% non-polluting. The main potential for hydrogen is in fuel cells. Afuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device that produceselectricity through the chemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen. Theelectrical energy produced is direct current (DC) that can be used forpower. Fuel cells not only use hydrogen they work equally well usingmethane, or which do not present the same flammability, transporting anddistribution issues as hydrogen.The generation of power through renewable means is beinginvestigated throughout the world. There are large sources of untappedpower such as geothermal energy, water, wind, and solar power that may38 Paula Berinstein, Alternative Energy: Facts Statistics, and Issues. (Westport,Connecticut: Oryx Press, 2001), 141.52

serve as renewable energy sources, but as in renewable fuels, each type ofrenewable energy source is not ideal.Due to the nature of the earth’s core, which is 4,000 miles belowthe surface, temperatures can reach as high as 9000° Celsius. This heatemanates outward from the core through the mantle, the surrounding layerof rock which can result in molten rock, known as magma, or hot springsor geysers that reach the earth’s surface. Geothermal power plantsproduce electricity using geothermal energy in three ways: dry stream,flash, and binary. Each of these methods is hydrothermal, usingunderground steam or hot water to create electricity.Hydropower is produced through the utilization of water on theearth’s surface through such means as waterwheels, hydroelectric dams,tidal power, and wave power. Tidal power is a reliable form of renewableenergy because tides are regular, based upon the orbital mechanics of thesolar system. Tidal power can be produced from the ebbing and surgingof the tides or by the use of a tidal barrage which relies on the differencein water height at low and high tide, acting as a sluice to hold back the tideand during its release, using a turbine to generate electricity. Concernsrelated to the use of tidal power are sediment accumulation and harm tomarine life. A tidal turbine acts like a wind turbine does but is completelysubmerged below the water but must be situated in a location that53

produces a strong enough current to warrant the placement. Underwaterturbines were installed in the East River in New York by Verdant PowerCompany in December 2006 as a test project in Manhattan. 39This testand others like it will address concerns about adverse effects ofunderwater turbines on fish and other marine life.Another form of hydropower is produced through waves. Thewave-electric generator is capable of generating electricity from the powerof ocean waves. This device uses the fluctuating level of water to run anair turbine that rotates as the air is pushed in and out of the device. Themechanical torque produced runs the turbine, which in turn drives anelectric generator. This source of electricity is completely renewable anddoes not produce contaminants or harmful emissions, but must beengineered to withstand storms. Wave-electric generators may also provehazardous to marine navigation if not clearly marked, and will not produceelectricity in calm seas.Solar power is another renewable and non-depletive energy sourcethat has been utilized throughout history and continues to be utilized. Theamount of solar energy falling on the United States alone is more than2,000 times the amount of energy produced by all of the nation’s coal-39 Emily B. Hagar, “Tidal Turbines: Powering Up Under Water,” New York Times,February 2, 2007. Available fromhttp://video.on.nytimes.com/?fr_story=a16561a2d9322a0e5953813fd7c930aa6fd8e41eaccessed February 2, 2007.54

powered stations. 40The drawback to use of solar energy is the rotation ofthe earth that causes night to fall, causing a temporary cessation of theproduction of solar power. There are, however, proposed theories thatcould potentially eliminate this issue. Space based solar power is aconcept that would deploy a ring of solar powered satellites above theearth in geosynchronous orbit. Each satellite would have photovoltaiccells and a transmitting antenna that would collect light, convert it to radiofrequency, and direct it to a receiving antenna on earth (retenna) whichwould convert the energy to electricity. To keep the cells pointed at thesun, the array would use an attitude control system with an inert gas suchas argon as a propellant.The use of wind power also has ancient origins. Most forms ofwind power today are produced through the use of wind turbines, often onlarge plots of land serving as wind farms. Wind farms may be placedinland, near shore, or off shore. Advances in wind turbine technologyhave resulted in larger turbines with fewer slower-turning blades withlower failure rates. Although the benefits of wind power are theproduction of power without the production of carbon dioxide gasproduction, wind power is variable and unpredictable, can have a negativeeffect upon migratory bird and bat species, and raises aesthetic issues.40 Marek Walisiewicz, Alternative Energy. Essential Science, ed. John Gribbin, (NewYork: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002).55

Due to the current drive to harness renewable energy, scientificbreakthroughs and discoveries will alter the discussion and propel itforward as humanity seeks to resolve its dependence on fossil fuels. Therenewable sources discussed here are just a few of the alternativesavailable and cannot be considered an exhaustive list.Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design(LEED)Despite the lack of federally mandated regulations on sustainablearchitecture, there are organizations that provide frameworks to guidearchitects and contractors seeking to design and build green buildings.Take for example, the LEED program created by the U.S. Green BuildingCouncil (USGBC) launched in August 1998. The USGBC was formed in1993 to establish an independent method of verifying or comparing claimsof green building. A few years later, it formed a committee of sustainablebuilding experts to develop a system which they called LEED, whichstands for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design. 41Thisprogram was created to promote design and construction practices thatreduce negative environmental impact and establish guidelines for those41 Swope, Christopher. “The Green Giant: How a Single Nonprofit – The U.S. GreenBuilding Council – Defines Sustainability for the Nation” Architect Magazine, (May2007), 136.56

practices. The positive results of these guidelines have been felt aroundthe United States: “Some 53 cities, 17 states, and 11 federal agencies haveput policies into place to encourage or require new government buildingsto meet LEED standards.” 42The LEED program is divided into several categories to reflectappropriate application: LEED-NB for new buildings; LEED-EB forexisting buildings; LEED-CI for commercial interiors; LEED-CS for coreand shell which is designed to be complementary to the LEED-CI; LEED-H for homes; and LEED-ND for neighborhood development. RobertWorkman, Director of Crystal Bridges Museum in Arkansas felt that thespecial art conservation and environmental requirements that art museumsface could qualify for a separate LEED category. 43The LEED “whole building approach” consists of five areas offocus: sustainable site development, water savings, energy efficiency,materials selection, and indoor environmental quality. Buildings qualifyfor points that eventually lead to one of four ratings: Certified, Silver,Gold, or Platinum. Each of these five areas of focus is subdivided intosmaller specific categories that provide credit options. For instance, the42 Swope, Christopher. “The Green Giant: How a Single Nonprofit – The U.S. GreenBuilding Council – Defines Sustainability for the Nation” Architect Magazine, (May2007), 135.43 Robert Workman, Director of Crystal Bridges Museum, Arkansas. Telephoneinterview by author, 13 December 2006.57

water efficiency section is broken down into three finer categories: WaterEfficient Landscaping, Innovative Wastewater Technologies, and WaterUse Reduction. Some of these finer categories offer various point levelsbased upon a percentage of achievement. A 20% reduction in water useresults in one earned point, whereas a 30% reduction offers one morepoint than the 20% option.Based upon accepted energy and environmental principals, theLEED design offers a systematic approach that has been field tested andparticipant reviewed, yet it is optional. Regardless of this optional aspect,“Some 800 buildings around the county have now received the council’sstamp of environmental approval, and 6,000 more sit in LEED’s pipelineand the USGBC has set the goal of certifying 100,000 green commercialbuildings by 2010. 44The author of Green Architecture, James Winesnotes “What the green cause desperately needs is a universal commitmentby governments to research and sponsor economically affordable greenhabitats.” 45In the United States, city and state governments areresponding to this perspective with positive results.Although the LEED program is optional, the city of Chicago hasadopted its own standard, known as the Chicago Standard for public44 Swope, Christopher. “The Green Giant: How a Single Nonprofit – The U.S. GreenBuilding Council – Defines Sustainability for the Nation” Architect Magazine, (May2007), 135.45 James Wines, Green Architecture. (Jodidio, Philip, ed. Italy: Taschen, 2000), 97.58

uildings derived from the USGBC LEED green building rating system. 46The Chicago City Department of the Environment also runs The ChicagoGreen Technology Center (CCGT), a green building facility that offerseducational materials that teach Chicagoans how to incorporateenvironmentally friendly, cost saving features into their homes orbusinesses. The CCGT also provides office space for businesses thatprovide environmental products and services. Likewise, the city of Seattleinitiated a comprehensive plan as early as 1994 called Toward aSustainable Seattle. Environmental stewardship is the core value uponwhich this plan is based and LEED plays an integral role in the plan.LEED, as a standard, is an integral part of the city master plans of the topranking cities listed by a U.S. Government sustainable ranking system.This voluntary participation and adoption of the LEED programinto city planning leaves no doubt that the guidelines are welcome andessential, yet are just the beginning of a change in perspective andunderstanding – leaving the door open to further entrepreneurial solutions.Building StrategiesRecent exploration in the search for entrepreneurial solutions hasled architects to research building strategies, including ancient strategies46 http://egov.cityofchicago.org/webportal/COCWebPortal/COC_ATTACH/ChicagoStandard.pdf, accessed February 11, 2007.59

used by architects and builders throughout the world at various times inhuman history. Besides incorporating renewable energy sources into abuilding, these ancient strategies and more recently developed strategiesfor sustainable architecture include building envelope strategies, siteplacement strategies, alternative building materials, and lightingalternatives.Examples of building strategies that help maintain a stable andcomfortable inside environment year round include the use of thermalmass. In thermal mass heating or cooling, walls use a dense product thathelps mitigate the fluctuation of severe weather or high winds andincreases soundproofing and fire resistance. Unfortunately, increasingthermal mass of a building will increase its initial construction cost butwill decrease its lifetime heating and cooling energy needs.Green roofs are another building strategy that has recentlyencountered a renaissance. Green roofs also serve as thermal mass andmay have applicability and potential for museums. Traditional roofingmaterials absorb the sun’s radiation and reflect it back as heat. This heatcan contribute to what is known as an urban heat island, which makescities several degrees hotter than surrounding areas. Besides preventingurban heat islands, green roofs prevent storm water run-off. One of thebest examples of a green roof building is the Ford Manufacturing River60

Rouge Plant located in Dearborn, Michigan. Originally built in 1917 to1925, this building was redeveloped beginning in November 2000. Aspart of the redevelopment plan, a green roof, also known as a living roof,was constructed over 10.4 acres of what was previously a heat island. Itwas designed by Architect William McDonough, author of theaforementioned Cradle to Cradle. The green roof is actually part of anatural storm water management system that also uses porous pavement,underwater storage basins, natural treatment wetlands and vegetatedswales. The Ford plant also utilizes a water treatment system that reusesgray water and creates a natural marsh system that cleans water naturally.This green roof has lowered heating and cooling costs by 5% annually andis expected to last twice as long as a traditional roof.Chicago City Hall, built in 2001, has a 20,300 square foot greenroof designed by Roofscapes, Inc. that saves the building $5,000 per yearin utility bills. The city of Chicago offers incentives to builders who putgreen roofs on their buildings as part of an overall comprehensivesustainable building plan for the city of Chicago.In San Francisco, the California Academy of Sciences willincorporate a 197,000 square foot green roof into a design that supports61

nine native plant species that will reduce storm water runoff by 50%. 47Anearlier attempt of a museum to utilize a living roof with somewhat lesssuccess occurred with the 1969 opening of the Oakland Museum ofCalifornia. Designed by architect Kevin Roche and Dan Kiley, landscapearchitect, the Oakland Museum of California was hailed as “thoughtfullyrevolutionary.” The building was designed as a tri-level building wherethe roof of one building formed the garden of the next. Although carefulconsideration was given to the roof design in order to avoid leakage intothe galleries below, the museum building has been beset by leaksthroughout its history. 48Recent advances and further testing such as thatconducted by Green Roof Environmental Evaluation Network, a researchcooperative between Southern University Illinois, Edwardsville 49 in greenroof technology will allow architects to successfully apply this sustainablebuilding strategy that the Oakland Museum of California implementedalmost forty years ago.Evaporative cooling towers are another energy efficient coolingstrategy that works best in hot arid regions of the world. A cooling tower47 Patrick J. Kociolek, “A Sustainable Academy: The New California Academy ofSciences,” Museums & Social Issues 1, no. 2 (Fall 2006): 191-202.48 http://www.museumca.org/about/building/design_concepts.html, accessed March 31,2007.49 http://www.greenroofs.com/green_research_report.htm, Green Roof EnvironmentalEvaluation Network April 2007 Green Report home page, accessed May 20, 2007.62

is a heat rejection device that is designed to cool water by allowing a smallportion of that water to evaporate into a moving air stream. The resultingevaporation cools the remaining water stream. The air stream thatcontains the evaporated water is then released into the atmosphere. As theevaporative process results in water loss from the system, water must beadded to replace the evaporated portion of the water flow. This coolingmethod is an extremely energy efficient and cost effective method forcooling water for the chillers of HVAC systems used in museums.Many sustainable high rise projects take advantage of naturalventilation by situating the building to take advantage of prevailing winds.Some outstanding examples of sustainable high rise buildings are featuredin Big and Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21 st Century,published in conjunction with the museum exhibition of the same namepresented by the National Building Museum in 2003. The book highlights50 projects, some in existence and some not yet built. One example isLloyd’s of London, a high rise building built in 1986 that uses a naturalventilation system. Although there many examples throughout the book,including city master plans, not one of the buildings highlighted has thesame special environmental restrictions of art museums. Art museumsmay not be able to take full advantage of natural ventilation strategies dueto these environmental control needs.63

Since generating alternative and regenerative technologies forbuildings has become a priority, innovative technological solutions andalternative building materials continue to appear on the market. Many ofthese technologies and materials will assist in garnering LEED points byreducing water use, optimizing energy performance, reducing the heatisland effect, applying innovative wastewater technologies, maximizingrecycled content, employing creative lighting solutions, and augmentingthermal comfort, etc. As the truth about current building materialsemerges, issues of off-gassing of chemical fumes, and the inherent costs ofproduction and transportation place a different economic standard onbuilding materials than mere purchase price. Non-off gassing, lighter, andlocal alternative building materials are far more ecologically friendly andtheir inherent costs are lower than those of traditional building materials.Following are just a few of the innovative technologies that are emergingonto the sustainable building scene.For example, Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC) is a pre-cast,manufactured building stone made of a mixture of finely ground quartzsand, lime, and aluminum paste as a binding agent. The steam curingmanufacturing process does not create air or water pollution and is wastefree. As a result, it is economical, environmentally friendly, does not offgaspollutants or toxic substances, is durable and lightweight, and provides64

thermal and acoustic insulation. Because it is lightweight, shipping costsare reduced. It is also decay, fire, and termite resistant and can be finishedin any way. It is also a versatile building material that may be used on thebuilding’s exterior or interior.Another building material that has been highlighted in the newsrecently is recycled denim insulation. Blue jeans are ubiquitous inAmerican society but due to their nature, they wear out. Using blue jeansas insulation is a good example of applying the “R” of reuse to alternativebuilding material strategy and meets LEED recycled content points. TheCalifornia Academy of Sciences has used denim insulation for their entirenew building.Other possible alternative insular materials include cementitiousfoam, an insulator made from minerals derived from sea water, which isan environmentally safe and non-toxic insulation that is fire-proof andsound absorbing. One of its drawbacks is that it is easily damaged bywater. Rockwool is another option that utilizes the “R” in recycle.Rockwool is made from recycled steel slag, which is a byproduct of steelproduction. It is also fungi, fire, and termite resistant and does not requirethe use of toxic flame retardants.65

LightingArtificial lighting in museums is of particular concern due to thedamaging effect of ultra violet light and the heat produced by certain typesof light on artwork. Currently, museums tend to avoid natural lighting anduse a variety of artificial lighting systems, all of which require filtering.Controlling the damaging effects of ultraviolet light and infrared heat iscritical to object conservation, making light levels a critical part ofagreements between institutions in order to complete exhibition loanagreements. Typically, museums use halogen or metal halide tracklighting in galleries, which provide maximum lighting flexibility, andflorescent lighting in collection storage areas, all of which requirefiltering. However, exploration in lighting technology has begun tochange the lighting paradigm in museums.LED’s (light emitting diodes) were first developed by GeneralElectric Company in 1962. LED’s consume 1/5 as much energy as aconventional bulb and lasts 100 times longer. LED’s are illuminated bythe movement of electrons in a semiconductor material which is typicallyaluminum-gallium arsenide. As the electrons move photons are released,which are the most basic units of light. LED’s can be used in place ofincandescent lights, and can be dimmed without changing the color oflight emitted. (Unlike incandescent lights which become yellow.)66

Although LED lighting is currently more expensive than incandescentlighting, its low energy usage makes it a cost effective alternative.Hybrid Solar Lighting (HSL) is one of the newest technologies inthe lighting field. HSL uses solar power and fiber optics to channelsunlight into an enclosed space. Sunlight is tracked throughout the dayusing a parabolic dish and is supplemented by sensors that maintain aconstant level of illumination between incoming light and traditionalartificial lighting. The light is first converted into electricity and thenreproduced as full spectrum lighting. This newly discovered process is farmore efficient than photovoltaic cells, which convert 15 % of sunlight intoelectricity and then change the electricity back into light resulting in theuse of only 2% of the original sunlight. The drawback to this newlydiscovered system is that the longer the fiber optics are, the more lightthey lose. Presently, this system is only effective for rooms with directroof access.Another alternative similar to HSL is called the Solatube. Thislighting strategy redirects light down a reflective tube and diffuses itthroughout the interior space. This system captures indirect lighting aswell as direct lighting, increasing its effective use from dawn to dusk.This innovative technology is not applicable to zones within an artmuseum dedicated to the storage and display of art, but can be used in67

non-art spaces such as restaurants, museum stores, meeting rooms andoffices. This particular lighting strategy can be used to satisfy LEEDIndoor Environmental Quality points for daylight and views.Recently, museums have begun to experiment with natural lightuse in museum galleries. Author David Clinard states that “traditionally,color quality has been and still is one of the most critical concerns fordisplaying art objects…” 50Unlike artificial light, natural light producesfull spectrum color. By avoiding direct sunlight and creating complexsystems that track and control sunlight, museums are beginning to takeadvantage of natural lighting while simultaneously avoiding the harmfuleffects of ultraviolet rays. The High Museum in Atlanta, Georgia,designed by Renzo Piano, has created a complex system designed tomaximize the use of natural lighting. The ceiling of the upper floors ispunctuated by 1,000 skylights that are actually composed of three parts:the vela, made of white aluminum acting as a reflector; the skylight thatfeatures iron glass with low E-coating and a laminated interlayer; and thesoffitto that diffuses and directs light from the skylight. 51The Nelson Atkins Museum in Kansas City Missouri has added theBloch Building, designed by architect Steven Holl, that utilizes translucent50 David Clinard, “Show & Tell: Museum Lighting.” Architectural Lighting 17(April/May 2002): 59.51 Emilie Summerhoff, “High Museum of Art.” Architectural Lighting 19 (Nov/Dec2005): 26.68

glass used in conjunction with fluorescent lighting in the new galleries.Steven Holl Architects worked closely with Richard Renfro of RenfroDesign Group, a lighting design specialist to calculate recommended lightlevels for art display while simultaneously minimizing light damage. 52The use of daylighting is supported by Clinard; at the conclusion of hisarticle “Show & Tell: Museum Lighting,” he states “In order to reducelighting-related energy and maintenance problems, when appropriate, usenatural light as a source – it’s free and daylighting can drastically reduceenergy costs over time.” 53In further support of Clinard’s thoughts, artist David Behar Perahiais currently writing his Ph.D. dissertation at Technion Israel Institute ofTechnology, Department of Architecture and Town Planning, in Haifa,Israel, about the use of daylight in museums. Technion is well known forintertwining science with ethics, and sensitivity to social andenvironmental issues. Perahia is examining design solutions thatchallenge the current paradigm for lighting design in museums. He hasconcentrated on museums that already use natural lighting successfullyincluding: Ein Harod Museum (Shmuel Bikeles, Ein Harod, Israel);Kimbell Art Museum (Louis Kahn, Forth Worth, Texas); De Menil52 http://www.inhabitat.com/category/architecture/, accessed May 9, 2007.53 David Clinard, “Show & Tell: Museum Lighting.” Architectural Lighting 17(April/May 2002): 62.69

Collection (Renzo Piano, Houston, Texas); Museum fur GegenwartsKunst (Basel, Switzerland); Kunsthaus Bregenz Museum (Peter Zumthor,Bregenz, Austria). 54Perahia is writing about natural lighting as anaesthetic experience in museums, one that capitalizes upon full spectrumlighting for viewing art that is as important as proper acoustics is forlistening to concerts. He also cites lack of proper lighting as one of thereasons museum visitors experience “museum fatigue” a well knownphenomenon and phrase originally coined in the early twentieth-centuryby the Secretary of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, Benjamin IvesGilman. 55Perahia notes that any light exposure to artifacts is inherentlydamaging. Modern conservation efforts seek to control the amount oflight damage in any given time frame since light damage is cumulativeand may occur at low levels for a long period of time, or at high levels fora shorter period of time. He discussed the De Menil Collection inHouston, Texas, a museum that incorporates daylighting in the galleriesbut rotates artwork at a much faster rotation rate to compensate for thehigher levels of exposure to light. Another example Perahia specificallycites is the Kunsthaus Bregenz Museum in Bregenz, Austria, that utilizes54 http://www.davidbehar.net/, accessed April 3, 2007.55 http://www.le.ac.uk/museumstudies/m&s/Issue%209/lindauer.pdf, accessed April 15,2007.70

two layers of etched and layered glass 90 centimeters apart as walls, andlight ceilings in the hallways. This art museum was also envisioned as agreen museum; it utilizes radiant heating and cooling technology thatreduced costs associated with heating and cooling by as much as 50%when compared to buildings of comparable size. 56Concluding ThoughtsIn the corporate world, green office buildings like Ford Company’sRiver Rouge Plant provide an example and incentives for othercorporations to invest in green technology. Sustainable buildings likeChicago’s City Hall provide incentives for sustainable practices forgovernment as a social proactive and accepted norm, while the CaliforniaAcademy of Sciences project provides examples of innovativearchitectural solutions in the museum world. Regardless of whether greenarchitecture is a public-relations device or an ideological commitment, theresults are the same, an exploration and commitment to sustainablebuilding.Examples of sustainable buildings throughout the world arechanging the argument that sustainable building is more costly than non-56 http://www.kunsthaus-bregenz.at/ehtml/ewelcome00.htm, accessed April 15, 2007.71

sustainable building. Over time, the initial construction expense ofbuilding sustainably is offset by energy savings that is realized as thebuilding begins to operate. These savings can amortize the initialconstruction costs very quickly under normal circumstances. With theenvironmental cost impacts of human dependency on fossil fuels, erringon “the green side of things” can only protect the forward thinking andexpose thinking that relies on status quo.I believe we cannot as a society, or as a museum community,afford to sit back and wait for solutions to come to us. Humanity has to beintelligent enough to redesign its own future – on sustainable terms. Theart museum community must proactively explore sustainable buildingoptions and rethink its global view. Challenging the perceivedimpediment of strict environmental controls as reason why not to buildgreen will leave art museums free to move forward to meet their specialneeds in an economically, environmentally sustainable, and “green”manner. After all, as Architect William McDonough reminds us, humanpresence in the landscape can be regenerative.72

FindingsIn theory, theory and practice are the same, but in practice they are not.~ Diana Lopez Barnett and William D. BrowningFrom the exterior and even from the interior, to the average eyesustainable buildings do not appear any different than their traditionalcounterparts. Yet, through sustainable site selection, the use of efficientwater systems, non-traditional energy systems, and recycled materials,sustainable buildings actually enhance occupant comfort whilesimultaneously benefiting the environment.The three sites I chose to visit, the Patagonia Distribution Center inReno, Nevada; the Tahoe Center for Environmental Sciences at SierraNevada College in Incline Village, Nevada, and the California Academyof Sciences in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California; used LEED-NC as the guiding structure for construction, although the Academy didnot implement it until well into the design phase. LEED, Leadership inEnergy and Design, is a standard for sustainable building designed andimplemented by the USGBC, the United States Green Building Council.LEED is divided into five categories: Sustainable Sites, WaterEfficiency, Energy & Atmosphere, Materials & Resources, and Indoor73

Environmental Quality. Achievement is rated through a points system andrecipients are rewarded by level, Platinum, Gold, Silver, and Certified.The Patagonia Distribution Center received Gold on March 1 st , 2007. TheTahoe Center for Environmental Sciences seeks a platinum rating, but hasnot yet been awarded a rating. The California Academy of Sciences, stillin the construction phase as of this writing, also seeks the platinum level.Each of the buildings chosen has different usage needs anddifferent physical environments. The Tahoe Center for EnvironmentalSciences, located in the Tahoe Alpine Forest, supports laboratories,classrooms, and offices. Patagonia Distribution Center, located in the highdesert of Northern Nevada, supports a warehouse, packing operation,storefront, and offices. The California Academy of Sciences, located inSan Francisco, supports offices, exhibition spaces, classrooms, aplanetarium and an aquarium. As sustainable buildings are very site,usage, and climate specific, each building offered unique perspectives forsustainable building practices.Patagonia Distribution CenterRecently awarded Gold Level LEED Certification on March 1 st ,2007, the Patagonia Distribution Center is a 171,000 square footwarehouse facility that is utilized to pack outgoing customer orders. The74

original facility was designed by the Miller-Hull Partnership, LLP ofSeattle, whose self proclaimed motto “Spirited Architecture throughContinual Exploration” 57 provides an explanation why they were willingto craft a sustainable warehouse. Coupled with Patagonia’s missionstatement to "Build the best product, do no unnecessary harm, usebusiness to inspire and implement solutions to the environmental crisis," 58the desire to build a sustainable facility that reflected this mission wascreated. The Patagonia Distribution Incorporated’s addition was designedby a local architectural firm, Tate Snyder Kimsey, an architectural firmthat is dedicated to “environmentally responsible design and planningsolutions.” 59Using the first LEED criteria, sustainable sites, Trammel CrowConstruction recycled 93 % of construction waste created on site to meetLEED requirements. The owners of the building requested that nopetroleum products be used in the building’s construction. As a result,paved surfaces were either concrete for truck traffic, or finished withporous pavers for automobile traffic that allow water to seep in to theground. This strategy helped reduce the heat island effect and preventstorm water runoff into the nearby Truckee River. According to Dave57 http://www.millerhull.com/html/index.htm, accessed March 31, 2007.58 http://www.patagonia.com/web/us/patagonia.go?assetid=12080, accessed March 31,2007.59 http://www.tatesnyderkimsey.com/, accessed April 12, 2007.75

Abeloe, the Distribution Center’s Director, the pavers were significantlymore expensive than traditional asphalt or concrete. The cost of thepavers was $500,000 for 32,000 sq. ft., but the grading and installationmore than doubled the cost. Preferred parking is provided for fuelefficient vehicles, and bicycle racks and showers make alternativetransportation feasible. The exterior lighting is pointed downward anddoes not light beyond the property line.The storm water runoff system consists of rock-lined dry creekbeds and detention ponds that allow water runoff to settle into the pondsand percolate into the ground. An overflow valve diverts excess waterinto an underground interceptor tank with sand oil separation filters. Afterfiltering, the water will be released into the city storm drain and eventuallyto the river. To combat the heat island effect, which is especiallyimportant due to the sunny environment of the high desert, the roof ismade of a white membrane. This white membrane is welded together withheat guns to form an impervious surface that helps funnel storm waterrunoff into the rock lined dry creek beds.The second LEED category, water efficiency, was achievedthrough landscaping that maximized the use of native plants. The use ofnative plants resulted in 50% less water usage for irrigation, and waterusage will continue to decrease as the plants grow and stabilize and less76

water will be needed for their maintenance. Furthermore, the use ofmostly native plants, shrubs, and trees – all considered Xeriscaping,landscaping that does not require irrigation - has eliminated the need forchemical fertilizers. Internally, 42% less usage of potable water than anormal building is achieved through water saving strategies such aswaterless urinals, ultra low flow toilets, water sensor faucets, and low flowshowers.The Patagonia building optimizes its energy systems through theuse of an energy management system that measures the efficiency of thebuilding’s systems and assists with pinpointing maintenance issues,satisfying the measurement and verification credits of the third LEEDcategory, energy and atmosphere. It closely monitors the indoor watersystem and outdoor irrigation system, ventilation air volume, lightingsystems, heat recovery cycles, and boiler efficiency. Although thestorefront uses traditional air conditioning for occupancy and customercomfort reasons, the far more spacious and far less occupied warehouseuses a night flush system to cool the building in summer months. Thebuilding has ten exhaust fans that are monitored by energy managementsystem. When the exterior temperature equals or is slightly lower thanthat of the building, the exhaust fans turn on and the louvers open to createnegative pressure, which in turn creates cross ventilation. This cross77

ventilation draws in the colder air while drawing out the warmer air. Whenstaff arrives in morning, the heated air has been replaced with cooler air.This “night draw” works because of the high desert climate of RenoNevada, but would not necessarily work in other climatic zones. Thissystem also works for this company because operations occur with oneshift from 7 am until all the orders are filled, usually 3:30pm at the earliestand 6pm at the latest. The night flush system cools the building down intothe 50°’s at night and in the summer months the temperature will rise upinto the 70°’s by the end of the day, a system that is partially successfuldue to the application of high R-value insulation in the walls and ceiling.Building heating is achieved through a radiant heating system thatuses two high efficiency commercial boilers to raise the water temperatureto 160°, which returns at 130° after traveling through the building’s 400radiant heat panels. This is a closed water system that does not require theaddition of water. Additionally, the boilers have 100% redundancy, whichmeans that one boiler has the capability of running the entire system,should the other boiler need repair or maintenance. In the racking area ofthe building, the radiant heat system is supplemented by unit heaters thatare also run off of the boilers. The building also has two air handling unitsthat bring in outside air and filter it to maintain airflow throughout thebuilding during the day. The improved energy performance of these78

simple systems has resulted in a 47% energy-cost savings over that of atraditional warehouse of comparable size.Recycling of materials also fall under the fourth category,materials and resources, and Patagonia has gone beyond traditionalrecycling by recycling everything possible – in fact, 95 % of all in-housewaste is recycled. Waste plastic bags are sold to Trex, the manufacturerthat produces recycled plastic lumber called Trex, produced from wasteplastic and reclaimed hardwood sawdust. Patagonia also recycles its ownproducts including cotton, fleece, and Capilene® garments, and otherproducts such as used ink cartridges and outdated electronic devices.The certified wood credit is also part of the materials and resourcescategory. In order to obtain this credit designed to encourageenvironmentally responsible forest management, at least 50% of the woodused in the building must be FSC certified. FSC, the Forest StewardshipCouncil, is an international organization that promotes responsiblestewardship of the world’s forests. 60Patagonia’s building was built using55% FSC certified wood for the entire roof except the studs and for theparticle board that is applied to the three new walls from the floor to theeight foot level. The steel used in the building also contains recycledcontent.60 http://www.fsc.org/en/about, accessed April 2, 2007.79

In order to satisfy the daylight and lighting control requirements ofthe fourth LEED category, Patagonia used several lighting strategies thatwere successfully applied in this large open warehouse. Dave Abeloe,Director of the distribution center, noted that better lighting improvesproductivity, moral, and the overall health of all the workers. All artificiallighting is T-5 fluorescent lighting that is operable by motion detectorsensors based on distance traveled. In other words, an entire aisle will notlight up if a fork truck operator is only utilizing half of the aisle.In order to introduce sunlight into the building, three separatestrategies were applied. The first strategy was the inclusion of Kalwall inthe building walls. Kalwall allows for filtered light to enter the buildingthrough translucent aluminum framed fiberglass skin that is very wellinsulated as well as surprisingly beautiful – much like a translucent scrim.(See Appendix A for an image of Kalwall.) The second strategy involvedthe use of skylights that are comprised of three mirror panels that track thesun as it moves through the sky by obtaining enough energy through asmall photovoltaic panel that stores electricity in a capacitor. The skylightis designed to maximize sunlight by design – its inverted pyramid designprovides 1,000 watts of fluorescent lighting per skylight. There are a totalof 187 units installed on the building’s roof, resulting in 187,000 watts oflight or “A ton of free light!” according to Dave Abeloe. The cost per80

unit is $1,300, installed. The third strategy maximizes the use oftranslucent smoke vents that reflect additional daylight into the building.These lighting strategies alone account for a 44% decrease in lightingcosts per year and will pay for itself in 2 ½ years.Other strategies applied towards meeting the indoor environmentalquality criteria included low or no VOC finishing products such as paint,carpet, adhesives and sealants, thus mitigating the sources of indoorpollutants. R-12 rigid insulation was applied to warehouse walls and R-30insulation was used for the ceiling in order to prevent heat loss during thewinter months or heat gain during the summer months, thus improving thethermal comfort for occupants. Windows on the second floor office areaare also operable and can be opened if needed. The building is alsomonitored by CO 2 monitors that measure carbon dioxide and carbonmonoxide levels as a safety factor for occupants.This 171,000 sq. ft. building was constructed at a total cost of 16 ½million dollars, approximately 5% to 7% more than a traditional buildingof the same size, but will pay for itself over time. Incidentally, thisbuilding was built to meet LEED silver certification – but achieved goldlevel certification through the dedication of its architects, business owners,employees, and construction company.81

Tahoe Center for Environmental SciencesOpening on August 21, 2006, the $33 million, 45,000 square footTahoe Center for Environmental Sciences building is dedicated to theprotection of alpine lakes and streams by supporting research laboratories,classrooms, and offices. This three story building is the result ofcollaboration between Sierra Nevada College; University of California,Davis; University of Nevada, Reno; and the Desert Research Institute.Supplementing this program is a work of art hanging just above thereception area to the left as you enter the building, called “Da DaDumpster Diving” by local artist Elaine Jason. All of its components wereobtained from the building site and it was constructed as a multi-mediawall sculpture. This work of art reflects the dedication of all partnersinvolved to achieve the most sustainable building possible with today’stechnology, a building that seeks to achieve LEED platinum rating.Under the first LEED category, sustainable sites, the building andadjoining parking lot took the smallest footprint possible sited on an areathat produced the least possible environmental damage. Measures weretaken during construction to prevent soil loss, natural forest habitat waspreserved, material waste was recycled, and native plants were used in thelandscaping. The trees that were removed to create the building’s footprint82

were used as finishing treatment for the building interior (i.e. baseboards,wainscoting, etc.) or shredded for erosion control and ground cover.The building is located within 100 yards of a public bus stop andprovides bicycle racks, showering facilities, and preferred parking for fuelefficient vehicles and carpools. Towards that aim, a compressed naturalgas pump was installed within the vicinity of the building to allow staff touse dedicated compressed natural gas vehicles. Lighting for the buildingand adjoining parking lot is directed downwards, preventing lightpollution. Prevention of storm water runoff, caused by the rain andsnowmelt that takes place in the Tahoe basin, occurs through the use ofrock drainage ditches that prevent runoff to the lake that carries sedimentsand nutrients. The rocks obtained from the excavation for the foundationwere reused, preventing the need for transporting them to the site. Stormwater is reused for toilets and irrigation, which also contributes to thesecond LEED category: water efficiency. Water efficiency is alsoobtained through strategies such as waterless urinals, motion sensorfaucets powered by solar photovoltaic cells, aerated water flow heads forfaucets and showers, and half or full flush option toilets. This particularfacility uses two water systems; a rainwater/snowmelt collection systemfor toilets and urinals, and one for remaining usages including heating,snowmelt panels, laboratory water, and humidity for the air handling83

system. This system results in a 66.23% reduction in water use than thetypical laboratory building of the same size. Water that moves throughoutthe building is filtered through anti-bacterial ultraviolet cartridges andcarbon cartridges.The third LEED category, energy and atmosphere, is concernedwith energy systems such as heating, ventilating, and air conditioning;lighting and day lighting controls; hot water systems; and renewableenergy systems. The Tahoe Center for Environmental Sciences buildinguses on-site renewable energy systems including a solar photovoltaic roofcomposed of 875 photovoltaic roof tiles and nine 3,500 watt inverterswhich produces 4,400 kilowatts of a month of renewable power. A cogeneratorburns natural gas to create electricity when the photovoltaicpanels cannot produce enough energy to supply the building. The wasteheat created by the co-generator is used to warm water for use in theradiant heating system.Hot water for occupant needs is created through two solar thermalpanels. The hot water is then stored in a highly insulated water storagetank until needed, when it is fully heated by a gas powered high efficiencyhot water heater. This system also runs the thermal snowmelt system,which in turn is captured as part of the rain and snowmelt catchments usedfor toilets and urinals.84

The building’s air handling system runs the air diffuser ventilationsystem. The air handler system draws in air through the intake grille intothe plenum, an air compartment inside the air handler. As the air movesthrough the system, humidity is added as needed before passing throughtwo sets of filters to filter out pollen, dust, etc. The filtered air then travelsthroughout the building through diffusers, which are located in the lowerwall on the first floor, and the floor on the second and third floors. Air isthen exhausted through ceiling vents.In the summer months, the cooling system consists of anevaporative cooling tower that cools water through evaporation at night.This cooled water is stored underground in two storage tanks and passesthrough a heat exchanger to cool the water in a second system. The waterfrom the second system is pumped through the building’s radiant pipingsystem and panels the next day to absorb the building’s heat. This radiantpipe system uses only 5% to 10% of the energy required for traditional airconditioning systems and does not employ refrigerants or compressors,thus eliminating emissions and excessive energy usage. This same coolwater also cools the air for the air diffuser ventilation system.During winter months, the building’s air handling systems drawcold air in through intake grilles into the plenum, and the air is warmed bythe heat recovery system, which captures heat from the outgoing air to85

warm the incoming air. The warmed air is then moved throughout thebuilding through a displacement ventilation system. Aided by highefficiency gas boilers, the warmed water is pumped through the radiantheat piping system, which radiates heat from floors and ceiling panels.Heat is recovered from exhaust air through venting towers located on theroof, which is then transferred to the water. The now warmed watertransfers the heat back to incoming air in the basement. Once the heat istransferred, the cool water begins the cycle again. This use of exhaustheat prevents heat-sink, where the air around the building is warmer thanthe natural exterior temperature due to heat exhaust.The fourth LEED criterion, materials and resources, providesincentive to reuse and recycle materials, as well as choose materials thatare local and/or renewable. Toward that aim, the entire building wasinsulated with recycled blue jean material. All concrete used in thebuilding has been mixed with 25% fly ash, which is a byproduct ofburning coal that ordinarily ends up in landfills if not used in concrete. Aspart of the educational mission, an exhibition about Lake Tahoe and thecurrent environmental stresses placed upon it is located on the first floor.To the side of the exhibition is an informative flip panel exhibit thatprovides examples and technical information for every recycled materialused in the building. Building schematics are also displayed that highlight86

the energy system, the water system, solar and day lighting systems, andheating and ventilation.The final LEED criterion, indoor environmental quality, isachieved through several strategies. Firstly, all the materials used in thebuilding emit low or no VOC’s, which are organic compounds thatevaporate at room temperature and are hazardous to human health.Secondly, the building makes use of natural lighting through sky lightingwindows at the top of the center atrium, lightshelves that refract light intointerior spaces by as much as 30 feet, and large windows in exteriorrooms. All windows are dual pane argon filled to reduce heat transfer anda low-emissivity coating, a thin metallic insulated glazing that assists inpreventing heat transfer. All windows can be opened for occupantcomfort. Internal glass walls between rooms and interior corridors passnatural light into the corridors. All internal lighting not provided naturallyis controlled by motion sensor and all are 32 watt compact fluorescentbulbs. These lighting strategies have resulted in a 55.2% reduction ofelectricity used for lighting than a standard building of the same size andusage.The central atrium is designed to increase airflow throughout thebuilding, and the science labs have personal ventilation systems to assistwith the additional ventilation required for science laboratories. Since the87

air is circulated mostly for ventilation purposes, not heat control, fans runmuch less than in a traditional building.California Academy of SciencesSet to open in the fall of 2008, the California Academy of Sciencesis a 420,000 square foot multi-use facility that houses the SteinhartAquarium, the Morrison Planetarium, a four-level rainforest, exhibitionspaces, a center courtyard, an organic café, a museum store, anauditorium, and offices. It is set on a peninsula in San Francisco,California, where it is surrounded by three bodies of water, the PacificOcean, the San Francisco Bay, and the Golden Gate strait. Due to thecity’s varied terrain, often the weather is characterized by microclimates.The overall climate is generally characterized by moist cool winters anddry summers, while temperature generally ranges between 40° and 70°. 61The climatic conditions the Academy experiences are far less extreme thanthose Patagonia, Inc., or the Tahoe Center for Environmental Sciences aresubjected to. The Academy is over 150 years old and has occupied severalsites in its history. The site I visited in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Parkis a rebuild of its former seismically inadequate building which was torndown.61 http://ggweather.com/sf/narrative.html, accessed May 17, 2007.88

Under the first LEED category, sustainable sites, the building tookthe smallest footprint possible, giving back an acre of land to Golden GatePark from its former building to allow for habitat restoration. The facilitywill not be taller than the original facility, thereby allowing for expansiveviews – both off and on a living roof. The living roof is 197,000 squarefeet and will be planted with 1.7 million plants consisting of nine nativespecies including beach strawberries (Fragaria chiloensis), self heal(Prunella vulgaris), sea pink (Armeria maritime), stonecrop (Sedumspathulitholium), tidy tips (Layia platyglossa), miniature lupine (Lupinusbicolor), California poppies (Eschscholzia californica), California plantain(Plantago erecta), and Goldfield plants (Lasthenia californica). 62Thesespecies will increase natural habitat for honeybees, hummingbirds,butterflies, and other insects. This living roof also provides two otherimportant results discussed in the literature review: preventing the rooffrom creating a heat island, an effect where the roof absorbs heat andradiates it into the atmosphere, and preventing storm water runoff.Current estimates are that the roof will prevent 2 million gallons of waterrunoff per year – water that would have carried pollutants such as salt,62 http://www.calacademy.org/geninfo/newsroom/releases/2005/Green_building_facts.html, accessed May 19, 2007.89

sand, fertilizer, soil and pollutants into the water system, the leading causeof water pollution in California. 63Since Golden Gate Park is close to public transportation, theCalifornia Academy of Sciences took that fact one step further, when itdeveloped a program designed to encourage the use of publictransportation. Museum visitors producing a fare receipt from BART orMUNI will receive an entrance discount, and participating staff memberswill receive $20/per month for taking public transportation to work. 64Under the second LEED category, water efficiency, the roof isdesigned to collect excessive rainwater for wastewater conveyance therebyreducing the use of potable water for wastewater conveyance by 90 %.The living roof will also not need irrigation, further reducing thebuilding’s water needs, but a system for irrigation has been installed in theevent of long periods of drought. Overall potable water use for the facilityis estimated to be 22 % less than what is required by code through the useof low-flow fixtures and the building is plumbed to use recycled water inthe bathrooms and to backwash the aquarium filters. The salt water for theaquariums will be drawn from the Pacific Ocean and will be purified andrecycled for reuse.63 Patrick J. Kociolek, Renzo Piano, and Jean Rogers. “The New California Academy ofSciences,” 30 November 2005. Available fromhttp://www.sfenvironment.org/downloads/library/aliforniaacademyofsciences.pdf., 6.64 Ibid., 13.90

The third LEED category, energy and atmosphere, is concernedwith optimizing energy performance and renewable energy. To reduceenergy usage, the Academy used the living roof to provide insulation withan R-value of R23. The living roof is also edged by 60,000 photovoltaicpanels that will provide 5% of the building’s energy needs and will reducethe buildings output of greenhouse gases by 405,000 pounds per year.Furthermore, the natural ventilation is enhanced by various techniquesincluding the slope or undulations in the roof, the berm at the back of thebuilding, and operable windows in the staff areas and the roof of theexhibition areas. The round roof windows draw warm air upwards and outof the building while simultaneously drawing cooler air throughout thebuilding. The need for HVAC is minimal and utilized only in collectionstorage, auditorium, and the planetarium. The HVAC system will employreverse osmosis to produce desalinated and demineralized water for thehumidification system, which is 95% more efficient than traditionalelectric humidifiers. 65Where artificial lighting is required, such as in the collectionstorage area, high efficiency lighting has been installed. The bathroomswill utilize low-flow fixtures that power themselves through the use ofmini-turbines. The mechanical design for the life-support system of the65 Jean Rogers, Ph.D., PE, Environmental Engineer, Ove ARUP and Partners California,Ltd., (San Francisco, California) E-mail exchange May 20-23, 2007.91

aquarium has also been designed for minimal energy usage through theapplication of large piping, small variable speed pumps, and foamfractionators. Energy efficient foam fractionators work by removing veryfine organic waste by injecting tiny bubbles into the water to be treated.The waste particles attach themselves to the surface of the bubbles whichthen rise to the surface and form a foam, suspending the organic wasteparticles within the foam. 66The fourth LEED category, materials and resources, providesincentive to recycle demolition waste. Of the materials from the oldacademy, 100% were recycled, including stone, glass, steel, wood, andconcrete. In particular, 9,000 tons of concrete were used in Richmondroad construction, 12,000 tons of steel were recycled and used bySchnitzer Steel, and greenwaste was recycled onsite. 67To build the newfacility, 100% recycled steel was used. The concrete consists of 30% flyash and 5% slag, and 50% of the wood was FSC certified. The insulationwas also 100% recycled, made of denim that was collected from blue jeancollection drives on college campuses and the cutting floor ofmanufacturers. For building reuse, also part of the materials and resources66 Cover, David. “Extreme Water Reuse: Aquatic Life Support Systems for Zoos andAquariums.” Available fromhttp://www.watereuse.org/ca/2005conf/papers/B4_dcover.pdf, May 19, 2007.67 http://www.calacademy.org/geninfo/newsroom/releases/2005/Green_building_facts.html, accessed May 23, 2007.92

category, the outer walls of the African Hall were incorporated into thenew building, thus maintaining a physical link to the Academy’s past anddecreasing the need for new building materials.The fifth LEED category, indoor environmental quality, isachieved through several strategies. Due to the installation of low or noVOC emitting materials such as paints, sealants, and adhesives, thisbuilding will not require an off-gassing period after completion thusreducing indoor air contaminants harmful to occupants. Since thebuilding’s floors are polished concrete, VOC’s emitted from carpet are nota concern. Areas of the building that use daylight (90% of the regularlyoccupied spaces) will have artificial light that employs sensors to adjustthe artificial light levels in response to external light levels to minimizeenergy use and maximize occupant comfort. Thermal comfort has alsobeen addressed through radiant floor heating and operational windows inthe staff areas, as well as operational skylight windows in the exhibitionareas.93

Conclusion and RecommendationsIf the performance concept is so widely embraced philosophically, if the approach is sowidely accepted intellectually, if the principles are easy to understand, if the methodologyremoves barriers to innovation, if the performance concept can aid in the production ofbuildings that perform better at less total cost, why isn’t it universally applied?~ James Gross, 1996I first conceived of this master’s project topic in 2003. What I didnot foresee was that from the time I began to write about this topic in thefall of 2006 to finishing in spring 2007, public and media attention on thedangers of global warming would “explode.”What has happened in this timeframe? Tom Friedman, a columnistfor the New York Times describes this revolution as “the perfect storm”that is caused by the convergence of three events: The 9/11 terrorist attackof the Twin Towers in New York City and the subsequent war in the oilrichMiddle East, Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, and the advent of theinternet. 68Each of these events in its own way changed the perception ofthe world and opened America’s eyes to the fragile environment in whichwe live. Indeed, the sustainable living spotlight has swung inevitablytowards industrialized countries where habitants use a disproportionate68 Tom Friedman, “The Power of Green” Interview by Brent McDonald and ScottMalcomson, New York Times, April 15, 2007. Available fromhttp://video.on.nytimes.com/?fr_story=a16561a2d9322a0e5953813fd7c930aa6fd8e41e.94

amount of natural resources – water, fuels, materials, and food - incomparison to developing countries.This emphasis upon natural resource use is highlighted in theopening paragraph of the report titled Delivering the Sustainable Use ofNatural Resources by the Network of Heads of European EnvironmentProtection Agencies; “there is a limited capacity of the planet to meet theincreasing demand for resources and to absorb the emissions and wasteresulting from their use and there is evidence that the existing demandexceeds the carrying capacity of the environment in several cases.” 69Thissame report notes that globalized western lifestyle is not world compatible– nor is the current environmental burden sustainable. Through this reportand others like it, such as the IPCC’s (Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange) 4 th assessment report, and the Kyoto Protocol, an amendment tothe United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change designedto reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases by developed nations, the callfor action is loud and clear. 70One way to lighten our ecological footprint is by constructingsustainable buildings. The National Center for Appropriate Technology’sSmart Communities Network website designed to promote sustainablesolutions to reduce poverty, promote healthy communities, and protect69 Network of Heads of European Environment Protection Agencies. Delivering theSustainable Use of Natural Resources. September 2006. Available fromhttp://www.umweltbundesamt.de/energie/archiv/EPA_resourcespaper_2006.pdf, April14, 2007. pg 2.70 http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/kyoto/kyotorpt.html, accessed April 18, 2007.95

natural resources, notes that the design, construction, and maintenance ofbuildings tremendously impact our environment and natural resources.Buildings in the United States use one third of the nation’s energy, twothirds of the electricity, produce 49% of sulfur dioxide emissions, 25% ofnitrous oxide emissions, 10% of particulate emissions, and 35% of thecountry's carbon dioxide emissions. 71Sustainable buildings, on the otherhand, are more energy efficient, conserve water, minimize environmentalimpact, reduce waste, and create comfortable environments with low VOC(volatile organic compound) emissions. From the exterior and even fromthe interior, sustainable buildings do not appear any different than theirtraditional counterparts. Yet, sustainable buildings actually enhanceoccupant comfort while simultaneously benefiting the environment.Furthermore, within the architectural and scientific fields, therehave been many technological breakthroughs that may impact the future ofenvironmentally-inspired design. Some of these breakthroughs werediscovered through innovative experimentation. Consider, for example,the use of titanium dioxide on the surface of a church designed by RichardMeier in Tor Tre Teste, in eastern Rome. The original purpose of thesurface treatment was to minimize the cleaning requirements for the“sails” of the building. Instead, this new material did more than repel71 http://www.smartcommunities.ncat.org/buildings/gbintro.shtml, accessed April 14,2007.96

soot. It actually destroyed pollutants found in car exhaust and heatingemissions. This titanium dioxide surface treatment has photo-catalyticproperties that set off chemical reactions when exposed to sunlight, one ofthe chemical reactions breaks down nitrogen oxides emitted during theburning of fossil fuels. Three years after the building opened, the “sails”remained bright white, while the untreated joints turned a grimy gray. Thegreatest reduction of pollution occurs within eight feet of the building,which means that a pedestrian passing within eight feet of the buildingwill inhale fewer pollutants. 72This inspiring example was highlighted in a November 28, 2006,New York Times article. What happened to this information after thearticle was published? Will the solution it proposed be tested and appliedto other buildings? Or will the breakthrough be forgotten? Examples suchas this inspire me to believe there many sustainable building solutions thatbenefit the environment, but sadly these solutions are not beingcommunicated, applied or sustained.Can art museums learn and benefit from this example and otherinnovative discoveries? Art museums have been reluctant to buildsustainably, as supported by the article “Why it Pays to Go Green” in theJanuary 2007 edition of The Art Newspaper. “…for everyenvironmentally conscious museum, there are several leading art museums72 Elisabetta Povoledo. “Church on the Edge of Rome Offers a Solution to Smog.” NewYork Times. November 28, 2006, sec. A, p. 1097

that have given limited attention to ecological issues.” 73The Museum ofFine Arts in Boston cites climate and light control issues for reasons whythey did not consider building green. Art conservation has tight light,humidity, and temperature control specifications that provide a consistentenvironment for the conservation of art. Yet the same article notes that asart museums add on to their existing facilities, they are beginning toincorporate sustainable technologies. As my site visits to Patagonia’sDistribution Center in Reno, Nevada; Tahoe Center for EnvironmentalSciences in Incline Village, Nevada; and California Academy of Sciencesin San Francisco, California have demonstrated many environmentallyfriendly strategies and technologies are applicable to art museums. Theimplementation of these technologies has produced information that isdirectly applicable to future sustainable building projects through studyand assessment. In fact, the implementation of these strategies are notonly applicable, many are also more beneficial than currently appliedstrategies for the preservation of art.For example, building strategies such as thermal mass and buildingsite placement prevent the building from heating or cooling off rapidly,especially during incidents of catastrophic events such as earthquakes or73 Charmaine Picard. “Why it Pays to Go Green,” The Art Newspaper 176 (January2007): 31.98

floods where energy sources may not be available for an extended periodof time. Thermal mass and site orientation naturally temper climacticextremes and provide for occupant comfort and savings in energy usageand cost.Other strategies include water conservation strategies such as lowflow shower and faucet heads, or half/full flush toilets, are readilyapplicable to any building and do not effect art conservation issues.Controlling storm water runoff is an ecologically sound practice thatbenefits the environment and assists in managing excess water due tostorms or snowmelt – strategies that assist in preventing floods – whichare extremely damaging to buildings and their furnishings, particularly art.Sustainable lighting strategies also benefit art museums. Forexample, motion sensor lighting, and light dimmers are actually preferablestrategies for art museums, as exposure to less luminance slows thedegradation that occurs to art with light exposure. Using alternativelighting in museums also benefits artwork, such as LED’s instead of heatproducing halogen or metal halide lighting. LED’s last 100 times longerthan traditional bulbs and use 1/5 of the energy. As advances in LEDtechnology continue, LED lighting becomes an even more viablealternative. Other forms of non-traditional lighting that incorporatenatural lighting into non-art spaces such as offices, cafés, museum stores,99

or meeting rooms, also benefit art museums by lowering energy usage andcosts for lighting.As David Behar Perahia discussed in an interview, many museumsin Europe and the United States have successfully integrated architecturaldesigns that incorporate the use of natural daylighting – often at therequest of patrons, such as the Menil Museum in Houston, Texas,designed by a joint venture of Renzo Piano/Building Workshop, Genoa,Italy and Richard Fitzgerald & Partners, Houston, in 1987; and theBeyeler Foundation building in Basel, Switzerland, also designed byRenzo Piano in 1997. 74The Menil Museum uses a system of ceilinglouvers, skylights, and large windows that allow for diffused full spectrumnatural lighting in the galleries. The Beyeler Foundation has a glazedceiling that also employs the use of louvers and brise-soleil, anarchitectural shading technique also employed by the new wing of theMilwaukee Museum of Art in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, designed bySantiago Calatrava, and the Arab World Institute (Institut du MondeArabe) in Paris by Jean Nouvel that opened to the public in 1987. Theseare a few of the many examples of art museums around the world that74 David Behar Perahia, Ph.D. Technion Israel Institute of Technology (Haifa, Israel).Telephone interview by author, 15 April 2007.100

have successfully employed techniques and technologies that allowed forthe use of natural light in galleries.Sustainable or high efficiency building systems can also benefit artmuseums through energy and cost savings. For instance, using passivesolar heating for water, particularly in locales that receive large amountsof sunshine, is an excellent method for lowering energy costs. Using highefficiency equipment, heat recovery cycles, photovoltaic cells to produceenergy, sustainable fuels for energy systems, and purchasing sustainablepower are all strategies that are not at odds with art conservation.The use of recycled materials that emit low or no VOC’s (volatileorganic compounds) such as paint, which is used in most art galleries, andcarpet, which is used in some galleries is infinitely better than usingmaterials that emit VOC’s – not only for the artwork’s sake but also forthe health of a building’s occupants. I believe as the need to recyclecontinues to develop, so will our innovative spirit and many products willbe available that are created for recycled materials. The only concernabout recycled materials is to assure that original materials do containtoxic ingredients or that the processes that materials undergo do not renderthem toxic. I would recommend testing of recycled materials if possible.Most of the recent developments I researched during the site visitsmeet the special conservation requirements of art museums with the101

exception of a few technologies. Of the strategies I researched, tworequire further testing and one is not applicable to art museums.The use of recyclable materials such as fly ash, now commonlyused in cement production, may not have undergone rigorous testing. Theuse of fly ash in cement is now a widely accepted practice that began inthe 1930’s and as of 2003, 38.7% of fly ash was used for concrete,structural fills, road base, snow and ice control, wallboard, soilmodification, etc. instead of disposed of. Fly ash is the byproduct ofburning coal that is captured from exhaust gases through electrostaticprecipitators (filter bags) and its disposal as a waste product is harmful tothe environment, the primary concern being possible groundwatercontamination. There are advantages to adding fly ash to cementincluding increased strength, durability, and workability. Less water isrequired during mixing, and the production of greenhouse gases associatedwith the production of cement is reduced. The principal concern with flyash, however, is that it contains traces of heavy metals includingvanadium, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, barium, chromium, copper,molybdenum, zinc, lead, selenium and radium. 75The United StatesGeological Survey states that “radioactive elements from coal and fly ashmay come in contact with the general public when they are dispersed in air75 http://www.epa.gov/C2P2/pubs/greenbk508.pdf, accessed April 15, 2007. pg 3.102

and water or are included in commercial products that contain fly ash,”but further states that “radioactive elements in fly ash should not be causefor alarm.” 76Regardless, further testing of fly ash in concrete iswarranted before the universal application to art museum buildings.Hydronic radiant heating, which circulates heated water throughfloors and ceilings or radiant heating panels, is another sustainablebuilding strategy that warrants further review. Due to the damagingeffects of water on art, any radiant heating malfunction could causeirreparable harm to artworks. Water flowing through piping has alwaysbeen a concern for this reason, which is why many art museums use drypipe pre-action sprinkler systems for fire extinguishment. This systemdoes not allow water into the piping until two alarms have been activated;usually a smoke alarm and heat sensor. However, the Kunsthaus BregenzMuseum located in Bregenz, Austria, uses a radiant heating and coolingdesign that employs 28 kilometers of piping throughout the building tocool and heat the building as needed, resulting in a 50-% reduction inheating and cooling costs. 77The California Academy of Sciences alsoused hydronic radiant heating in the staff offices. Since it appears thisstrategy has been successfully applied, further study is recommended to76 http://greenwood.cr.usgs.gov/energy/factshts/163-97/FS-163-97.html, accessed April15, 2007. pg. 2, 4.77 http://www.kunsthaus-bregenz.at/ehtml/ewelcome00.htm, accessed April 15, 2007.103

ascertain whether the long term application of this design is without flawsthat may cause damage to the artwork within the structure.The second strategy, natural ventilation, allows for temperaturevacillation too great for maintaining the tight temperature controlsrecommended by art conservators. Standard loan agreements oftenrequest humidity and temperature control standards, requiring 50%humidity ± 5%, and 70° Fahrenheit ± 2°, a very narrow window.Patagonia’s Distribution Center in Reno, Nevada, utilizes a naturalventilation system that employs a “night flush” procedure that allows atemperature fluctuation of as much as 20° Fahrenheit in a twenty four hourperiod. Natural ventilation also uses strategies such as operable windows,which then allows unfiltered air, which has not been purified ofcontaminants, to enter the facility. Thus, natural ventilation as it iscurrently designed and utilized is not an advisable sustainable buildingstrategy for art exhibition and storage, but may be applied to non-art areasof the building.This research leads me to the following recommendations formuseums directors, museum boards of trustees, and museum staff:Build Sustainably / Buy Green: Art museums need not concludethat buildings cannot be simultaneously sustainable and iconic, nor that104

sustainable building cannot meet art conservation needs. Museums needto engage in ethics-based building construction that minimizes use ofnatural resources, and should be the client that demands that architects andconstruction companies build sustainably. Art museums should practiceintelligent consumption by giving preference to products and services withoptimized resource consumption while simultaneously meeting their needsto conserve collections.Support Technology and Knowledge Transfer: Art museums thathave built sustainably or have added sustainable wings to buildings shouldprovide as much information about their buildings to the museum world.My suggestion is that art museum websites should be expanded to includedetailed information about the technology and ideas used in sustainablebuildings or sustainable additions. This information, broadcast out to theworld, would display a deep commitment to sustainability issues by the artmuseum world and allow other art museums with limited funding tocapitalize upon the proven sustainable architectural successes of other artmuseums.Furthermore, art museums should publish articles in the museumand architectural fields that inform others of the sustainable technologyused in their building projects. The crux of this matter is dissemination of105

information; information leads to change. Not only can this informationbe shared between museum professionals, but may also be shared by themuseum to its visitors. Art museums can enhance their visitor’sexperience of the facility by committing themselves to the educationalaspect of the building, as the California Academy of Sciences hasexecuted by creating a viewing platform of the living roof. By increasingenvironmental awareness in visitors, art museums can assist in spurringeco-consciousness that is essential to changing our perspective of anexistence that does not squander natural resources.Provide Funding for Sustainability: Funding agencies such as theIMLS (Institute of Museum and Library Services), are in a position tofund museums in their quest to build sustainably. First, funding forinformation sharing and transfer is critical. Funding website developmentspecific to sustainable building technology, or sustainable buildingconferences for museums are two examples of forums for providingfunding for dissemination of information. Secondly, funding for buildingunder LEED guidelines set forth by the USGBC would assist museums inmeeting the incidental testing expenses incurred in order to meetguidelines. As Patagonia’s Distribution Center Director Dave Abaloenoted, meeting LEED requirements for testing increased the building’s106

costs by 5% to 7%. An IMLS grant to cover additional testing costswould benefit the museum community as well as the environment.Create Guidance for Sustainability in Museums: The AAMD,Association of Art Museum Directors, could also play a vital role inleading the museum community down the sustainable building path. Thepurpose of this organization is to “…support its members in increasing thecontribution of art museums to society.” In order to serve that purpose,the organization serves “…as a forum for the exchange of information andideas,” 78 by bringing together art museum director with their peers.AAMD support of sustainable practices and building for Americanmuseums could serve as an educational conduit for art museum directors,trustees, and museum staff by initiating museum standards and promotingbest practices guidelines for sustainable art museum buildings.78 http://www.aamd.org/, accessed May 7, 2007.107

GlossaryActive Solar – A system using mechanical devices (pumps, fans, etc.) thattransfers collected heat to a storage medium and/or the end-use. 1Biodiesel – is a biologically derived diesel fuel 2Biogas – A mixture, principally of methane and carbon dioxide producedby the fermentation of organic matter. 3Biomass – Any form of organic material that contains energy stored inchemical form, usually in compounds of the element carbon. Biomassincludes animal manure, crop residue, human refuse, and wood. 4Bioremediation – The use of natural biological organisms (microbes,bacteria, plants, etc.) to break down contaminants and restorecontaminated land to productive use. 5Black Water – Wastewater from toilets and urinals, which containspathogens that must be neutralized before the water can be safely reused.After neutralization, black water is typically used for non-potable purposessuch as flushing or irrigation. 6Buoyancy Ventilation - Buoyancy ventilation may be temperature-induced(stack ventilation) or humidity induced (cool tower). The two can becombined by having a cool tower deliver evaporatively cooled air low in aspace, and then rely on the increased buoyancy of the humid air as itwarms to exhaust air from the space through a stack. 71 Dianna Lopez Barnett, and William D. Browning. A Primer on Sustainable Building.(Colorado: Rocky Mountain Institute, 1998), 99.2Stan Gibilisco. Alternative Energy Demystified. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007), 102.3 Marek Walisiewicz, Alternative Energy. (Essential Science, ed. John Gribbin, NewYork: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002), 66.4 Ibid.5 David Gissen, ed. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21 st Century.(New York: Princeton Architectural Press, and Washington D.C: National BuildingMuseum, 2002),183.6 Ibid.7 http://www.wbdg.org/design/naturalventilation.php, accessed April 3, 2007.108

Building Envelope – Elements (walls, windows, roofs, skylights, etc.) thatenclose the building. The building envelope is the thermal barrier betweenthe indoor and outdoor environments and is a key factor in thesustainability of a building. A well designed building envelope willminimize energy consumption for cooling and heating, and promote theinflux of natural light. 8Carbon Dioxide – Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas that existsnaturally in the earth’s atmosphere. The major source of man-made CO 2emissions is the combustion of fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide is the primarygreenhouse gas and is known to contribute to global warming and climatechange. Atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 have been increasing at a rateof about 0.5 percent per year and are now approximately 30 percent abovepre-industrial levels. 9Cogeneration – The phenomenon of producing power and usable heat as abyproduct of primary activities, such as manufacturing. 10Coil – Coils are heat transfer devices (heat exchangers.) They come in avariety of types and sizes and are designed for various fluidcombinations. 11Comfort Zone – The range of effective temperatures and humidity overwhich the majority of adults feel comfortable. Generally between 68° -79° and 40% - 60% relative humidity. 12Damper – A device used to regulate airflow. 13Daylighting – The use of natural light to supplement or replace artificiallighting. 148 http://www.wbdg.org/design/naturalventilation.php, accessed April 3, 2007.9 Ibid.10 Paula Berenstein, Alternative Energy: Facts Statistics, and Issues. (Westport,Connecticut: Oryx Press, 2001), 195.11 Samuel C. Sugarman, HVAC Fundamentals. (Lilburn, Georgia: The Fairmont Press,2005), 283.12 Ibid.13 Ibid., 284.14 David Gissen, ed. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21 st Century.(New York: Princeton Architectural Press, and Washington D.C: National BuildingMuseum, 2002), 183.109

Desuperheater – A desuperheater preheats water for commercial andresidential applications by transferring waste heat from the condensers ofair conditioners or refrigeration systems. 15Efficiency – Useful energy output divided by the power input. 16Embodied Energy – The total energy used to create a product, includingthe energy used in mining or harvesting, processing, fabricating, andtransporting the product. 17Energy – The capacity to do work. The measure of energy is “power usedover a period of time.” 18Energy Management System – A system based on a microprocessor,microcomputer, or minicomputer whose primary function is thecontrolling of energy using equipment so as to reduce the amount ofenergy used. Also called Energy Management Control System. 19Envelope - The skin of a building—including the windows, doors, walls,foundation, basement slab, ceilings, roof, and insulation—that separatesthe interior of a building from the outdoor environment. 20Fission – The spontaneous or induced splitting of a heavy atomic nucleusinto two or more lighter fragments. 21Fly Ash – The fine ash waste collected by flue gases from coal burningpower plants, smelters, and waste incinerators. Fly ash can be used as acement substitute in concrete, reducing the concrete’s embodied energy. 2215 David Gissen, ed. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21 st Century.(New York: Princeton Architectural Press, and Washington D.C: National BuildingMuseum, 2002), 72.16 Ibid.,285.17 Ibid.,183.18 Ibid.19 Samuel C. Sugarman, HVAC Fundamentals. (Lilburn, Georgia: The Fairmont Press,2005), 285.20 http://www.nbm.org/Exhibits/greenHouse2/goGreen/greenTerms.html, accessed March18, 2007.21Marek Walisiewicz, Alternative Energy. Essential Science, ed. John Gribbin, (NewYork: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002), 66.22 David Gissen, ed. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21 st Century.(New York: Princeton Architectural Press, and Washington D.C: National BuildingMuseum, 2002), 183.110

Footprint - Land area taken up by a building. 23Fossil Fuels – Fuels found in the Earth’s strata that are derived fromfossilized remains of animal and plant matter over millions of years.Fossil fuels include oil, natural gas, shale, and coal. Fossil fuels areconsidered non-renewable since they are consumed faster than they arenaturally produced. 24FSC Certified: FSC certified forests are managed to ensure long termtimber supplies while protecting the environment and the lives of forestdependentpeoples. 25Fuel Cell – An electrochemical device in which hydrogen is combinedwith oxygen to produce electricity with heat and water-vapor as naturalbyproducts. Natural gas is often used as the source of hydrogen, with airas the source of oxygen. Since electricity is produced by a chemicalreaction and not by combustion, fuel cells are considered to be greenpower producers. 26Fusion – The process of bringing together two atomic nuclei to form onelarger nucleus. Energy is released through the loss of mass in theproduct. 27Geothermal Power - Power generated by tapping into the heat energystored naturally in the rocks of the earth’s crust. 28Global Warming – An increase in the global mean temperature of theEarth that is (or is thought to be) a result of increased emissions ofgreenhouse gasses trapped within the Earth’s atmosphere. 2923 http://www.nbm.org/Exhibits/greenHouse2/goGreen/greenTerms.html, accessed March18, 2007.24 Ibid.25 http://www.fsc-uk.org/, accessed May 29, 2007.26 http://www.nbm.org/Exhibits/greenHouse2/goGreen/greenTerms.html, accessed March18, 2007.27 Marek Walisiewicz, Alternative Energy. Essential Science, ed. John Gribbin, (NewYork: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002), 67.28Ibid.29 David Gissen, ed. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21 st Century.(New York: Princeton Architectural Press, and Washington D.C: National BuildingMuseum, 2002), 184.111

Gray Water – Water from sinks, showers, kitchens, washers, etc. Unlikeblack water, gray water does not contain human waste. After purification,gray water is typically used for non-potable purposes such as flushing andirrigation. 30Green – A term that is widely used to describe a building and site designedin an environmentally sensitive manner (i.e., with minimal effect on theenvironment) 31Greenhouse Gases – Any gas that absorbs infrared radiation in the Earth’satmosphere. Common greenhouse gasses include water vapor, carbondioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ), nitrogen oxides (NO x ), ozone (O 3 ),chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halogenated fluorocarbons (HCFCs), perfluorinated carbons (PFCs), hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), and sulfurhexafluoride (SF 6 ). Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxides are ofparticular concern because of their long residence time in theatmosphere. 32Heat Exchanger – A heat exchanger is a device such as a water orrefrigerated coil that is designed to allow the transfer of heat between twophysically separated liquids. 33HVAC – Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning a space using the fluidsof air, water, steam, and refrigerants. 34IPCC- An Acronym for Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,which was organized by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) in 1988. The roleof the IPCC is to assess on a comprehensive, objective, open andtransparent basis the scientific, technical and socio-economic informationrelevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-inducedclimate change, its potential impacts and options for adaptation andmitigation. The IPCC does not carry out research nor does it monitor30 David Gissen, ed. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21 st Century.(New York: Princeton Architectural Press, and Washington D.C: National BuildingMuseum, 2002),184.31 Ibid.32 Ibid.33 Samuel C. Sugarman, HVAC Fundamentals. (Lilburn, Georgia: The Fairmont Press,2005), 286.34 Ibid., 287.112

climate related data or other relevant parameters. It bases its assessmentmainly on peer reviewed and published scientific/technical literature. 35Kyoto Protocol – An amendment to the Framework Convention onClimate Change of 1992 in which developed nations agreed to limit theirgreenhouse gas emissions relative to the levels emitted in 1990. Thisagreement entered into force on February 16, 2005. 36LEED – An acronym for Leadership in Energy and EnvironmentalDesign. LEED is a rating system developed by the U.S. Green BuildingCouncil to evaluate environmental performance from a whole-buildingperspective over a building’s life cycle, providing a definitive standard forwhat constitutes a green building. 37Life Cycle Cost – The cost of buying, operating, maintaining, anddisposing of a system, equipment, product, or facility over its expecteduseful life. 38Light Shelf – A horizontal device usually positioned above eye level toreflect daylight onto the ceiling and beyond. A light shelf may project ontoa room, beyond an exterior wall plane, or both. The upper surface of theshelf is highly reflective (i.e. having 80 percent or greater reflectance.)Light shelves are also effective shading devices for windows locatedbelow. 39Natural Ventilation - Natural ventilation systems rely on pressuredifferences to move fresh air through buildings. Pressure differences canbe caused by wind or the buoyancy effect created by temperaturedifferences or differences in humidity. 40Non-renewable Energy Resources – Energy resources that cannot berestored or replenished by natural processes and therefore are depletedthrough use. 4135 http://www.ipcc.ch/about/about.htm, accessed April 18, 2007.36 http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/kyoto/kyotorpt.html, accessed April 18, 2007.37 David Gissen, ed. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21 st Century.(New York: Princeton Architectural Press, and Washington D.C: National BuildingMuseum, 2002), 184.38 Ibid.39 Ibid.40 http://www.wbdg.org/design/naturalventilation.php, accessed April 3, 2007.41 Ibid.113

Particulate Matter – Also known as particulate emissions, particulatematter is the term for solid or liquid particles found in the air. Someparticles are large or dark enough to be seen as soot or smoke, but fineparticulate matter is tiny and is generally not visible to the naked eye. 42Passive Solar – Systems that collect, move, and store heat using naturalheat-transfer mechanisms such as conduction and air convectioncurrents. 43Photovoltaic (PVs) – Solid-state cells (typically made from silicon) thatdirectly convert sunlight into electricity. 44Plenum – An air chamber or compartment. 45R-value – A unit of thermal resistance. A material’s R-value is a measureof the effectiveness of the material in stopping the flow of heat. The higherthe R-value, the greater the material’s insulating properties and the slowerthe heat flows through it. 46Radiant Heating – Radiant heating is a hydronic (liquid based) or electriccable heating system that supplies heat directly to the floor or to panels inthe wall or ceiling. Hydronic systems can be heated with a wide variety ofenergy sources. 47Refrigeration – Refrigeration is the transfer of heat from one place whereit is not wanted to another place where it is unobjectionable. The transferof heat is through a change in the state of a fluid. 4842 http://www.epa.gov/otaq/invntory/overview/pollutants/pm.htm, accessed April 18,2007.43 Dianna Lopez Barnett, and William D. Browning. A Primer on Sustainable Building.(Colorado: Rocky Mountain Institute, 1998), 100.44 Ibid.45 Samuel C. Sugarman, HVAC Fundamentals. (Lilburn, Georgia: The Fairmont Press,2005), 288.46 David Gissen, ed. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21 st Century.(New York: Princeton Architectural Press, and Washington D.C: National BuildingMuseum, 2002), 185.47 http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/space_heating_cooling/index.cfm/mytopic=12590, accessed May 14, 2005.48 Samuel C. Sugarman, HVAC Fundamentals. (Lilburn, Georgia: The Fairmont Press,2005), 288.114

Relative Humidity – is a measure of the moisture content of the air, relatedto the temperature at a given time. 49Renewable Resources – Resources that are created or produced at least asfast as they are consumed, so that nothing is depleted. If properlymanaged, renewable energy resources (e.g. solar, hydro, wind power,biomass, and geothermal) should last as long as the sun shines, riversflow, and plants grow. 50Retrofit – The replacement, upgrade, or improvement of a piece ofequipment or structure in an existing building or facility. 51Recycling – A series of activities that includes collecting recyclablematerials that would otherwise be considered waste, sorting andprocessing recyclables into raw materials such as fibers, andmanufacturing raw materials into new products. 52Solar Heat Gain - Solar heat gain is the measure of total heat gain (visible,infrared and UV) from sunlight that passes through a glazed surface and iseventually dissipated to the indoors. 53Storm Water Runoff – Storm water runoff occurs when precipitation fromrain or snowmelt flows over the ground. Impervious surfaces likedriveways, sidewalks, and streets prevent storm water runoff fromnaturally soaking into the ground. Storm water can pick up debris,chemicals, dirt, and other pollutants and flow into a storm sewer system ordirectly to a lake, stream, river, wetland, or coastal water and can have canhave many adverse effects on plants, fish, animals and people. 54Sustainability - Officially defined by the U.S. Government as meeting theneeds of the present generation so it doesn’t compromise the quality of lifefor future generations. 5549 Ward, Philip R. The Nature of Conservation: A Race Against Time. (Marina del Ray,California: Getty Conservation Institute, 1989), 15.50 Dianna Lopez Barnett, and William D. Browning. A Primer on Sustainable Building.(Colorado: Rocky Mountain Institute, 1998), 101.51 Ibid.52 http://www.epa.gov/msw/recycle.htm, accessed April 3, 2007.53 http://www.cecer.army.mil/techreports/DEA_NEW/dea_new.fle-02.htm, accessedApril 3, 2007.54 http://www.epa.gov/weatherchannel/stormwater.html, accessed April 3, 2007.55 http://www.sustainlane.us/overview.jsp, accessed February 17, 2007.115

Thermal Mass – A material used to store heat, thereby slowing thetemperature variation within a space. Typical thermal mass materialsinclude concrete, brick, masonry, tile and mortar, water, and rock. 56Turbine – A machine composed of a set of blades mounted on a centralshaft, which is made to rotate by moving fluid, such as water, steam, oranother gas, usually to turn an electric generator. 57Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) – An organic compound thatevaporates at room temperature and is often hazardous to human health,causing poor indoor air quality. Sources of VOCs include solvents andpaints. Many materials commonly used in building construction (such ascarpets, furniture, and paints) emit VOCs. 58Wind Power – Systems that convert air movement into mechanical orelectrical energy. Driven by the wind, turbine blades turn a generator orpower a mechanical pump. 5956 David Gissen, ed. Big & Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21 st Century.(New York: Princeton Architectural Press, and Washington D.C: National BuildingMuseum, 2002), 185.57 Marek Walisiewicz, Alternative Energy. Essential Science, ed. John Gribbin, (NewYork: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002), 68.58 Ibid.59 Dianna Lopez Barnett, and William D. Browning. A Primer on Sustainable Building.(Colorado: Rocky Mountain Institute, 1998), 101.116

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Appendix APatagonia Distribution CenterAll images taken by the author and reprinted with permission from DaveAbeloe, Director of Patagonia, Incorporated’s distribution center.Image accessed at http://www.patagonia.com/web/us/patagonia.go?assetid=12080New Belgium bicycles for employee use. Saves time and feet!129

Rock lined ditches leadingto the detention pond wherestorm water runoff isallowed to seep back intothe ground. Water efficientlandscaping can be seen inthe background.Image of a radiant heating panel that provides heat during cooler months.130

Radiant heat systempumps circulate thehot water through aclosed loop system.Image of the high efficiency boilers that provide heatingof water for the radiant heating system. The two unitsprovide 100% redundancy, providing backup in case oneboiler fails.131

One of ten exhaust fans that rid the building of excess heat causedby solar gain during the day, through the night flush system.Image of louvers that opento allow exterior air in fornight flush system operation.The exhaust fans createnegative pressure that allowsair to be drawn in throughthe louvers.132

Image of the air handling units, one of two air handling units in thenew facility that bring in outside air, filter it, and use it to providefresh air throughout the building.Translucent Kalwall is made of recycled aluminum frame and insulatedfiberglass scrim that lights up the area using natural light. Patagonia usesKalwall above doors and in walls.133

Image of a sunlight tracking skylight. Thereare 187 skylights installed in the building.Image showing T-5 energy efficient fluorescent lighting that ismotion sensor controlled, sun tracking skylights, and R-30 insulation.134

Appendix BTahoe Center for Environmental SciencesAll images taken by the author and reprinted with permission from theUniversity of California, Davis, Tahoe Environmental Center, and SierraNevada College.Da Da Dumpster Diving, mixed media sculpture by localartist Elaine Jason, made from retrieved construction scraps.View of rock lineddrainage ditches tominimize sediment andnutrient drainage into thelake from water runoffand deciduous foliage onthe southern exposureside of the buildingdesigned to maximizesolar gain during wintermonths and minimize itduring summer months.135

Half-flush full-flush option toiletsImage of the water filtration system thatutilizes anti-bacterial ultraviolet filters andcarbon filters.136

Image of the solar thermal panels used to produce hotwater for sinks and showers, and the evaporativecooling tower behind them. The “wood” is actuallyTrex, a plastic recycled lumber produced from wasteplastic and reclaimed hardwood sawdust.Image of one of the twobuilding air handlingsystems: the plenum is atthe far end, and the yellowpipes are the heat recoverysystem, capturing the heatfrom the outgoing air towarm the incoming air.137

Solar thermal panel preheatedwater storage tank.Gas powered high efficiencyhot water heater for solarthermal heated water if neededto bring it up to temperature.Image of the co-generator systemthat captures heat from thegenerator through the use ofwater, which is then pumpedthrough the building to assist inheating needs.138

Image of centralatrium designed toincrease ventilationand sky lightingwindows, designedto decrease theneed for artificiallighting.Image of lightshelves (at window center) and large dual pane argon filledlow-emissivity windows that may be opened by occupants as needed. Thesiding is concrete with fly-ash, which is a fire, weather, and insect resistantmaterial.139

Low-emissivity argonfilled dual pane glasswindows that may beopened, located in thenot yet fully utilizedgreenhouse.140

Appendix CCalifornia Academy of SciencesThe digital model for the new academy. Accessed athttp://miragestudio7.com/blog/images/renzo_paino_academy_science_3.jpgView of the undulating green roof with the three “hills” underwhich reside the Morrison Planetarium, the Steinhart Aquarium,and a rainforest. The round objects on the hills are skylights.141

View of the rooftop sectioned by rock filled welded meshgabions, designed to prevent soil erosion and placed to providestructure for the living roof.Close up view of the gabions.This image exhibits most of the layers of the living roofshingles, foam, tarp, and egg crate designed to capture water.142

Biodegradable flats that will transport the plants to the roof andbiodegrade as the roof plants acclimatize.A sample biodegradable flat of the 1.7 million native plants thatwill cover the two acre roof. All of the plants are low growingnative species that will not require irrigation.143

Images of theaquarium lifesupport filteringsystem.144

The tip of the roofline is laid with 60,000 solar panelsdesigned to produce 5% of the Academy’s power needs.View of the 100 percent recycled structural steelused throughout the building.145

Below: Scraps of leftoverdenim insulation.Right: Denim insulationinstalled. Demin will beused throughout the entirefacility.View of the back of the building, the operable windows, and the earthberm that creates a natural flow of air through the building.146

View of operable windows in the staff office area.View of the automatic window motors that open up at night to flushthe building of warm air, replacing it with cool air for the next day’soccupancy. Also in this image is the piping for the radiant heat.147

High efficiency fluorescent lighting that isused throughout collection storage.Image of theskylights overthe four levelrainforest.148

A closer view of the skylights from the building interior.View of the central courtyard that will be usable throughoutthe year regardless of weather. The ceiling will consist ofglass panels.149

Acoustic panels in the ceiling designed to dampen sound since allfloors are constructed of polished concrete.150