Master’s Project Coordinator Date

OPTIMIZING HOMESCHOOLERS’EXPERIENCES IN MUSEUMSbyMelinda AdamsAugust 29, 2005Submitted in Partial Fulfillmentof the Requirements for the Degree ofMaster of ArtsinMuseum Studiesin theSchool of Education and Liberal ArtsatJohn F. Kennedy UniversityApproved:_____________________________________Department Chair_____________________________________Master’s Project Coordinator___________Date___________Date

It is, in fact, nothing short of a miracle that the modernmethods of instruction have not yet entirely strangled theholy curiosity of inquiry; for that delicate little plant, asidefrom stimulation, stands mainly in need of freedom;without this it goes from wrack and ruin without fail. It is avery grave mistake to think that the enjoyment of seeingand searching can be promoted by means of coercion and asense of duty. To the contrary, I believe that it would bepossible to rob even the healthiest beast of itsvoraciousness, if it were possible, with the aid of a whip, toforce the beast to devour continuously, even when nothungry, especially if the food, handed out under suchcoercion, were to be selected accordingly. 1—Albert Einstein1 John Holt and Patrick Farenga, Teach Your Own: The John Holt Book ofHomeschooling (Cambridge: Persus Publishing, 2003), xxiii.ii

TABLE OF CONTENTSI. INTRODUCTION 1Research Goals and Objectives 13Methodology 15Limitations 23Product Description 24Glossary 28II. BACKGROUND 30Public Education in the United States 31Homeschooling: A Growing Movement 36The Homeschool Continuum 45Influential Educational Philosophies of theHomeschool Movement 51Museum Educational Philosophies 66III. FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS 85What do Museums and theHomeschool Community Have in Common? 86Are Museum Programs FulfillingHomeschoolers’ Needs? 95Programs Tailored for Homeschoolers 108Challenges Faced by Museum Educators inServing Homeschool Community 119Gaining a Better Understanding of theHomeschool Community 125Effective Outreach the Homeschool Community 129Overarching Conclusions 134IV. RECOMMENDATIONS 138V. BIBLIOGRAPHY 156iii

VI.APPENDICESAppendix AListservs Homeschool 187Appendix BListservs Museum Professionals 190Appendix CSurvey Instrument for Museum Educators 191Appendix DSurvey Instrument for Homeschool Educators 193Appendix EMuseum Educators Interviewed 195Appendix FHomeschool Educators Interviewed 198Appendix GHomeschool Continuum 200Appendix H-1Do homeschoolers visit museums? 201Appendix H-2How often do homeschoolers visit museums? 202Appendix H-3:Which kinds of museum do homeschoolers visit? 203Appendix H-4With whom do homeschoolers visit museums? 204Appendix H-5Do homeschoolers maintain museummemberships? 205Appendix H-6Homeschool Museum Memberships 206Appendix H-7Are museum educators aware ofhomeschoolers their area? 207iv

Appendix H-8Does your museum have a programthat serves homeschoolers? 208Appendix H-9Are homeschool educators aware of museumprograms designed for homeschoolers? 209Appendix H-10Do homeschoolers participate in these programs? 210Appendix H-11Are museum educators aware of museum programsdesigned for homeschoolers? 211Appendix H-12Are museum homeschool programs differentthat regular programs? 212Appendix H-13Does your museum gather statistics gather forthe number of homeschoolers who visit? 213Appendix H-14Do homeschoolers indicate distinctive needsin the context of museum programming? 214Appendix H-15Do you do outreach to the homeschoolersin your community? 215Appendix H-16What kinds of programs do you offerhomeschoolers? 216Appendix H-17Homeschool Educators’ Program Preferences 217Appendix H-18What do you feel that museum educatorsneed to know in order to serve you as ahomeschooler? 218Appendix H-19How well do you feel museums serveyour needs as a homeschooler? 219v

VI. PRODUCTAppendix H-20Do homeschoolers’ needs pose as a challengeto museum educators? 220Appendix H-21What are the challenges that homeschoolerspose to museum educators? 221Appendix H-22What information and resources wouldhelp you better serve the growinghomeschool community? 222Appendix IThe Walters Art Museum’sMuseum Manners Reminder 223Guidelines for Museum Educators FacilitatingHomeschool Program 224American Association of MuseumsSession Proposal “Optimizing theHomeschoolers’ Experience in Museums” 230vi

INTRODUCTIONI have never let my schooling interfere with my education.—Mark TwainMuseum educators frequently begin tours for school groups withinnocuous, ice-breaking questions, expecting enthusiastic responses fromyoung visitors:“Who has been to a museum before?”“Would you like to make a color wheel?”“This is a mammal. M-A-M-M-A-L. How many mammals can youname?”“Have you ever seen a microscope?” 2Such questions will likely elicit eye-rolling on the faces of children whoselearning takes place outside of the traditional education system—guidedby parents, tutors, and mentors—children who are referred to ashomeschoolers. “Why?” Whether part of a homeschool group orpositioned on the sidelines observing school tours, these children may beapt to bristle when confronted by questions and conversations that theyperceive as superficial, scripted, and overly formal—merely a glossing2 Questions posed to homeschoolers by museum educators relayed an interview withhomeschooled children with the author in San Francisco, March 31, 2005.1

over the surface of subject matter. Homeschool educators feel that theirchildren are patronized and frequently underestimated by museumeducators in the depth of their existing knowledge and abilities tocomprehend complex concepts and ideas. The ethos of homeschooling isto create a learning environment that fosters self-directed, life longknowledge seeking. At their best, homeschoolers are encouraged to beindependent learners who are accustomed to, and thrive in, the kind ofenriched informal environment that libraries and museums furnish. Theyfrequent the later for the rich resources, authentic materials and artifacts,and knowledgeable adults found there—which is to say opportunities forin-depth research, personal connections, and meaning making in theirlearning. While libraries and their staff have been striving to attend to theneeds of this community by tailoring programs for homeschoolers,fostering research and volunteer opportunities, in general, most museumshave not addressed this community.Museums should be ideal learning environments and educationalresources for homeschooled children, but often there is a disconnectbetween this community and the programs museum educators design toserve them. The crux of this disconnect is that the informal learningenvironment that museums aspire to is diminished, in fact, by theapplication of formal learning structures characteristic of that found in2

state-standard-driven public schools today. Hence the question underlyingthis project: how can museums and their programs, which have thepotential to match the needs and learning styles of homeschoolers fulfillthe needs of these informal learners?Many parents, including homeschool parents, view the role ofmuseums as providing effective environments furnishing choose informallearning—learning that is voluntary or free-choice, self-directed, andintrinsically motivated. Parents view museums as places to expand thescope of their children’s learning. 3 Museum visitors are generally welleducated and value leisure activities that focus on learning and discovery. 4Informal learning researcher John Falk contends that fostering a child’sinterests in the context of a museum will increase the likelihood that he orshe will become a museum-goer and supporter in adulthood. Morespecifically, he finds that the museum experiences that a child shares withhis or her parents—and not a traditional school group—are the crucialcomponent to life-long museum going. 5 Through proactive outreach and3 Lynn D. Falk and John H. Falk, “Understanding Free-Choice Learning: A Review of theResearch and its Application to Museum Web Sites,” presented at Museums and theWeb: An International Conference, Toronto, (April 1998).4 John H. Falk, “Visitors: Toward a Better Understanding of Why People Go toMuseums,” Museum News 77, no. 2 (1999), 38-43.5 Falk, “Framework,” 39.3

specific cultivation of family audiences—which essentially describeshomeschool visitors—museums will ensure increased attendance andestablish a strong support base. 6The homeschool community is committed to creating or exploitingexisting environments that foster independent knowledge seeking.Research shows that to a significant degree homeschool educators do notjust use the museum environment, but co-create with its and their ownresources an enriched and extended museum experience. Homeschoolingparents are learning oriented and use authentic life experiences to educatetheir children. Often educational experience is a core of family time andutilization of their economic resources. Homeschoolers utilize and profitfrom community institutions such as libraries and museums as part of theireveryday lives.Throughout interviews with homeschool educators and theirchildren, contacted for this project March through June 2005, my keyinformants were enthusiastic about their positive museum experiences.They described encounters with subject experts, hands-on activities,guided inquiry and conversations with educators, as opposed to traditional6 Falk, “Visitors,” 42.4

lecture formats. Such first-hand authentic experiences and access toprimary research are what make museums appealing learningenvironments for homeschooled children.Museum experiences that resonate with the homeschoolcommunity are more in-depth in content and furnish the opportunity forextensive personal exploration. Homeschool days that provide multimodallearning, or classes—both small in class size andinterdisciplinary—were highly praised by interviewees. Additionally,subject experts and behind-the-scene knowledge enhance museum visitsfor homeschoolers. A memorable museum experience a homeschoolparent and her daughter shared was a conversation with the staff memberresponsible for lighting the Alexander Calder show at the San FranciscoMuseum of Modern Art (SFMOMA). 7 She went into detail describing theissues and problems that SFMOMA had in the Calder installation.Lighting specialists were flown in from the National Gallery inWashington D.C. to advise and assist in the installation process. Thisperspective on a museum’s inner workings learned through theirconversation with a staff member proved to be an exciting moment for thisfamily to share.7 Lynn Lampky, homeschool educator, interview with the author. March 8, 20055

Hand-on activities and self-directed exploration, such as thosefurnished at the Exploratorium in San Francisco, California, werementioned frequently as ideal for homeschooled children. A number ofhomeschool educators’ relayed experiences their children had at sciencemuseums with hands-on lab experiments that utilized authentic scientificequipment. The prevailing sentiment was that providing children with theopportunity to have a hand in the scientific processes, to examine,manipulate, and participate in experiments with authentic scientific toolshelped them establish a stronger understanding and appreciation of thescientific method.Museums furnish the visitor with emotional, intellectual, andexperiential learning, as well as time for contemplation and reflection 8 —all essential components to voluntary, self-directed, informal learning.Leveraging these strengths, museums are optimal environments for allindependent learners. The informal learning environment that the museumaffords closely aligns with the philosophies and educational approachesfollowed by the majority of homeschoolers. No wonder that the 99 percentof the homeschool families surveyed for this project visit museums, oftensix to twelve times a year.8 Excellence and Equity: Education and the Public Dimensions of Museums (Washington,D.C.: American Associations of Museums, 1992), 12.6

Despite the nominal alignments between museum andhomeschoolers illustrated above, the homeschool experience of museumprograms can come to look impoverished when one considers thisaudience’s needs more closely. While some museums have met or areattempting to meet the needs of homeschooled children—throughprograms such as homeschool days, classes, and dialog based tours—effective programming to serve the needs of this growing community,remains largely unrecognized by institutions, and is not the norm. Therequirements of the homeschool community are similar to those of allmuseum visitors; yet diverge in several ways. First, community membersdesire to personally connect with knowledgeable others at the museum.Second, homeschooled children are looking for programs that go beyondthe lecture or other traditional school methods. These approaches oftenshortchange the homeschooled child by giving sweeping overviewsinstead of in-depth examinations and underestimate his or her priorknowledge. However, although they are frequent visitors this does notmean that they participate in museum programs. Finally, homeschooledchildren utilize museums for primary research and are often stymied bythe lack of contact with subject experts and resources.Third, museum educators and docents do not understand how themembers of this community learn—which ranges from child-centered7

learning or unschooling, to child parent collaborations, to parent-centeredor directed learning—and thus have not been able to address the needs oftheir children. Consequently, their expectations that their children willhave in–depth experiences that align with homeschool approaches toeducation are rarely met. The majority of the 155 homeschool parentssurveyed and interviewed for this project expressed a concern thatmuseums do not respect or acknowledge their children’s prior knowledge.Homeschool educators utilize museum collections to support subjectsbeing studied, or to introduce new subjects. Homeschoolers extensivelyprepare for museum visits with research and pre-visit materials to supporttheir learning experience. Homeschool educators often design their ownpre- and post- visit materials to reinforce and extend their children’smuseum experience.There is frustration expressed by the homeschool communityregarding the focus of programs that rely heavily on and adhere to thestandard narrow formal school format, curriculum, and state standards.The traditional school format is highly structured, often unable to attend toindividual needs, and is usually educator-directed as opposed to childcenteredor parent-child collaborative, approaches to learning preferred bymany homeschool educators. Only four percent of the homeschool surveyrespondents believed that classes allied with state curriculum standards8

were ideal programs. Homeschoolers overwhelmingly feel that this type offormal structure is problematic, and does not meet their needs.Echoing this sentiment, informal learning advocates John H. Falk andLynn Dierking assert:As much as we admire and appreciate museums and othersuch settings, to suggest that sitting children in rows andlecturing to them within the four walls of a museum makesit somehow different than doing the same thing in a schoolis clearly absurd. 9The learning environment characteristic of compulsory education inthe United States today relies heavily on attainment and mastery ofspecific set of educational standards. The federal government plans toreduce the education budget by $500 million, and eliminate forty-eighteducation programs in fiscal year 2006. 10 As funding decreases for publicschools, field trips to museums are being curtailed. Increasingly,extracurricular activities must directly attend to national or statecurriculum standards. 11 To accommodate this requirement, museumeducators are diminishing programs by strictly aligning with these9 John H. Falk and Lynn D. Dierking, “Free-choice Learning: An Alternative Term toInformal Learning?” Informal Learning Environments Research Newsletter 2, no. 1 (July1998): 2.10 Debra Lau Whelan, “Educators Upset Over Bush's Budget,” School Library Journal 51no. 3 (March 2005): 18.11 An in-depth analysis of National Education Standards and the 2001 Elementary andSecondary Education Act more commonly known as the No Child Left Behind Act, arediscussed in Thomas Timar’s “The ‘New Accountability’ and the Governance inCalifornia,” Peabody Journal of Education 78, no.4 (2003): 177-200.9

standards, and thus limiting the scope of free-choice learning environmentpreferred by homeschoolers. Some museum educators are concerned thatby slavishly following the educational standards the unique free-choicelearning environments that museums afford the learner are compromised.The joy of learning, creativity, and open exploration of concepts and ideasthat are fostered in informal learning environments are hampered byformal and methods and exigencies of the state standards. 12Museums can and should be the ideal free-choice informal learningenvironment for the homeschool community. Current museum educationalpractices align closely with methodologies practiced by homeschoolers.Yet, homeschoolers are challenging to museums. They are not exclusivelya family group, nor are they a traditional school group. They are anamalgam of both audiences. Homeschool families do not isolate theirchildren in their learning, but strive to learn together in a social setting.Unlike traditional school groups, many seek interdisciplinary, and in-depthexperiences with subject experts. The lack of familiarity somehomeschooled children have with school routines and rituals—such asstanding in a straight line or raising their hand to ask a question—results12 Elsa Bailey, and George Hein, “Museums and the Standards: Perspectives on HowMuseums in the United States are Being Effected by the National Education ReformMovement,” A paper presented at the International Council of Museums (ICOM)Committee for Education and Cultural Action (CECA) Conference in Christchurch, NewZealand (October -November, 2000), 9 – 12.10

in frustration to both the children and the museum educators. Anadditional challenge for museum educators is outreach to this growingcommunity. The majority of museum educators surveyed expressed adesire to serve homeschoolers, yet voiced uncertainty in effective outreachmethods.The challenge to serve the homeschool community presents themuseum educators with the opportunity to create a hybrid program,combining the best of family, docent, and school programming. Museumscan optimize their learning resources and environment for homeschooledchildren by leveraging the very strengths that standards-driven formaleducation neglects—authentic experiences, object-, and place-basedlearning, primary research opportunities, and an enriched environment—tofacilitate independent free-choice learning. The more informed museumprograms the more engaging for the homeschooling community. For thisproject I was able to identify programs such as those at The Walters ArtMuseum in Baltimore, and at Monterey Bay Aquarium that accommodatepreferred homeschooling approaches. Homeschoolers are oftenasynchronous learners and benefit from collaborative learningenvironments. This is in part is due to the homeschooler focusing onspecific areas of interest in great depth. By their nature, homeschoolerstend to thrive in collaborative multi-modal, multi-generational social11

situations. Homeschoolers do not limit themselves to fixed-age socialgroupings that are common in a formal school setting. Learningenvironments that homeschoolers often seek involve student groups ofvarious ages as well as adults and educators who guide the students. Thehomeschool preference for multi-aged groupings often challenges museumeducators, yet provides the opportunity to not only hybridize the bestelements of family, docent and school programming, but to helphomeschool educators utilize museum educational methods to reinforceand extend the museum experience for their children.The purpose of this master’s project was to learn how museums,specifically through their educational programs, can become a moreeffective component in homeschoolers’ education. In identifying theeducational needs of homeschoolers, this project will help museumeducators to understand better and address the educational needs of thisgrowing community, and fulfill the field’s mandate to expand learningopportunities, broadening outreach, and become more inclusive. 13Optimize the homeschool experience of museums is contingent upon13 The American Association of Museums’ report, Excellence in Equity: Education andthe Public Dimension of Museums, (Washington D.C.: American Associations ofMuseums 1992), states that the commitment of education should be integral to themission of each museum. The report recommends that museum professionals“understand, develop, expand, and use the learning opportunities that museums offer theiraudiences.” It further recommends that institutions become more inclusive, broaden theiroutreach, and encourage collaboration within the community.12

museums and homeschool communities forging a better and a mutuallybeneficial relationship. My master’s project, therefore, culminates in a setof guidelines that will help museum educators understand better and servethe growing homeschool community and will help foster that relationship.My guidelines, findings, and recommendations for this project will bedisseminated to museums professionals through a proposed session at theAmerican Associations of Museums 2006 Annual Meeting andMuseumExpo. In addition, interested museum and homeschool educatorsmay request a Portable Document File (PDF) of this material.Research Goals and ObjectivesIn developing a comprehensive assessment of homeschooledchildren and their relationship to museums and museum educationalprograms, my research was multi-faceted in its approach. It focused on sixareas. My overarching aim was to explore the modern homeschoolmovement, current museum practices and how museums can better servethis unique community. I developed specific objectives to refine andaccomplish my research goals. The first goal was to define thehomeschool movement and gain understanding of the individuals whosubscribe to this movement. My specific objectives were to research and13

summarize the history and philosophies of this movement, and theindividuals and their exponents who developed or advocated thesephilosophies.Second, I wanted to know what learning theories and currentmuseum practices best align to the methodologies and philosophies of thehomeschooling movement. I identified and assessed learning theories thatshould inform the design of programs that serve the homeschoolcommunity. I found that strong parallels exist between the educationalapproaches practiced by the homeschool community and museumeducators.The third was to ascertain the satisfaction homeschooling parentsand their children derive from existing traditional museum educationalprograms and ones specifically designed for homeschoolers. This goal wasaccomplished through examining the level of satisfaction in museumprograms by homeschoolers through surveys and interviews. Furthermore,I focused on investigating the community’s interest in utilizing museumsas an educational resource, which was my fourth goal.My fifth goal was to learn how the needs of the homeschooler aredifferent from the traditional school student, and further, to determinewhat the challenges are museums face in serving the homeschoolcommunity. Museum educators generally tailor their programs for14

traditional school audiences and consequently, homeschool children arenot well served. My specific objectives were to investigate the preferredlearning environments and methodologies of homeschoolers and ascertainhow these differ from traditionally schooled students. This led me todiscover the challenges and rewards in serving the growing homeschoolcommunity pose to museum educators.Another goal was to learn which programs museums havedeveloped to meet the needs of homeschooled children. My objectiveswere to identify, investigate, and review existing evaluations of programsdesigned to meet the needs of the homeschool community. Additionally,this guided me to ascertain the museum community’s level of interest inand commitment to serving the growing homeschool community.Finally, I to sought identify what museum educators need to knowto better serve this unique community—to optimize the homeschoolexperience in museums. Many museums seek to broaden their audiencesand educational outreach, yet find serving the homeschool community’sneeds daunting. My objective was to develop a set of guidelines that willhelp inform museum educators about how best to serve the homeschoolcommunity.15

MethodologyThrough the undertaking of a multi-faceted approach to research, amore complete understanding of the needs, interests, and paralleleducational philosophies between the museum field and the growinghomeschool community was established. In order to accomplish theobjectives outlined above, a variety of methodologies were employed.These included the examination of existing literature, websites, andlistservs, and two surveys and interviews with members of the homeschoolcommunity and museum educators. A site visit to Monterey BayAquarium was conducted on April 4, 2005 so that I could participate andobserve a homeschool day, with the aim of experiencing first-hand amodel program. Additionally, attending the 2005 Museum and the WebConference in Vancouver, B.C. Canada contributed to furthering myunderstanding of technological applications used in education, therebycreating a more comprehensive study.In order to provide the background for this project, I reviewedrelevant books, journal articles, periodicals websites, and list-servs. 14 Theprimary focus of the research included the history, philosophy, andinfluences of the modern homeschool movement in the United States, andrelevant educational theories practiced by museums educators. This14 For a complete list of listservs see Appendices A and B.16

eview was helpful in identifying parallel philosophies, approaches andmethods used in museums and in homeschool education. Considerablecontributions to my research on the modern homeschool movement weregained through the writings of John Holt, John Taylor Gatto, and Brian D.Ray. I gained deeper insight into the homeschooling community through,John Holt and Patrick Farenga’s Teach Your Own: The John Holt Book ofHomeschooling, and Gatto’s books, Dumbing Us Down: The HiddenCurriculum in Compulsory Schooling and The Underground History ofAmerican Education. Especially helpful were academic essays compiledin Peabody Journal of Education The Home Education Movement inContext, Theory and Practice edited by Susan A. McDowell and Brian D.Ray. Linda Dobson’s book, The Homeschooling Book Of Answers, 15clearly underscored the diversity and varied spectrum of the modernhomeschool movement that ranges from the more conservative religionbasedbeliefs of Dr. Raymond Moore 16 , to the unschooling ideology ofJohn Taylor Gatto. 17Websites and listservs such as Museum-L, proved valuable inidentifying both individuals to interview, and existing museum education15 The Homeschooling Book Of Answers is a compilation of questions abouthomeschooling with answers supplied by fifty-eight homeschooling advocates.16 For information, concerning Dr. Moore and his philosophy seehttp://www.morefoundation.com.17 For information concerning John Taylor Gatto and his philosophy see the backgroundsection of this paper or http://www.johntaylorgatto.com.17

programs to be examined. Particularly relevant to my research on informaleducation, theories, and practices were, John H. Falk and Lynn D.Dierking’s books, Learning from Museums Visitor Experiences and theMaking of Meaning and Lessons Without Limit How Free-ChoiceLearning is Transforming Education. In addition, George E. Hein’swritings and books including Learning in the Museum, proved valuable inresearching museological education theory and practices.I sent 182 surveys to randomly selected museum educators in thestate of California listed in the American Association of Museums 2004-2005 Official Museum Directory. The survey instrument was designed toascertain their interest in, and commitment to, serving the homeschoolcommunity. The scope of the survey was not restricted to one specific typeof museum largely because of the relatively few programs designed toserve this community. While a number of museums in the United Stateshave begun to serve the expanding homeschool community, presently thescope of programs is limited. Through a series of open-ended questions,museum educators, curators, or directors in the case of small museums, 18reported on the challenges in outreach and addressing the needs of thecommunity, existing programs and what resources and information wouldhelp them better serve the homeschool community. To discover awareness18 For the Museum Educator Survey instrument see Appendix C.18

of the homeschool community, as well as determining if their institutionshad specific programs for homeschoolers I asked a series of closed-endedquestions. Through my surveying of museum professionals, I identifiedexisting programs designed to serve homeschoolers for furtherinvestigation. The return rate of 60 percent indicated that there is interestamong museum educators in this topic. Many responded with requests forfurther communication and others included a letter or informationalbrochures about their homeschool programming.I also surveyed the homeschool community both online as well asin-person to gather information about homeschoolers’ ideas and opinionson how museums can better serve their community. 19 I primarilyconducted surveys through e-mail correspondence. I posted requests forsurvey participants on various homeschool organization listservs in SanFrancisco and the greater Bay Area. 20 Subjects were self-selected basedupon their interest in museums as educational resources. The purpose ofsurveying members of the homeschool community via the Internet was togain a more thorough understanding of the needs of a broader base ofhomeschoolers than would be available through personal interviews.19 For the Homeschool Educator Survey instrument see Appendix D.20 Ibid.19

Additionally, I distributed surveys during a park day gathering of the SanFrancisco Homeschoolers, which allowed for informal interviews andobservations. 21These combined efforts—in person and online distribution—resulted in 136 responses to the survey. This instrument mirrored themuseum educators’ in that it consisted of open-ended question that allowthe respondents to voice their opinions and relay personal experiences, aswell as closed-ended questions to gain specific information such as thelevel of interest and participation in programs. 22 Many respondentsincluded detailed information and relayed stories about their museumexperiences. Several requested personal interviews to share theirexperiences and wanted to provide further insights into how museumscould better serve them. This inquiry helped determine the level of interestthe homeschool community has in utilizing museums as a resource in theeducation of their children. Additionally it provided information on whattheir preferred museum experience would entail.21 Park days are traditional weekly gathering of homeschoolers offering support,activities, and socialization opportunities for both parents and children. The SanFrancisco Homeschoolers are a non-secular support group that draws homeschoolersfrom the San Francisco and the greater Bay area.22 It is interesting to note that a number of responses came from homeschoolers who livedoutside of California. The homeschool community is linked together through the Internet,and the interest was such that they forwarded the request for participants to fellowhomeschoolers around the nation.20

Two other components for my methodology grew out of queries Iposted early in the course of my research for information on two museumprofessional listservs, Museum-L and Museum-Ed. I requested assistancein locating museums with educational programming designed specificallyfor the homeschool community. From these twenty-eight responses,programs in history, science, natural science, and art museums around thecountry were identified. The purpose of the investigation was to ascertainthe variety of existing and exemplary programs in order to establishguidelines to better serving the homeschool audience.I conducted twenty-two telephone and two in-person interviews,with museum educators around the United States to collect experienceswith the homeschool audience. 23 It would have been optimal to conduct allinterviews in person, but because of time limitations and economicconstraints, I conducted the interviews primarily via the telephone and e-mail correspondence. The scope of museums was not only throughout theUnited States, but included both small and large institutions, as well asscience, natural history, art, and history museum. Through interviewingmuseum professionals, I gained a more thorough understanding of theneeds of the museum professional in conducting outreach and thechallenges in serving the homeschool community.23 For a complete list of museum educators interviewed see Appendix E.21

Interviews with 19 homeschool parents revealed their experienceswith museum programs. 24 As in conversations with museum professionals,this provided a far deeper understanding of homeschoolers’ insights, andexperiences with museums. The focus group participants consisted ofparents of homeschooled children. The focus groups were gathered at ahomeschool residence, a restaurant, and informally at a homeschool parkday in conjunction with conducting the survey. I selected participants fromthe geographic region of San Francisco and San Mateo Counties.One program, the Monterey Bay Aquarium’s homeschool day, wasthe focus of a case study and site visit. This visit afforded me theopportunity to observe and examine the details involved in planning andfacilitating an all day event designed to serve the homeschool community.Additionally, I was able to conduct informal interviews with homeschoolparents and children that led me to discover their impressions and opinionsof the program. The scope of this program was large, not only in size (756children signed up to participate in the program), but also in the diversityof offerings that included orientations, hands-on activities, scavengerhunts, and tours. Attending the 2005 Museums and the Web conferenceprovided me with the opportunity to gain a more complete understanding24 For a complete list of homeschool parents interviewed see Appendix F. Note that oneindividual is both a museum professional and a homeschool educator.22

of the uses of the Internet and other technologies to enrich and extend themuseum experience. Moreover, I had access to experts in technology inmuseums from around the globe whose presentations and conversationshelped me formulate and plan one of my recommendations. Theculmination of these methods painted a complete picture of the modernhomeschool movement and its relationship between museums andmuseum educational programs.LimitationsThis project on museums and homeschoolers within the UnitedStates was limited in scope, sample size, definitionally, and conceptually.The scope of surveyed museum and homeschool educators was within thestate of California. Due to the viral nature of the Internet, I receivedhomeschool educator survey responses from six states. However, theseresults are not reported as they fall outside the scope of this project.Because of the nature of the homeschool community, I initiated contactsthrough gatekeepers—influential community members, and moderators ofhomeschool web sites and listservs. The sample size of the survey waslimited by time constraints and returned responses. Interviews werelimited to homeschool educators and to museum educators whoseinstitutions currently have programs designed to serve the homeschool23

community. Time, geography, and economic restraints did not allow me toconduct all interviews in person, which would have resulted in a richerexchange of relevant information and ideas.For the purpose of this project, I defined homeschoolers as parentsand children who do not utilize traditional structured education within aninstitutional setting. I restricted the range of my research to homeschoolerswho choose to follow this movement for purely philosophical andeducational reasons. I did not address the specific needs of people whochoose to homeschool for purely religious ideologies. This segment of thepopulation poses additional challenges to museums that reach beyond thescope of my project. An additional limitation is that may bias my study isthat I am a homeschool educator.Product DescriptionThe most advantageous method for disseminating the findings andrecommendations for this project is though a forum session at theAmerican Association of Museums 2006 Annual Meeting andMuseumExpo, held in Boston, Massachusetts, April 27-May 1, 2006.AAM represents over 16,500 individual—professional and volunteer—institutions and corporate members, including all aspects of employ withinmuseums. Currently the scope of institutions represented, over 3,200,24

encompass all sizes and disciplines. 25 Addressing this audience willprovide an optimal venue for reaching a broad audience of museumprofessionals. The AAM conference theme A Centennial of Ideas:Exploring Tomorrow’s Museums seeks to, “increase the public’sawareness and knowledge of the value of museums,” and to “assistmuseums to meet the future challenges of educating and inspiring achanging society.” 26 This project aligns with both of these goals.Under the umbrella of Interpretations, a single session (75 minutes)panel discussion will be the most beneficial format. This proposed session,Optimizing Homeschoolers’ Experiences in Museums, will encouragediscourse and foster active participation of the audience in discussionabout serving the homeschool audience and other independent learners.The session panelist will strive to provide answers and elucidation to someof the questions and issues AAM has forwarded to its membership for thisconference. Among them will be broadening access, greater involvementin collections and programs, and finally exploring collaborations andpartnerships within the context of the homeschool community. A proposalthat adheres to the AAM submission requirements for a session has beensubmitted for the centennial Annual Meeting and MuseumExpo.25 American Association of Museums, http://www http://aam-us.org/site/centennialinfo.cfm.(17, April 2005).26 Ibid.25

Presenters on the panel will include, one museum professional and onehomeschool educator—both who have experience in forging a strongrelationship between museums and the homeschool community, and onemuseum professional specializing in research and evaluation of informallearning environments. The research and evaluation expert will presenteffective learning methods that align with museum and homeschooleducation. The representative museum educator will be an individual whoalong with their institution has designed programs specifically for thehomeschool community, encompassing both ongoing programs, such asclasses, and homeschooling day events. The museum educator will outlinetheir programs, present the challenges that they face, and provide solutionsthat are effective in both outreach and serving the homeschool community.The homeschool educator will inform the audience about the philosophiesand methods used in the modern homeschool movement and suggesteffective means to serve and reach the growing community. In addition,the two educators—museum and homeschool—will present models forsuccessful partnerships and collaborations with museums and thehomeschool community. Together these presentations will help informmuseum educators about the homeschool community, and independentlearners and will allow them fully develop understanding of the parallelsbetween these communities, as well as inform them about current museum26

educational practices. The forum format will enable museum professionalsto learn about and share experiences they have had with the growinghomeschool community.The audience will receive guidelines for addressing the needs of,and facilitating programs for, the homeschool community. The ideasexpressed in the forum will be compiled and disseminated via e-mail.Additionally, a listserv will be created to help facilitate those wishing tocontinue the dialog concerning serving the needs of informal learners.Moreover, if interest dictates, this session can establish the seeds for amuseum and homeschool educator Web site.27

GlossaryThe glossary provides definitions for terms that are commonlyused within the homeschool community, museum education and computertechnology used in throughout this project. 27Child-centered or Child-directed LearningA process of learning in which the child makes the learning decisions andthe parent observes, and facilitates according to the child’s interests. Thisis often referred to as unschooling. An approach adheres to life learning asthe core experience for education.Compulsory education or Compulsory schoolingThis term refers to governmental instituted schooling during which parentshave a legal duty to ensure that children attend school. Both terms aregenerally used by homeschoolers when referring to public schools.Eclectic HomeschoolingThis flexible method of homeschooling uses a variety of approaches andresources to individualize the learning to accommodate the specific needsof the child.Home-Based EducationA term sometimes used to imply that while the schooling is based in thehome, it is generally not conducted there. It is ironic that homeschoolersare rarely at home.HomeschoolerThis term is used to describe members of the homeschool community.Homeschooler is often used to describe both children as well as parents.27 The terms are from the following sources: Mapletree Publishing Company,http://mapletreepublishing.com, Home School Learning Network,http://homeschoollearning.com, Homefires The Journal of Homeschooling Online,http://homefires.com, and National Home Education Network, http://www.nhen.org, andBrian D. Ray, Worldwide guide to homeschooling: Facts and stats on the benefits ofhome school, 2004-2005. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2004.28

HomeschoolingAn education alternative to institutional schooling that is based from thehome. Parents and children assume control of learning.Homeschool Support GroupMany homeschoolers belong to groups in which members cooperate tocreate social activities, learning activities, field trips, special interestgroups such as sports or music, parent education, and sharehomeschooling resources.InclusiveRefers to secular homeschooling group, publication, or philosophy thatincludes everyone without regard to religion, educational philosophy, orstyle of homeschooling.Learning StyleThis refers to the ways in which a particular individual learns best.Auditory learners absorb information best by listening. Kinestheticlearners prefer to do or touch materials as they learn. Visual learners excelwhen they are able to see objects and materials to be learned.SchoolerThis term used by homeschoolers when referring to children who attendpublic or private schools.School-At-Home or Curriculum-In-A-BoxThis is the most structured method of homeschooling. It is parent directedand mirrors traditional schools. Generally includes scheduled work,textbooks, specific assignments, and examinations.Unit Study or theme studiesIn the unit study approach to homeschooling, the child's educationalactivities are focused around a specific topic for a certain period of time.All, or most, subjects are learned in the context of that topic.UnschoolingUnschooling is a neologism created by educator John Holt. It is used todescribe child-centered learning.29

BACKGROUNDToday museums strive to be preeminent institutions for learning,providing authentic and direct experiences for their visitors. Throughexhibitions, place-based, and object-based learning, museums create andsupport an ideal environment for informal learning. The scope ofeducational philosophies employed by museums is wide and varies fromthe highly structured formal approach used in the traditional educationsystem, to free-choice learning experiences where the visitor controlswhat, when, how, and why he or she learns. The informal learningenvironment that the museum provides on the floor, but not necessarily inits programs closely aligns with the philosophies and learning approachesfollowed by the majority of homeschoolers. Museum professionals willbetter understand this unique and idiosyncratic community by examiningthe history of education in the United States, the philosophies and methodssubscribed to in the modern homeschool movement. In becoming familiarwith the evolution of the modern homeschool movement, commonalitiesbetween the homeschool community and museums today becomeapparent. Based on current trends in museum practice and theory, strongparallels can be drawn between museum education and modernhomeschool educational philosophy. It is prudent for museumprofessionals to understand the preferred educational methods and30

philosophies of this community in order to create thorough engagement,develop, and maintain a sustainable relationship between museums andhomeschoolers.Public Education in the United StatesThe earliest American schools were defacto homeschools: theeducation of children was the responsibility of their parents and it tookplace in the home and its environs. Through the combined efforts ofparents, older siblings, and tutors, children learned through directexperience, mentoring, and tutoring. Parents provided the basic educationand literacy that would prompt citizens to comply with the laws,indoctrinate them in religious teachings, and maintain social harmony. 28During the Colonial period (approximately 1660-1776) dameschools and apprenticeships were the first loosely organized forms of massor public education. Dame schools were small private schools thatprovided rudimentary education for children before they were old enoughto work. The educators or dames were usually elderly women, and thequality and content of the education varied widely. Apprenticeshipsoccurred after basic skills were acquired through the dame school28 John Boli, “Globalization,” Encyclopedia on Education and Sociology, eds. PeterCookson, Jr., Alan Sadovnik, and David L. Levinson (Cambridge: Garland Publishing,1996), 4.31

education. Parents entered into agreements with tradesmen or artisans tofeed, clothe, house, and train children—usually male—in a marketabletrade, thus creating a marginally educated, inexpensive work force. Firstdeveloped in Massachusetts, public education ensured that the masseswould be able to read and understand laws and religious documents inColonial society. Social responsibility and a more formal approach topublic education came with the employment of headmasters and teachersto oversee the education of the populace. Parental control extended to thegovernance of the schools, and to the selection of teachers andcurriculum. 29In the eighteenth century, politicians such as Thomas Jefferson heldthat in a democracy the people had to be able to read, write, andcommunicate orally in order to make prudent and wise decisions abouttheir government. The Industrial Revolution 30 exploded in the UnitedStates in the 19 th century. Economic pressures for the working class wereexacerbated by the influx of immigrants who entered the workforce.Newly created labor unions successfully pressured the government to29 Diana Haitt-Michael, “Parent Involvement in American Public Schools: A HistoricalPerspective 1642-2000,” School Community Journal 4, no. 2 (Fall-Winter, 1994), 247-248.30 The Industrial Revolution marked a period of rapid change in the social and economicstructure of society due to advancements in new technologies. The impact of thedevelopment of mechanized production of goods and efficient transportation systems—steam powered ships and trains—resulted tremendous economic growth, and the movefrom an agrarian to an urban centered economy.32

enact laws that would limit children from competing for jobs. The adventof compulsory public education coincided with the child labor laws. Thisnot only ensured that the workforce would have a basic education but alsoresulted in more children attending school. The training of professionaleducators and compulsory education coalesced to shape the formalinstitutions that form the foundations of the public education systems thatexist today.Society rapidly modernized with the expansion of industrialization atthe turn of the twentieth century. Social Efficiency, a movement foundedby writer and mechanical engineer Fredrick Winslow Taylor, wasenvisioned as an efficient means to produce material goods. Taylor’sscientific management focused on standardized methods to accomplishdiscrete tasks rather than improving conditions for the worker. 31 Taylorasserted, “[i]n the past man has been first. In the future the system will befirst.” 32 Taylorists believed that society could be improved through anefficient business model including task-specific work, and standardization,thereby creating uniform results. This movement influenced thestructuring of the educational system. Taylorists saw schools as31 Peter C. Baldwin, “Nocturnal Habits and Dark Wisdom: The American Response toChildren in the Streets of the Night, 1890-1930,” Journal of Social History 35, no. 3(Spring 2002), 602-603.32 Robert Kanigel, The Best Way: Fredrick Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency, NewYork: Penguin Books, 1999. http://www.lib.stevenstech.edu/collections/fwtaylor/featured.html.(2 June 2005).33

workplaces. Learning was viewed in terms of productivity. 33 In speakingto the National Education Association in 1909, an Illinois superintendentof schools typified Taylorist attitudes by saying:Ordinarily a love of learning is praiseworthy; but whenthis delight in the pleasures of learning becomes sointense and so absorbing that it diminishes the desire,and the power of earning, it is positively harmful. 34The standardization of education was furthered with thepublishing of the first in a series of six McGuffey’s EclecticReaders. Educator and Presbyterian minister William HolmesMcGuffey originally wrote the series of books that became thepredominant public school textbooks. In addition to core subjectssuch as spelling, language, and reading, the books shaped moralattitudes. The status of industrialists and business leaders such asAndrew Carnegie was lauded in the books. Industrialists andbusiness journalists even authored some sections of the McGuffeyReaders. 35 The pervasive influence of the wealthy industrialistsextended beyond the textbooks to the structure of the Americanpublic schools.33 Taylorization is apparent in public education today through the standardized statetesting that effects funding for schools, which in turn, influences curriculum andteaching, or “teaching-to-the-test.”34 Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency, (Chicago: UniversityPress, 1962), 10.35 Ibid. 2.34

Wealthy industrialists such as Andrew Carnegie, J.D. Rockefeller,Henry Ford, and J.P. Morgan encouraged the government to model publicschools after the Prussian state run education. Prussian leaders utilizedschools not only to educate but also to unify and strengthen the statethrough instilling national pride. 36 The Prussian system aimed to producegood workers and obedient citizens, the ideal for an industrializedsociety. 37 Beginning in 1910, American educators modeled schools afterthis system, intending to create a uniform culture of stalwart modelcitizens who would create an efficient and productive society. 38Not all educators agreed with this paradigm. The ProgressiveMovement (from the late nineteenth century to the mid twentieth century),forwarded by educator and philosopher John Dewey, advocated a morecompassionate and humanistic approach to learning. 39 Child-centeredlearning was a core belief of the Progressive Movement. This was in directopposition to the educator-centered norm in the Taylorized classroomsthat prioritized classroom management and standardized curriculum. TheProgressive Movement challenged these methods by emphasizing36 Stu Conger, “Timetable of Educational Interventions,” The Innovation Journal (2000),4.37 John Taylor Gatto, The Underground History of American Education (New York:Oxford Village Press 2000), 131-146.38 John Boli, “Globalization,” 4.39 Robert B. Westerbrook, “John Dewey,” UNESCO Prospects: A Quarterly Review ofComparative Education 24, no. 1 and 2 (1994), 277-291.35

individual needs and freedom of choice, the whole child, and the joy oflearning. 40 Advocates of this movement believed that children should beencouraged to become critical thinkers and learned best when they weregenuinely interested in the subject matter. These concepts, along with thetraditions of direct experience, mentoring, and tutoring, established afoundation for the modern homeschool movement.During the 1960s and 1970s interest in progressive educationresurfaced. Central to this time were occurrences such as the VietnamWar, the woman’s movement, and Watergate among other factors thatinfluenced the political mood of the United States. Americans began toquestion societal structure, all government institutions, and educationalsystems notwithstanding. It was during this time that the modernhomeschool movement emerged, and became a component in educationaldiscourse and practice.Homeschooling: A Growing MovementHomeschooling can be described as educating school-age childrenoutside the boundaries of a formal school. Dr. Brain D. Ray, founder and40 Charles H. Rathbone, “A Learner’s Bill of Rights,” Phi Delta Kappan, 86, no. 6(February 2005), 471.36

president of National Home Education Research Institute (NHERI),elaborates on the definition of home-based education:A personal commitment by parents to raise and educatetheir children, family-based, and usually parent-led, orsometimes student-led studies, a program conducive toindividualization, a home setting rather than a conventionalclassroom or institutional setting, family participation inneighborhood and community activities, and parents,children and youth using resources that are open to thepublic to enhance education. 41Homeschooling is rarely limited to the four walls of ahome, but often extends into the community at large and to theresources that the community affords. Contrary to prevailingmisconceptions, the homeschool parent may be the primaryeducator, but is usually not the exclusive educator for thehomeschooled child. Subject experts and tutors are often employedto teach a group of homeschoolers, or to provide individualinstruction. Homeschool educators actively seek out the besteducator and educational environment for their children.Curriculum is not standardized and the individual learning stylesand interests of the children are a primary consideration.Homeschool families are diverse in beliefs, economic standing,ethnic background, customs, and political stances.41 Brian D. Ray, Ph D., A Quick Reference Worldwide Guide to Homeschooling 2005-2006 (Nashville, Tennessee: Broadman & Holman, 2005), 27-28.37

While the movement is growing and gaining recognition as analternative method of education, there is currently little or limited dataconcerning the number of homeschooled children in the United States. 42Estimated numbers vary widely. The United States Department ofEducation’s National Center of Education Statistics (NCES) estimates 1.1million children were homeschooled in 2003. 43 NHERI estimates thatthere were between 1.7 and 2.1 million home schooled children during thesame time period. The rate of growth is estimated to be between 7 and 18percent each year. 44 NHERI’s Brian Ray believes that, if the current trendscontinue, three million children will be homeschooled by 2010. 45Although homeschooling is legal in all fifty states, there is noeffective method of tracking homeschoolers. Hence, there are no objectivelongitudinal or comprehensive comparative studies of homeschooling.There are however anecdotal reports of achievements, and academic test42 In 2001, a Gallup poll was commissioned by the educational organization Phi DeltaKappa. When Americans were asked if homeschooling is good or bad for the nation, 41percent believed that homeschooling was good for the nation. This is a marked increasefrom a similar poll taken in 1985, where only 16 percent of respondents thought ofhomeschooling in a positive light.43 NCES statistics available through their electronic catalog athttp://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=200411544 National Home Research Institute (NHERI) statistics cited in Carol Innerest ed., “TheNew Face of Homeschooling,” Parent Power! 2, no. 8 (December 2000), 1.45 Brian D. Ray, Ph D., A Quick Reference Worldwide Guide to Homeschooling 2005-2006 (Nashville, Tennessee: Broadman & Holman, 2005), 28. More detailed informationis available at http://www.neri.org.38

scores for homeschoolers, yet these are far from comprehensive. 46 As thereare no uniform regulations for homeschooling, identifying homeschoolersis difficult. This is also due in part to the reluctance of somehomeschoolers to be studied, categorized, or quantified. Homeschoolproponents Larry and Susan Kaseman espouse this viewpoint, which theydisseminate through the Internet. The Kasemans have encouragedhomeschoolers to refuse to take part in research or surveys which couldresult in “increased regulation of homeschoolers,” “surrendering ofimportant rights,” and “los[ing] their freedom.” 47Homeschoolers are an enigmatic community. While they are oftenregarded as a homogenous politically conservative group, homeschoolersare in fact diverse in their belief systems and their educationalmethodologies. In 1988 educational researchers Jane Van Galen andMarianne Pittman broadly categorized homeschoolers into two distinctphilosophical groups, ideologues, and pedagogues. They classifyideologues as those who:46 National Home Education Research Institute,http://www.nheri.org/modules.php?name=NHERI_Research.47 Larry Kaseman, and Susan Kaseman, “Does Homeschooling Research HelpHomeschooling,” A to Z Home’s Cool Homeschooling.http://homeschooling.gomilpitas.com/weblinks/research.htm.39

... are teaching their children at home for two reasons: Theyobject to what they believe is being taught in public andprivate schools and they seek to strengthen theirrelationships with their children. These parents havespecific values, beliefs, and skills that they want theirchildren to learn, and they do not believe that these thingsare being adequately taught in any available school. 48Homeschool educators who could be classified asideologues include those who make the decision to homeschoolbased on the desire to incorporate and instill religious teachingwithin their children’s education, such as Christian or Islamicbeliefs. Ideologues tend to emulate traditional school structure andstress fundamental subjects in teaching. These educators feel thatare able to ensure their children’s moral values and identity thoughdaily religious activities and lessons. For example, in making thechoice to homeschool, Muslim parents are able to guide andprotect their children from cultural prejudices, negative westerninfluences—permissiveness, sex, drugs, and violence—and frompossible extremist rhetoric and views expressed in some privateIslamic schools. 4948 Jane Van Galen and Marianne Pittman, “Ideology, Curriculum, Pedagogy in HomeEducation,” Education and Urban Society 1, no. 21 (1988): 55, quoted in Kariane MariNemer, Understanding Education: Toward Building a Homeschooling Research Agenda.49 Seth Stern, “Muslims Craft Their Own Curriculum,” Christian Science Monitor, 14January 2003.40

those who:In contrast, Van Galen and Pittman define pedagogues as... teach their children at home primarily for pedagogicalreasons. Their criticisms of the schools are not so much thatthe schools teach heresy, but that the schools teachwhatever they teach ineptly. These parents are highlyindependent and strive to take responsibility for their ownlives. While diverse in other aspects of their lives, theyshare a respect for their children’s intellect and creativityand a belief that children learn best when pedagogy tapsinto the child’s innate desire to learn. 50The majority of homeschool educators fit into thepedagogues category and tend to veer from standard schoolpractices and methodologies, seeking ideal learning experiencesfor their children. 51 The focus is generally on child-centered, orparent and child collaborative leaning as opposed to teachercenteredor directed learning. Pedagogues are often eclectic in theirapproach to education, and strive to individualize instruction to suitthe learner’s needs. A “typical” day’s schedule might include avisit to a museum or library to research a specific topic, attending aclass with fellow homeschoolers, a hike in the countrysidedocumenting flora and fauna, or volunteering in the community.50 Ibid.51 National Center for Educational Statistics, ”Homeschools in the United States1999,”(October 2001), http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2001033.41

The quality of the experience and instruction are paramount,whether it be through direct experience, taught by subject experts,or guided by the parent-educator.While these definitions are helpful in gaining an understanding ofthe divisions within the homeschool population, it would be erroneous tobelieve that there is a hard line between ideologues and pedagogues. Bothgroups use similar teaching methodologies, which is liable to blur theboundaries between these two groups. Among the commonalities areconcerns over the learning environment, and quality of instruction inschools that exist for homeschoolers at both ends of Van Galen andPittman’s spectrum. 52 Addressing a child’s individual or special needs andthe importance of the family structure and lifestyle are also factors in thedecision to homeschool children.The spectrum of homeschoolers crosses all economic levels ofsociety, and is embraced by all ethnic groups. While it is difficult to obtainexact data, some observations can be made in profiling the “typical”homeschooler based on NCES statistics. 53 The majority of homeschooleducators are middle class, White-Non-Hispanic, religious, and bettereducated than the general populace. Three-quarters of homeschoolers52 Patricia M. Lines, “Homeschooling Comes of Age,” Public Interest, 140 (Summer1994), 79.53 National Center for Educational Statistics, ”Homeschools in the United States 1999.”42

classify themselves as White-Non-Hispanic, which is 10 percent higherthan the general school population. Eighty percent of homeschoolers livein two-parent families compared to 66 percent for non-homeschoolers.Just over half of homeschoolers come from two parent families whereonly one parent participates in the work force, compared to slightly lessthan one fifth of schooled children. Homeschool families tend to be larger,with 62 percent having three or more children, compared to 44 percent ofschooled children. Thirty-eight percent of the homeschool parentssurveyed stated that they homeschooled for religious reasons.Interestingly, the largest growing segment of homeschoolers is MuslimAmericans, which is expected to double every year for the next eightyears. This in part may be due to the cultural repercussions resulting fromthe events that occurred on September 11, 2001. 54 One quarter ofhomeschooling educators’ attained bachelor’s degrees as their highestdegree, compared to 16 percent of parents of schooled children. Twentytwopercent continued their education beyond a bachelor’s degree versus16 percent of the parents of schooled children. The primary educators are54 Seth Stern, “Muslims Craft Their Own Curriculum,” Christian Science Monitor, 14January 2003.43

mothers, although the participation of fathers is common. Ten percent ofthe homeschoolers have fathers as their primary educator. 55The advent of the Internet has greatly facilitated the expansion ofhomeschooling as it is utilized as a tool for research and communication.Homeschool educators receive support and educational information fromfellow homeschoolers through community listservs and homeschool Websites. Web sites tailored to homeschoolers offer advice, furnish curriculumideas and exchanges, and present the legalities of homeschooling, amongother things. Another use of the Internet in homeschooling is onlinelearning through distance learning organizations such as the LaurelSprings School. 56 Long distance learning schools provide individualizedcurriculum and instruction, and supported through e-mail and phonecontact with instructors. It is estimated that approximately 93 percent ofhomeschoolers have access to computers and the Internet in the home.This is well above the national average of 33 percent. 5755 Brian D. Ray, Ph D., A Quick Reference Worldwide Guide to Homeschooling 2005-2006 (Nashville, Tennessee: Broadman & Holman, 2005), 37.56 Laurel Springs School, http://www.laurelsprings.com/.57 Stephen Heuer, “Web Puts The Home Back In Homework,” CNN.com, September 19,2000.44

The Homeschool ContinuumThe overarching philosophy of many homeschool parents is to instillintrinsically motivated acquisition of knowledge in their children. Acrossthe homeschool continuum, individualized learning, and stimulatingenvironments are important factors used to facilitate a positive learningexperience. Homeschool parents take full legal and ethical responsibilityfor their children’s education and are diverse in their philosophies andapproaches to education. Each state varies in the rules, regulations, andrestrictions that impact homeschooling. In California, the most commonapproach to legal homeschooling is to establish the homeschool as aprivate school. This is done yearly by registering with the state declaringthe homeschool as a private school with a form known as the R-4. 58 Thehomeschool educator must abide by the same regulations as other privateschools in terms of attendance and subjects offered.Homeschool philosophies, and styles are uniquely personal and runthe gamut from child-centered learning or “unschooling” to parentcenteredlearning or schools at home (see Appendix F for a chart of thehomeschool continuum). Homeschooling parents tend to be eclectic intheir approaches to education and are flexible in designing the optimumlearning experience for their children. The amount of parental involvement58 California Department of Education, http://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/ps/rq/affidavit.asp.45

and direction differs as well as the degree of structure used in theapproach.In theory, in the child-centered approach to learning, the child isresponsible for his or her learning. 59 The children determine what theylearn, when they learn, and how they learn. The learning decisions arebased on their natural curiosity, desires, and interests. In practice, thedegree of autonomy for the child varies with parental guidance fromfamily to family. Often younger children, or newly unschooled children,initially receive some parental guidance in their learning, which decreasesover time. Unschooling is more of a belief system or attitude than amethod, as unschoolers believe that all individuals have the desire andability to learn and that learning best occurs when the learner directs andcontrols the process. Unschoolers create a highly individualized or freechoicelearning environment that encourages and supports learners topursue their own interests. Working from childrens’ strengths and interestsinstead of correcting or focusing on weaknesses is a major principle withinthis philosophy. 60 The context of new information and learning is morerelevant if it is related directly to the child’s interest. Fixed curricula,materials or scheduling are not used in this type of homeschooling.59 The term, “unschooling” was coined by educator John Holt.60 Mary Griffith, The Unschooling Handbook: How to Use the Whole World as YourChild’s Classroom, (New York: Three Rivers Press, 1998), 18.46

Unschooling is an active approach that adheres to life learning asthe core experience. Unschooling advocate John Holt clearly expressedthis philosophy when he stated:[c]hildren do not need to be made to learn, told what tolearn, or shown how. Given access to enough of the world,including out own lives and work in that world, they willsee clearly what things are truly important to us and toothers and they will make for themselves a better worldthan we can make for them. 61Unschooled children are encouraged to explore their interests alone, withparents or peers, and through mentors and community resources.Community resources, such as museums and libraries afford these childrenauthentic or first-hand direct experiences, and provide opportunities forthem to conduct primary research. Museums afford homeschoolers theopportunity to examine objects related to topics being studied, and interactin place-based learning in living history museums such as the Old CityPark: The Historical Village of Dallas or at Colonial Williamsburg.Librarians frequently excel in meeting the needs of the homeschooler byunderstanding their desire to delve deeply into subjects and providingguidance in effective research methods. Homeschool educators seekmentors and volunteer opportunities to allow their children to explore andexperience areas of interest in-depth. These direct experiences further61 Linda Dobson, The Homeschooling Book Of Answers. Roseville, (California: PrimaPublishing, 1998), 101.47

deepen and personalize the meaning for the learner. Unschooling advocateJohn Taylor Gatto contends that it is imperative that the learners interact inthe world at large and not be isolated in the artificial environment oftraditional schools. Gatto stated:…eventually you have to come to be part of a place—partof its hills and streets—or you will live a very, very sorrylife. Discovering meaning for yourself, as well asdiscovering satisfying purpose for yourself, is a big part ofwhat education is. How this can be done by lockingchildren away from the world is beyond me. 62Parents that subscribe to unschooling feel that the child will benefitfrom relationships with other more knowledgeable individuals and thatlearning will occur with more personal meaning. Child-centered learningis an ongoing natural process that is incorporated within the familystructure and life style. Unschooling is the least structured approach alongthe continuum of homeschooling.Another approach, somewhere in the middle of the spectrum andmore structured in methodology, is the child-parent collaborative. Childparentcollaborative learning allows both the child and the adult to makedecisions about the subjects studied and to choose the course and durationof study. The parent provides diverse rich environments and experiencesto facilitate the child’s learning, and offers assistance and guidance when62 John Taylor Gatto, Dumbing Us Down: The Hidden Curriculum in CompulsorySchooling. 2 nd ed. (Gabriola Island, Washington: New Society Publishers, 2002), 62.48

needed. This method of homeschooling is often called eclectichomeschooling where the parent elects to utilize a variety of educationalstyles and philosophies to facilitate and individualize the child’slearning. 63 A benefit of this type of approach is that it is highly flexibleand allows the activities and curriculum materials to coincide with thechildren’s interests, developmental level, and learning style. The resourcesand methods used are individualized to further the interests of the childand the educational goals of the parent and child. As in child-centeredlearning, authentic experiences—hands-on, object- and place-basedlearning—that community resources such as museums and librariesprovide are important elements in learning.Homeschooling is inherently interdisciplinary. One method oftenused by eclectic homeschoolers is the unit studies or thematic approachstudies, which is where subjects are integrated around a central topic ofinterest. The unit studies approach is designed to provide not only in-depthexamination, but to provide a broad understanding of topics that relate to acentral theme. There is no delineation between subjects such as math,history, science, social science, language, and fine arts as they areaddressed in an interdisciplinary and integrated manner. All are blended to63 Robert T. Kiyosaki and Rebecca Kochenderfer, Homeschooling for Success: HowParents Can Create a Superior Education for Their Child (New York, Warner Books,2002), 10.49

support the child’s specific interests, developmental level, and educationalgoals. This approach is experiential and incorporates multimodal meansfor the child to experience, discover, and learn. A primary advantage ofthis approach is that the subjects are presented and explored in context,rather than being examined separately in isolation. Unit studies arelearner-centered, highly flexible, and can address the needs of a multiagedgroup. This approach presents an opportunity to create a sociallearning environment where children learn from their educators, peers, andolder, more knowledgeable homeschoolers. There are not time constraintsused in the unit studies approach to learning, children are able to explore,discover, and reflect on each topic of study. Unit studies furnish a childwith the opportunity to examine at all aspects related to one subject—theway life is experienced—integrated and not isolated. Many homeschooleducators believe that unit studies create the ideal learning environment.The most structured mode followed by homeschoolers is parentcenteredlearning. Parent-centered or directed learning emphasizes a wellroundedstandard curriculum. 64 The parent decides the timing, content,and method of instruction they feel is appropriate for their child. Theparent selects and supervises projects and extra-curricular activities. This64 Parent centered learning and classical education are detailed in Susan Wise Bauer andJessie Wise, The Well-Trained Mind: A guide to Classical Education at Home, 2 nd ed.(New York, W. W. Norton & Company, 2004).50

highly structured approach or “school at home” embraces distinctdisciplines and utilizes the traditional instructional methods used inschools. There is less flexibility of subjects and methods used to facilitatelearning. Children utilize libraries and museums for research, directauthentic experiences, and primary resource materials. 65 Typically, thisapproach to homeschooling follows a scheduled routine of subjects andfixed method of instruction.Classical Education is often favored by homeschoolers whosubscribe to the mode of parent-centered learning. Classical educationinvolves the Trivium, which consists of three stages; Grammar, Dialectic,and Rhetoric. Grammar, the stage used in primary education, focuses onconcrete thinking, listening, observation, and memorization. Dialectic, thesecond stage, is used throughout the middle school years. An expansion ofthe Grammar stage, it emphasizes analytical and logical thinking,discussion, and debate. Rhetoric is the stage implemented during highschool; abstract thinking and precise articulation in both written andspoken word are honed. Classical education curriculum includes the studyof Latin and often Greek and Logic. This approach is enhanced throughthe exposure to history, culture, and art of Western Civilization, oftenthrough museum visits.65 The classical education approach is attributed to the writing and philosophy of educatorDorothy Sayers.51

Influential Educational Philosophies of the Homeschool MovementAll of the child-centered, parent-child, and parent–centeredlearning methods are rooted in the work of many influential educators.The philosophies and methodologies have similarities such as freedom ofchoice and individualization, yet there are unique aspects of each of thesubscribed pedagogies. The philosophies of several key individuals—Charlotte Mason, Dr. Rudolph Steiner, Dr. Maria Montessori, AlexanderSutherland Neill, John Holt, and John Taylor Gatto—significantly shapedthe modern homeschool movement.Charlotte Mason was a nineteenth century British educator who wasinfluenced by the educational philosophies of Jean-Jacques Rousseau andJohann Pestalozzi. 66 Her philosophy, which is detailed in a series of sixbooks and in her periodical Parent’s Review, 67 challenged the methods andartificial atmosphere of traditional schools that she felt stifled children’scuriosity and innate desire for knowledge. She believed that children arenot simply “vessels to be filled” but true discoverers of knowledge. 68Given a broad knowledge base, or liberal arts foundation, children will66 Eighteenth century philosopher and educators Jean-Jacques Rousseau and JohannPestalozzi contended that emotional well being, individuality, and freedom of expressionwere essential components in education. Both of their educational philosophies held thatlearning should be based on concrete experiences.67 Charlotte Mason, The Original Home Schooling Series: The Classic Reference by theFounder of the Home Schooling Movement (Wheaton, Illinois: Tyndale HousePublishers, Inc., 1989). Also available online at http://amblesideonline.org/CM/toc.html.68 Aimee Natal, “Charlotte Mason,” The Encyclopedia of Informal Education (2000).http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-mason.htm.52

develop into responsible, independent learners. Mason advocated the useof authentic experiences, environments, and objects to facilitate learning.She encouraged children to use their natural curiosity and creativity toexplore the world around them. Mason contended that children benefitmost by learning and dealing with real world experiences rather than in anartificially created environment. Independent observation and discoverythrough play are key tenets in Mason’s educational methodology.Her method focuses on literature; narration, which she referred toas, “the act of knowing”: dictation; journaling; exploring nature; andappreciating art and music. 69 Mason felt that the literature in schoolsshould be living, conveying the passion of the author, not be dryinformational textbooks. She was adamantly opposed to twaddle—insignificant books that lacked literary value. 70 Mason’s narrativeprocess—verbalizing, writing, or drawing what has been learned—allowschildren to organize and clarify their thoughts, thus reinforcing newknowledge. As children become more independent in their learning,discussions with parents and peers deepen their understanding andfacilitate retention. Daily dictation of poetry or literary passages honeschildren’s language arts skills while exposing them to substantial literature69 Maryellen St. Cyr, “Distinctives of a Charlotte Mason Education: Living Books,” inWhen Children Love to Learn: A Practical Application of Charlotte Mason’s Philosophyfor Today, ed. Elaine Cooper (Westchester, Illinois: Crossways Books, 2004), 131-134.70 Ibid: 125- 127.53

and ideas. Nature walks where children explore and journals are keys tostimulating the child’s observational skills and allow them to experiencethe natural world first hand. Lessons are highly focused and short inlength, which allow the child to explore areas of interest and play in theafternoon.Mason believed exposure to and appreciation of the fine artsenriched life and were invaluable in creating a strong educationalfoundation. She advocated for the establishment of life-long appreciationof literature, music, and art through direct contact and experience withthe arts. This method of education reinforces the positive actions andhabits of children that she maintained would build self-reliance and selfesteem.Another nineteenth century pedagogy that subscribes to the ideathat children inherently desire to learn is based on the philosophy ofGerman scholar Rudolph Steiner. Both Mason and Steiner’s methodsfully integrate the arts in the entire curriculum, and use conversationthroughout the learning process. The Waldorf method of education isfounded on Steiner’s ideologies.Steiner’s interest and investigations into spiritual and scientificstudy led him to develop Anthroposophy, or the study of human wisdom.Anthroposophy entails the synthesis of the “philosophy of freedom, the54

sciences, the arts, and religious strivings of man.” 71 This synthesis ofbody, mind, and spirit is the foundation of Rudolph Steiner’s WaldorfMethod of education. 72 It is estimated currently there are approximately870 formal schools worldwide that subscribe to the Waldorf Method.The focus of Steiner’s pedagogy is to establish the love of life-longlearning by addressing the whole child—body, soul, and spirit. 73Discovery and exploration of self—combined with intellectual content—are needed to achieve leaning. The Waldorf Method attends to a child’sdevelopmental stages and its curriculum balances academic areas with thearts and practical skills. Children are guided to make discoveries on theirown rather than to have information thrust at them. Knowledge isconveyed through academics and authentic experiences. The role of theWaldorf teacher is to guide and empower the individual and instill a love71 Freda Easton, “Educating the Whole Child, Head Heart and Hands,” Theory intoPractice 36, (Spring).72 The Waldorf Method and schools are the result direct of a lecture series that RudolfSteiner gave to the workers of Stuttgart, Germany’s Waldorf-Astoria cigarette factory.Emil Mott, the factory owner asked Steiner to found and develop a school for theworker’s children. In 1919, Bund der Freie Waldorfschule was opened complying withfour conditions set by Steiner; the school was free, co-educational, provided twelve yearsof schooling, and was managed by teachers the school without outside interference.73 Robert Mays, and Sune Nordwall, “Who is Rudolph Steiner?” and “What isAnthroposophy?” Waldorf Answers.http://www.waldorfanswers.com/Anthroposophy.htm.55

of learning. A stated goal of the Waldorf School is “…to develop freehuman beings who are able, in themselves, to impart purpose and directionto their lives.” 74The Waldorf Method is unique in several aspects. The first is thatchildren remain with the same teacher for nine years. It is felt that havinga long-term educational relationship between child and educator allowsthe educator to acquire a deeper understanding of the child, thus enablingcustomization of instruction better serving the student’s needs. Secondly,in the primary years, learning is non-competitive and no grades are given.Instead, teachers write detailed accounts of each child’s learning in anannual report. 75 Moreover, Waldorf schools have no administrativeprinciple; the teaching staff attends to administrative, and educationmatters during weekly conferences. 76Oral presentations such as storytelling and imaginative play areutilized at the elementary level. Reading is delayed until the second orthird year of school when Steiner believed that children weredevelopmentally ready. The teacher nurtures the child’s innate sense ofwonder and encourages creativity though music and art. There are notextbooks used in the primary grades; instead, children create their own74 “What is Waldorf Education?” http://www.fortnet.org/rsws/waldorf/faq.html.75 Heiner Ullrich, “Rudolph Steiner, ”UNESCO Prospects: The Quarterly Review ofComparative Education 24, no. 3 and 4 (1994), 561.76 Ibid.56

ooks by drawing and writing about their experiences and describing whatthey learned. Subject specialists educate the high school children muchlike in traditional schools. However, subjects are taught in large blocks oftime to allow for deeper exploration and focused concentration.The arts are integral to a Waldorf Education at all levels. In theprimary grades, all subjects are introduced through the arts. Imaginationand creativity are fostered through music and practical and fine arts. Allstudents play the recorder and knit. Additionally students practiceeurhythmy or visible speech, an art form where movements follow thepatterns of speech, sounds, and musical tones. 77 The use television andcomputers as educational tools or for entertainment for young children isdiscouraged because educators feel that they hinder imagination andcreativity.Another educator whose ideas are influential in the homeschoolmovement is nineteenth century Italian physician Dr. Maria Montessori.Montessori challenged society by questioning the ideologies ofeducational methods and the treatment of the developmentally disabled.She detailed her educational theory and practice in twenty-five books andlectured extensively during her lifetime. Montessori, much like Charlotte77 “What is Waldorf Education?” http://www.fortnet.org/rsws/waldorf/faq.html.57

Mason, was influenced by the writings of Pestalozzi and Rousseau. 78Maria Montessori is credited with the conception and development of theopen structured classroom, individualized instruction, and manipulativelearning materials. 79Stemming from her work with the developmentally disabled,Montessori expanded her interest to the development of intelligence andsought to facilitate all children achieving their full potential. She felt thatlearning is a natural, self-directed process and that educators can fosterthis development by creating stimulating learning environments. In herapproach, the teacher’s role is to observe and support the child’sexploration in an enriched prepared environment. Montessori stated, “Aperson is what he is, not because of the teachers he has had, but as a resultof that which he has done himself.” 80 The ideal Montessori environmentconsists of multi-age groupings of children and contains age appropriatematerials that entice exploration. Multi-sensate, multi-modal objects andchild-scaled furnishings for the child to freely explore and make personaldiscoveries are essential components in the environment. Montessori78 Mark K. Smith, “Maria Montessori” The Encyclopedia of Informal Education,http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-mont.htm.79 Daniel Schugurensky, “Maria Montessori Opens the First Casa Bambini,” History ofEducation.http://fcis.oise.utoronto.ca/~daniel_schugurensky/assignment1/1907montessori.html.80 Hermann Rohrs, “Maria Montessori,” Prospects: The Quarterly Review ofComparative Education 24. no.1 and 2 (1994), 175.58

elieved that children learn best by doing, manipulating, touching, andexploring their surroundings. A major tenet of Montessori’s philosophy is“first educate the senses and then educate the intellect.” 81Full engagement—where the children are left undisturbed andpermitted to concentrate on their individual work—is a primary goal ofMontessori’s methodology. She posits the notion that this would result inthe development of self-discipline and allows them to function andachieve harmony within their environment. Montessori called this processnormalization. By attending to the individual and allowing freedom toexplore areas of interest in a multi-sensate manner, the Montessoriapproach seeks to instill the joy of learning in children and establishingintrinsically motivated, independent life-long learning.A pedagogy that is based on absolute freedom and exploration isthat of Alexander Sutherland (A. S.) Neill. In stark contrast to theorchestrated environments that follow the methodology put forth by MariaMontessori, Neill advocated total freedom of choice such as unrestricted,spontaneous play. While both of their approaches contended that play isessential for learning, Neill felt that Montessori was overly scientific and81 Larry K. Brendtro, “Maria Montessori: “Teacher of Unteachable Children,” ReclaimingChildren and Youth 7, no. 4 (Winter 1999), 201-206.59

moralistic in her approach. 82 A.S. Neill founded the experimental boardingschool Summerhill in England in 1923. Summerhill School wasestablished as an educational community based on freedom, selfgovernment,and democracy. Neill’s philosophy of education challengedthe dogmas of education and child rearing and continues to becontroversial in the education community today. 83 The ethos of theSummerhill philosophy are; self-government and prioritization of theemotional well being and happiness of the child over academicachievement and development. Neill held that learning could not takeplace with coercion or fear. He strongly advocated that children should beallowed to discover and pursue their own interests in their own time. 84 Hebelieved that when children were intrinsically motivated the desire forintellectual learning would come naturally. There are no compulsorylessons at Summerhill; it is absolute free-choice learning, as learnersdecide on what, when, and even if to study. He held that imaginative andcreative play not only allows children to freely express themselves, butalso promotes independent discoveries and learning. According to Neill:82 Jean-Francois Saffange, “Alexander Sutherland Neill,” UNESCO Prospects: TheQuarterly Review of Comparative Education, 24, no. 1 and 2 (1994), 217.83 Ibid.84 Summerhill School Web site http://www.summerhillschool.co.uk/pages/index.html.60

The function of the child is to live his own life – notthe life that his anxious parents think he should live, nor alife according to the purpose of the educator who thinks heknows what is best. All this interference and guidance onthe part of adults only produces a generation of robots. 85At Summerhill the children and staff make democratic decisionsabout the institution, and their day-to-day lives. All parties have an equalvote and mutual respect. At weekly tribunals, problems and ideas arereviewed and resolved in a democratic manner. Through empowermentNeill believed that self-respect, compassion and responsibility to otherswould flourish. It is believed by some that the continued success ofSummerhill is a repudiation of William Golding’s portrayal of children inhis book Lord of the Flies, where when given absolute freedom, childrenresorted to savagery and anarchy. Conversely, to those who seeSummerhill as a failure, it merely confirms and validates the premiseGolding’s book. Summerhill strives to cultivate and maintain a democraticharmonious community that fosters respect and self-confidence throughpersonal freedom.Two American contemporary educators whose critiques ofcompulsory education are adhered to by homeschoolers are John Holt andJohn Taylor Gatto. Both men rejected formally structured institutional85 Masaaki Kameda, “Educator Hopes to Revive Sister School in Scotland,” TheJapanese Times Online, June 10, 2004. Available at http://www.japantimes.co.jp/cgibin/getarticle.pl5?nn20040610f1.htm.Quoted from A.S. Neill’s Summerhill School: ANew View of Childhood, St. Martin’s Press (1995).61

education, and education through coercion. Holt and Gatto view theeducational institution as a system that controls children through fear,belittlement, and mind numbing boredom. They contend that children areconfined both physically and mentally in the repressive environment ofmandatory schooling. Gatto maintains the results of compulsory educationare that children become docile, lacking in curiosity and selfdetermination,and lose the ability to think independently. Gatto believesthat real engagement and meaningful experiences are impossible in thehighly structured conditions that exist in schools. 86 Both Gatto and Holt’sphilosophies stress learning through authentic experiences, interactionswith subject experts, and the utilization of community resources. Whilethe writings and ideology of John Taylor Gatto are more political innature, the freedom of educational choices resonates with both Gatto andHolt.A pivotal figure in the modern homeschool movement, the lateJohn Holt was an educator, author, and advocate for school reform. In histen books, Holt wrote extensively about learning and the failures of theeducational system. He founded the periodical Growing Without School tofurther disseminate his views on education.86 John Taylor Gatto, Dumbing Us Down: The Hidden Curriculum of CompulsorySchooling, 2ed. (Canada: New Society Publishers, 2002).62

Holt began by advocating reform of the American educationalsystem, seeking to create better methods to foster true learning. Schoolreform was topical in the 1960s and 1970s with free and alternativeschools offering nontraditional schooling within the domain of traditionalschools. Critiques of institutional education, such as in political and socialactivist Ivan Illich’s Deschooling Society (1971), fuelled discussion aboutlearning outside of a highly structured environment. Illich was adamantthat institutions such as schools were dehumanizing, and that “learnersshould not be forced to submit to obligatory curriculum.” 87 The notions oflearning in an informal environment, creating learning communities orwebs were concepts that Illich contended were viable alternatives tocompulsory education. 88 Illich’s assertions and ideology resonated withHolt. However, Holt believed that educational institutions, which could bereformed, did not need to be disestablished as Illich maintained. 89Lecturing around the country and helping establish alternativeschools, Holt grew increasingly disillusioned with the inadequate progressin school reform. Ultimately he concluded that these nontraditionaloptions were still within the flawed structure of the educational system87 Ivan Illich clearly outlines his beliefs on institutional compulsory education in hisarticle, “A Special Supplement: Education Without School: How It Can Be Done,” TheNew York Times Review of Books 15, no. 12, 7 January 1971.88 Ibid.89 John Holt and Patrick Farenga, Teach Your Own The John Holt Book ofHomeschooling, (Cambridge: Persus Publishing, 2003), 60.63

and therefore were not viable solutions for creating ideal learningenvironments. By pitting children against each other in a highlycompetitive environment caused undue stress and unhappiness, schoolswere failing to educate. 90 He further argued that because schools isolatechildren from greater society and hampered children from learning in acontextual manner. Holt contended that schools could never facilitatelearning. Conformity was the desired norm. Holt considered the systemirreparable and proposed that children be removed from school and beallowed to learn in a non-institutional setting.Simply re-creating the structured school environment andemploying traditional school methods at home was not a sufficient way tofacilitate learning according to Holt. He concluded that when presentedwith a stimulating environment rich in resources—such as museums,natural settings, libraries, and community involvement—and allowedfreedom to explore, children would learn naturally. He contended that itwas essential to foster an atmosphere conducive to fantasy andimaginative play which would afford children the opportunity to create,try, feel and explore without risk. Crucial components to this environmentare allowing privacy, the right to choose companions of any age, and thefreedom to do so without control or judgment. He furthered that adults90 Patrick Farenga, “John Holt and the Origins of Contemporary Homeschooling,” Pathsof Learning 1, no. 1 (Spring 1999).64

should trust that children are inherently good and loving, and have thenatural ability and desire to learn. Holt like educator and philosopher JohnDewey, whose ideas will be discussed shortly, contended that childrenlearn by doing. This type of learning has many labels: experienced–based,independent, self-directed, discovery, or child-led or child-directed. Holt’sneologism for this type of learning was Unschooling. 91 His work continuesthrough John Holt Associates though publishing, lectures, and providinginformation about homeschooling.In agreement with Holt’s views, John Taylor Gatto is critical ofand opposed to compulsory education. Gatto is a noteworthy educator,writer, and lecturer on homeschooling. Gatto was recognized as New YorkCity “Teacher of the Year” in 1989, 1990, and 1991. The New York StateEducation Department awarded him ‘Teacher of the Year” in 1991. Gattoresigned that year by publishing an essay entitled “I Quit I Think” in theWall Street Journal, stating that he was no longer willing to “hurtchildren.” 92 Disseminated widely through his books, essays, and lecturesthat convey analysis of compulsory schooling Gatto offers an alternative91 Holt and Farenga, Teach Your Own The John Holt Book of Homeschooling, 1-166.92 Reprinted in John Taylor Gatto, The Underground History of American Education,(New York: Oxford Village Press, 2000), xxv.65

vision to foster learning. John Taylor Gatto is one of the most outspokencontemporary critics of compulsory education and advocates forhomeschooling.Gatto views teaching as a subtractive process—the removal ofobstacles that interfere with a child’s ability and opportunity to freelyexplore. This allows them to discover their inner genius and learn in ameaningful way. He does not feel that education is an additive processwhere information is thrust at children. In order for children to learneffectively, they must become their own teachers. Gatto maintains this canonly be accomplished though privacy, freedom of choice and freedomfrom surveillance.Gatto advocates education based on self-knowledge, self-directedstudy, apprenticeships, and community involvement. He asserts thatchildren should not be isolated in classrooms but should interact withcommunity members. Children need freedom and privacy to explore andbecome self-reliant critical thinkers. He believes that learning can takeplace only through personal observations and first hand direct experiences.66

Museum Educational PhilosophiesAs sites of education, museums strive to provide more meaningfuland engaging experiences for the visitor and to create effective programsto support learning about their collections and exhibits. Museumeducational methods have been influenced by a variety of influentialeducators, philosophers, physiologists, and educational researchers. Thephilosophies, theories, and research of a number of individuals—JohnDewey George E. Hein, Lev Semyonovich (L. S.) Vygotsky, MihalyiCsikszentmihalyi, John H. Falk, and Lynn D. Dierking—have formed thefoundation of current museum educational practices.John Dewey was an eminent philosopher, psychologist, andeducational reformer whose ideas have substantially influenced educationon a global level. He wrote 40 books, over 700 articles, and lecturedextensively throughout his lifetime. 93 Dewey is considered both aNaturalist and a Pragmatist in his beliefs. Naturalists maintain that allevents and actions can be explained through natural causes, and not bysupernatural authority. Pragmatists theorize that truth, meaning, and ideashave observable practical outcomes. 9493 William H. Honan, “Looking Back at Forward Thinkers,” New York Times, New York,2 November 1997, Section A: 24.94 Garth Kimberling, “Dictionary of Philosophical Terms and Names,” Philosophy Pages,http://www.philosophypages.com/index.htm.67

Dewey was a principle educational reformer during the ProgressiveMovement, which took place between 1880 and the 1930s. TheProgressive Movement countered the philosophy of Taylorists whosubscribed to Fredrick Taylor’s Social Efficiency theories maintaining thatsociety would only be improved through time efficient standardization.According to educational writer Robert L. Levin a key tenet of theProgressive Movement was that “collective action—whether bygovernment or individual or private initiative—could and should improvelife for the masses of people.” 95Dewey asserted that for people to contribute to the betterment ofsociety they must contribute as self-realized individuals. He contendedthat the role of education was to help children become such individuals,capable of contributing to the community with their own strength ofcharacter and goodness. Moreover, Dewey believed formal educationisolated children from real life experiences and did not foster their innatedesire to learn. He contended that children learned experientially; that reallearning or knowledge was acquired by direct experience, and creativeresponses through problem solving. 96 Dewey’s empirical belief was that95 Robert A. Levin, “The Debate Over Schooling: Influences of Dewey and Thorndike,”Childhood Education 68, no. 2 (Winter 1991), 72.96 Robert B. Westbrook, ”John Dewey,” Prospects: The Quarterly Review ofComparative Education 23, no. 1, and 2. (1993), 301.68

“all genuine education comes about through experience.” 97 At the core ofhis beliefs was that, in order to foster learning, education must incorporatelife experiences and not function as an isolating institution. He feltlearning was a communal activity influenced not only by the experience orenvironment but also by the social setting where the experience orinteraction took place. Dewey clarified his position concerning thisintegral relationship thus:Society exists through a process of transmission quite asmuch as biological life. This transmission occurs by meansof communication of habits of doing, thinking, and feelingfrom the older to the younger. Without this communicationof ideals, hopes, expectations, standards, opinions, fromthose members of society who are passing out of the grouplife to those who are coming into it, social life could notsurvive. 98Dewey asserted that the task of the teacher was not merely to thrustknowledge at the students but to guide them in their learning. Moreover,teachers must recognize that children bring with them knowledge, thedesire to communicate and express their ideas, to inquire, and to construct97 John Dewey, Experience in Education, (New York, The McMillan Company, 1938),13.98 John Dewey, Democracy and Education, New York, The McMillan Company (1916).http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/publications/Projects/digitexts/dewey/d_e/chapter01.html69

meaning. 99 He did not believe that schools addressed the interests of thechild. Rather, he asserted that schools were not designed to transformsociety but to maintain or reproduce society as it exists. 100Dewey suggested that the ideal schools be designed as a two-storystructures that would house two core components on each floor—a libraryand a museum—surrounded by real-life activity centers. The library andmuseum provide the foundation or structure for learning while the activitycenters provide the learner with the means to participate in or actively dowhat is being learned. A shop, a textile industry, a dining room, and akitchen would surround the first floor library. Physical, chemical, andbiological laboratories and facilities to make art and music would surroundthe second floor museum. Dewey felt that providing children with such alearning environment would address the isolation inherent in schools. Heilluminated his design concept thusly:…I have attempted to indicate how the school may beconnected with life so that the experience gained by thechild in a familiar, commonplace way is carried over andmade use of there, and what the child learns in school iscarried back and applied in everyday life, making theschool an organic whole, instead of a composite of isolatedparts. The isolation of studies …disappears. Experience has99 Robert B. Westbrook, ”John Dewey,” Prospects: The Quarterly Review ofComparative Education 23, no. 1, and 2. (1993), 300.100 Ibid. 303.70

its geographical aspect, its artistic and its literary, itsscientific and historic sides. All studies arise from aspectsof one earth and one life lived upon it. 101John Dewey considered museums and libraries as requisitecomponents to an ideal educational setting. He believed that theseinstitutions are valuable in that they afford children enrichment tofacilitate experiential leaning. He cautioned that while these communityresources are invaluable, they are not life experiences and so must beaugmented with rich authentic life experiences. Many educational theoriesand practices subscribed to by museums stem from Dewey’s concepts andideology; one such theory is Constructivism. George E. Hein, professoremeritus at Lesley College in Cambridge, Massachusetts writes andlectures extensively about learning theories within the context of museumsand is an advocate of Constructivist learning. 102Constructivism draws upon theories of both John Dewey anddevelopmental psychologist Jean Piaget. Piaget held that childrenlearn by experience, building on knowledge from previous cognitivedevelopmental stages. 103 He contended that children’s knowledge isnot merely transmitted, but acquisition is through schema,101 John Dewey, The School and Society, Chicago: University Press (1900), 91 in GeorgeHein, “John Dewey and Museum Education,” Curator 38 (October 2004), 418-419, 423.102 George Hein, Learning in the Museum (London: Rutledge, 1998), 14-40.103 Asgar Iran-Nejad, “Constructivism as a Substitute for Memorization in Learning:Meaning Created by the Learner,” Education 116, no. 1 (Fall 1995), 225.71

assimilation, and accommodation. 104 Schema is the child’s preexistingknowledge upon which new knowledge is assimilated orsynthesized. Accommodation occurs when the new knowledge is notsynthesized but the schema must be reconstructed for knowledgeacquisition. Constructivism is also rooted in Dewey’s concepts thatrecognize the importance of the knowledge with which a child entersinto an educational setting or their prior knowledge. Deweycontended that it is crucial to be aware of what a learner knows inorder to furnish the learner with experiences which will furtherlearning. 105 Learners construct either independently or through socialinteraction, new knowledge for themselves. The new knowledge isbased on the individual’s past experiences and beliefs that allow themto make personal connections or meanings. Personal meaning derivedthrough direct experiences, or meaning making, is paramount tolearning. Hein espouses, “Constructing meaning is learning; there isno other kind.” 106Constructivism posits an active process of learning; theindividual’s understanding is self-realized and motivated through direct104 Alberto Munari, “Jean Piaget”, UNESCO Prospects: A Quarterly Review ofComparative Education, 24, no. 1 and 2 (1994), 311-327.105 Peggy Ruth Cole, ”Constructivism – Rediscovering the Discovered,” Curator 38(October 1995), 225.106 George Hein, “The Museum and the Needs of the People,” presented at theInternational Committee of Museum Educators, Jerusalem Israel, (October 1991).72

experience. Learning is not instantaneous, but is incremental in acquisitionand requires reflection on the experience in order to place it into personalcontext. The learner constructs meaning through memory that creates acontext for the newly acquired information. 107 This process is organic andfosters deeper personal understanding. Hein asserts:Constructivism carries meaning making further, it viewspersonal meaning making not only as necessary but also asdesirable; not only something that needs to be tolerated,but a human attribute that can be exploited to enhancelearning. 108A primary concept of constructivist education is that the learnercannot become intellectually independent, or develop personalunderstanding or critical insight through authoritarian relationships. 109Constructivism is antithetical to traditional linear educational methodswhere the learner is expected to absorb information that is thrust at them.Learning is an active social experience—a natural occurrence inlife. The interrelationship between people sharing an experience allows forfuture connections and discoveries to take place. Knowledge isaccumulated not only through individual and personal interpretations of107 Lois Silverman, “Visitor Meaning–Making,” Curator 38, no. 3 (1995), 161.108 George Hein” Is Meaning Making Constructivism? Is Constructivism MeaningMaking?” The Exhibitionist 18, no. 2 (Fall 1999), 18.109 Rheta DeVries, “What Does Research on Constructivist Education Tell Us aboutEffective Schooling?” The Iowa Academy of Education Occasional Research Paper, no.5(June, 2002), 4.73

experiences, but also through interactions with others. 110 Meaning-makingis a process developed from personal perspectives, contingent on themoment of the experience, and the social interaction with others. 111Constructivism aligns with many homeschool philosophies andmethodologies in that it is not linear, formal learning. Constructivism isinformal experiential learning that fosters dialog between child and parent.Museums provide an ideal constructivist environment for homeschoolersas they can freely explore, examine, and share the experience in their owntime frame. 112 Homeschoolers thrive in social, problem-centered,collaborative learning situations Lev Semyonovich (L. S.) Vygotsky’sSocial Development Theory, closely related to Constructivism, furthersthe concept of collaborative learning.Vygotsky was a nineteenth century Russian lawyer andpsychologist whose work primarily dealt with cognitive development,language and thinking. Vygotsky proposed that all cognitive development,and patterns of thinking are profoundly influenced by social interaction.Fundamental to his beliefs is that cultural development and learning occurfirst through social interaction between people, followed by individual or110 Eilean Hopper-Greenhill, “The Museum as Teacher: The Challenge of PedagogicalChange,” Online Papers, University of Leicester (2001), 3.111 Ibid. 6.112 Kodi R. Jeffrey–Clay, “Constructivism in Museums: How Museums CreateMeaningful Learning Environments,” Journal of Museum Education 23, no. 2 (1997), 7.74

personal growth and development. In Vygotsky’s model, individuals areinherently social beings, and through relationships with others, theydevelop intrapersonal self-direction and conceptual reasoning. Central tohis philosophy, learning within a community or social setting is essentialin the process of making meaning. He asserted that the use of language ininquiry allows the child to attain, and gradually accomplish mastery ofconceptual thinking. 113 Vygotsky contended there was a specificoccurrence in which cognition develops through interpersonalrelationships; he referred to it as the Zone of Proximal Development(ZPD).The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the area between theindividual’s developmental level and their potential for growth throughinteraction and discourse with adults, multiage groupings, or peers. ZPD isa transformative experience that guides the child through inquiry to striveto reach beyond his or her own understanding. Collaboration andcooperation within the ZPD creates both learning and reciprocal teaching,as peers help each other achieve understanding. Depending on the level ofcompetency or development, individuals either guide or are guidedthrough the ZPD. This process is complete when the learner has mastered113 Michael Glassman, “Dewey and Vygotsky: Society, Experience, and Inquiry inEducational Practice,” Educational Researcher 30, no. 4 (2001), 10.75

the new knowledge and in turn can guide others. The procedure of guidingindividuals through this process is called scaffolding.Scaffolding is a term coined by psychologist Jerome Bruner thatrefers to the type of assistance that is given in order for the learner toachieve a higher level of understanding leading to mastery. 114 The role ofthe guide is not to teach or provide answers, but to facilitate the attainmentof knowledge by the learner. The degree of guidance is gradually lessenedas the child learns, and becomes more independent and self-directed intheir learning. An overarching principle for all homeschoolers is not onlyfacilitating their children to become independent self-directed criticalthinkers, but to also to possess life-long intrinsic motivationTwo issues that resonate with homeschoolers the joy of learning,and intrinsic motivation in learning, are explored in depth in the work ofMihalyi Csikszentmihalyi. Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi’s research focuseson the investigation of human motivation, learning, and creativity.Csikszentmihalyi’s interest in the creative process drove him to study theemotions that people experience as they engage in activities. Hisinvestigations led him to conclude that for optimal fulfillment and114 D. Wood, J. Bruner, and S. Ross, “The Role of Tutoring in Problem Solving”, BritishJournal of Psychology volume 66(London, 1976), 181–91, in Elena Bodrova andDeborah J. Long “Tools of the Mind: A Case Study of Implementing the VygotskianApproach in American Early Childhood and Primary Classrooms,” InnodataMonographs no. 7 (2000), 11.76

complete engagement several factors must be present: intrinsic motivation,quality of the experience, and intense involvement or having a flowexperience were essential. 115Csikszentmihalyi believes that the motivation for the acquisition ofknowledge is either extrinsic or intrinsic. 116 Extrinsic motivators are thenorm in schools where incentives and rewards are given for performance.This type of learning is coercive and is not spontaneous or voluntary bynature. Intrinsically motivated learning occurs in a self-selected, freechoiceenvironment where participation in and the results of the activityare the reward. Csikszentmihalyi contends that when the rewards oflearning are intrinsic, individuals are “on their way to a lifetime of selfpropelledacquisition of knowledge.” 117Csikszentmihalyi refers to the state of consciousness where anindividual becomes totally engaged in an experience as flow. A flowexperience is a state of mind that is spontaneous, almost automatic, likethe flow of a strong current. 118 He describes the flow state as:115 Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi and Kim Hermanson, “Intrinsic Motivations in Museums:Why Does One Want to Learn?” in John Falk and Lynn Dierking, Public Institutions forPersonal Learning, (Washington D.C.: American Association of Museums (1995), 67-77.116 Ibid. 67-68.117 Mihalyi Csikzsentmihalyi, “Thoughts about Education,” New Horizons For Learning(2000). http://www.newhorizons.org/future/Creating_the_Future/crfut_csikszent.html.118 John H. Falk and Lynn D. Dierking, Lessons Without Limit How Free-choiceLearning is Transforming Education, Walnut Creek, California: AltaMira Press (2002),17.77

Being completely involved in an activity for its own sake.The ego falls away. Time flies. Every action, movement,and thought follows inevitably from the previous one, likeplaying jazz. Your whole being is involved, and you'reusing your skills to the utmost. 119Csikszentmihalyi has observed that in order to achieve this state ofengagement the task or activity must be balanced with the individual’sability. Once satisfaction is achieved, the learner will strive for higherlevels of complexity in the activity. Flow is a multidimensional experiencethat can involve all of the senses. It is essential that the relevance of thetask be apparent to the individual so that construction of personal meaningcan occur. The goals and objectives or outcomes must be clearlyunderstood by the learner. Unambiguous and immediate feedback orassessment is an essential element in reaching and maintaining a flowstate. Csikszentmihalyi contends that any task or activity can produce flowand produce optimal fulfillment. 120Csikszentmihalyi believes that fostering the love of learning can beaccomplished through creating an environment that is supportive andchallenging. Crucial components to encourage self-direction andfulfillment in learning are placing focus on the child’s strengths, innate119 John Geirland, “Go With the Flow,” Wired Online Magazine (September 1996).http://hotwired.wired.com/collections/web_development/4.09_csik_pr.html.120 Jaime Chamberlin, “Reaching “Flow” to Optimize Work and Play,” AmericanPsychological Association Monitor Online 29, no. 7 (July 1998)http://www.apa.org/monitor/jul98/joy.html.78

curiosity, and interests. Contributing factors in creating a positive learningenvironment are setting high expectations and standards, and supportingchildren in their independent explorations through new experiences. Hefeels taking these steps will create “a vibrant, lively community insteadof people who have been stuffed with information that they don'tcare about.” 121Environments for fostering learning such as described byCsikszentmihalyi, have been studied by John H. Falk and Lynn D.Dierking. As directors of the Institute for Learning Innovation, inAnnapolis, Maryland Falk and Dierking have researched, evaluated andwritten extensively about informal learning. As strong proponents of freechoicelearning, their research and theories have contributed significantlyto museum education practices. 122 Free-choice learning is intrinsicallymotivated and self-directed. Guided by the individual’s interests, thesubject matter, methods, and location are determined by the learner. 123Free-choice learning is voluntary, antithetical to formal institutionaleducation. John Falk contends, “It has long been recognized, but rarelypublicly acknowledged, that most people learn much if not most of what121 Marge Sherer,” Do Students Care About Learning?” Educational Leadership 60, no.1(2002), 14.122 Melinda Mayer, “Bridging the Theory-Practice Divide in Contemporary Art MuseumEducation,” Art Education (March 2005).123 John H. Falk and Lynn D. Dierking, Lessons Without Limit How Free-choiceLearning is Transforming Education, (Walnut Creek, California: AltaMira Press 2002, 9.79

they know outside of the formal education system.” 124 Informal education,or free-choice learning fosters the continuous life-long process ofdiscovery that is driven by the individual’s innate curiosity. Free-choicelearning is an effective means to place self in context to nature, culture,and society. 125In their analysis of informal learning, Falk and Dierking haveconcluded that free-choice learning is “ …a never-ending integration andinteraction of personal, sociocultural, and physical contexts.” 126 In theirContextual Model of Learning, they identified key components that arecentral to each of these categories. 127 These categories and componentsstrongly reflect the philosophy of homeschool education, and accuratelydescribe what is needed to furnish an ideal learning experience forhomeschoolers.Personal context is directly affected by motivation, interest, priorknowledge, and choice. People are motivated to learn when they are in asupportive environment. Individuals enter a learning situation withexpectations for what their experience will provide, if these are not met,124 John H. Falk, “Museums as Institutions for Personal Learning,” Daedlus (Summer,1999).125 Falk and Dierking, Lessons, 14.126 Ibid.127 Falk and Dierking extensively address free-choice learning and detail “ContextualModel of Learning” in, Lessons Without Limit How Free-choice Learning isTransforming Education (Walnut Creek, California: AltaMira Press 2002.)80

learning is greatly hampered. Key to both what Csikszentmihalyi terms as“flow” and “personal context” are interests, choices, and control over theirlearning experience. Prior knowledge, beliefs, and experiences influencethe individual’s placement of new knowledge in context allowing forpersonal meaning making. These factors are central to homeschoolphilosophy and are essential to provide all visitors with an optimallearning experience in museums.Sociocultural context is another component that is inherent in afree-choice learning experience. While learning is individual, it is notachieved in isolation. People are highly social and their interactions andshared experiences contribute to the learning process. Cultural influencesas well as the attitudes and utilization of community resources, such asmuseums and libraries, provide learning opportunities. Collaborativelearning, or facilitated learning similar to Vygotsky’s Zone of ProximalDevelopment, are elements that can be incorporated to support informallearning. Homeschooling is a highly social interaction. Discourses areencouraged and learning environments tend to involve peer groups ofvarious ages, as well as adults and educators who guide the students.Homeschool learners do not limit themselves to fixed age social groupingsthat are common in a formal school setting. By their nature,homeschoolers tend to thrive in collaborative multi-modal, multi-81

generational social situations. Homeschool educators actively seeklearning situations within in the community at large and capitalize on richcommunity resources such as museums to enhance learning opportunitieswith authentic experiences. Authentic first hand experiences are essentialin homeschool education. These elements and opportunities are preciselywhat museums offer visitors.The final component of the Contextual Learning Theory, physicalcontext, involves feeing comfortable in the atmosphere or environmentwhere learning is taking place. Advanced organizers that provide a generaloverview allow individuals to feel secure in knowing what theexpectations or parameters of the situation involve. Informal learning hasno physical or temporal boundaries.Falk and Dierking contend that it is paramount for America tobecome a Learning Society. The concept that education can only takeplace in a formal institutional setting must be readdressed. Free-choice andinformal learning are central to achieving this goal of becoming aLearning Society. They assert that the emphasis of education should be onthe individual and that the institution should not be the focus. Attending tothe individual, and creating intrinsically motivated education should be thefocus of learning in society. At the core of all homeschooling philosophiesis a commitment to informal learning. Learning that is self-directed,82

intrinsically motivated, and allows the learner to make concrete personalconnections are key components in homeschool education. Falk andDierking’s ideal, a Learning Society, is precisely what homeschoolingstrives to provide the learner.Museums can and should be an ideal free-choice informal learningenvironment for the homeschool community. Current museum educationalpractices align closely with methodologies practiced by homeschoolers.L.S. Vygotsky’s work involving the Zone of Proximal Development isvery much in keeping with the spirit of homeschool education in regard tocreating an ideal learning environment for their children. Constructivismaligns with the learning modes and ideas that are preferred by the majorityof homeschoolers. Respect for prior knowledge, and creating a forum forscaffolding are two key elements in fostering an enriched relationship withthis community. Examining the writing of Falk and Dierking on informallearning provide a deeper understanding of the type of learning thathomeschool parents actively seek for their children. Clearly,homeschoolers reinforce current practices in museum education. Museumstoo can benefit from forging a meaningful relationship with the growinghomeschool community—to bridge the gap that exists between museumsand the homeschoolers.83

To successfully bridge this gap, the current relationship betweenmuseums and the homeschool community must be closely examined.Museums can and should be an ideal free-choice informal learningenvironment for the homeschool community. Homeschoolers are frequentand avid museum goers yet they are underserved by museum programs.How can museums, which are informal learning environments parexcellence, fulfill the needs of these informal learners? What are theunique challenges that museum educators face in serving this community?What do homeschoolers want from their museum programs andexperiences? Through the development of a greater understanding of thisidiosyncratic community, and answering these questions, this projectproposes ways that museums can better serve and provide an optimalexperience for homeschoolers through more informed educationalprogramming.84

FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONSHow can museums be a more effective educational resources forthe homeschool community? How can museum educators optimize thehomeschool experience of museum programs? This project seeks to helpsharpen museum educators’ perceptions of the homeschool community,develop a greater understanding of their program needs, and explore therelationship between the homeschool community and museums.My findings are presented in seven subsections. The firstsubsection establishes and addresses the existing relationship between themuseum and community. The second subsection furnishes findings fromsurveys and interviews on existing programs, spotlights programsdesigned to serve the homeschool community, and reveals the awarenessof both museum and homeschool educators of these programs. Within thethird subsection an exemplary program at the Monterey Bay Aquarium inMonterey, California, and other programs designed specifically forhomeschoolers are examined. The following subsection goes on to layoutthe challenges museum educators face in serving homeschoolers. The nextsubsection reports the findings regarding the information and resourcesthat museum educators feel would help them to better serve thiscommunity. This subsection additionally explores what homeschooleducators feel museum educators should understand about homeschooling.85

The fifth subsection addresses the use of the Internet and homeschoolconventions as outreach methods for the homeschool community. Finally,the last section assesses this project’s core findings.What do Museums and the Homeschool Community Have in Common?In reviewing literature on the topic of informal learning, andcurrent museum educational theories and practices, I found strongparallels that align closely with methodologies practiced byhomeschoolers. Informal learning, analyzed and advocated by John H.Falk and Lynn Dierking, aligns closely with philosophies andmethodologies practiced by homeschoolers. In their books, Learning fromMuseums Visitor Experiences and the Making of Meaning and LessonsWithout Limit How Free-Choice Learning is Transforming Education,Falk and Dierking examine and advocate the type of learningenvironments that homeschool parents seek for their children. Theirwritings reinforced my hypothesis that museums can be ideal learningenvironments for homeschoolers.One would imagine that given the growth of the homeschoolmovement, there would be an abundance of literature on all informallearners—including the homeschooled child—my research did not provethat true. While literature abounds on both the topics of homeschooling86

and current museum education practices in museums, there is a dearth ofliterature on the joint topic of the relationship between homeschoolers andmuseums. After extensive research, I was able to locate one articleaddressing the challenges faced by docents in serving homeschooledchildren, and one past American Association of Museums (AAM)conference session concerning homeschoolers and museums. SusanMiner, education director at Wichita-Segwick County Historical Museumin Wichita, Kansas authored an article published in the Winter 2002-2003issue of The Docent Educator, entitled “The Challenge of Touring HomeSchool Groups.” Miner briefly summarizes homeschool needs andpresents guidelines and approaches that grew out of the challenges inserving the homeschool community that were established at her museum.The 2003 annual AAM held a meeting in Portland, Oregon had onesession that pertained to the topic of my research. Entitled “Museums andHomeschoolers: Bridging the Gap”, the panel included museum educators,Karen Tingley; Susan Bass Marcus; Tracey Beck, a homeschool advocate;and Dr. Brian Ray, president of the National Home Education ResearchInstitute. The museum educators discussed the challenges faced inoutreach, addressing the homeschool community and shared theirinstitutions’ programming designed to meet the needs of homeschoolers.Ray provided the attendees with an overview of homeschooling to help87

museum educators gain a better understanding of the homeschoolcommunity and their educational philosophies. I subsequently interviewedthree of the panelists and reviewed the materials that they presented at thesession.For this project sixteen homeschool educators were interviewedthat provided me with a deeper understanding of this community and theopportunity to learn of their first-hand experiences with museums. 128Homeschool parents recalled a variety of experiences from the exceptionalaudio tours geared to a young audience at the Whitney Museum ofArt inNew York, to the educational kits available from the Boston Museum ofScience, to the multi-modal, multi-sensate experiences at the MontereyBay Aquarium’s homeschool days. Homeschool educator Colleen Boydstated that the experiential, exploratory, hands-on learning that museumsfurnish provide aligns with homeschool education. 129 She furtherexplained that museum experiences that afford children the opportunity toactively participate, and take learning beyond the mind, and into thesenses, emotions, and spirit are ideal. Challenging museum programs andin-depth learning opportunities were universally popular with homeschooleducators.128 For a list of homeschool educators interviewed see Appendix E.129 Colleen Boyd, survey response, February 15, 2005.88

In order to ascertain the homeschool educators’ perspective ontheir use of and relationship with museums, I conducted a survey. 130 Toreach a broad spectrum of the homeschool community, to learn not onlyabout various approaches to education, but also to expand the geographicsampling, requests for survey participants were posted on severalhomeschool listservs. 131 The approach created a ripple effect; responseswere received from homeschoolers in at least six states. Of the 136homeschool educator respondents to the survey, an astonishing 99 percentvisit museums (see appendix H-1). Perhaps this reflects the fact that onlypeople drawn to museums responded to the posted survey. Nevertheless,the number of responses and subsequent interest far exceeded my originalexpectations. The solitary homeschool parent who reported that her familydid not currently visit museums did say that they had done so in the past.She stated that her children span from toddler to teenagers, and did notfeel that museums successfully attended to the needs of both age groups.She added that in the future, when her youngest child is older, her familywould once again visit museums. Questions on the survey instrument weredesigned to ascertain which types of museums they visited, how often andwith whom, and finally if they maintained memberships in museums.130 For Homeschool Educator Survey Instrument see Appendix D.131 For a complete list of the listservs, see Appendices A and B.89

The homeschoolers who responded to my survey visit museumsfrequently; twenty-three percent visit museums at least two times a month,forty-four percent visit museums between six to twelve times a year, and23 percent visit between three and six times a year. The remaining tenpercent visited less than three times a year (see appendix H-2). Eight ofthe less frequent visitors qualified their responses stating that they lived inrural areas, and that museums were not located within their geographicregion. Respondents stated that they visited all varieties of museums. Onehundred-nine visited art museums, 111 visited both history and naturalhistory museums, and 113 visited children’s museums. Science museumswere the most popular, with 125 homeschoolers reporting that they visitedthem. Forty-eight respondents visited other types of institutions such asinterpretive centers, aquariums, and zoos (see appendix H-3). The vastmajority of respondents, 92 percent, visit museums in a group context,either with fellow homeschoolers, family, or friends. Visiting aloneaccounted for only 8 percent of the visits (see appendix H-4).Homeschoolers not only visit museums, but 59 percent of them maintainmemberships in one or more museums (see appendix H-5). Forty-ninepercent of the respondents held memberships in one institution, while 25percent held memberships in two institutions, and 24 percent maintainmemberships in three or four institutions. The remaining individuals held90

memberships in six to eight institutions (see appendix H-6). Clearly,homeschoolers value museums and support them through frequentvisitation and memberships.Through conversations, interviews, and e-mail correspondence withhomeschool parents, great enthusiasm for utilizing museums as aneducational resource was revealed. 132 A number of homeschool educatorsspoke about the importance of examining authentic artifacts and viewingartwork to reinforce and enrich the subjects being studied. One parentspoke about a trip to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington D.C. thatallowed her children to closely examine gems which reinforced andenhanced their study of geology. The opportunity to view authenticspecimens helped the children make concrete connections thereby allowedthem to develop a better understanding of geological formations. 133Homeschool educator Darcy Worth extolled The National Gallery inLondon’s educational guides designed to lead children thematicallythrough their permanent collections. The guides are designed to “lead thechildren on a journey in the museum avoiding the danger of overload, andadding a spark of fun. 134 One homeschool parent who praised museums,shared that after visiting museums, her children continue to talk about132 For a list of the homeschool educators interviewed see Appendix E.133 Amy Rosen, survey response, February 27, 2005.134 Darcy Worth, survey response, February 27, 2005.91

their experience. Museums furnished her children with direct experiencesin a rich environment, and reinforced their learning—providing an “aha”moment of crystallization—in understanding their studies. Further, theyare inspired to research on the Internet and in the library to learn moreabout subjects they were introduced to during their visit. Another parentreplied that each time her children visit a museum they, “bring awaysomething new (even if we’ve been to the same exhibit more thanonce.)” 135 Mary Lough, a homeschool parent, summed up a prevailingviewpoint in the homeschool community, stated, “we just like learning andbeing exposed to new ideas.” 136Many homeschoolers welcomed the opportunity to praise andrecount positive museum experiences. Diane Flynn Keith, homeschooleducator and publisher of HomeFires Journal, asserts that museums andlibraries offer the best knowledge in the world—just there for thetaking. 137 Patrick Farenga, president of John Holt Associates and anunschooling lecturer and educator, recounted a positive experience hisfamily had with the Museum of Science (MOS) in Boston,135 Adriana Nicholson, survey response, February 12, 2005.136 Mary Lough, survey response, February 23, 2005.137 Diane Flynn Keith, San Mateo, California, telephone interview with the author March11. 2005.92

Massachusetts. 138 His wife and daughter formed a girl’s detective clubcomprised of homeschooled and traditionally schooled girls. The girls andtheir mothers visited a special traveling crime solving exhibit at MOScalled, Whodunit? The Science of Solving Crime. Equipped with ascavenger hunt designed by his wife, the girls spent over three hoursexamining the exhibit. During the time they were there, two school groupscame and went. The girls were puzzled by some of the solutions presentedby the museum, and felt that there were errors in the logic and solutions.They sent a letter detailing their findings to MOS. The MOS staffacknowledged their letter and forwarded it to the museum exhibit designerin Texas. The girls were delighted to receive a letter not only confirmingthat they were correct—errors had been made—but the exhibit designersagreed with their findings. Additionally, the designers sent themfingerprint and hair analysis kits to encourage their future detectiveendeavors. Clearly, these homeschoolers and museum professionalsbridged the gap between them and further established a mutuallybeneficial relationship. These childhood experiences resonate can sostrongly that they can influence learning and museum going throughout alifetime.138 Pat Farenga, Medford, Massachusetts, telephone interview with the author May 2,2005.93

Falk and Dierking assert the importance of childhood experiencesin museums to establishing frequent visitations throughout adulthood.Homeschool parent Anne Donjacour relayed a museum memory from herchildhood. She vividly remembers watching a documentary on buildingdioramas for a museum of natural history. She elaborated on her delight inlearning the behind-the-scenes information about museums. Donjacour feltthat this one childhood experience helped established not only her love ofmuseums, but also the utilization of museums as a rich resource for herchildren’s education. 139To go by the data collected, frequent visitations to museums, andenthusiasm expressed by the homeschool community one would imaginethat the state of the relationship between homeschoolers and museums wasflourishing and strong. To paint a more complete picture of therelationship between the homeschool community and museums, Iconducted a survey of museum educators. In order to establish a breadthof knowledge of museum professionals in serving the homeschoolcommunity, 182 surveys were sent to randomly selected museums acrossthe spectrum of disciplines within the state of California. Four-fifths of themuseum professionals surveyed stated that they were aware ofhomeschoolers in their area, indicating a heightened awareness of the139 Anne Donjacour, San Francisco, interview with the author April 28, 2005.94

homeschool audience (see appendix H-7). Fifty-nine percent, of therespondents stated that their institutions have programs that served thehomeschool community (see appendix H-8). Museum educators perceivethat the homeschool community is satisfied that their needs are met withexisting programming.Awareness of programs designed for the homeschoolers is fargreater in the community than among museum educators. Of thehomeschool respondents, 62 percent were aware of programs, and 71percent had participated in them (see appendices H-9 and 10). This is instark contrast to the museum educators 82 percent of whom were notaware of institutions that had programs designed for this audience (seeappendix H-11). The ability to collaborate, extend outreach, and heightenawareness of existing programs is crucial in strengthening programs forthis community, and would be beneficial for addressing the needs of allaudiences.Are Museum Programs Fulfilling Homeschoolers’ Needs?The survey instrument for museum professionals contained fourquestions requesting details of programming, statistical information abouthomeschool program participation and outreach. Seventy-five museumprofessionals responded to the question that asked if their programs for95

homeschoolers were different from that of their regular school programs.A vast majority, (81 percent) of the replies were negative (see appendix H-12); and over half, (64 percent) of institutions did not keep accounts ofhomeschool visitors (see appendix H-13). Close to three quarters ofrespondents reported that the homeschool community has not indicatedthat they had distinctive needs in programming (see appendix H-14).Outreach for this audience is not a major consideration for three-quartersof the institutions that responded, as they do not attempt any outreach forhomeschoolers (see appendix H-15). The combined responses ofinterviews and surveys regarding programming, statistical information andoutreach reveal that the needs of the homeschool community are not animportant consideration in museum educational programming.The two survey instruments—for museum educators andhomeschool parents—asked questions regarding types of programsoffered. Contrasting information answering questions about the programsoffered by museums and those preferred by homeschoolers resulted inilluminating the differences between them. Museums programs that arealigned with State Curriculum Standards comprise nearly one- fifth, (19percent) of existing programs (see appendix H-16). This is in starkcontrast to 4 percent of the homeschool respondents who felt that classesof this nature served their needs most effectively (see appendix H-17).96

One parent expressed her vexation with this type of programming byemphatically stating her displeasure and frustration with classes narrowlygeared to standards. She stated, “NO, NO, NO! So many times I’ve beentold that a certain type of class is only allowed for exactly X gradersbecause that is when they study it in school.” 140Classes allied with special exhibits are the most preferred type ofprogram among homeschoolers, with 30 percent feeling that their needswere well served through this programming (see appendix H-17).However, programs focusing on special exhibits comprise only 16 percentof museum programming (see appendix H-16). When queried aboutdocent tours many homeschool educators relayed stories concerningencounters with docents and docent tours.Docent led tours make up the majority of museum programsoffered, but not necessarily tailored, to serve the homeschool community.These tours amount to almost half of the programming, (47 percent); incontrast, only 72 (26 percent) of homeschool respondents believe thattours best serve their needs (see appendices H-16 and 17). The issue ofquestions in the context of the relationship between homeschoolers anddocents was a common theme throughout survey responses. Homeschoolparents and their children tend to be enthusiastic; many homeschool140 Julie Wright, survey response, February 19 2005.97

educators believe that “enthusiasm is the driving force behind alllearning.” 141 Additionally, they are curious by nature, and are apt toquestion everything. Several homeschool parents expressed theirappreciation for patient and flexible docents answering not only thechildren’s questions but also their own as well. Respondents praisedocents when the tours are not lectures, but allow the homeschool parentsand children to question and participate in discussions. Homeschoolersappreciate when the docents guide them to understand the relevance of thecollections, and help them make personal and cross-disciplinaryconnections. A homeschooling father, Gary Ceralde recalled a positiveexperience while viewing art with homeschooled children. 142 The educatorbegan the tour with the acknowledgement that the children were free andcreative thinkers and encouraged them to participate in the discussionabout the artwork. Through purposeful dialogue—guiding theconversation with observations and specific open-ended inquiry—thechildren were able to grasp abstract concepts by making concreteconnections to experiences in their lives. Another homeschool respondent,Micki Moeller, enthused that, “docents who explain things are141 Pat Farenga, Medford, Massachusetts, telephone interview with the author, May 2,2005.142 Gary Ceralde, homeschool educator, San Francisco, interview with the author. April10, 2005.98

wonderful!” 143 Homeschool parent R.C. Hwang, praised the docent toursat the Los Angeles County Art Museum, and expressed regret that the tourwas not longer. 144Diane Flynn Keith, homeschool educator and publisher of theHomeFires Journal, recounted a wonderful docent experience that heryoung son had at the Monterey Bay Aquarium. 145 On a family visit to theaquarium, her son was enraptured by one docent’s knowledge about aspecific exhibit. As the family continued to explore the aquarium, hestayed with the docent at the exhibit, eager to learn everything he could.The docent’s vast knowledge and ability to spark the desire to learnproved to be a memorable museum experience. As the day went on, herson helped the docent engage, teach, and encourage discussion betweenother visitors in the exhibit. This spontaneous social learning experienceprovided the child with a learning environment that involved an expert,peers (or in this case fellow visitors), scaffolding, or building newknowledge together. Additionally, enriching the experience, the child waschallenged by the opportunity to assist the docent facilitate learning forother visitors.143 Micki Moeller, survey response, March 3, 2005.144 R.C. Hwang, survey response, February 26, 2005.145 Diane Flynn Keith, San Mateo California, telephone interview with the author March11. 2005.99

The majority of homeschool educators believe in challenginglearners by furnishing situations where children are exposed to andparticipate in activities that are slightly above their reach. This allows fortremendous growth and development. Additionally, the dynamics withinthe homeschool family structure promote learning in a social setting.Homeschool education creates opportunities where children are assisted orfacilitated in their learning by adults, mentors, or peers, thus establishingwhat Lev S. Vygotsky has described as the Zone of ProximalDevelopment (ZPD). Vygotsky’s exploration into the learning process,and his theory involving the scaffolding of knowledge that occurs in ZPD,closely parallels the preferred method of guided or directed inquiry thathomeschool educator’s use. Constructivist learning, discussed in detail byGeorge E. Hein in numerous writings closely aligns with the homeschoolphilosophy that knowledge is constructed, and builds on existing or priorknowledge. I found that the prevailing museum educational practices,Constructivism and ZPD are in keeping with the spirit of homeschooleducation concerning creating an optimal learning environment forhomeschooled children. This supports my conclusion that museums can bethe ideal learning for homeschoolers.The traditional lecture or guided tour format—still used in manymuseums—does not align with the interaction open-ended questioning that100

is used in learner-centered homeschool education. Thus it is no surprisethat homeschooler experiences with docent tours have been less than idealin the minds of the homeschool community. Often these individuals feelthat docents force visitors to answer questions and expect “correct”answers instead of allowing them the time to enjoy and reflect upon theexperience. Many expressed frustration at the lack of knowledge anddepth of the presentations, citing that often presentations glossed over thesurface of subject matter and were highly superficial. Parents also sharedthat the children are not used to lectures. They respond better whenencouraged to participate in an open dialog—not the norm in museums.A current educational method practiced by museum docents thatdoes closely align with homeschool approach is Visual ThinkingStrategies (VTS). 146 Many museum educators interviewed—who havedesigned programs for the homeschool community—contend that VTSdeveloped by Abigail Housen and Philip Yenwine is an extremelyeffective method of engaging the homeschool audience. Homeschooleducators strive to instill critical thinking in their children and utilizeopen-ended queries and discussions within their approaches to education.Homeschoolers are accustomed to, and prefer discourse over, formallectures. VTS is a learner-centered method of facilitating discussions,146 For more information on Visual Thinking Strategies, see http://www.vue.org.101

increasing observational skills, and problem solving through visual arts.VTS uses open-ended questions to guide the learner through discovery.This method can be adapted to many disciplines, and aligns with thepedagogical practices of many homeschool educators.Parents feel that museums underestimate homeschooled children’sprior knowledge and abilities to comprehend information. Several parenteducators reported negative experiences with docents—being told thatthey ask too many questions and demanding that they stop. Ashomeschool parent Diane Flynn Keith stated, frequently this leaves thehomeschoolers feeling that they have been “shushed into compliance.” 147Some homeschoolers prefer to explore the museum at their own pacewithout a docent present, and would like a staff member to be available toanswer questions. However, museums experiences or encounters withmuseum staff are not always pleasant or positive.Museum educators stated there was a lack of homeschooledchildren’s understanding of school rituals, or museum etiquette. Museumeducators reported that both they and homeschoolers are perplexed whenthe children are asked to perform seemingly simple tasks such as standingin a straight line, raising their hands, or waiting their turn. Homeschoolersare used to one-on-one instruction and some are used to having their147 Ibid.102

individual needs met instantly. This lack of familiarity with museumbehavior was felt to be a hindrance by some museum educators.Addressing this problem, The Walters Art Museum sends a code ofconduct or museum manners along with confirmation letters for fieldtrips. 148 While initially created for the homeschool audience, this reminderis currently sent to all groups to insure that visitors are aware of propermuseum decorum. In speaking with museum educators regarding thisissue, many felt that the homeschooled children were highly engaged andeager to learn and solved this challenge by taking the opportunity to teachthem museum behavior. The majority of interviewees—both homeschooland museum educators—contend that homeschool visitors are wellbehaved within the museum setting. Carolyn Hunt, science educator at theJohn P. McGovern Museum of Health and Medical Science, in Houston,Texas, contends that the main factor in museum behavior is due to familydynamics and upbringing, and not a matter of schooling versushomeschooling. 149 Susan Bass Marcus said working with this communityis not daunting, moreover, she finds “working with homeschoolers148 Ibid. See Appendix I for The Walters Art Museum’s museum manners reminder.149 Carolyn Hunt, Houston, Texas, telephone interview with the author, March 2, 2005.103

exceedingly gratifying.” Contrary to popular myth, she has found thathomeschoolers are extremely well socialized, and very serious about usingthe museum as an educational resource. 150Relaying experiences where inadvertent breaches of museumetiquette several homeschool families reported they were scolded forpointing at paintings. Adriana Nicholson, a homeschool parent stated herfamily has, “been asked not to point at the art…pointing is usually used toshow a detail that isn't readily apparent (something we do when teachingabout what we're seeing).” 151 Dana Appleton Reitman, another parent,relayed an additional story about pointing in a museum. Her son wasseverely reprimanded for pointing at a painting, so much so that they havenever returned to that institution. She expressed sadness as that particularmuseum has an exceptional collection of Renoirs and other Impressionistpainters. Clearly, a better means is needed to communicate the importanceof safeguarding and protecting the art and artifacts in museums. There is aneed for the homeschool audience to develop an understanding, or bereminded of, the institution and how and why it serves both the public andcollections. The majority of homeschool educators understand that theinstitutions role and responsibilities include not only serving the public,but to protect and preserve their collections. However, there is sometimes150 Susan Bass Marcus, Chicago Illinois interview with the author, January 4, 2005.151 Adriana Nicholson, survey response, February 2, 2005.104

a lack of understanding or resistance to institutional ways and thepreferred manner of comporting oneself in the museum by homeschoolers.In her book Civilizing Rituals Inside Public Art Museums, Carol Duncanexamines the museum as a cultural agent and delves into the museumgoing experience. 152 Duncan suggests that the museum becomes a stagewhere visitors perform secular rituals as they respond to the impliedvalues, comportment, and beliefs of the institution. The majority of thehomeschool community understands and adheres museum going decorumand rituals, some homeschoolers are uncomfortable with and question theauthoritative voice and inflexibility of the institutional structure. Brian D.Ray, president of the National Home Education Research Institute(NHERI), contends that all groups are idiosyncratic, and thathomeschoolers “must realize that they are dealing with institutions,” andthat flexibility is needed on the part of homeschool families andmuseums. 153Another example of the breach of museum decorum involves themisunderstanding of exhibit spaces without barriers, or clearly designated152 Carol Duncan, Civilizing Rituals Inside Public Art Museums (New York: Routledge,1995), 1-20.153 Brain D. Ray, Salem, Oregon, interview with the author, April 28, 2005.105

physical boundaries. Adrianna Nicholson relayed an experience thatoccurred when her family visited a barrier-free art museum. She statedthat,Children think they can touch art, because there are nobarriers. In one art museum, we encountered a kineticsculpture. There were no signs, and both the kids and Iassumed this sculpture was meant to be manipulated. Wewere very upset when the museum employee scolded us (Istill don't want to return to that museum, because theexperience was so negative). 154This encounter further reinforces the need for better methods ofcommunication on the museum’s part in educating the homeschoolcommunity and all audiences about museum conventions.Homeschoolers have found that homeschool organizedgroup visits are not always welcome in museums. Karen Allenhomeschool educator recounted an experience that her children andfellow homeschoolers had in an art museum in San Francisco.Educator and poet Thea Sullivan took her homeschool students tothe museum to write poems inspired by, and about, the collection.When she gathered the small group around a painting to providethem with an overview of the day’s writing assignment the galleryguards reprimanded Sullivan. The museum staff told Sullivan thatit was impossible for her to speak about the art without prior154 Adriana Nicholson, survey response, February 2, 2005.106

permission and appropriate training. This interaction causedfrustration on the part of both the homeschool audience and themuseum. The approach of informing the public about the museumpolicy was abrupt, and the homeschool parents and children didnot feel welcomed by the museum. 155While homeschool educators relayed negative museumexperiences—such as lecture based tours and authoritative institutionalinflexibility—they overwhelmingly use museums as an educationalresource, and desire a variety of programs to serve their needs.Homeschool educators expressed their interest in professionaldevelopment workshops designed for them. Homeschool parent CarriePilon praised one such program, offered at the Crocker Art Museum inSacramento, California. She stated the their program was “outstanding foreducators. 156 The Crocker’s classes for educators includes: tours of thecollection, hands-on activities, and provides ideas and materials foreducators to integrate the Crocker’s collection in their teaching. 157Homeschool educators communicated that they wanted to receive thesame benefits, discounts, professional development workshops, andopportunities as other educators. However, while 12 percent expressed155 Karen Allen, San Francisco, interview with the author, May 6, 2005.156 Carrie Pilon, survey response February 12, 2005.157 Crocker Art Museum, http://www.crockerartmuseum.org.107

interest in programs specifically for them, only 5 percent of the existingprograms serve this need (see appendix H-16). One homeschooling parentfelt that such workshops would also benefit older homeschool teens, as theinformation and activities would be more comprehensive and challenging.Programs Tailored for HomeschoolersAnother disparity between the homeschool community andmuseums became apparent in the offerings and preference forHomeschool Days. Homeschool Days are somewhat popular withhomeschoolers, one-quarter feel that days designed specifically for thecommunity serve them well (see appendix H-17). However, manyrespondents expressed that homeschool days are chaotic, crowded, and donot allow for the in-depth experience that they seek. Museum educator atthe New Jersey Historical Society, Claudia Ocello, reinforces this, as inher experience homeschoolers would rather have an in-depth experiencethan the chaos of a homeschool day. Ocello does not subscribe tospecialized days and contends that everyone should be integrated into theprograms—not isolated in their museum experience. 158 Clearly, theprogramming for this audience presents challenges, however the programs158 Claudia Ocello, Newark, New Jersey, telephone interview with the author December21. 2004.108

museums have created for the homeschool community does not coincidewith what they feel would best serve them.While Homeschool Days are not the most popular type ofprogramming according to respondents of the survey, they are successfulin reaching a large number of homeschoolers. The Monterey BayAquarium in Monterey, California, host’s daylong events designed for thehomeschool community. The aquarium’s mission is to inspireconservation of the oceans, which they accomplish in part through exhibitsof approximately 550 species, research, and educational programming.Renowned for it collection and research facilities, approximately 1.8million people, including 80,000 school age children visit each year. 159Monterey Bay Aquarium’s homeschool day on April 4, 2005, had 756homeschooled children registered to participate in the event. Conservationeducator Scott Stratton and sixteen of his fellow conservation educators,staff, and volunteers facilitated an efficient and well-organizedhomeschool day. Their planning strategies included; staggered arrival;multi-sensate, hands on activities for many age and skill levels; specificactivities for older children; as well as staff members equipped withwalkie-talkie type device for communication.159 Monterey Bay Aquarium Web site http://www.mbayaq.org.109

Staggered arrival times not only avoided chaos that such a largenumber of people would cause, but allowed each group to assemble and toreceive an orientation for the day. The aquarium encourages thehomeschool fieldtrip organizers to be responsible for their respectivegroups. This was done by providing the organizer with decorative fish signto create specific gathering points and having them account for theirgroup. When their respective groups were accounted for, they were thendirected to the either the indoor or outdoor auditorium for their orientation.The orientation included an overview of the day’s activities andcreated a lens for the homeschoolers to help them better understand theaquarium and its mission. Since approximately 85 percent of theparticipants in homeschool days at the aquarium are first-time visitors wayfinding is also included in the introduction. 160 Colorful visual aides—images of fish and sea creatures—were used to illustrate the variousspecies that visitors would encounter during the day. The conservationeducator engaged the homeschool children and their parents throughdialog, visual, and kinetic means. By actively engaging visitors through avariety of learning styles—kinetic, auditory, and visual—the experience isricher for all participants. Stratton feels that the orientation can help160 Scott Stratton interview Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey California, April 4, 2005.110

empower the parent educator and helped to facilitate meaningfulinteraction between educator and learner. 161The day was divided into morning and afternoon sessions, eachhaving a different set of activities. The education classrooms had stationswith a wide variety of hands-on art projects, artifacts available to touchand explore, research materials, and live specimens to observe. Eachparent educator was given a homeschool magazine and an educationalfolder to collect the handouts available at each station designed to extendand reinforce the learning experience. Special activities were available formiddle-school-aged children and teens. Conservation educators facilitatedscavenger hunts that guided the middle school children throughout the livecollections. Teen visitors toured the aquarium learning about careers in themarine sciences, aquaria, and conservation. During the day, homeschoolvisitors flowed from the classroom station to independent exploration ofthe aquarium’s collection.Two volunteers, trained by Monterey Bay Aquariums’ AudienceResearch Specialist Steven Yalowitz, interviewed homeschoolers in theafternoon. The survey instrument was designed by Yalowitz and Strattonspecifically to evaluate homeschool days. Throughout the interviewsconducted, the Monterey Bay Aquarium was unique in that it was the only161 Ibid.111

institution where formative evaluations of homeschool programming wasstressed. The aquarium staff actively refines their programming to servetheir audiences. The only complaint voiced by a homeschool family wasthat they only had four and a half hours in the aquarium and wanted moretime to explore. Evaluators have found that the average time thathomeschoolers spend at the aquarium is five hours, whereas most visitorsspend between one-and-a-half to two hours. Additionally, sales in themuseum shop and café increase dramatically during homeschool days.This, in part, is due to homeschool educator’s preference for engaginghands on materials, educational games, literature, and subject books thatare not textbooks. 162Some participants reported that their one-way travel time exceededa three-and-a-half hour drive. Several groups of homeschoolers had stayedin Monterey motels due to the great distances they traveled. Families wereentertaining the idea of visiting other cultural institutions such as theMonterey Mission San Miguel and the National Steinbeck Center innearby Salinas. Vacation plans for homeschool families are often designedspecifically around museums visits to support learning. 163 Strattoncontends that institutions should leverage this occurrence into162 Ibid.163 Tammy Rosenblatt, “Museum Reciprocity: Or Getting the Most Out of Your MuseumMembership.” Home Educator’s Family Times 11, no.5 (Sept.-Oct. 2003)http://www.homeeducator.com/FamilyTimes/articles/11-5article15.htm. (15 April 2005).112

opportunities for local community involvement and partnerships. He feelsthat by collaborating with other museums, and local businesses such hotelsand eateries, in offering cultural vacation packages for homeschoolers thatall communities—museums, local, and homeschool—would benefit.At the close of the day, the staff and volunteers met to discuss,analyze, and design improvements for the next homeschool day.Additionally, the volunteer evaluators shared their findings, which wouldbe compared to evaluations of previous homeschool days to help createbetter programming. Collaborative involvement increased commitmentand enthusiasm for the educators, thereby creating a unified strong team.In interviews with museum educators who present homeschooldays, they shared similar findings. Melissa Prycer, curator of education atOld City Park: The Historical Village of Dallas, Texas, recounted thatrecently she estimated that approximately 200 homeschooled childrenwould attend a homeschool day—over 600 visitors attended. 164Additionally, the museums store had the second most profitable day in thepast three years. Susan Fredrick a homeschool community leader in Texasrelayed that a few years ago Space Center Houston had over 5,000homeschoolers visit on a special homeschool day. In addition, in February2005, Space Camp Houston had 353 homeschoolers participated in their164 Melissa Prycer, Dallas Texas, telephone interview with the author March 15, 2005.113

overnight camp out—the ultimate homeschool museum experience.165 Paul Wenlowsky, educator at the St. Augustine Lighthouse andMuseum in St. Augustine, Florida, has also found that homeschoolerstravel up to four hours to participate in homeschool days at hisinstitution. 166 Homeschoolers value the opportunity to participate inprograms designed to serve their needs, and will participate actively.Alternatives to homeschool days are classes designed for homeschoolers.Classes designed specifically for the homeschool communitybenefit both the museums and the homeschoolers they seek to serve.Institutions that schedule such classes during the day can increase theirrevenue stream, as homeschoolers are eager to participate in day classes.Many museums schedule their homeschool programs on days when theyhave the lowest visitor turn out, and during mandated state testing periods.Several homeschool respondents felt that classes meeting with betweenfour to six sessions would be advantageous. Some institutions, such as TheWalters Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland, offer homeschoolers classesconsisting of three sessions that allow for more in-depth exploration ofsubjects. Homeschool parent Susan Detwiler suggested that having aregularly scheduled day and time each week for homeschoolers, focusing165 Susan Fredrick, e-mail correspondence with the author February 27, 2005.166 Paul Wenlowsky, St. Augustine Florida, telephone interview with the author March25, 2005.114

on one topic, would be highly beneficial. 167 According to Robin AtwoodFidler, tour coordinator at the Maryland Historical Society, BaltimoreMaryland, considerations of expanding their homeschool offerings toinclude classes that would include primary source document research forhomeschooled teens. 168 This type of specialized in-depth programmingappeals to a wide spectrum of the homeschool community. Twoinstitutions in Northern California, the Lawrence Hall of Science inBerkeley, and the Lindsey Wildlife Museum in Walnut Creek werementioned frequently as having exceptional classes for the community.However, some homeschool parents were frustrated at the class sizes, andfelt that the student teacher ratio was too large.Multidisciplinary programs such as classes held at the WinterthurMuseum Garden, and Library in Delaware are both engaging and tailoredto homeschoolers’ needs. One class, based on E. L. Koingsburg’sNewberry Award Medal book, From the Mixed-Up Files of Mrs. Basil T.Frankweiler, 169 offers the opportunity to explore and discover howmuseum curators use scientific and historic clues to solve collectionmysteries. Homeschoolers are given a guide with mixed-up clues to solve167 Susan Detwiler, survey response February 22, 2005.168 Robin Atwood Fidler, tour coordinator and visitor services at the Maryland HistoricalSociety, e-mail correspondence with the author, March 9, 2005.169 E. L. Koinsburg, From the Mixed-Up Files of Mrs. Basil T. Frankweiler, (New York:Atheneum, 1970).115

during their visit. Additionally, following the class a tour is provided ofthe conservation department to learn more in-depth about object research.Another type of program mentioned frequently by a number ofhomeschool educators was behind-the-scenes experiences and tours. Thesetours were remembered as wonderful engaging museum experiences.Homeschool parent Shannon Anderson, described a memorable museumexperience with her daughter—watching an exhibit being installed. Thatinsider experience she felt was even more exciting than seeing theexhibit. 170 Two homeschoolers recalled an insider behind-the-scenes tourat an art museum where they explored the inner sanctum of the gallerystorage and installation areas. 171 Upon viewing art that was in vivid andrather appalling colors, the curator told them that a local art critic wrote anacademic analysis about the artist’s color palette, but in reality, theylearned that the artist was colorblind. The specialized knowledge theygained from the curator proved not only to heighten their interest in thecollection, but created an indelible memory for these children.Opportunities for children to volunteer, be mentored by museum staff, andinternships were suggested as ideal learning opportunities for olderhomeschooled children.170 Shannon Anderson survey response, February 20. 2005.171 Spencer Stamats and Alexandra Hontalas-Adams, homeschoolers, interview with theauthor. March 20, 2005.116

Homeschoolers have flexible schedules and desire more in-depthprogramming. While only 12 percent of the respondents stated theydesired more classes scheduled during the day as a priority, mostinterviewees expressed a desire for institutional flexibility, and foradditional daytime classes. Some homeschool educators expressedfrustration saying that often homeschool museum programs are scheduledat the same day and time. Three museums in Ashville, North Carolina—The Health Adventure, the Colburn Earth Science Museum, and theAshville Art Museum—have coordinated their monthly homeschoolprograms in scheduling them on different days, thus allowinghomeschoolers to participate in each institutions’ programs. Twenty fourpercent of the respondents stated that they would like challenging classesthat provide more in-depth study that were limited in size (see appendixH-15). The overriding concern cited by homeschool educators interviewedwas that the classes engage and challenge their children. Many felt that aseries of classes allow for a more meaningful learning experience.Robert Ross, director of education at the Museum of the EarthPaleontological Research Institution in Ithaca, New York, and a professorat Ithaca College, has designed classes tailored for the homeschoolaudience. Ross has hybridized methods and material he uses to teach nonsciencemajors at the college with his institution’s docent-training117

program. He holds that the ultimate goal is to compel students to go outand learn more—to extend the museum experience. He maintains that thebenefit of providing several classes over a session enables him to providea conceptual lens and lay the foundation for critical thinking. Ross feels itis possible for these students to volunteer in the museum, therebybenefiting the institution.The overarching preference for in-depth experiences goes beyondtraditional programming and classes. Homeschool advocate PatrickFarenga cites opportunities for homeschoolers to become totally immersedin history by participating in reenactments at historic site museums, suchOld Sturbridge Village or Plimoth Plantation, wearing costumes, andlearning traditional skills and crafts. 172 He continued to stress thathomeschoolers have the flexibility in their schedules, can participateregularly, and donate their time through volunteering. The depth andpresentation of information furnished by museums was also mentioned.One homeschooler responded that they like to view things in-depth,therefore the background and history of artifacts is always welcome.Continuing, this individual said, “Glitzy ‘bullet’ presentations and cartooncharacters are repulsive.” 173172 Pat Farenga, Medford, Massachusetts telephone interview with the author, May 22,2005.173 Unnamed survey response, March 1, 2005.118

Challenges Faced by Museum Educators in Serving the HomeschoolCommunityThe homeschool audience has needs and expectations that areoften a challenge for institutions and museum educators to meet. Whenhomeschool educators were queried on how well they felt museums servedtheir needs, 9 percent responded “excellent,” 44 percent responded“good.” Thirty-five percent responded “fair,” while 13 percent said “poor”(see appendix H-19) Homeschool educators revealed what they feltmuseums educators need to know in order to serve them better. Twentypercent felt that museum educators do not understand the philosophy ofhomeschooling (see appendix H-18). One parent reported that museumstaff questioned her children inquiring as to why they were in the museumduring the day. She asked if they were visiting the museum that daybecause of an absence from school due to illness. The majority feelsfrustration that museums address them as schoolers with traditional schoolmethods of instruction.The majority of museum educators who responded 35 (62 percent)did not feel that the needs of homeschoolers presented a challenge for theirinstitution’s programming (see appendix H-20). An issue that is a cause offrustration for homeschoolers and museum professionals alike is thedynamic of the multi-age group. A large percentage, 61 in total, of the119

museum professionals felt that it was difficult to address multiple ages andgrade levels (see appendix H-21). Additionally, some stated that theattendance of young children—toddlers and babies—made it difficult toserve the needs of the target audience. Some museums encourage theparent educator and younger siblings to explore the museum, allowing themuseum educator to focus on the target audience. Interviews withhomeschool educators revealed two different viewpoints on the topic ofaddressing multi-age groups. Homeschool educator Patrick Farenga feelsthat if this is an issue, museums must make “multi-age brackets clear tothe stakeholders.” 174 In contrast, Tammy Rosenblatt feels strongly that themuseum educator does not have to cater to a certain age, but “just do whatthey do best.” 175 She contends that homeschoolers are there because theydesire to learn, and realize that each child will gain from the experience indifferent ways. She elaborated saying that this opportunity allows museumeducators to, “release their wealth of knowledge with people on the edgesof their seats, asking a million questions about what the educators loves.”This is directly related to another challenge identified by museumrespondents: because homeschoolers are not beholden to state standards, itis often unclear what level of knowledge they possess. Some museumeducators, such as Cecilia Ottenweller, enjoy the “freedom of creating174 Pat Farenga, Medford, Massachusetts, interview with the author, May 2, 2005.175 Tammy Rosenblatt, Salem, Massachusetts, interview with the author, May 5, 2005.120

programs without the constraints of discrete state standards.” 176 Only onerespondent felt that issue was insurmountable, and stated a clearpreference for working with traditional school visitors.The extent of parental involvement in educational programs forhomeschooled children was also a concern mentioned by several of themuseum educators interviewed. An issue mentioned in interviews was theinvolvement, or over involvement of parent educators in thehomeschoolers museum experience. Museum educators Kerry Binningtonat the Krasl Art Center 177 in St. Joseph, Missouri, and Julie Perko at thePortland Art Museum in Portland, Oregon 178 , have found that homeschooleducators are interested in participating along with their children inprograms, and at times tend to provide unneeded assistance for theirchildren. Claudia Ocello curator of education at the New Jersey HistoricalSociety 179 contends that there are advantages in homeschool educatorsparticipation in programs, as a wider variety of artifacts, and activities assupervision—due to educator student ration—is less of an issue withhomeschoolers. Ocello sited a program where homeschoolers were able to176 Cecelia Ottenweller, Houston, Texas, interview with the author, February 15, 2005.177 Kerry Binnington, St. Joseph, Missouri, telephone interview with the author, March15, 2005.178 Julie Perko, Portland, Oregon, telephone interview with the author, January 7, 2005.179 Claudia Ocello, Newark, New Jersey, telephone interview with the author, December21, 2004.121

orrow the institution’s Polaroid cameras to document their communities,which would be impossible for a traditional schooled group due to thenumber and fragility of the equipment, and the high student teacher ratio.As the homeschool parent takes full responsibility as theeducator—they are conscious of their child’s learning style, and sensitiveto their needs—they tend to be very attentive to the information andmethods used in learning. The homeschooler to parent educator is muchlower than the ratio of student teacher in traditional school groups. Somemuseum educators have found this dynamic quite challenging. Erin Shope,school and family programs manager at the Ashville Museum of Art inAshville, North Carolina, has found that parents want to participate in theprogramming. 180 She estimates that half stay to monitor the informationand are protective of their children, while the other half want to learnalong with their children. Stacy Fuller instructional services manager atthe Amon Carter Museum in Fort Worth, Texas has found that separatingthe parents from their children during programs has not been an issue.Fuller offers alternative activities for the homeschool educator such aseducator tours and introduces them to museum resources such as themuseum’s lending library. Theresa Spataro school residency coordinatorat the Liberty Science Center in Jersey City, New Jersey, uses the180 Erin Shope, Ashville, North Carolina, telephone interview with the author, March 1,2005.122

opportunity of having parents onsite as a professional educationaldevelopment—to teach parents how to extend and reinforce the museumexperience, and subjects learned through hands on activities to do athome. 181 Another factor that concerned museum educators was thedynamics involved with homeschoolers who were not familiar with eachother before their visit or class. Often there was a period of adjustment inbecoming comfortable with their fellow homeschoolers. Stacy Fullerinstructional services manager at the Amon Carter Center in Forth Worth,Texas, has found that homeschool children, once they are at ease are notworried about getting the right answers and comfortable participating. 182She furthered that she has found that homeschool children—especiallyteens—are less self-conscious and not worried about being cool.The prevailing viewpoint from the homeschool perspective is thatthe issue is more complex than simple multi-age groupings or gradeclassification. Homeschooling is highly individualized learning.Homeschoolers are often asynchronous learners, excelling in some areasmore then others. Additionally, skill levels do not necessarily coincidewith the child’s chronological age. Amanda Kodeck, manager of school181 Theresa Spataro, Jersey City, New Jersey telephone interview with the author, March31, 2005.182 Stacy Fuller, Forth Worth, Texas, telephone interview with the author, March 10,2005.123

programs, The Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland, commentedthat it is a challenge to address a group where there can be children presentwith no prior knowledge and others who are experts. 183The homeschool instrument contained an open-ended questionasking respondents what they felt museum educators needed to know inorder to serve them better. The responses fell into several broadcategories: the need for more in-depth and challenging classes;understanding homeschooling; attending to multiple ages and learningstyles; and the desire for more resource materials. Twenty-one percent ofthe homeschool educators felt museum programs were not rich enough insubject matter, and desired to have smaller classes that are challenging forthe students (see appendix H-18). Homeschool educator Dana Burdick’sviews represent many of the homeschool respondents. Ms. Burdick statedthat her criteria for selecting any class for her children are that it isimperative that emphasis be on problem-solving and higher-level thinking.She elaborated in saying that other important elements include open-endedexplorations in multiple ways and interdisciplinary approaches whichenable the learner to make connections. 184183 Amanda Kodeck and Emily Blumenthal, Baltimore, Maryland, telephone interviewwith the author, December 12, 2004.184 Dana Burdick survey response, February 27, 2005.124

Gaining a Better Understanding of the Homeschool CommunityClaudia Ocello museum educator, at the New Jersey HistoricalSociety, believes that museum educators must realize that homeschoolersare, in fact, different, and she observed that:Homeschool kids are verbal and used to talking and sharingtheir ideas. They tend to come prepared, and often haveknowledge that the educator does not have. So, theeducator must be fully prepared and be flexible in dealingwith the kids. 185Janet Petitpas, assistant director of education at the Bay AreaDiscovery Museum in Sausalito, California, contends that museumprofessionals recognize homeschoolers as a viable audience, but that theyare unaware of the various types of homeschoolers. Consequently, there isa tendency to have a preconceived notion of what homeschooling is, andthis lack of understanding makes it difficult to fully serve the community’sneeds. 186 Melissa Rosengard, executive director of the Western MuseumsAssociation, echoed this need. She said that understanding thedemographics of this community is a major component that must beconsidered. She believes that homeschool community can be defined intothree categories: those motivated to provide and protect a high qualityeducational environment for their kids; those motivated by strong religious185 Claudia Ocello, Newark New Jersey telephone interview with the author, December21, 2005.186 Janet Petitpas Sausalito, California telephone interview with the author, November2004.125

and conservative beliefs; and those who have children with learningdifferences. Melissa Rosengard continued to state that if museums are toembark on designing programs for homeschoolers they need someunderstanding of their psychographic profiles, “because it's akin to wadinginto an entirely new community.” 187The need for museum professionals to understand homeschoolingphilosophy and methodologies were expressed by twenty percent of therespondents (see appendix H-18). Repeatedly, respondents expressedfrustration that museum educators used methods that are modeled aftertraditional schooling—teacher as expert, rather than a child-centered oreducator-child collaborative approach. The preference for programs designto accommodate multiple-aged groups and attend to individual learningstyles was cited by 15 percent of homeschoolers (see appendix H-18).Attending to a broad age range is an issue that educators recognize as achallenge.Homeschool parents expressed a need for more resource materials.Way finding guides highlighting areas for different interests and ages wasa topic that arose in several homeschool responses. Pre-visit materials aredesired to enhance the museum experience. Homeschool educators feltthat staff recommended Web sites and books examined before their visit187 Melissa Rosengard e-mail correspondence with the author, November throughDecember 2004.126

this knowledge would optimize learning in the museum. Additionally theysought more post-visit materials to help extend learning after the visit.Homeschool parent Lisa Payne wrote that she would like more pre-visitresources to better prepare her children in the topic that they would belearning in the museum. She continued to say that post-visit materialswere beneficial for extending learning, for “the children are alwaysexcited a few days after their trip.” 188 Homeschool consultant AlessaGiampaolo Keener suggests museums post their pre-and post-visitmaterials and curriculum on their Web sites—as an efficient and costeffective means to disseminate the materials. 189 Many homeschoolersmentioned that they create their own pre- and post-visit material but wouldbenefit from museum educators either offering guidance in creating them,or simply providing more materials. The Family Resource Center inSalem, Massachusetts, a homeschool support organization, producessupplemental resource packets to enrich the museum experience. Tendifferent themed packets, including such topics as American history,“Wolves of Winter”, and solar energy resources, are designed to providehomeschoolers with pre-visit knowledge before their museum visit. Thematerials are varied, and include such materials as; timelines and hand-on188 Lisa Payne, survey response, February 28, 2005.189 Hand in Hand Homeschool Consulting, Homeschool-Museum Educators Discussion,October 20, 2003.127

activities; web sites and suggested books for research; magazines such asCobblestone and Discovery Kids; as well as videos. 190 Homeschooleducator Justine Henning recognized that many museums create materialsfor family visitors, but stressed that as a homeschool educator, she wantedmore in-depth information and intellectually challenging materials. 191Several parents suggested scavenger hunts as fun ways to engage theiryounger children in the museum. However, this form of engagement is notuniversally liked. Tammy Rosenblatt, founder and director of the FamilyResource Center, contends that engagement activities such as scavengerhunts, and word searches, are an anathema to homeschoolers—who havevirtually grown up in museums—and therefore seek creative museumactivities and more meaningful, in-depth experiences. 192Apparent in both surveys and interviews was an appreciation ofprograms tailored for homeschoolers and desire to inform museumeducators of the importance of museums as an educational resource.Homeschoolers visit museums to reinforce what they are studying, or tointroduce the learner to new concepts and subjects. In addition,homeschool children often document their museum visits and experiencesto further develop their personal learning portfolios, to comply with local190 Interview with the founder and director of the Family Resource Center, TammyRosenblatt, Salem, Massachusetts, telephone interview, May 5, 2005.191 Justine Henning Brooklyn, New York, telephone interview with the author192 Tammy Rosenblatt, Salem, Massachusetts, telephone interview May 5, 2005.128

school board, or online classes. Homeschoolers—unlike traditionallyschooled children—are there by choice, and seek an enrichingenvironment for their families.Effective Outreach to the Homeschool CommunityHaving access to a database to contact individual homeschoolersand homeschool support groups was cited by 62 percent of the museumeducators as a need to better serve the homeschool community (seeappendix H-22). Museum professional stated that while they wereinterested in this community, contacting them was a daunting task.Contacting traditional schools as notification of programs through schooldistricts was simple and direct, while it was unclear how informationcould effectively reach homeschoolers. Establishing databases includingthe stakeholders—community leaders, individual homeschool families,support groups, and listservs—would be beneficial to museums and thehomeschool audience.Outreach was an issue mentioned by almost all of the museumeducators interviewed. In pursuing this issue, the most successful and costeffective outreach efforts relied on utilizing the Internet for contactinghomeschool support groups. Homeschool educators extensively utilize theInternet, for research, online classes, support, communication with fellow129

community members. Community leaders, moderators, and individualparent educators spread the word about museum programs via theInternet—word of mouth at broadband speed—at no cost with and littleeffort on the part of institutions. Some homeschool support groupsconsulting actively seek museum programs to post on their sites. The OldCity Park: The Historical Village of Dallas, Texas, recently utilized theInternet for outreach for a homeschool day and tripled their attendancegoal. 193 Kathleen Havers, educator at The Houston Museum of NaturalScience in Texas, has found that positive word of mouth about greatprogramming is so effective that active outreach is unnecessary. 194President of the National Home Education Research Institute (NHERI),Brian D. Ray, suggested that by submitting positive articles—that conveymuseums are friendly and seek to serve the community—to homeschoolnewsletters, Web sites as well as to the popular press are all highlyeffective means to reach the community. Many institutions extended theiroutreach through participation in homeschool conferences.One option for reaching the homeschool audience is a homeschoolconference. Homeschool conferences take place across the nation drawinglarge crowds of homeschool families seeking educational resources. Ray193 Melissa Pryce, Dallas, Texas, interview with the author, March 15, 2005.194 Kathleen Havers, Houston, Texas interview with the author, March 15, 2005.130

elieves that attending such a conference would be highly beneficial tomuseum professionals, as they would gain a sense of the ethos of thehomeschooling movement. 195The Southeast Texas Home School Association’s NineteenthAnnual Gulf Coast Home Education Conference, held in 2005 at theReliant Center in Houston Texas, featured nearly two hundred exhibitors,and held seventy-five homeschool workshops. 196 Recently, the ElginPublic Museum, in Elgin, Illinois, participated in such a conference.Marilyn Kuhns, education coordinator, contends that participation in theconference was worthwhile as more than two thousand people participatedfrom several states. 197 Susan Bass Marcus an educator at the ARTiFACTCenter, Spertus Museum in Chicago, Illinois, holds that volunteering tofacilitate workshops at conferences can be beneficial. 198The Family Resource Center (FRC) organizes and facilitatesmuseum presence at the Museum and Community Expo in Boxborough,Massachusetts. 199 According to founder Tammy Rosenblatt, the FRCmaintains a database of over 15,000 of the estimated 20,000 New England195 Brain D. Ray, Salem, Oregon, telephone interview with the author, April 12, 2005.196 Southeast Texas Home School Association,http://www.sethsa.org/summerconference/2005summerconference.html197 Marilyn Kuhns, Elgin, Illinois, telephone interview with the author, March 15, 2005.198 Susan Bass Marcus, Chicago, Illinois telephone interview with the author, January 4,2005.199 Tammy Rosenblatt, Salem, Massachusetts, telephone interview with the author, May5, 2005.131

homeschool families. For the 2005 Museum and Community Expo, theFRC secured 2,500 square feet of exhibition space and five classrooms.The FRC invited museum educators to present their homeschool programsfree-of-charge, upon the condition that they facilitate classes for thehomeschoolers attending the conference. Institutions from the regionsubmitted proposals, and the FRC chose museums that they felt had themost innovative and challenging programs designed to serve thehomeschool community. Forty museums and educators were selected toparticipate out of more than eighty that submitted proposals. The scope ofinstitutions that participated was quite varied in size and discipline. Thevariety of participating institutions included large institutions such as theNew England Aquarium in Boston, Massachusetts, and smaller museumssuch as the Ellsworth Telephone Museum in Maine. The ChristaMcAuliffe Planetarium in Concord, New Hampshire, was represented andincluded their portable planetarium in their presentation. Without a doubt,the FRC has succeeded in creating an effective avenue for museums toreach the homeschool community through a homeschool conference.Approximately one-third of the museum educators felt that havinga more thorough understanding of homeschooling would help them servethe needs of the homeschool audience (see appendix H-22). AlessaGiampaolo Keener founder of The Hand in Hand Homeschool132

Consulting has orchestrated a successful avenue connecting homeschooland museum educators. Located in Maryland, Hand in Hand has helpedmuseum educators in the region better understand and how to better servehomeschool community. In collaboration with museum educators,Keener facilitated open discussion forums at the Walter’s Art Museum in2003, and the Baltimore Museum of Art in 2004. These forums allowedmuseum educators to not only become more aware of the community, butafforded them the opportunity to discuss the challenges in servinghomeschoolers with a community leader. Keener provided theparticipating museum educators with materials that included; statisticaland profile information; overviews of homeschool philosophies; a listexisting programs that serve the homeschoolers; and guidelines to betterunderstand and create more effective programs for homeschooledchildren. 200 Both the Family Recourse Center, and Hand in HandHomeschool Consulting are making positive inroads to forge a strongerrelationship between homeschoolers and museums.200 Hand in Hand Homeschool Consulting, Homeschool-Museum Educators DiscussionForum materials, October 20, 2003, July 21, 2004.133

Overarching ConclusionsThe picture that emerges from my research and findings is of acommunity that defies conventional categorizations—homeschoolers areneither fish nor fowl, neither a traditional school nor a family group—theyare an amalgamation of both. While family learning is central tohomeschooling, homeschool educators also seek educationalenrichment—through programs, classes, and research opportunities—fortheir children. Homeschooling crosses a wide spectrum of approaches andphilosophies from child-directed to parent-directed learning. However, atits core, homeschooling is self-directed, informal learning—precisely whatthe museum environment can or should furnish for visitors.Clearly, the majority of homeschool families visits museums andsupports them through memberships and participation in programs. Theyseek challenging museum programs and in-depth learning experiences fortheir children. Homeschool educators will travel great distances toparticipate in programs that are specifically designed to serve their needs.The homeschool educators’ preference for in-depth experiences goesbeyond traditional programming and classes to include opportunities suchas mentorship’s and volunteering. Homeschool families are enthusiasticabout museums and view them as important resources in their children’seducation. They utilize the informal learning environments of museums as134

an educational resource not only to reinforce subjects being studied, butalso to introduce new topics in an enriching environment. The informallearning environments that museums offer provide childhood experiencesthat resonate so strongly they can influence learning, museum visiting andsupport throughout a lifetime.There are striking parallels between the homeschoolingmovement—its philosophies and approaches to learning—and currentmuseum educational practices. Museum programs that adhere toConstructivism and Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development closelyalign with homeschooling philosophies in creating an ideal learningenvironment for homeschooled children. However, because these andsimilar learner-centered theories are not universally practiced in museums,there is often a disconnect between homeschoolers and museum programs.Many museum and homeschool educators recognize that learning isconstructed or built upon existing knowledge and occurs within a socialcontext. Homeschooling is most often a social experience where childrenare encouraged to participate in open-ended discussions with parents,mentors, and peers. Traditional museum tours that are lecture-based do notalign with the open-ended questioning and interaction that is used inlearner-centered homeschooling. Learner-centered methods ofeducation—such as Visual Thinking Strategies—practiced in some135

museum programs, that facilitate discussion, increase observationalabilities, and foster creative problem solving are essential to establish theideal learning environment for homeschooled children. These threemuseum educational theories and practices, Constructivism, Zone ofProximal Development, and Visual Thinking Strategies, align with thepedagogical practices of many homeschool educators and are effectivemethods of engaging not only the homeschool audience, but all informallearners.Museums are informal learning environments par excellence and,while homeschoolers are informal learners, the findings reveal that thiscommunity is not experiencing the ideal educational opportunities thatmuseum can furnish. A major contribution to this gap held by museumeducators is the preconceptions and misunderstandings abouthomeschooling. This lack understanding makes it is challenging formuseum educators to design the types of programming and experienceshomeschool educators feel would best serve the homeschool community.Museum educators perceive that the homeschool community issatisfied with their museum experiences and that their needs are met withexisting programming. However, the majority of museum programsoffered are not tailored to serve the homeschool community and fall shortof meeting their needs. Museum educators want to address the needs of136

this diverse and growing community and some have made efforts to do so,yet many are unsure how best serve them. There are excellent examples ofmuseum programs, and of institutions and homeschool leaders who havecollaborated and bridged the gap between museums and homeschooledchildren. These successful programs and collaborations can serve as amodel for other institutions and homeschool communities.The relationship between museums and the homeschoolcommunity is symbiotic. Ideally, both the institution and the homeschoolcommunity will benefit from forging a better relationship. By leveragingthe strengths of the museum—object and place-based learning, subjectexperts, and authentic experiences—programs and learning opportunitiescan be expanded and tailored to homeschooled children, informal learners,and all visitors. In turn, the museums will be able to cultivate and maintainactive memberships and volunteer bases, increase participation ineducational programs thereby increasing funding, and create life longsupport for the institution.137

RECOMMENDATIONSThe research presented in this paper has shown that there arenumerous challenges museums face in serving the homeschoolcommunity. Yet, it is imperative that museums strive to include thisunique community of independent learners. The followingrecommendations call for optimizing the homeschool experience inmuseums. These recommendations are directed to museum directors,museum educators, and homeschool educators to help them better servethe homeschool community, but may be of interest to visitor service aswell as marketing and development staff. They cover a spectrum ofconcerns surrounding the relationship between museums and homeschoolcommunity, from understanding the philosophy and diverse approaches tohomeschooling, to outreach and collaborative efforts, to program designand engagement. The first four recommendations are addressed tomuseum directors, educators, and general staff. Forwarding aninstitution’s mission is an institution-wide effort, not simply the task ofone individual or department. The next eight recommendations areintended specifically for museum educators, as they are specificallyresponsible for designing and facilitating programs that engage themuseum visitor. The final two recommendations are intended for museum138

administrators, and museum and homeschool educators. The lastrecommendation encompasses all of the areas.For Museum Directors, Museum Educators and General Staff1. Learn about the philosophy and methods of homeschooling.This study overwhelmingly found that both museum and thehomeschool educators felt that the lack of understanding was a core issuethat prevented effective program design. To effectively servehomeschooled children—through programs, access to collections, andsubject experts—museum professionals must develop an understanding ofthe growing homeschool movement. This should include an in-depthexamination of the literature concerning of the philosophies andeducational approaches used across the continuum of homeschooling.While the overarching ethos—self-directed, individualized, independentlearning—is at the core of home-based education, the variety ofapproaches and ideologies of learning differ, and these differences must beunderstood and addressed. Museum professionals should review not onlybooks and journal articles, but examine Web sites and listservs that servethis audience. Such a review will enable museum educators to develop amore comprehensive understanding of the homeschool movement.139

2. Actively cultivate the homeschool audience.As the findings of this project revealed, homeschoolers visitmuseums. Falk and Dierking have shown that individuals who visitedmuseums with their parents and families as children visit and supportmuseums as adults. Clearly, homeschool children fit this profile. It isprudent for museums to recognize this community as an importantaudience not only for the present, but also for future support andmembership. Through cultivation and better serving the homeschoolcommunity—designing programs that align with homeschool philosophiesand approaches to learning—the museum will realize long-term benefits.3. Awareness and understanding of the homeschool community for allmuseum staff.Essential to the success of this effort is for all museum staff—fromadministration, education, curatorial, to visitor service and security, and tomarketing and development—to be aware of and understand thiscommunity. Employee commitment and support are essential to sustain aninstitution and its mission, programs, and audience. The findings haveshown that the lack of understanding, acknowledgement, and interactionswith this community has created a considerable disconnect. Staff meetingsthat address sensitivity training should include the homeschool audience140

along with other unique museum audiences. Museum visitors encounterand are affected by the entire scope of the institutions’ staff, therefore it isessential that understanding of, and sensitivity to, all communities isincorporated into the institution’s culture.4. Form collaborative relationships between museums and localbusinesses to create homeschool day events.Homeschool days attract a large audience of visitors from fardistances, as the findings of this paper have shown. Collaborating withother institutions to create a homeschool day or weekend event would be atremendous draw for the homeschool audience and ideally wouldencompass several disciplines. Creation of a several-days event wouldbring additional revenue to all institutions through not only thehomeschool day fees, through new memberships, store purchases, and cafésales.Museums should also approach local restaurants andaccommodations—hotels, motels, and bed and breakfast businesses—tooffer a complete package for homeschoolers. Not only would this be anenticement for homeschoolers to participate in homeschool days wellbeyond their immediate geographic region, but it would it encouragedirect community involvement for museums within their local community.141

Such arrangements would be advantageous to other programming, such asfestivals and lecture series in, reaching a wider audience base. This type ofcollaboration will firmly establish museums as active leaderswithin in the community at large.For Museum Educators1. Be pro-active. Assess the educational needs of local homeschoolcommunity members.It is not sufficient to glean general demographic information abouta community; physiographic information, direct contact, interaction, andopen communication are essential. Research shows that programs offeredby museums are not necessarily what the homeschool communitymembers feel are either effective or desirable in optimizing their learningin museums. Institutions should gather information in a systematic way.Museum professionals should survey community leaders and members toascertain what types of programming and access to collections will servethem best. Questions for homeschool educators might focus on theirmethods used in homeschooling; what resources and would help supportlearning for their children, and how they utilize the museum as aneducational resource. This information will allow programs to be tailored142

to better serve the community’s needs, and not rely on misconceptionsabout what is believed the community desires in their ideal museumexperiences. Additionally, the inclusion of names, phone numbers, and e-mail addresses would expand the institution’s database for this audience.2. Communicate and clearly define program content and expectationsfor homeschool participants.Museum educators must provide detailed content informationabout programs for homeschoolers. It is essential to inform homeschooleducators of the content, but also to describe the approaches to learning—kinetic, visual, and auditory—that will be used. Explicitly stating the priorknowledge needed to fully benefit from the programs will allow thehomeschool educator to better prepare the learner for the museum visit.Moreover, this information allows the homeschool educator to evaluateand decide—based on their child’s maturity and ability, not age level—ifthe program will serve the learner’s needs. Disclosing detailed programinformation will create a self-selected group categorized by ability andinterest and not by age or traditional grade level.Expectations of both student and teacher participants must beclearly stated and included in confirmation materials. Will the homeschooleducator serve as observer, participant, or collaborator? What is the143

expected ratio of parent participants or chaperones? Museum educatorsshould embrace the opportunity to model current museological educationalmethods of learning to homeschool educators, and work with a parenteducator who is actively committed to their child’s education as well asinformal educational philosophies.3. Provide activities for multiple age homeschool families and groups.Findings for this project revealed that both museum andhomeschool educators were concerned with the issue of multiple agegroupings. Alternative activities for homeschool parents and youngersiblings should available during programs, such as independently touringthe collections, and providing hands-on engaging activities. Museumsshould design written guides to highlight the collections by topic or themethat include general age or skill levels, and time needed for exploring.Corresponding iconic signage should be placed within the collectionsalerting the homeschoolers to the highlights mentioned in the guides. Thiswould not only facilitate the engagement of all ages within thehomeschool group, but would be ideal for all independent exploration inthe museum.144

4. Evaluate educational programs designed for homeschooledchildren.Front-end, formative, and summative, evaluations should beundertaken for all educational programs. In order to create and maintaineffective educational programs, continual assessment and improvementare imperative. It is essential for homeschool programs to be evaluated, asdesigning programs for this audience is a new undertaking with littlehistory in effective programs from which to draw. Evaluations shouldinclude not only the programs, but should address and track increases inmembership, museum store sales, and restaurant or café sales. Findingshave revealed that some institutions have marked increases inmemberships, store purchases, and eatery sales that have contributed to theincrease of revenue streams. Results should be shared with colleagues andother institutions.5. Offer professional development workshops and benefits forhomeschool educators.Homeschool parents must be respected and recognized as theprimary educators for their children by museum educators. It is evidentfrom findings that they desire to be acknowledged as educators, andreceive the same benefits, discounts, and opportunities affordedtraditional-school teachers. Museums should invite homeschool educators145

to participate in professional development opportunities. Museumeducators should capitalize on this opportunity to inform homeschooleducators about museum place- and object-based learning and engagingactivities that they can incorporate in their teaching. Institutions shoulduse this opportunity to explore collaborations with homeschool educatorsin tailoring and refining programs and curriculum development forindependent learners. By extending these opportunities to the homeschooleducator the homeschool child will benefit; a stronger relationship will beforged with the homeschool community members, and a homeschoolparent volunteer base can be cultivated.6. Provide greater depth of engagement with collections and subjectexperts.Homeschoolers desire more in-depth and challenging engagement inmuseums. Homeschoolers are not used to traditional lecture-basedinstruction and prefer to participate in learner-centered guided discourse.Abigail Housen and Philip Yenawine’s Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS)used to find meaning and through the examination of visual arts are idealfor homeschoolers. Homeschool children are accustomed to sociallearning with peers, educators and subject experts, and constructknowledge through scaffolding, creating Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal146

Development. Museum educational programs should adapt VTS and itsopen-ended guided purposeful questioning to disciplines other than thevisual arts. Museum educators should create and foster a ZPD learningenvironment. The homeschool experience in the museum should befacilitated through interdisciplinary connections, personal meaningmaking, and multimodal multi-sensate approaches in instruction.Museum educators must realize that homeschooled children unfamiliarwith school practices, and do not wish to acquire knowledge in the sameways as traditionally schooled children.Institutions should expand opportunities for in-depth engagement byestablishing mentorships and apprenticeships with subject experts.Homeschoolers should be encouraged to volunteer, help docents facilitatetours, and assist curators with collections. Homeschooled children haveflexible schedules and can donate their time by volunteering at themuseum. Homeschoolers are not isolated by age groupings; therefore,they are accustomed to learning and working with multiple ages in asocial setting. These children are ideal candidates for helping facilitateeducational programs and assisting museum professionals.Institutions must expand offerings of pre-and post-visit materials.Research has shown that homeschool educators utilize both pre-and postvisitmaterials to gain prior knowledge, support the museum experience,147

einforce topics studied, and extend the learning experience. As museumsare a crucial component and resource for many homeschoolers, it iscritical that the quality and depth of the materials be enhanced and mademore challenging. Curatorial staff and museum educators’recommendations for books, journals, educational materials, andappropriate Web sites should be included in educational materials.Additionally, all educational materials and extension activities should beposted on museum Web sites for efficiency and cost effectiveness.7. Conduct outreach to the homeschool community through theInternet.Museum educators should utilize the Internet to establish a databasefor individual homeschool families and national and local homeschoolorganizations and support groups. Homeschoolers utilize the Internet tolink their diverse community together. In researching a wide variety ofInternet content—listservs, Web sites, blogs, and bulletin boards—findings reveal that the Internet is an active communication conduit for thehomeschool community. Homeschool parents and their children access theInternet for research, support, communication, and participation in onlinedistance learning. Homeschoolers share their learning experiences—bothgood and bad—at lighting broadband speed. Establishing relationships148

with support groups such as The Family Resource Center in New England,which maintains an extensive database of over 15,000 homeschoolfamilies, is essential to broaden outreach to the community. A richresource for museum educators to research and utilize are homeschoolWeb sites, local listservs, and support groups. Such efforts will not onlylocate homeschoolers, and therefore establish and contribute to a growingdatabase, but reviewing the sites will provide deeper insights into thehomeschool community.Many support groups publish online newsletters, containing eventcalendars—listing classes and field trips—educational resources, as wellas in-depth articles pertaining to homeschooling. Museum educatorsshould submit calendar information and program descriptions to onlinehomeschool newsletters. Moreover, the tone expressed must convey agenuine interest in serving the community to generate good will, and forgea stronger relationship between this community and museums. Clearly, theInternet is central to creating and maintaining a highly effective means foroutreach and deeper engagement for the homeschool community.149

8. Conduct outreach to the homeschool community throughhomeschool conferences.Museum educators should attend homeschool conferences to learnmore about the community in an environment where they function as alarge group. Furthermore, they should also actively participate in theseconferences. Homeschool conferences occur in every region of the countryand attract a wide range of highly active and committed homeschoolcommunity leaders and members. Conferences such as the Gulf CoastHome Education Conference in Houston, Texas, and Museum andCommunity Expo in Massachusetts, serve as excellent models of venuesthat allow museums to have direct contact with the homeschoolcommunity. Proceedings and activities are sometimes broadcast live onhomeschool Web sites, thereby reaching a global audience. Conferencesprovide the ideal avenue for not only for disseminating museuminformation such as programs and membership benefits, but also allowmuseum educators to facilitate demonstrations and provide hands-onactivities.150

For Museum Administrators, Museum Educators and theHomeschool Community1. Establish museum and homeschool educator collaborative forums.Institutions should collaborate with homeschool communityleaders in holding informational forums for museum educators to helpthem understand and therefore better serve homeschooled children. Handin Hand Homeschool Consulting, in collaboration with Baltimore areamuseums, has facilitated successful homeschool and museum educatordiscussions or forums. Through collaborative forums, museum educatorswill gain insight into a diverse spectrum of homeschool philosophies andthe learning environments that homeschool educators seek. Central tothese forums should be an examination of current museological educationpractices that align with homeschooling approaches to learning. Directcontact with a homeschool community leader provides museum educatorswith an opportunity for general query, to test and advance programconcepts, and brainstorm new ideas. This also affords colleagues theopportunity to discuss their concerns and the challenges they face inserving these independent learners and share solutions to these challenges.151

2. Create a Museum and Homeschool Community Web site.Establishing a mutually beneficial relationship between museumsand homeschoolers should be achieved through the Internet, with amuseum and homeschool community Web site. This method will facilitateoutreach, direct contact and dialog between museum educators,knowledgeable others, and the homeschool community. The site shouldhave two main components, one exclusively for museum educators, andthe other a collaborative space for museum educators, and the homeschoolcommunity. Proactive outreach to heighten the community’s awareness ofthe museum and homeschool Web site’s existence is essential. This can beaccomplished through homeschool listservs, homeschool conferences, andat homeschool educators’ professional development workshops.The museum educators’ component of the Web site would enablethem to communicate with fellow educators around the country. Emailgroup lists, bulletin boards, and blogs, should be included in the museumeducator’s component to facilitate ease of communication. These tools areinvaluable for museum educators to share ideas, collaborate on projectsand programs, and post inquiries. This venue would enable discussion ofthe challenges they face in serving homeschoolers, and provide possiblesolutions that address the needs of all independent learners.152

The second Web site component would allow the homeschoolcommunity to become engaged with museum educators, knowledgeableothers, and fellow homeschoolers. Museum educators would postprogramming information, schedules, lectures, and events designed for thehomeschool community. Focused discussions, either initiated byhomeschoolers or generated and directed by subject experts, should be anelement of this component. Curators and knowledgeable others candiscuss and facilitate deeper insight and appreciation of collections.Questions could be posted and answered by museum educators, curators,and subject experts. Having access to subject experts in such a mannerwould greatly enhance the understanding of their work in museums andmuseum collections by on-line participants.The advantage of utilizing the Internet is that it creates an idealavenue for informal learning and individualized learning experiences.Ideally, mentor relationships would be created between museum staff,curators, and subject experts. One model for such a situation would be thenonprofit organization, Achievement Advocate, an online mentoringcommunity 201 . This online site pairs students with mentors to guide andsupport learning.201 Achievement Advocate, http://www.achievementadvocate.org/aboutus.asp.153

By addressing the needs of the homeschool community, museumeducators will enrich the online museum experience for all informallearners that desire in-depth engagement. A museum and homeschoolcommunity Web site holds the promise of creating a dynamic new venuefor sharing ideas, concepts, and knowledge. Creating a collaborative Website fosters active engagement—optimizing the museum experience forhomeschoolers and other independent learners. Moreover, museumeducators will establish an effective avenue for exchange of ideas, andfoster creativity and cultivate collaborative partnerships with otherinstitutions.Museums present the kinds of authentic experiences—directcontact with subject experts, and object- and place-based learning—essential for informal learning and ideal for the homeschooled child.While there are exemplary museum programs designed to serve thehomeschooled child, they are not the norm. There must be a concertedeffort to bridge the gap between museums, their programs, and thehomeschool community. It is essential that these programs be designed toalign with the ethos of homeschooling—establishing a rich creativeenvironment that fosters life-long knowledge seeking—and not designedwith pre-conceived notions of what this unique community desires fromtheir museum experience.154

The recommendations provided here should help museum professionalsfulfill the field’s mandate to place education at the core of their mission,expand learning opportunities, become more inclusive, broaden theiroutreach, and encourage institutional collaboration within the homeschoolcommunity. The recommendations for museum educators will help createprograms that better serve homeschooled children and will cultivate andsustain a lasting relationship with the homeschool community.Moreover, by implementing these recommendations, museums and allfree-choice, independent learners, will benefit.155

BIBLIOGRAPHYAllardice, Linda. “Homeschooling Made Easy.” Link-Up, Nov.-Dec.2001,18.Allen, Karen, homeschool educator. Interview by author. San Francisco,California, 6 April 2005.Anderson, Brian C. “An A for Homeschooling.” City Journal. Summer2000. http://www.city-journal.org/. (25 December 2004).Anderson, Eric. “Unschooling Undefined.”http:/park.org/Guests/Educate/HTalk/unschool.htm. (1 March2005).Ansbacher, Ted. “John Dewey’s Experience in Education: Lessons forMuseums.” Curator: The Museum Journal 41, no. 1 (March 1998):36-49.Ansbacher, Ted. “What Are We Learning? Outcomes to the Museum ofExperience.” The Informal Learning Review, no. 53. March-April2002. http://www.scienceserves.com/id13.html. (15 March 2005).Ansbacher, Ted. “Outcomes to the Museum of Experience: Continuing theDiscussion.” The Informal Learning Review, no. 56. Sept. – Oct.2002. http://www.scienceserves.com/id13.html. (15 March 2005).Apple, Alexander, and Kelly King. “Homeschooling: Is it right for you?”Parents, April 2000, 114 -120.Apple, Michael W. “The Cultural Politics of Home Schooling.” The HomeEducation Movement in Context, Practice, and Theory: PeabodyJournal of Education 75, no. 1 and 2 (2000): 256-271.Archibeque, Jennifer. “Taking the Home-Schooling Leap.” TheAlbuquerque Journal, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 30 Nov. 2000.http://www.abqjournal.com/mountain/189974mtnews11-30-00.htm. (20 Jan. 2005).156

Armstrong-Champ, Brenda. “Head, Heart, Hands – Weaving WaldorfEducation into Home Learning.” Home Educator’s Family Times12, no.1. Jan.-Feb. 2004.http://www.homeeducator.com/FamilyTimes/articles/12-1article7.htm. (1 March 2005).Baldwin, Peter C. “Nocturnal Habits and Dark Wisdom: The AmericanResponse to Children in the Streets of the Night, 1890-1930.” Journalof Social History 35, no. 3 (Spring 2002): 602-603.Bailey, Elsa, and George Hein. “Museums and the Standards: Perspectiveson How Museums in the United States are Being Effected by theNational Education Reform Movement.” International Council ofMuseums (ICOM) Committee for Education and Cultural Action(CECA) Conference: Proceedings. Held in Christchurch, NewZealand 29 October –1 November 2000. 1-19.http://www.christchurchartgallery.org.nz/icomceca2000/papers/Elsa_Bailey_and_George_Hein.pdf. (2 January 2005).Barfield, Rhonda. Real-life Homeschooling: The Stories of 21 FamiliesWho Teach Their Children at Home. New York: Simon &Schuster, 2002.________. “Home School Families Have Different Backgrounds ThanCommonly Assumed.” The Barna Group. 20 August 2001.http://www.barna.org/cgi-bin/Home.asp. (29 Jan. 2005).Barnicle, Patricia. “Afterschool Programs and Museums.” NEMA News,New England Museum Association (Spring 2004): 8-11, 14-15.Basham, Patrick. “Homeschooling: From Extreme to the Mainstream.”Public Policy Sources, no. 51, 2001.http://oldfraser.lexi.net/publications/pps/51/homeschool.pdf. (4January 2005).Bass Marcus, Susan, senior educator, ARTiFACT Center, SpertusMuseum. Interview by author, telephone. Chicago, Illinois, 1January 2005.157

Bauer, Susan Wise and Jessie Wise, The Well-Trained Mind: A guide toClassical Education at Home. 2 nd ed. New York: W. W. Norton &Company, 2004.Bauman, Kurt J. “Home Schooling in the United States: Trends andCharacteristics.” no. 53. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau(July 2001).http://www.census.gov/population/documentation/twps0053/twps0053.pdf. (12 December 2004).Bauman, Kurt J. “Homeschooling in the United States: Trends andCharacteristics.” Education Policy Analysis Archives, 10 no. 26(May 2002). http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v10n26.html. (12 December2004).Beck, Tracey, educational director, Winterthur Museum, Garden, andLibrary. Interview by author, telephone. Wintherthur, Delaware, 31January 2005.Belfield, Clive R. “Home-Schooling in the US.” no.88 National Center forthe Study of Privatization in Education. New York, NY: NationalCenter for the Study of Privatization in Education TeachersCollege, Columbia University.http://www.ncspe.org/readrel.php?set=pub&cat=90. (24 Jan.2005).Beato, Greg. “Homeschooling Facts.” Reason 36, no.11 (April 2005): 35.Belfield, Clive. “Modeling school choice: A comparison of public,private-independent, private-religious and home-schooledstudents.” Education Policy Analysis Archives, 12 no. 30.http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v12n30/. (20 Dec. 2004).Bielick, Stacey, Kathryn Chandler, and Stephen Broughman. “Homeschooling in the United States: 1999.” Washington, DC: NationalCenter for Educational Statistics (Aug. 2001).http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2001033. (25Jan. 2005).Binnington, Kerry, educational director, Krasl Art Center. Interview byauthor, telephone. St. Joseph, Missouri, 15 March 2005.158

Blumenfeld, Samuel L. “Why Homeschooling is Important for America.”Vital Speeches of the Day 61 (Jan. 1995): 763-766.Blumenthal, Emily, educational coordinator for children and publicprograms, The Walters Art Museum. Interview by author,telephone. Baltimore, Maryland, 28 December 2004.Bodrova, Elena, and Deborah J. Long. “Tools of the Mind: A Case Studyof Implementing the Vygotskian Approach in American EarlyChildhood and Primary Classrooms.” Innodata Monographs, no. 7(2000): 11.Boli, John. “Globalization” In Encyclopedia on Education and Sociology,ed. by Peter Cookson, Jr., Alan Sadovnik, and David L. Levinson.Cambridge: Garland Publishing, 1996: 4.Brendtro, Larry K. “Maria Montessori: “Teacher of UnteachableChildren.” Reclaiming Children and Youth 7, no. 4 (Winter 1999):201-206.Bretz, Christine R. Homeschoolers and the Melbane Public Library: ACase Study. Masters thesis, University of Chapel Hill, NorthCarolina, 2000.Brown, Ann L., Ash D., M. Rutherford, K. Nakagawa, A. Gordon, and J.Campione. “Distributed Expertise in the Classroom.” InDistributed Cognitions: Psychological and EducationalConsiderations, ed. G. Salomon, 188-128. New York: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1993.Brown, John Seely, Allan Collins, and Paul Duguid. “Situated Learningand the Culture of Learning.” Educational Researcher 18, no. 1(Jan. – Feb. 1989): 32-42.Brualdi, Amy. “Gardner’s Theory,” Teacher Librarian 26, no. 2 (Nov. –Dec. 1998): 16-29.Buccini, Cynthia K. “Homeschooled Students Make the Grade at BU.”Bostonia, Winter 2003.http://www.bu.edu/alumni/bostonia/2003/winter/homeschooler/.(20 Jan. 2005).159

Bumgarner, Marlene, “A Conversation With John Holt.” The NaturalChild Project, 1980.http://www.naturalchild.com/guest/marlene_bumgarner.html. (15March 2005).Callahan, Raymond. Education and the Cult of Efficiency. Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1962. 1-148.Carper, James C. “Home Schooling, History, and Historians: The Past asPresent.” The High School Journal (April-May 1992): 252-257.Carper, James C. “Pluralism to Establishment to Dissent: The Religiousand Educational Context of Home Schooling.” The HomeEducation Movement in Context, Practice, and Theory: The HomeEducation Movement in Context, Practice, and Theory: PeabodyJournal of Education, 75, no. 1 and 2 (2000): 8-19.Carter, Steven. “OMSI Visit a Hit for Home Schooling.” The Oregonian,Salem, Oregon, 2 Feb. 2001.Cassebaum, Anne. “Revisiting Summerhill.” Phi Delta Kappan 84, no.8(April 2003): 575-578.Ceralde, Gary, homeschool educator. Interview by author. San Francisco,California, 6 March 2005.Chamberlin Jaime. “Reaching “Flow” to Optimize Work and Play.”American Psychological Association Monitor Online 29, no.7 (July1998). http://www.apa.org/monitor/jul98/joy.html. (15 March2005).________. Christian Science Monitor. “Learning as an Endless OdysseyAward-winning Junior High Instructor Aims to Teach StudentsHow the Real World Works.” Christian Science Monitor, 9 July,1990. p. 12.________. Christian Science Monitor. “Self Knowledge: True Education”Christian Science Monitor, 10 September 1990. p. 16.160

Clery, E. “Homeschooling: The Meaning that the Homeschool ChildAssigns to this Experience.” Issues in Educational Research 8 no.1 (1998): 1-13.Cloud, John, and Jodie Morse. “Seceding from School: Home SweetSchool. Time 158, no. 8, 2001, 46-54.Clowes, George A. “Masters of Their Own Souls: John Taylor Gatto.”School Reform News (August 2001).http://www.heartland.org/Article.cfm?artId=10083. (18 March2005).Cochran, Patrick Casey. “A Radical Ideology for Home Education: TheJourney of John Holt From School Critic to Home SchoolAdvocate: 1964-1985.” Home School Researcher 13, no. 3 (1999):1-10.Cohen, Cafi. Homeschooling: The Teen Years. Roseville California: PrimaPublishing, 2000.Cole Peggy Ruth, ”Constructivism – Rediscovering the Discovered.”Curator: The Museum Journal 38 (Oct. 1995): 225.Collom, Ed, and Douglas. E, Mitchell. “Home Schooling as a SocialMovement: Identifying the Determinants of Homeschoolers’Perceptions.” http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:0qi-_5et6fAJ:www.usm.maine.edu/soc/collom/collom%26mitchell.pdf+ed+collom+and+Douglas+Mitchell&hl=en&client=safari. (12January 2005).Collom, Ed. “The Ins and Outs of Homeschooling: The Determinants ofParental Motivations and Student Achievement.” Orono:University of Maine (2001).Conger, Stu. “Timetable of Educational Interventions.” The InnovationJournal (2000): 4.Cordes, Helen. “Battling for the Hearts of Homeschoolers.” Salon.com,Oct. 2000. http://www.salon.com. (18 December 2004).161

Coulter, Dee Joy. “Montessori and Steiner: A Pattern of ReverseSymmetries.” Holistic Education Review 4, no. 2 (Summer 1991):30-32.Cox, Craig. “School’s Out.” Utne Reader, Jan.-Feb. 2002, 18-21.Crowson, Robert. “The Home Schooling Movement: A Few ConcludingObservations.” The Home Education Movement in Context,Practice, and Theory: Peabody Journal of Education 75, no. 1 and2 (2000): 294-300.Cunningham, Ian. “Report of an Inquiry Into Summerhill School.” Centerfor Self Managed Learning, January 2000.http://www.selfmanagedlearning.org/Summerhill/RepMain.htm#Work(15 March 2005).Crowley, Kevin and Maureen Callahan. “Describing and SupportingCollaborative Scientific Thinking in Parent-Child Interactions.”Journal of Museum Education 23, no. 1(1997): 13-18.Csikzsentmihalyi, Mihalyi. “A Creative Dialog.” Psychology Today 32,no. 4, July-Aug. 1999, 58-61.Csikzsentmihalyi, Mihalyi. “Assessing Aesthetic Education: Measuringthe Ability to: Ward Off Chaos.” Arts Education Policy Review 99,no.1 (Sept. – Oct. 1997): 33-39.Csikszentmihalyi, Mihalyi, and Kim Hermanson. “Intrinsic Motivations inMuseums, Why Does one Want to Learn?” In Falk, J., andDeirking L, Public Institutions for Personal Learning, WashingtonD.C.: AAM (1995): 67-77.Csikszentmihalyi, Mihalyi. “Motivating People to Learn.” Edutopia, April2002.http://www.glef.org/php/interview.php?id=Art_964&key=005. (15February 2005.Csikzsentmihalyi, Mihalyi. “Thoughts About Education.” New HorizonsFor Learning (2000).162

Dahlman. Simon J. “There is No Place Like Home.” Focus on the Family,11 Sept. 2001, 9-11.Danford, Kenneth. “Liberated Learners: Inspiring Stories From NorthStar: Self-Directed Learning for Teens.” North Star: Self-DirectedLearning for Teens (2002). http://www.northstarteens.org. (29 Jan.2005).Daniels, Anthony. “Ivan Illich 1926-2002.” The New Criterion 21, no 5(Jan. 2003). http://newcriterion.com /21/jan03/illich.htm. (15March 2005).DeVries, Rheta. “What Does Research on Constructivist Education TellUs About Effective Schooling?” The Iowa Academy of EducationOccasional Research Paper, no. 5 (June 2002).http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:IwVxfHgBxCAJ:www.uni.edu/coe/regentsctr/Publications/what%2520is%2520constructivist.pdf+Rheta+Devries&hl=en&client=safari. (3 January 2005).Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. New York: The McMillanCompany, 1916.http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/publications/Projects/digitexts/dewey/d_e/chapter01.html. (1 March 2005).Dewey, John. Experience in Education. New York: The McMillanCompany, 1938.Dierking, Lynn D. “Learning Theory and Learning Styles: An Overview.”Journal of Museum Education 16, no. 1 (Winter 1991): 4-6.Dierking, Lynn D. “The Family Museum Experience.” Journal of MuseumEducation 14, no. 2. (Spring-Summer 1989): 4-11.Dierking, Lynn D., and John H. Dierking. “Understanding Free-ChoiceLearning: A Review of the Research and Its Application to MuseumWeb Sites.” Museums and the Web 1998: Proceedings. Held inToronto, Canada, 22-25 April 1998.http://www.archimuse.com/mw98/bios/falk.html. (2 February 2005).Dierking, Lynn D., Jessica J. Luke, Kathryn A. Float, and Leslie Edelman.“The Family and Free-choice Learning.” Museum News (Nov.-Dec. 2001): 38-43, 67- 69.163

Dodson, James, “There Is No Place Like Home.” Focus On Family,September 2001, 9-11.Dobson, Linda. The Homeschooling Book Of Answers. Roseville,California: Prima Publishing, 1998.Doherty, Brian. “Illegal Education?” Reason 34, no.5 (Oct. 2002): 10.Donjacour, Anne, homeschool educator. Interview by author. SanFrancisco, California, 8 April 2005.Donjacour, Bob, homeschool educator. Interview by author. SanFrancisco, California, 8 April 2005.Duncan, Carol. Civilizing Rituals Inside Public Art Museums. New York:Routledge, 1995.Easton, Freda. “Educating the Whole Child, Head Heart and Hands”Theory into Practice 36, (Spring 1997): 87.Edutopia. “Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi on Motivating People to Learn.”Edutopia, 11 April 2002.http://www.edutopia.org/php/interview.php?id=Art_964&key=005. (27 March 2005).Eby, Douglas. “Creativity and Flow Psychology.” Talent DevelopmentResources.http://talentdevelop.com/Page8.html. (14 March 2004).Ellis, William N. “Community Life-Long Learning Centres.” A CoalitionFor Self-Learning. (2000)http://www.creatinglearningcommunities.org/book/overview/ellis1.htm. (1 March 2005).Ensign, Jacque. “Homeschooling Gifted Students: An Introductory Guidefor Parents.” ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and GiftedEducation. (1997).164

Ensign, Jacque. “Defying the Stereotypes of Special Education: HomeSchool Students.” The Home Education Movement in Context,Practice, and Theory: Peabody Journal of Education 75 no. 1 and2. (2000): 147-158.Erickson, H. Lynn. “Concept-based Learning.” Museum News 79, no. 6(Nov.-Dec. 2000): 41-45.Fager, Jennifer, and Cori Brewster. “Making Positive Connections WithHomeschoolers.” Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory(Jan. 2000): 1-29.Falk, John H. “Visitors: Who Does, Who Doesn’t and Why?” MuseumNews 77, no. 2 (March-April 1998): 38-43.Falk, John H. “A Framework for Diversifying Museum Audiences:Putting Heart and Hand in the Right Place.” Museum News 77, no.5 (Sept.-Oct. 1998): 36-39, 61.Falk, John H. “Museums as Institutions for Personal Learning.” Daedlus(Summer, 1999).Falk, John H., and Lynn D. Dierking. “Free-choice Learning: AnAlternative Term to Informal Learning? Informal LearningEnvironments Research Newsletter 2, no.1 (July 1998): 2.Falk, John H., And Lynn D. Dierking. Learning from Museums VisitorExperiences and the Making of Meaning. Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press, 2000.Falk, John H., And Lynn D. Dierking. Lessons Without Limit How Free-Choice Learning is Transforming Education. Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press, 2002.Farber, Peggy J. “The New Face of Homeschooling.” Harvard EducationLetter Research Online. March-April 2001.http://www.edletter.org/past/issues/2001. (18 Dec. 2004).Farenga, Patrick, homeschool educator, president John Holt Associates.Interview by author, telephone. Medford, Massachusetts, 12 May2005.165

Farenga, Patrick. “John Holt and the Origins of ContemporaryHomeschooling.” Paths of Learning 1 no. 1 (Spring 1999 revisedNov. 2003): 34-37.http://www.pathsoflearning.net/library/Paths01-Farenga.pdf. (28December 2004).Farris, Michael P., and Scott A. Woodruff. “The Future of HomeSchooling.” The Home Education Movement in Context, Practice,and Theory: Peabody Journal of Education 75, no.1 and 2 (2000):233-255Feldman, Jay, and Peter Gray. “Some Educational Benefits of FreelyChosen Age Mixing Among Children and Adolescents.” Phi DeltaKappa 80 no. 7(March 1999): 507-12.Fife, Melanie, homeschool educator. Interview by author. San Francisco,California, 6 April 2005.Floyd, Minuette B. “Interdisciplinary Instruction Using Museums.” PhiDelta Kappan Fastbacks, no. 524 (2004): 3-46.Flynn Keith, Diane, homeschool educator, publisher HomeFires Journal.Interview by author, telephone. San Mateo, California, 11 March2005.Foster, Christine. “In a Class by Themselves.” Stanford Magazine, Nov.-Dec. 2000.http://www.stanfordalumni.org/jg/mig/news_magazine/magazine/novdec00/articles/homeschooling.html. (20 Jan. 2005).Fox, Cyndi, educational programs information coordinator, Monterey BayAquarium. Interview by author. Monterey, California, 4 April2005.Fuller, Stacy, instructional manager, Amon Carter Museum. Interview byauthor, telephone. Fort Worth, Texas, 10 March 2005.Gajardo, Marcelo. “Ivan Illich.” UNESCO Prospects: A Quarterly Reviewof Comparative Education 24, no. 3 and 4. (1994): 711-720.166

Gardner, Howard. “Education for Understanding during the Early Years:Excerpts from The Unschooled Mind.” Journal of MuseumEducation 17, no. 2 (Spring-Summer 1992).Gardner, Howard. The unschooled mind: How children think and howschools should teach. New York: Harper Collins, 1991.Gartenhaus, Alan, “Minds In Motion: Using Museums to Expand CreativeThinking.” San Francisco: Caddo Gap Press, 1991, revised 1993.Gatto, John Taylor. “Against School: How Public Education Cripples OurKids, and Why.” Harper’s Magazine 307, no. 1840, September2003, 33-38.Gatto, John Taylor. Dumbing Us Down: The Hidden Curriculum inCompulsory Schooling. 2 nd ed. Gabriola Island: New SocietyPublishers, 2002.Gatto, John Taylor. The Underground History of American Education.New York: Oxford Village Press 2000.Geirland, John “Go With the Flow.” Wired, September 1996.http://hotwired.wired.com/collections/web_development/4.09_csik_pr.html.(15 March 2005).Gilman, Robert. ”Growing Without Schooling: An Interview with JohnHolt.” In Context 6 (Summer 1984): 46-50.Glassman, Michael. “Dewey and Vygotsky: Society, Experience, andInquiry in Educational Practice.” Educational Researcher 30, no. 4(2001): 10.Goff, Karen Goldberg. “Learning With Friends.” The Washington Times,Washington D.C.http://www.washtimes.com/familytimes/20030425-82878656.htm.(18 January 2005).Griffith, Mary. “An Unschooler's Lament: What's So Hard ToUnderstand?” Paths of Learning: Options for Families &Communities 1 no. 2, (Autumn 1999): 17-21.167

Griffith, Mary. The Unschooling Handbook: How to Use the Whole Worldas Your Child’s Classroom. New York: Three Rivers Press, 1998.Groll, Stephanie. “Unschooling America: Having the Guts to Leave aCrippling School System.” Fabula Magazine, Summer 2001.http://www.fabulamag.com/archives/matters/0108_unschooling.htm. (30 January 2005).Haitt-Michael, Diana. “Parent Involvement in American Public Schools: AHistorical Perspective 1642-2000.” School Community Journal 4,no. 2 (Fall-Winter 1994): 247-258.Hanley, Larry. “Educational Technology and Academic Labor.” RadicalTeacher 63 (Spring 2002): 25.Hardon, John A. “John Dewey: Profit of American Naturalism.” TheCatholic Educational Review (September 1952).http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMESCHL/JNDEWEY1.HTM.(14 March 2005).Hardon, John A. “John Dewey- Radical Social Educator.” The CatholicEducational Review (October 1952).http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMESCHL/JNDEWEY2.HTM.(14 March 2005).Hardon, John A. “The Dewey in American Education.” EducationalDigest (1950).http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMESCHL/JNDEWEY3.HTM.(14 March 2005).Hart, Kathleen, “An Interview with Michelle Seligson.” Nema News, NewEngland Museum Association (Spring 2004): 4 -7.Havens, Kathleen, science educator, Houston Museum of Natural Science.Interview by author 15 March 2005. Telephone. Houston, Texas.Hein, George E. “Evaluating Teaching and Learning in Museums.” InMuseum: Media, Message, ed. E. Hooper-Greenwood. London:Routledge, 1993, 189-203168

Hein, George E. “Intrinsic Motivation in Museums: Why Does One Wantto Learn?” In Falk, John H. and Lynn D. Dierking, PublicInstitutions for Personal Learning, 67-77. Washington D.C.:American Museums Association, 1995.Hein, George E. “John Dewey and Museum Education.” Curator: TheMuseum Journal 38 (October 2004): 413-427.Hein, George E. “Is Meaning Making Constructivism? Is ConstructivismMeaning Making? The Exhibionist 18, no. 2 (Fall 1999): 15-18.Hein, George E. Learning in the Museum. London: Routledge, 1998.Hein, George E. “Museum-School Bridge.” Dimensions (Jan.-Feb. 2004).http://www.astc.org/pubs/dimensions/2004/jan-feb/. (3 June 2005).Hein, George E. “The Challenge and Significance of Constructivism.”Proceeding, Hands On! Europe, Conference 2001. London:Discover, 2001: 35-42Hein, George E. “The Challenge of Constructivist Teaching.” In Passionand Pedagogy: Relation, Creation, and Transformation inTeaching, ed. E. Mirochnik, and D. C. Sherman, 197-214. NewYork, Peter Lang, 2002.Hein, George. “The Museum and the Needs of the People.” In Institute forInquiry: International Committee of Museum EducatorsConference: Proceedings. Held in Jerusalem, Israel, October1991.http://www.exploratorium.edu/IFI/resources/research/constructivistlearning.html. (15 March 2005).Henderson, Anne, and Susy Watts. “How They Learn: The Family in theMuseum.” Museum News 79, no. 6 (Nov.-Dec. 2000): 41-45, 67.Henning, Justine, homeschool educator. Interview by author, telephone.Brooklyn, New York, 18 March 2005.169

Heuer, Stephen. “Web Puts The Home Back In Homework,” CNN.com, 19September 2000.http://archives.cnn.com/2000/TECH/computing/09/19/online.homeschool.idg/index.html. (2 December 2004).Hill, Anita. “Summerhill Creed Given a Clean-up.” The ObserverGuardian Unlimited, London, England, 21 October 2004).http://education.guardian.co.uk/schools/story/0,5500,1340357,00.html?gusrc=rss. (15 March 2005).Hirzey, Ellen Cochran. “Excellence in Equity Education and the PublicDimensions of Museums.” Washington D.C.: AmericanAssociations of Museums, 1992.Holt, John, and Pat Farenga. Teach Your Own: The John Holt Book ofHomeschooling. Cambridge: Persus Publishing, 2003.Holt, John. The Underachieving School. New York: Pittman, 1969.Honan, William H. “Looking Back at Forward Thinkers.” New YorkTimes, New York, 2 November 1997, A 4 p. 24.Hontalas, Philip, homeschool educator. Interview by author. SanFrancisco, California, 11 April 2005.Hooper-Greenhill, Eilean. “The Museum as Teacher: The Challenge ofPedagogical Change.” Online Papers 2001, University ofLeichester. http://www.le.ac.uk/museumstudies/study/paper4.pdf.(3 January 2005).Hung, David W.L. “Metaphorical Ideas Mediating Artifacts for SocialConstruction of Knowledge: Implications fro the Writings ofDewey and Vygotsky,” International Journal of InstructionalMedia 29, no. 2 (2002): 197- 215.Hunt, Carolyn, science educator, John P. McGovern Museum of MedicalScience. Interview by author, telephone. Houston, Texas, 6 March2005.170

Illich, Ivan. “A Special Supplement: Education Without Schools: How ItCan Be Done.” The New York Review of Books, 15, no. 12, 7January 1971. http://www.nybooks.com/articles/10701. (14 March2005).Illich, Ivan. Deschooling Society.http://www.ecotopia.com/webpress/deschooling.htm. (14 March2005).Illich, Ivan. “Ivan Illich With Jerry Brown.” Interviewed by Jerry Brownfor We The People, 22 March 1996. KPFA Radio Transcript.http://www.wtp.org. (15 March 2005).Innerest, Carol, and Sean Kelly ed. “The New Face of Homeschooling.”Parent Power! 2, no.8, December 2000.http://www.edreform.com/_upload/00dec.pdf. (20 December2004).Iran-Nejad, Asgar. “Constructivism as a Substitute for Memorization inLearning: Meaning Created by the Learner.” Education 116, no. 1(Fall 1995): 225.Ivic, Ivan. “Lev S. Vygotsky.” UNESCO Prospects: A Quarterly Reviewof Comparative Education 24, no. 3 and 4. (1999): 417-485.Jacoby, Daniel. “Apprenticeship in the United States.” EH.Net.http://www.eh.net/encyclopedia/?article=jacoby.apprenticeship.us.(5 June 2005).Jeffrey–Clay, Kodi R. “Constructivism in Museums: How MuseumsCreate Meaningful Learning Environments.” Journal of MuseumEducation 23, no. 2 (1997): 7.Jensen, Derrick. ”Thinking Outside the Classroom: An Interview WithZenobia Barlow.” Sun (March 2002): 4-11.171

Johnson, Martin, and Steven Rasmussen. “ An Adventure of the AmericanMind.” In 2003 Semi-annual Report AAM. Washington D.C.:American Association of Museums (Feb.-June 2003): 56-59, 114-121, 122-123, 142-143.http://www.aamprogram.org/curriculum/072003_semiAnnualReport.pdf. % January 2005).Jones, Paul, and Gene Gloeckner. “A Study of Admission Officers’Perceptions and Attitudes Towards Homeschool Students.”Journal of College Admission, no. 185 (Fall 2004): 12-21.Jaycox, Rebecca. “Rural Home Schooling and Place-based Education.”ERIC Digest. (1996) http://www.eric.ed.gov. (20 December 2004).Kameda, Masaaki. “Educator Hopes to Revive Sister School in Scotland.”The Japanese Times Online, 10 June 2004.http://www.japantimes.co.jp/cgibin/getarticle.pl5?nn20040610f1.htm.(25 March 2005).Kanigel, Robert. The One Best Way: Fredrick Winslow Taylor and theEnigma of Efficiency. New York: Penguin Books,1999.http://www.lib.stevenstech.edu/collections/fwtaylor/featured.html.(2 June 2005).Kantrowitz, Barbara, and Pat Wingert. “Learning at Home: Does it Passthe Test?” Newsweek, 132 no. 14 (5 October 1998): 64-70.Kaplan, Paul. “Reaching Out to Homeschooling Families: Service andPrograms.” Illinois Libraries (Winter 2001): 44-46.Kappler, Elizabeth, and Christopher Roellke.” The Promise of MultiageGrouping.” Kappa Delta Pi Record 38, no. 4 (Summer 2002): 165-70.Kaseman, Larry and Susan Kaseman. “Does Homeschooling ResearchHelp Homeschooling.” A to Z Home’s Cool Homeschooling.http://homeschooling.gomilpitas.com/weblinks/research.htm. (23December 2004).172

Kaseman, Larry, and Susan Kaseman. “The Kingdom That Never Was:Inaccuracies in a Sociological Study of Homeschooling.” HomeEducation Magazine (Jan. – Feb. 2002).http://www.homeedmag.com/HEM/191/jftch.html. (15 December2004).Kenney, Christopher J., director of education, William McKinleyPresidential Library and Museum. Interview by author, telephone.Canton, Ohio, 16 March 2005.Kimberling, Garth. “Dictionary of Philosophical Terms and Names.”Philosophy Pages, 2002.http://www.philosophypages.com/index.htm. (20 March 2005).Kincaid, Dolores, registrar and homeschool educator, Iris and B. GeraldCantor Center for the Visual Arts, Stanford University. Interviewby author, telephone. Stanford, California, 6 June 2005.Kiyosaki Robert T and Rebecca Kochenderfer. Homeschooling forSuccess: How Parents Can Create a Superior Education of TheirChild. New York: Warner Books, 2002.Kleiner, Carolyn. “Homeschooling Comes of Age.” Home Educator’sFamily Times 8, no. 6, Nov.-Dec. 2000.http://www.homeeducator.com/FamilyTimes/backissues.htm. (6December 2004).Knowles, J. Gary. “Fox in the Chicken Coop or Goose in the Nest Layinga Golden Egg? Reflections on Researching Home Schools.” HomeEducation Magazine 8, no. 1, 1991, 15-17, 39-41, 49.Knowles, J. Gary, Stacey E. Marlow, and James A. Muchmore, “FromPedagogy to Ideology: Origins and Phases of Home Education inthe United States, 1970-1990.” American Journal of Education100, no. 2 (1992): 195-235.Kodeck, Amanda, manager of school programs, The Walters Art Museum.Interview by author, telephone. Baltimore Maryland, 28 December2004.173

Kuhns, Marilyn, educational coordinator, Elgin Public Museum. Interviewby author, telephone. Elgin, Illinois, 15 March 2005.Lampky, Lynn, homeschool educator. Interview by author. San Francisco,California, 6 April 2005.Lancaster, Phil. “The future of home schooling.”http://www.visionforumministries.org/sections/hotcon/ht/education/futureofhomeschooling.asp. (20 December 2004).Lande, Nancy. Homeschooling: A Patchwork of Days: Share a Day With30 Homeschool Families. Bozeman, Montana: Windy Creek Press,1996.Leinhardt, Gaea, Kevin Crowley, and Karen Knutson eds. LearningConversations in Museums. New Jersey: Lawrence Elderbaum,2002.Lenart, Claudia M. “Educating the Whole Child.” Conscious Choice,August 2000.http://consciouschoice.com/2000/cc1308/waldorfschools1308.html. (14 March 2005).Levin, Robert A. “The Debate over Schooling Influences of Dewey andThorndike,” Childhood Education 68 no. 2 (Winter 1991): 72.Levinson, Martin H. “Mapping Creativity With a Capital C,” Etc. 54,Winter 1997-1998: 447-453.Lines, Patricia M. “Home Schooling." ERIC Clearinghouse onEducational Management, April 1995. ED381849.http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-1/home.htm. (1 December 2004).Lines, Patricia M. “Homeschooling.”http://cepm.uoregon.edu/publications/digests/digest151.html. (1December 2004).Lines Patricia M. “Homeschooling comes of age,” ERIC Clearinghouseon Educational Management, November 2001. ED457539.http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-2/homeschooling.htm. (1December 2004).174

Lines, Patricia M. “Homeschoolers: Estimating Numbers and Growth.”National Institute on Student Achievement, Curriculum, andAssessment, Office of Educational Research and Improvement U.S.Department of Education. Spring 1999. ED456167.http://www.ed.gov/offices/OERI/SAI/homeschool/index.html. (1December 2004).Llewellyn, Grace. The Teenage Liberation Handbook. Eugene, Oregon:Lowry House, 1998.Lorson, Mark. “Science in the Home School.” ERIC Clearinghouse forScience, Mathematics, and Environmental Education, May 1995.ED432456. http://eric.ed.gov. (2 December 2004).________. Los Angeles Times. “Conversation with EducationalRevolutionary John Taylor Gatto. Los Angeles Times, 16September 1995, B p. 7.Lubienski, Christopher. “Whither the Common Good?: A Critique ofHome Schooling.” The Home Education Movement in Context,Practice, and Theory: Peabody Journal of Education, 75 no. 1 and2 (2000): 207-232.Luke, Catherine. “Home Schooling: Learning from Dissent.” CanadianJournal of Educational Policy, Number 25 (2003).Lyman, Isabel. “Answers to Homeschool Questions.” The New American,6 May 2002, 31-33.Lyman, Isabel. “Homeschooling Back to the Future.” Cato Institute, 294.http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa-294.html. (3 December 2004).Lyman, Isabel. “The Whys of Homeschooling.” Home Educator’s FamilyTimes 11, no. 2, April-May 2003.http://www.homeeducator.com/FamilyTimes/backissues.htm. (14December 2004).Lyman, Isabel. “What’s Behind the Growth of Homeschooling?” USAToday 127 (1998): 64-6.http://www.homeeducator.com/FamilyTimes/backissues.htm. (12December 2004).175

Lyster-Mensh, Laurae. “Is Homeschooling Sexist?” Home EducationMagazine, Nov.-Dec. 2000. http://www.home-edmagazine.com/HEM/176/ndsexist.html.(20 December 2004).Moen, Beverly R. “Multi-age Education – Time for a Change,” Waupaca,Wisconsin; School District of Waupaca. (March 2005).http://wsd.waupaca.k12.wi.us/wlc/primary/multi/multigrad.html.(15 March 2005).Mason, Charlotte. The Original Home Schooling Series: The ClassicReference by the Founder of the Home Schooling Movement.Wheaton, Illinois: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., 1989.Mason, Charlotte. Parents and Children: The Parent in the Education ofthe Child. Wheaton, Illinois: Tyndale House, 1989.Mathews, Jay. “Correcting Misconceptions about Home Schooling.”http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A17676-2004Jul27.html. (25 January 2005).Mattox, William R., Jr. “Homeschooling Benefits: Children LessPreoccupied with Peer Acceptance.” San Francisco Chronicle,San Francisco, California, 19 March 1999, A23.Mayer, Melinda, “Bridging the Theory-Practice Divide in ContemporaryArt Museum Education.” Art Education (March 2005).Mays, Robert and Sune Nordwall. “What is Anthroposophy? WaldorfAnswers , 2004.http://www.waldorfanswers.com/Anthroposophy.htm. (10 March2005).Mays, Robert and Sune Nordwall. “ Who is Rudolph Steiner?” WaldorfAnswers, 2004.http://www.waldorfanswers.com/Rudolphsteiner.htm. (10 March2005).McDowell, Susan A., & Ray, Brian D. “The Home Education Movementin Context, Practice, and Theory: Editors’ introduction.” The HomeEducation Movement in Context, Practice, and Theory: PeabodyJournal of Education 75 no. 1 and 2. (2000): 1-7.176

Medlin, Richard G. “Home schooling and the question of socialization.”The Home Education Movement in Context, Practice, and Theory:Peabody Journal of Education, 75 no. 1 and 2. (2000): 107-123.Miller, Ron. “From Schools to Learning Communities: A Historic Shift.”A Coalition For Self-Learning, 2000.http://www.creatinglearningcommunities.org/book/overview/miller1.htm. (1 March 2005).Miller, Ron. “Pioneers in Community-Based Learning”. A Coalition ForSelf-Learning, 2000. http://www.creatinglearningcommunities.org/book/overview/miller2.htm. (1 March 2005).Miner, Susan. ”The Challenge of Touring Home School Groups.” TheDocent Educator 12, no. 2 (Winter 2002-2003): 6-7.Munari, Alberto. “Jean Piaget.” UNESCO Prospects: A Quarterly Reviewof Comparative Education 24, no. 1 and 2 (1994): 311-327.Natal, Aimee. “Charlotte Mason.” The Encyclopedia of InformalEducation, 2000. http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-mason.htm. (10March 2005).Natale, Jo Anna. “On-Line School for Home Learners.” The EducationDigest 61, no. 4 (December 1995): 36-39.National Center for Educational Statistics.” Homeschooling in the UnitedStates: 1999.” U.S. Department of Education Institute of EducationSciences NCES 2001, Issue Brief, 2001.http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2001/2001033.pdf. (28 December 2004).National Center for Educational Statistics.” 1.1 Million HomeschooledStudents in the United States in 2003.” U.S. Department ofEducation Institute of Education Sciences NCES 2004–115 IssueBrief. http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2004115.(28 December 2004).Neill, Alexander S. Summerhill, A Radical Approach to Child Rearing.Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1998.Neill, Alexander S. Summerhill School, A New View Childhood. NewYork: St. Martin’s Press, 1960 Revised 1995.177

Nemer, Kariane Mari. “Understanding Education: Toward Building aHomeschooling Research Agenda.” The Occasional Paper Series,National Center of Privatization in Education, ColumbiaUniversity no. 48, (June 2002).http://ncspe.org/publications_files/114_OP48.pdf. (4 December2004).Norman, Donald A. “Optimal Flow,” Arts Education Policy Review 97(March -April 1006): 35-38.Norstad, Eric. “McGuffey’s Readers.” Viewpoints, 27 Oct. 1995. ED394141.http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/26/02/d9.pdf. (3 June 2005).Ocello, Claudia, curator of education, New Jersey Historical Society.Interview by author, telephone. Newark, New Jersey, 21 December2004.Ottenweller, Cecelia, independent museum educator. Interview by author,telephone. Houston, Texas, 15 February 2005.Paulson, Amanda. “A Maverick Takes on Public Schooling: Interviewwith John Taylor Gatto” Christian Science Monitor, 10 October2000, p. 21.Paulson, Amanda. “Sharing Ideas, Skills at Resource Centers.” ChristianScience Monitor, 10 October 2000, p. 19.Perko, Janet, educator, Portland Museum of Art. Interview by author,telephone. Portland, Oregon, 7 January 2005.Petitpas, Janet, assistant director, Bay Area Discovery Museum. Interviewby author, telephone. Sausalito, California, 12 December 2004.Pink, Daniel H. “I’m a Saboteur.” Fast Company 40, November 2000.http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/40/wf_gatto.html. (1February 2005).178

Potter, John. “That Dreadful Educationalist: Answering A. S. Neill’sCritics.” Spinning Globe. Available athttp://www.spinninglobe.net/dreadfulneill.htm. (15 March 2005).Princiotta, Daniel, Bielick, Stacey, & Chapman, Chris. “1.1 MillionHomeschooled Students in the United States in 2003.”Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute ofEducation Sciences. http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2004/2004115.pdf. (5December 2004).Prycer, Melissa, curator of education, Old City Park: The HistoricalVillage of Dallas. Interview by author, telephone. Dallas, Texas,15 March 2005.Ransom, Marsha. “What is Unschooling?” Home Educator’s FamilyTimes 8, no. 5 Sept. – Oct. 2000.http://www.homeeducator.com/FamilyTimes/backissues.htm. (14December 2004).Rathbone, Charles H. “A Learner’s Bill of Rights,” Phi Delta Kappan 86,no. 6 (February 2005): 471.Ray, Brian D., homeschool educator, president, National Home EducationResearch Institute. Interview by author, telephone. Salem, Oregon,27 April 2005.Ray, Brian D. “Contemplations on Home Education Research by aResearcher Who is a Home Educator.” Home Education Magazine8, no. 1, Jan. - Feb. 1991, 18 - 19, 23.Ray, Brian D. “Facts on Homeschooling.” (February 2003).http://www.nheri.org/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=21. (29 January 2005).Ray, Brian D. “Home Schooling for Individuals’ Gain and Society’sCommon Good.”The Home Education Movement in Context, Practice, and Theory:Peabody Journal of Education, 75 no. 1 and 2 (2000): 272-293.Ray, Brian D. “Home Education Research Fact Sheet.” Salem: NationalHome Education Research Institute Publications, 2000.179

Ray, Brian D. ”Home Schooling on the Threshold: A Survey of Researchat the Dawn of the New Millennium.” Salem: National HomeEducation Research Institute Publications, 1999.Ray, Brian D. “Home Schooling: The Ameliorator of Negative Influenceson Learning? The Home Education Movement in Context, Practice,and Theory: Peabody Journal of Education 75, no.1 and 2 (2000):71-106.Ray, Brian D. “On the Propriety of Education Professionals InstructingHome Educators.” Salem: National Home Education ResearchInstitute, 1992.Ray, Brian D. Worldwide guide to homeschooling: Facts and stats on thebenefits of home school 2003 - 2004. Nashville: Broadman &Holman, 2003.Ray, Brian D. Worldwide guide to homeschooling: Facts and stats on thebenefits of home school, 2004 - 2005. Nashville: Broadman &Holman, 2004.Reich, Rob. “The Civic Perils of Homeschooling.” EducationalLeadership 59, no. 7 (2002): 56-59.Rees, Jonathan. “Fredrick Taylor in the Classroom: Standardized Testingand Scientific Management.” Radical Pedagogy 3, no.2 (Fall2001). http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue3_2/rees.html.(30 May 2005).Riding, Alan. “Summerhill Revisited,” New York Times, New York, 7November 1999, A4, p.25.Rohrs, Hermann. “Maria Montessori” UNESCO Prospects: A QuarterlyReview of Comparative Education, 24, no. 1 and 2 (1994): 169-183.Rochelle, Jeremy. “Learning in Interactive Environments: PriorKnowledge and New Experience.” In Public Institutions inPersonal Learning, J. Falk, and L. Dierking, 37-49. WashingtonD.C.: American Association of Museums, 1995.180

Rose, Lowell C., and Alec M. Gallup. “The 33rd Annual Phi DeltaKappa/Gallup Poll of the Public's Attitudes Toward the PublicSchools.” (2001). http://www.pdkintl.org/kappan/k0109gal.htm.(28 January 2004).Rosenblatt, Tammy, director Family Resource Center. Interview byauthor, telephone. Salem, Massachusetts, 5 May 2005.Rosenblatt, Tammy. “Museum Reciprocity: Or Getting the Most Out ofYour Museum Membership.” Home Educator’s Family Times 11,no. 5, Sept. - Oct. 2003.http://www.homeeducator.com/FamilyTimes/articles/11-5article15.htm. (20 January 2005).Rosengard, Melissa, executive director Western Museums Association.Interview with author, e-mail correspondence. Berkeley,California, 12 December 2004.Rosenthal, Ellen, and Jane Blankman-Hetrick. “Conversations AcrossTime: Family Learning in a Living Museum.” In LearningConversations in Museums, ed. Gaea Leinhardt, Kevin Crowley,and Karen Knutson, 305-329. New Jersey: Lawrence Elderbaum,2002.Ross, Robert, director of education, Museum of the Earth at thePaleontological Research Institute. Interview by author, telephone.Ithaca, New York, 7 March 2005.Rudner, Lawrence M. “The Scholastic Achievement and DemographicCharacteristics of Home School Students 1998.” (March 1999)ERIC Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation. ED424309.http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed435709.html. (1February 2005).Russart, Joshua. “Educating Prem.” Communities 114, Spring 2002, 32-35.Russell, Jenni. “When Parent’s Are a Child’s Best Teachers,” NewStatesman 18, no. 840, January 2005, 24-27.181

Rutkowski, Ruth. “Homeschool Pioneers on the Web.” MultiMediaSchools (May - June 1998): 76-79.Sachatello-Sawyer, Bonnie, and Robert A. Fellenz, Hanly Burton, LauraGittings-Carlson, Janet Lewis-Mahoney, Walter Woolbaugh. AdultMuseum Programs Designing Meaningful Experiences. WalnutCreek, AltaMira Press, 2002.Saffange, Jean-Francoise. “Alexander Sutherland Neill” Prospects: AQuarterly Review of Comparative Education 24, no. 1 and 2.(1994): 217-229.Sandell, Lisa. “In a Class of Their Own.” The Jerusalem Report,Jerusalem, Israel, 6 Dec. 1999 26.Sayers, Dorothy. “Lost Tools of Learning.” Presented at OxfordUniversity, England 1947. http://www.brccs.org/sayers_tools.html.(19 March 2005).Scandrette, Lisa, homeschool educator. Interview by author. SanFrancisco, California, 2 February 2005.Scherer, Marge. “Do Students Care About Learning?” EducationalLeadership 60, no. 1 (September 2002): 12-17.Schugurensky, Daniel. “Maria Montessori Opens the First Casa Bambini.”History of Education. (2005)http://fcis.oise.utoronto.ca/~daniel_schugurensky/assignment1/1907montessori.html. (15 March 2005).Seelhoff, Cheryl Lindsey. “A Homeschoolers History of Homeschooling:Parts I- IV.” Gentle Spirit Magazine, 6 no.9, 10, and 11, and 7 no.2.Sheffer, Susannah. A Sense of Self: Listening to Homeschooled AdolescentGirls. Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Boynton/Cook Publishers,1995.Sheehan, Michelle. “Dancing With Monica: Personal Perceptions of aHome-School Mom.” Roeper Review 24, no. 4 (Summer 2002): 1-10.182

Sherer, Marge.” Do Students Care About Learning?” EducationalLeadership 60 (2002): 14.Shope, Erin, school and family programs manager, Ashville Art Museum.Interview by author, telephone. Ashville, North Carolina, 1 March2005.Siegel, Robert. “Growing Popularity of Homeschooling.” All ThingsConsidered, National Public Radio, 1 February 2001.http://www.npr.org. (1 December 2004).Siegel, Robert. “Growing Popularity of Homeschooling.” All ThingsConsidered, National Public Radio, 28 February 2001.http://www.npr.org (1 December 2004).Silver, Harvey, Richard Strong, and Matthew Perini. “Integrating LearningStyles and Multiple Intelligences,” Educational Leadership(September 1997): 22-27.Silverman, Lois. “Visitor Meaning–Making.” Curator: The MuseumJournal 38, no.3 (1995): 161.Smith, James Carroll. Charlotte Mason: An Introductory Analysis of HerEducational Theories and Practices. Blacksburg, Virginia:Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. (2000).Smith, Mark. K. “John Dewey”. The Encyclopedia of Informal Education,2002. http://www.infed.org/thinkers/dewey. (15 March 2005).Smith, Mark. K. “Howard Gardner”. The Encyclopedia of InformalEducation, 2002. http://www.infed.org/thinkers/gardner. (15March 2005).Smith, Mark. K. “Ivan Illich”. The Encyclopedia of Informal Education,January 2005. http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-illic.htm. (15March 2005).Smith, Mark. K. “Maria Montessori”. The Encyclopedia of InformalEducation, January 2005. http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-mont.(15 March 2005).183

Soetard, Michel. “Jean-Jacque Rousseau.” UNESCO Prospects: AQuarterly Review of Comparative Education 24, no. 3 and 4(1999): 413 - 438.Soetard, Michel. “Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi.” UNESCO Prospects: AQuarterly Review of Comparative Education 24, no. 1 and 2(1994): 297 - 310.Spataro, Theresa, school residency coordinator. Interview by author,telephone. Jersey City, New Jersey, 30 March 2005.St. Cyr, Maryellen. “Distinctives of a Charlotte Mason Education: LivingBooks.” In When Children Love to Learn: A Practical Applicationof Charlotte Mason’s Philosophy for Today, ed. Elaine Cooper,125 - 141. Westchester, Illinois: Crossways Books, 2004.Steiner, Rudolph. “ A Lecture for Prospective Parents of Students of theWaldorf School.” Stuttgart, Germany, August 1919.http://bobnancy.com/waldorf/waldorf.htm. (5 March 5, 2005).Stern, Seth. “Muslims Craft Their Own Curriculum.” Christian ScienceMonitor, 14 January 2003.http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0114/p13s01-lecl.html. (2 June2005).Stewart, Mark. “Homebodies.” Insight on the News 16, no. 3, 5 Sept.2000, 32.Strommen, E., and B. Lincoln. “Constructivism, Technology, and theFuture of Classroom Learning,” Education and Urban Society 24,no. 4 (1992): 468-469.Summerhill School Web site.http://www.summerhillschool.co.uk/pages/index.html. (12 March2005).Susuki, Deborah, homeschool educator. Interview by author, telephone.San Mateo, California, 10 March 2005Stratton, Joanne. “Homeschooling Comes of Age.” Brown AlumniMagazine, Jan.-Feb. 2002, 46-53.184

Stratton, Scott, conservation educator, Monterey Bay Aquarium. Interviewwith author, telephone and in-person. Monterey, California, 11March and 4 April 2005.Talman, Robyn, homeschool educator. Interview by author. SanFrancisco, California, 8 April 2005.Taylor, Karen. The California Homeschool Guide: An Essential Guide forNewcomers and an Indispensable Reference for Homeschoolers.Victoria B.C. Canada: California Homeschool Network, 2001.Teicher, Stacy A. “A Window on Homeschooling.” Christian ScienceMonitor, 10 October 2000, p. 18.Thomas, Alan. “Informal Learning, Homes Education, Homeschooling.”The Encyclopedia of Informal Education, January 2005.http://www.infed.org/bilblio-ed.html. (15 March 2005).________. Today’s Parent. “Two Schools of Thought: A Guide toWaldorf and Montessori,” Today’s Parent 14, no. 1 (1997): 35.Ullrich, Heiner. “Rudolph Steiner”. UNESCO Prospects: A QuarterlyReview of Comparative Education 24, no. 3 and 4 (1999): 555-572.Van Galen, Jane A. ”Ideology, Curriculum, Pedagogy in HomeEducation.” Education and Urban Society 21, no. 1(1988): 52-68.Van Galen, Jane A., and Mary Anne Pitman. Home Schooling: Political,Historical, and Pedagogical Perspectives. Norwood: AblexPublishing Corporation, 1991.Visual Understanding in Education.http://www.vue.org/whoisvue.html#Background. (1 April 2005).________. The Washington Post. “Montessori Method Stresses Hands-onLearning.” The Washington Post, Washington D.C., 10 June 2004,p.10.185

Welner, Karianne Mari, and Kevin Welner. “ContextualizingHomeschooling Data: A Response to Rudner.” Education PolicyAnalysis Archives, 7, no. 13, (April 1999).http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v7n13.html. (20 December 2004).Welner, Kariane Mari “Understudied education: Toward building ahomeschooling research agenda”, Occasional Paper No. 48. NewYork: National Center for the Study of Privatization in EducationTeachers College, Columbia University. (June 2002).http://ncspe.org/publications_files/114_OP48.pdf. (8 February2005).West, Diana. “There's No Place Like Home: The Secular Case forHome-Schooling.” Wall Street Journal, New York, 20 May 2004.http://www.opinionjournal.com/taste/?id=110005109. (20 January2004).Wenlowsky, Paul, education director, St. Augustine Lighthouse andMuseum. Interview by author, telephone. St. Augustine, Florida 23March 2005.Westbrook, Robert B. “John Dewey.” UNESCO Prospects: A QuarterlyReview of Comparative Education 24, no. 1 and 2 (1994): 277-291.Wetterlund, Kris, and Scott Sayer. “2003 Art Museum Education ProgramSurvey.” Museum Education. http://www.museum-ed.org. (1December 2004).Willingham, Theresa. “The Humanism Behind Homeschooling.”Homeschool Unitarian Universalist On the Web.http://www.uuhomeschool.org/pub-040110-01.doc. (12 January2005).Wilson, Douglas, Wes Callihan, and Douglas Jones. Classical Educationand the Homeschool. Moscow, Idaho: Cannon Press, 2001.Winters, Rebecca. “From Home to Harvard.” Time, 11 September 2000, p.55.Yenawine, Philip. “Jump Start Visual Literacy.” Art Education, (January.2003): 154-163.186

APPENDIX ALISTSERVSHomeschool ListservsThese listservs are available at Yahoo.com.Bay Area Homeschool Field Trips (BAHFT)There are 518 subscribers as of April 8, 20055.This listserv provides listings of events, fieldtrips, learning clubs, andclasses with in the San Francisco Bay Area. Any member may use the siteto publicize and organize activities.California Homeschooling HSCThere are 1485 subscribers as of April 8, 2005.Companion site: http://www.hsc.org.The non-profit The HomeSchool Association of California sponsors thislistserv. Its purpose is to create online dialog about the concerns andopportunities for homeschoolers within California.California HSThere are 1147 subscribers as of April 8, 2005.Companion site: http://www.Californiahomeschool.net.The non-profit The HomeSchool Association of California sponsors thislistserv. It’s purpose is to list classes, learning clubs, field trips, and eventsin California for the homeschool community.187

California Homeschool CalendarThere are 876 subscribers as of April 8, 2005.Companion site: http://www.Californiahomeschool.net.The non-profit California Homeschool Network sponsors this listserv. Itlists information about activities that is of interest to the homeschoolcommunity such as: campouts, field trips, museum events, classes,seminars, and conferences.Creative Learning CommunitiesThere are 144 subscribers as of April 8, 2005.This listserv is specifically for individuals who participating in, or who areor planning to be involved with informal education.Homefires CalendarThere were 650 subscribers as of April 8, 2005.Companion site: http://www.homefires.net.Diane Flynn Keith, who published the periodical Homefires Journal that isno longer in publication in paper format, moderates this site. This site listsfield trips, museum days, park days classes and educational eventsspecifically for the homeschool community.188

Homefires JournalThere were 1739 subscribers as of April 8, 2005.Companion site: http://www.Californiahomeschool.net/default.htm.This is the online format for the Homefires Journal; it features articles,resources, curriculum ideas, support, and a forum for discussion as well aslinks to other homeschool sites.San Francisco Bay Area HomeschoolersThere were 390 subscribers as of April 8, 2005.Companion site: http://www.homefires.net.This site is specifically to facilitate networking within the homeschoolcommunity.San Francisco HomeschoolersThere were 99 subscribers as of April 8, 2005.Companion site: http://www.sfhomeschool.org.The moderators are Karen Allen, Jennifer Dees, and Robyn Talman.This is a listserv for members of the San Francisco Homeschoolers, aninclusive homeschool support group. Classes, museums events, park days;support and discussions are included on this listserv.189

APPENDIX BLISTSERVSMuseum Professional ListservsMuseum –EdThere were 987 subscribers as of April 8, 2005.Available at http://museum-ed.org.This listserv is tailored for museum educators to explore education andcurrent museum practices, and to share ideas and materials related toeducation. Museum -Ed is edited by Kris Wetterland and Scott Saye.Museum –L3,569 subscribers as of April 8, 2005.Available at http//home.ease.lsoft.com.This is a non-moderated open forum for museum professionals, students,and those interested in issues related to museums managed by JohnChadwick.190

APPENDIX CSURVEY INSTRUMENT FOR MUSEUM EDUCATORSJohn F. Kennedy UniversityMuseum Studies Graduate ThesisMuseums and HomeschoolersMelinda Adamsmelinda@hontalas.netPlease staple your businesscard here.1. Are you aware of a homeschool community in your area?Yes ____ No____2. Do you see this community as a potential audience?Yes ____ No____3. Does your museum have a program specifically forhomeschoolers?Yes ____ No____If no, please stop here and return the survey. Your data isimportant to my study.4. Is this program different that your regular school programs?Yes ____ No____5. If so, how?6. Do you have any statistics on the number of homeschoolers thatvisit your institution?Yes ____ No____Statistics:191

7. Do you have outreach do you have for this community?Yes ____ No____8. If so what types of outreach does your institution have?9. What do you think the challenges are in serving this community?10. What programs do you think would better serve homeschoolers?11. What information and resources would help you better serve thegrowing homeschool community?12. Do you think specialized training would be valuable in serving thiscommunity?Yes ____ No____13. Are you aware of any museums that have programs designed forthe homeschool community?Yes ____ No____InstitutionsPrograms14. May I contact you further?Yes ____ No____Please return this survey in the enclosed self-addressed stampedenvelope by April 1, 2005.Thank you very much for you time and sharing your invaluableinsights and opinions.Melinda Adams192

APPENDIX DSURVEY INSTRUMENT FOR HOMESCHOOL EDUCATORSName ____________________________Date____________State _____________________________1. Do you visit museums?Yes ____ No____If no, please stop here and return this survey. Your data isimportant to my study.2. If so, which kinds of museums?Art ____ History ____ Natural History____ Science____Children’s ____ Other _____________3. How often do you visit museums?Weekly ____2-3 Times a month ____6-12 Times a year ____ 3-6 Times a year ____Less than 3 Times a year ____4. Are you a member of a museum?Yes ____ No____If yes, which ones?5. Who do you visit museums with? Please check all that apply.Homeschool Group ____ Family ____ Friends____Out of town guests ____ Alone ____ Other____6. Are you aware of any museum programs that are designedspecifically for homeschoolers?193

Yes ____ No____If yes, which ones?6. If yes, have you participated in these programs?Yes ____ No____If yes, which ones?7. How well do you feel that museums serve your needs as ahomeschooler?Excellent ____ Good ____ Fair ____ Poor ____8. What do you feel museum educators need to know in order toserve you as a homeschooler?9. Please select your most ideal homeschool programs.____ Classes allied to State Curriculum____ Classes allied to special exhibitions____ Classes taught by homeschoolers____ Docent led tours____ Homeschool Days____ Workshops for Parent Educators____Other____________________________________________________10. May I contact you further?Yes ____ No____E-mailaddress______________________________________________________Thank you very much for sharing your insights and opinions.Melinda Adams194

APPENDIX EMUSEUM EDUCATORS INTERVIEWEDSusan Bass MarcusSenior EducatorSpertus MuseumChicago, IllinoisTracey BeckEducation DirectorThe Winterthur Museum, Garden, and LibraryWinterthur, DelawareKerry BinningtonEducation DirectorKrasl Art CenterSt. Joseph, MissouriEmily BlumenthalEducational Coordinator for Children and Family ProgramsThe Walters Art MuseumBaltimore, MarylandCyndi FoxEducational Programs Information CoordinatorMonterey Bay AquariumMonterey, CaliforniaStacy FullerInstructional Services ManagerAmon Carter MuseumFort Worth, TexasKathleen HavensScience EducatorThe Houston Museum of Natural ScienceHouston, Texas195

Carolyn HuntScience EducatorJohn P. McGovern Museum of Health and Medical ScienceHouston, TexasChristopher J. KennyDirector of EducationWm McKinley Presidential Library & MuseumCanton, OhioDolores KincaidRegistrar, Permanent CollectionIris and B. Gerald Cantor Center for the Visual Arts, StanfordUniversity, Stanford, CaliforniaAmanda KodeckManager of SchoolThe Walters Art MuseumBaltimore, MarylandMarilyn KuhnsEducation CoordinatorElgin Public MuseumElgin, IllinoisClaudia OcelloCurator of EducationNew Jersey Historical SocietyNewark, New JerseyCecelia OttenwellerIndependent Museum EducatorHouston, TexasJulie PerkoEducatorPortland Museum of ArtPortland, Oregon196

Janet PetitpasAssistant DirectorBay Area Discovery MuseumSausalito, CaliforniaMelissa PrycerCurator of EducationOld City Park: The Historical Village of DallasDallas, TexasMelissa RosengardExecutive DirectorWestern Museums AssociationBerkeley, CaliforniaRobert M. RossDirector of EducationMuseum of the Earth at the Paleontological Research InstitutionIthaca, New YorkErin ShopeSchool & Family Programs ManagerAsheville Art MuseumAsheville, North CarolinaTheresa SpataroSchool Residency CoordinatorLiberty Science CenterJersey City, New JerseyScott StrattonConservation EducatorMonterey Bay AquariumMonterey, CaliforniaPaul WenlowskyEducation Director.St. Augustin Lighthouse and MuseumSt. Augustine, Florida197

Karen AllenSan Francisco, CaliforniaGary CeraldeSan Francisco, CaliforniaAnne DonjacourSan Francisco, CaliforniaBob DonjacourSan Francisco, CaliforniaPat FarengaMedford, MassachusettsMelanie FifeSan Francisco, CaliforniaJustine HenningBrooklyn, New YorkPhilip HontalasSan Francisco, CaliforniaDiane Flynn KeithSan Mateo, CaliforniaDolores KincaidStanford, CaliforniaLynn LampkySan Francisco, CaliforniaBrian D. RaySalem, OregonAPPENDIX FHOMESCHOOL EDUCATORS198

Tammy RosenblattSalem, MassachusettsDeborah SusukiSan Mateo, CaliforniaRobyn TalmanSan Francisco, California199

APPENDIX GTHE HOMESCHOOLING CONTINUUMChild-Centered EmphasisParent Centered EmphasisParent asObserverParent asAssistantParent asFacilitatorParent asDirectorParent asInstitutorThe childThe childThe parentThe parentThe parentmakes alldecidesprovidesdecidesdecideslearningwhat andmany richwhat andtiming,decisions.when learn.environmentswhen tocontent,The parentTheandteach; theandhas hands-offdecision toexperiencesemphasis ismethods ofpolicy. Thisbegin andfrom whichon a well-instruction.is referred toend thechild androundedStandardasprocess isparentcurriculum.curriculum,unschooling;up to thecollaborate inThe parent-textbooks,It is anlearner.choosingdirects andandapproach thatThe parentcourse andsupervisesworkbooks.adheres toprovidesduration ofprojects,This islife learningassistancestudy.field trips;school-at-as the coreandthere is lesshome in theexperience.guidanceflexibilitytraditionalwhenin subjectssense;needed.studied.boxedcurriculumis oftenused.200

APPENDIX H-1201

APPENDIX H-2202

APPENDIX H-3203

APPENDIX H-4204

APPENDIX H-5205

APPENDIX H-6206

APPENDIX H-7207

APPENDIX H-8208

APPENDIX H-9209

APPENDIX H-10210

APPENDIX H-11211

APPENDIX H-12212

APPENDIX H-13213

APPENDIX H-14214

APPENDIX H-15215

APPENDIX H-16216

APPENDIX H-17217

APPENDIX H-18218

APPENDIX H-19219

APPENDIX H-20220

APPENDIX H-21221

APPENDIX H-22222

HELP US MAKE YOURVISIT A SUCCESS!APPENDIX ITHE WALTERS ART MUSEUM’SMUSEUM MANNERS REMINDERPlease remember our Museum Manners:• Look with your eyes, not your hands. Do not touch any of theartwork. Human skin contains oils that can damage art overtime. Don’t lean on the cases or breathe heavily on them – thiswill make it more difficult for others to enjoy the artworkinside.• Listen to your group leader. He or she has important informationfor you.• Raise your hand. If you have something to share with the group,please raise your hand.• Use indoor voices. Don’t shout. The museum is for everyone, andthat’s why it’s important to keep our voices down. Do talk ininside voices! Ask questions – it’s how we learn!• Walk. Don’t run. If you are going too fast you might misssomething! Stop, look, and listen to learn more.• Save lunch for later. Don’t eat or drink. You might spillsomething that could damage the art.• Stay with your group at all times.• Learn, discuss, and have fun!We’re looking forward to seeing you soon!223

GUIDELINESFORMUSEUM EDUCATORS FACILITATINGHOMESCHOOL PROGRAMSExpect the UnexpectedAndAbove All, Be FlexibleOUTREACHHomeschool PerspectiveMuseum PerspectiveIn general, Homeschoolers…Related Planning ConsiderationsAre linked together throughthe Internet. They use theInternet for support,communication, research,and organizing fieldtrips.Utilize the Internet to locate Websites and listservs for localhomeschool support groups toconduct efficient and costeffective outreach.Submit articles to onlinenewsletters and listservs aboutyour homeschool programs.224

MUSEUM VISITIn general, Homeschoolers…Related Planning ConsiderationsCome with all of theirchildren, often bringinginfants and toddlers.Provide quiet hands-on activitiesand books for toddlers and youngchildren.Schedule concurrent programs fora variety of ages.Be prepared that parents may beattending to the younger childrenand may not be available to provideassistance.Clearly state institutional rulesabout food and beverages; informparent where picnic areas arelocated.Do not always show up forprograms.Make programs fee-based.If the programs are free, require areturnable deposit that will onlybe returned if they attendMay be apprehensive abouttheir children’s behaviorEstablish a “quiet area” in theback of the room for parenteducators and children.225

In general, Homeschoolers…Related Planning ConsiderationsMay not be familiar withschool behaviors, such asstanding in a straight line,raising their hands, orspeaking when recognized bythe teacher.State behavior parameters in previsitmaterials.Review expectations and give cleardirections to students before theprogram begins.Do not follow a traditionalschool schedule.Schedule classes when traditionalschool groups are unable toattend, such as during statemandated testing periods.226

LEARNING EXPERIENCEIn general, Homeschoolers…Related Planning ConsiderationsAsk questions!Be patient, and try to view theirinquisitiveness in a positive light.View the group as a large familygathering, with children who areenthusiastic and eager to learn.May wish to stay together as afamily group. They enjoylearning together.Provide materials and activitiesfor multiple age levels that achievethe same learning objectivesAre concerned about content.Clearly state program content inall materials.Learn in a social familialsetting.Are multi-modal learners.Anticipate family discussionsduring programming, andallocate time for theseinteractions.Provide multi-modal—kinetic,auditory, visual, and tactile—activities227

In general, Homeschoolers…Are not bound by statemandated educationalstandards. Learning tends tobe interdisciplinary, and maybe subject or topic focused notcategorized by age or gradelevel.Related Planning ConsiderationsBe prepared for requests forchildren’s participation below orabove the target audience range.Avoid assumptions about age leveland abilities.Expect a wide spectrum of abilitiesand skill levels within age ranges.Prepare multiple ways forengagement.Offer interdisciplinary programs.Enjoy the freedom and flex yourcreativity.228

WRITTEN MATERIALSIn general, Homeschoolers…Related Planning ConsiderationsUtilize pre- and post visitmaterials. Seek morecomprehensive,interdisciplinary materials.Make pre- and post-visit activities,materials, and curriculumavailable online.Provide curator, content expert,and educator recommendationsfor books and Web sites forfurther research.Want to be well informedabout the museum and itsofferings.Prepare packets of institutionalinformation; include schedules,fact sheets, and membershipbrochures.Have a staff member available tofield questions during and afterthe program.Often need to document theirlearning experiences forpersonal portfolios, or tofulfill requirements of localschool boards or onlineschools.Make institutional photographypolicies known.Provide detailed descriptions ofclass or program content,including a summary of learningobjectives.Include a tangible product forstudents to take home.229

AAM Annual MeetingBoston, MAApril 27 - May 1, 2006SESSION PROPOSAL APPLICATION FORMI. SESSION TITLEOptimizing Homeschoolers’ Experiences in MuseumsII. SESSION OVERVIEWA. AUDIENCEThe audience for Optimizing Homeschoolers’ Experiences inMuseums will primarily consist of museum educators, but the session maybe of interest to museum directors, and visitor service personnel.B. FOCUSThe focus of Optimizing Homeschoolers’ Experiences in Museumswill be the relationship between museums and the rapidly growinghomeschool community. This audience poses challenges for museumeducations to understand and therefore meet their educational needs. Thissession will provide museum educators with an understanding thediversity and educational approaches of homeschoolers, effectiveprogramming, and outreach to the rapidly growing homeschoolcommunity.230

C. OUTCOMESAttendees will understand the homeschool community and itsrelationship to the museum and its use as an educational resource.Attendees will learn of exemplary programs and collaboration with thehomeschool community. Attendees will be able to apply this knowledge,and design effective programs in their own institutions for thehomeschooled children.D. RELEVANCEPresently there are between 1.1 and 2.1 million homeschoolchildren, with an estimated projected growth of seven to eighteen percent.This audience of informal learners often challenges museum educators increating effective programs that serve their needs. The session panelistwill strive to provide answers to some of the questions and issues voicedby museum professionals and by those the AAM has forwarded to itsmembership for this conference. Among them will be broadening access,greater involvement in collections and programs, and, finally, exploringcollaborations and partnerships within the context of the homeschoolcommunity.231

III. SESSION SUMMARYA. Description for the AAM Web site and final programMuseums face multiple challenges in addressing the growinghomeschool audience. Dr. Kirsten Ellenbogen from the Science Museumof Minnesota, Amanda Kodeck from The Walters Art Museum, andTammy Rosenblatt from the Family Resource Center, will inform andpresent solutions to challenges faced by museum educators which include,understanding homeschool philosophies, aligning museum education withhomeschoolers, outreach, and development of effective programming.Tailoring the presentation to attendees, a brief survey will be posted anddata collected before the conference on the ASTC, Museum-Ed, andMuseum-L listservs to ascertain and address the concerns and questionsfaced by museum professionals during the session.B. Description for the AAM preliminary program:Optimizing Homeschoolers’ Experiences in Museums examinesinformal learning, model homeschool programs, and effective outreach tothe homeschool community.C. Confirmed SPC or affiliate organization endorsementEducation Committee endorsement232

IV. CHAIRPERSONFirst Name: MelindaLast Name: AdamsTitle: Educational ConsultantInstitution:Address: 2215 28 th AvenueTelephone: 415-664-2812 Fax: 415-759-5966E-mail: melinda@hontalas.netQualifications:Melinda Adams received a Masters in Museum Studies from JohnF. Kennedy University, Berkeley California with a specialization in PublicProgramming and Interpretation. Her master’s thesis was a comprehensivestudy of the relationship between museums and the homeschoolcommunity. Ms. Adams has taught in museums, and in both private andpublic schools from pre-school through community college levels.Additionally, she has homeschooled her daughter and been active in thehomeschool community for a period of five years.Major points to be covered:Ms. Adams will provide an introduction for each of the panelmembers and facilitate the discussion after the presentations. Ms. Adamswill share the results of her research on the current relationship of the233

homeschool community and museum programs. Additionally, she willestablish a listserv for attendants wishing to continue the dialog regardingthe challenges and solutions in serving the homeschooled community.V. PRESENTERSTotal number of presenters, excluding chairperson(s): 3First Name: Kirsten M.ConfirmedLast Name: EllenbogenTitle: Director of Evaluation and Research in LearningInstitution: Science Museum of MinnesotaAddress: 120 West Kellogg Blvd.City/State/Zip: St. Paul, Minnesota 55102Telephone: 651-221-2460 Fax: 651-221-9811E-mail: k@smm.orgQualifications:Dr. Ellenbogen is an eminent expert in the field of research andevaluation of informal learning. Currently, she is the Director ofEvaluation and Research in Learning at the Science Museum ofMinnesota. Previously, she was Senior Associate at the Institute forLearning Innovation, in Baltimore, Maryland and the project director ofthe Center for Informal Learning and Schools at King's College London,234

England. Her work has been widely published, and she has madesignificant contributions to the study and understanding of informalleaning in museums.Major points to be covered:Dr. Ellenbogen will discuss the nuances of the homeschoolaudience. This will include methods for studying collaborative learning inhomeschool families, as well as motivation and visitation patterns. Shewill also consider the ways in which the homeschooling audience shouldor should not be considered as a cohesive group with similar needs,motivations, and interests.First Name: AmandaConfirmedLast Name: KodeckTitle: Manager of School ProgramsInstitution: The Walters Art MuseumAddress: 600 North Charles StreetCity/State/Zip: Baltimore, Maryland 21201Telephone: 410-547-9000 Fax: 410-837-4886E-mail: akodeck@thewalters.org235

Qualifications:Amanda Kodeck received her Masters of Art History from GeorgeWashington University. She holds a Masters of Science in Education,Museum Leadership from Bank Street College of Education. As theManager of School Programs at The Walters Art Museums, Ms. Kodeckhas developed highly engaging and effective programs that align withhomeschool approaches to learning. The Walters is currently entering itsfourth year in actively serving the homeschool community.Major points to be covered:Ms. Kodeck will examine challenges that museum educators facein outreach, addressing the needs of, and designing programs forhomeschooled children. Solutions that The Walters Art Museum has foundto be effective will be presented. Collaborative efforts to further engagethe homeschool community within the institution will be explored.Guidelines outlining methods to help the museum educator work with, anddesign programs for, the homeschool audience will be provided forattendants.236

First Name: TammyConfirmedLast Name: RosenblattTitle: DirectorInstitution: Family Resource CenterAddress: 19 Cedarview StreetCity/State/Zip: Salem, Massachusetts 01970Telephone: 978-741-7749 Fax: 561-423-3303E-mail: frc@frc.infoQualifications:Tammy Rosenblatt is the founder and director of the FamilyResource Center (FRC) that serves 15,000 homeschool familiesthroughout New England. The FRC strives to identify and provide accessthat enriches homeschooled children’s learning. She has worked for overten years to forge a strong relationship between museum educators and thehomeschool community. FRC organizes and facilitates fieldtrips tomuseums, creates pre- and post museum visit materials, and provides freeaccess to museum educators at the FRC Museum and Communityconference.Major points to be covered:Ms. Rosenblatt will inform museum educators about thephilosophy and educational approaches in homeschool education. She will237

address the challenges homeschoolers face in museum programs, andprovide solutions for more effective programs for this community.Collaborative efforts and successful programs will be offered as modelsfor the field. Effective outreach through the Internet and participation inhomeschool conferences will be presented.VI. CONTENTA. LENGTHSingle Session (75 min.)B. FORMATPanel DiscussionD. TYPENew IdeasE. LOGISTICAL SET-UPTheater-styleF. SUBJECTInterpretation238