22 <strong>Bt</strong> <strong>Brinjal</strong>: <strong>The</strong> <strong>GEAC</strong> <strong>environmental</strong> <strong>risk</strong> <strong>assessment</strong>Environmental Risk AssessmentConclusion 4. Most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> possible <strong>environmental</strong> <strong>risk</strong>s <strong>of</strong> <strong>Bt</strong> brinjal have not been adequately evaluated;this includes <strong>risk</strong>s to local varieties <strong>of</strong> brinjal <strong>and</strong> wild relatives, <strong>risk</strong>s to biological diversity, <strong>and</strong> <strong>risk</strong> <strong>of</strong> resistanceevolution in BFSB.This conclusion is developed in considerable detail in <strong>the</strong> following sections. A brief overview <strong>of</strong> a few <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> main lines orargument are abstracted here as a guide for <strong>the</strong> reader.• Gene Flow. EC-II <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dossier did not assess gene flow <strong>risk</strong>s adequately.• Biological Diversity. Some <strong>risk</strong>s to biological diversity were evaluated, but many <strong>risk</strong>s were not considered or notevaluated sufficiently.• Resistance Evolution. Resistance <strong>risk</strong>s were not acknowledged by EC-II. Although <strong>the</strong> Dossier presented a plan tomanage <strong>the</strong>se <strong>risk</strong>s, <strong>the</strong> plan will probably be ineffective.India is a world centre <strong>of</strong> diversity <strong>of</strong> brinjal <strong>and</strong> harbours many wild relatives <strong>of</strong> brinjal, including wild populations <strong>of</strong>S. melongena <strong>and</strong> allied species. Risks associated with gene flow from <strong>Bt</strong> brinjal were inadequately evaluated. EC-II <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>Dossier did not identify all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Solanum species <strong>and</strong> subspecies <strong>of</strong> S. melongena that are at <strong>risk</strong> from <strong>Bt</strong> brinjal <strong>and</strong> did notfully consider <strong>the</strong> <strong>risk</strong>s to existing l<strong>and</strong> races <strong>of</strong> brinjal. EC-II <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dossier argued that <strong>Bt</strong> brinjal does not outcross enoughto matter; this is dubious. Many Solanum species, S. melongena subspecies <strong>and</strong> brinjal l<strong>and</strong>race varieties are at <strong>risk</strong> from geneflow from <strong>Bt</strong> brinjal. <strong>The</strong>se <strong>risk</strong>s need to be assessed.<strong>The</strong>re are six kinds <strong>of</strong> adverse <strong>environmental</strong> effects that <strong>Bt</strong> brinjal could have on biological diversity. Only a part <strong>of</strong> one<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se is considered effectively by EC-II. EC-II inappropriately over-relies on assumptions about <strong>the</strong> specificity <strong>of</strong> Ccry1A. Bydoing so, EC-II assumes away many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> potential <strong>environmental</strong> concerns. It also draws overly broad conclusions about <strong>the</strong>absence <strong>of</strong> <strong>environmental</strong> <strong>risk</strong> from a limited empirical base. Consequently, <strong>the</strong> more serious concerns about biological diversityare inadequately assessed, <strong>and</strong> unnecessary effort was expended on issues <strong>of</strong> uncertain significance. <strong>The</strong> more serious concernsneed to be assessed.A real concern is that BFSB will evolve resistance to <strong>Bt</strong> brinjal, rendering it useless. Resistance is expected to occur withina few years at <strong>the</strong> localities where hybrid EE-1 <strong>Bt</strong> brinjal is adopted at a high rate. This is because EE-1 is a low dose event <strong>and</strong><strong>the</strong> <strong>GEAC</strong> set no requirements to reduce <strong>the</strong> <strong>risk</strong> <strong>of</strong> resistance. In addition, EE-1 may jeopardise better <strong>Bt</strong> brinjals that could bedeveloped in <strong>the</strong> future by providing a stepping-stone for rapid resistance evolution.
Environmental Risk Assessment 23Gene Flow <strong>and</strong> Its ConsequencesConclusion 5. <strong>Brinjal</strong> has considerable valuable genetic diversity in India that could be threatened by geneflow. EC-II, <strong>the</strong> Dossier, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Supplemental Materials are inadequate for concluding that <strong>Bt</strong> brinjal has nosignificant effects on <strong>the</strong> biological diversity or weediness <strong>of</strong> brinjal or its wild relatives.<strong>Brinjal</strong> has many local varieties <strong>and</strong> wild relatives in India that could be threatened by gene flow from <strong>Bt</strong> brinjal. India is <strong>the</strong>world’s centre <strong>of</strong> biological diversity <strong>of</strong> brinjal (l<strong>and</strong> races, cultivars, door-yard plants, etc.), with over 2500 local varieties known.<strong>Brinjal</strong> has at least one conspecific wild relative in India can introgress with brinjal, S. melongena var. insanum. <strong>Brinjal</strong> also hasseveral heterospecific wild relatives in India that can hybridise with brinjal. Thus, <strong>the</strong> potential threat to <strong>the</strong> genetic diversity <strong>of</strong>brinjal <strong>and</strong> its wild relatives <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> potential weediness <strong>of</strong> brinjal <strong>and</strong> its wild relatives must be assessed. EEII, <strong>the</strong> Dossier,<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Supplemental Materials suggested that cultivated brinjal does not form wild populations <strong>and</strong> gene flow among brinjalpopulations <strong>and</strong> from cultivated brinjal to its wild relatives is so low that <strong>the</strong> <strong>risk</strong>s associated with gene flow are negligible. Asdetailed below, <strong>the</strong> data presented are inadequate for concluding that <strong>the</strong>se <strong>risk</strong>s are negligible.Finding 10. It is highly likely that cultivated brinjal (Solanum melongena), including local varieties <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>raceshave crossed with feral populations<strong>of</strong> S. melongena, <strong>and</strong> it is possibleBOX 3that cultivated varieties can revertWhy <strong>the</strong> experimental gene flow estimates from <strong>Bt</strong> brinjalto wild phenotypes <strong>and</strong> establishmay be underestimatedferal populations. <strong>The</strong>refore, <strong>the</strong>possible effects <strong>of</strong> intraspecific gene A. <strong>The</strong> flowering times <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Bt</strong> brinjal <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> surrounding non-<strong>Bt</strong> brinjalflow from <strong>Bt</strong> brinjal to o<strong>the</strong>r varieties were not coincident. Relevant data to determine <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> coincidence<strong>and</strong> populations <strong>of</strong> brinjal should be were not provided.examined.B. <strong>The</strong> location <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> honeybee colonies at <strong>the</strong> corners <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Bt</strong> brinjalEC-II <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dossier assert thatplot may enable bees to take very short inter-plant movements to harvestbrinjal does not form volunteer orsufficient pollen <strong>and</strong>/or nectar, <strong>the</strong>reby underestimating <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> geneferal populations. This assertion isflow (most inter-plant movements would be among <strong>Bt</strong> brinjal plants ornot adequately demonstrated, <strong>and</strong> itamong non-<strong>Bt</strong> brinjal plants ra<strong>the</strong>r than between <strong>Bt</strong> <strong>and</strong> non-<strong>Bt</strong> brinjalis quite possible that brinjal can form plants). By positioning <strong>the</strong> colonies far<strong>the</strong>r away, bees would have t<strong>of</strong>eral populations in India. Working in move far<strong>the</strong>r to find <strong>the</strong> plot, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>n might be more likely to movesou<strong>the</strong>rn India, Deb (1989) noted that more frequently between <strong>Bt</strong> <strong>and</strong> non-<strong>Bt</strong> plants, resulting in high rates <strong>of</strong>“feral forms [<strong>of</strong> brinjal] are sometimes outcrossing.found.” Indeed, wild populations <strong>of</strong> S. C. Slight differences in flower morphology between <strong>the</strong> <strong>Bt</strong> <strong>and</strong> non-<strong>Bt</strong> brinjalmelongena are known to occur in India might lead bees to specialise foraging on one or <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r (but not both),(Choudhury 1995; Sekara et al. 2007). leading to underestimated levels <strong>of</strong> gene flow.<strong>The</strong>refore additional studies are needed D. Native pollinators may be more efficient pollinators <strong>of</strong> brinjal thanto determine <strong>the</strong> extent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se wildhoneybees. Most solanaceous species, such as brinjal, are more effectivelypopulations <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir weediness. Inpollinated by buzz pollinators than by honeybees. If <strong>the</strong>se native pollinatorsaddition, <strong>the</strong> possibility that <strong>Bt</strong> brinjal were absent or rare, gene flow would be underestimated.is able to revert to a wild or weedyphenotype must be examined, because <strong>the</strong> <strong>Bt</strong> transgene could spread rapidly by this means into o<strong>the</strong>r natural populations <strong>of</strong> S.melongena <strong>and</strong> transfer <strong>the</strong> <strong>Bt</strong> transgene to many local brinjal varieties.Additional studies on <strong>the</strong> potential reversion <strong>of</strong> brinjal cultivars to wild <strong>and</strong> weedy phenotypes should be conducted. <strong>The</strong>secould be conducted on <strong>the</strong> parental varieties to <strong>Bt</strong> brinjal. It is important to evaluate progeny past <strong>the</strong> F1 generation, as rapid