The encyclopaedia sinica, by Samuel Couling

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THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAv

THEENCYCLOPAEDIASINICA'BYSAMUEL COULING, M.A. (Edin.;LATELY HONORARY SECRETARY AND EDITORNORTH-CHINA BRANCH ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETYALL RIGHTS RESERVEDLondon :Amen Corner, E.G.OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, HUMPHREY MH^FORD,EDINBURGH, GLASGOW, NEW YORK, CAPE TOWN,TORONTO, MELBOURNE, AND BOMBAY1917

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PREFACESo brave a title as I have given tliis small book seems to demand apology or explanation.Children often receive names for which there is no justification at the time : no baby isFrank or Auoustus or deserves to be called Patience or fiRAfE ; but tliere is always apossibility that they may grow up to be worthy of such names.This book is a small one but I hoj^e it will grow. Even the EncyclopaHlia BrUannira wasnot always as large as it is to-day. T believe tliat the EiinjrlopaeiUa Sinit'fi, in spite of all itsdeficiencies, will prove so useful that another edition will be called for, and then another, and tliateach edition will be fuller than the last, till a work is produced that is all by sinologues andspecialists and that is worthy of the proud name. But this smaller book had to come first.Besides, the name is a good one.No one knows better than the writer how incomplete the work is. With more time thenumber of articles could have been doubled and almost every article made twice as long.But mostof the book I did alone, and much of it in the spare hours of a busy life ; only towards the end,when I felt sure the book could l)e completed, did I seek for help. A bigger work would haverequired time and capital and a staff of writers. On its present scale it will be of use to theordinary student and reader, while it will also provide a basis for a fuller work to follow.Tn my researches I found a writer who alluded to a certain dictionary as being 'still-born,'and he further referred to it as a mere ' skeleton.' I should be sorry for my book to be called a'still-born skeleton,' but I am pleased to think it is the framework on which a more complete andworthier Encyclopaedia may be elaborated.My heartiest thanks are due to Dr. G. E. Morrison, who not oiily gave me completefreedom to use his famous library,—the best in the world for my purpose,—but also encouraged meby sympathy, advice and help in many ways. Sir Charles Eliot, both in Hongkong and Peking,was always ready to assist, especially in matters relating to the Buddhist religion,and even allowedme the free use of a work of his on Buddhism, not yet. published. M. Paul Pelliot not onlyhelped with kind advice and correction but contributed an important article, while Prof. EdouardChavannes favoured me with some valuable notes. Professors H. A. Giles, E. H. Parker,Henri Cordier and Berthold Laufer, though they have not supplied any articles, haveexpressed the kindest interest in the book and have readily answered various queries. Dr. PaulS. Reinsch, the United States Minister to China, proved a keen appreciation of the work byhaving it provided with valuable articles. Lastly, I must express my gratitude to the JesuitFathers at Zi-ka-wei, who, with their usual charming courtesy, gave me all the assistance they could,placed their library at my disposal and wrote some important articles for the book.k^%10S(o

As re«,Tir(ls other contributors of matter : the bulk of the work was done by myself, as alreadystated, and it was only when there seemed a reasonable hope of publishing that T ventured to asksijecialists for help. I then found that there was no lack of ready helpei-s for a work that promisedto api^ear early :i it might have been in vain to ask for help at the beginning, but at the end T findthat, by delaying publication, many more valuable contributions might be obtained.In only two orthi-ee ca.ses ha.s any remuneration been offered: the help has been given with generosity andenthusiasm, because the contributoi-s recognized the value of such a book to the public.Of th&se contributoi-8 Mr. J. D. dk La Touch k has jjerhaps taken the most pains, for,l)eside8 writing the article Ornifholofnj, he has corrected all the lists of birds which appear in theiKiok. Tt must be understood that Mr. La TorcHK is not responsible for these lists, but they arefar more correct than they would have been if he had not kindly read them. Several of thefiovernment Ministries and Services have provided articles which, whether signed or not, will berecognized by tlie reader a.s authoritative, and my si^ecial thanks are due for pai)ers or material to theInspectorate General of i\Iaritime Customs, the Directorate General of Posts, the ChiefInspectt)ratoof Salt Revenue, the Ministry of ConnnUnications and the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce.Among the names which I am iiermitted to mention are those of F. Sherfksek, Esq., (Foresfn/) :W. T. Collins, Esq., {Mining) ; Dr. C. C. Waxc, {Raihraijs) ; Dr. W. H. Wang, {Geology) ; H. VanWAX Yekx, Esq., {Coniinvaurg) : Chang Chikn, Esq. and AY. R. Strickland, Esq., {Sail Revenue).I am further indebted for special arti(;les or material to E.G. HrLLfUR, Esq., C.M.a.;Dr. Wr LiKX Ti:h: E. T. C. AVkrxer, Esq.: H. A'ox Heidenbtam, Esq.; Rev. G. G. Warrex;Rev. A. C. MouLE ; Rev. E. Morgax ; Dr. A. Staxlby : Mi-s. F. Ayscough: G. Laxxixg, Esq.;Rev. Dr. S. I. WooDHRiDGE : Rev. Pere Coubtois, s..r. : Rev. Pere J. de la SERVifcRE s.j. ;Rev. A. P. Parker, u.d. : Rev. Arnold Foster, b.a. : Lionel Giles, Esq., ll.d. ; Rev. J. P.Brice, :>la.: Fraxk N. Meyer, Es(|. : H. Chatley, Esq., d.sc. ; Pore Gauthier, s.j.; andNoi'.MAX Shaw, Es(j., who has written most of the articles on the products and exporDs of China, andhas supplied many .statistics. \\\ most cases contrilnited articles have the writer's initials appended,but some contributions ai-e anonymous, and to various shoi't notes it seemed hardly necessaryto add the initials.After my Avifc's return from England in 15)10 she became very helpful, writing a number ofinqwrtani articles and moreover undertaking the notices of all the, Protestant Missions in China,thus ensuring completeness and uniformity of treatment in that subject. She has also been of thegreatest assistance in the laborious work of reading proofs, etc.Mr. Z. T. Woo, Assistant Librarian of the Royal Asiatic Society. North" China Branch, hasgiven me some welcome help.Finally, my very hearty thanks are given to Mr. F. W. Moore of Messrs. Kelly and Wal;>h,'Limited, who from the inception of the work has taken the keenest interest in it, and without whosefriendly co-operation and unsparing hard work the book could not have been out so soon, and would nothave shewn so satisfactory an appearance. Only those who have had the experience can know thedifficulties of producing such a work in the Far East, far from resources and by the labour ofChinese workmen whose English is of the scantiest. The typographical errors which have escapednotice till too late, but which are not numerous, will be easily pardoned, and the necessity for usinga new mark over the // {i\& in Tzu) : this one change in the AVade system, being constantthroughout the book, can cause no confusion. It is not necessaiT to say much about the difficultieswhich the Great AVai- has caused botli to printer aud compiler,

IAs to the romauizatiou of Chinese characters, Wade's system has been adhered to asfar as possible. It has not, however, been jwssible to be uniform. Names of places like Foochow,llangchow, etc., must, of course, be spelt according to the accepted usage. In the case of Missionsi?i the southern provinces the names of places are given as recorded in the ^Mission Reports, andnrc often difficult to recognize by one who only s^ieaks mandarin. Further, the Post Officeauthorities have issued a list of place names, and these must generally be accepted though differentI'rom the Wade system. Uniformity has therefore been impossible, but the Chinese charactersuill Ix; sufficient help to those who can read them. As to otlier Chinese words, not geogi-aphicalnames, it has hardly seemed fair to alter the roraanization in contributed articles, and the Wadesystem is therefore again departed from, but again' the characters will prevent misunderstanding.Where Chinese words form the title of an article, not only are characters gi\en, but cross-referencesluive been used freely, so that the reader who l(X)ks r.g. for Tsin will at once know he must turn to

CUNTRIBUTOllS WHOSE INITIALS FOLLOWTHEIR ARTICLES.F.A.J.P.B.C.C.C.E.C.F.C.H.C.A.F.Mrs. F. Ayscoxjgh.Rev. J. r. Bruce, M.A.Chang Chien, Esq.Mrs. CouLiNG.Rev. Father F. Courtois, S.J.H. Chatley, Esq., D.Sc.Rev. Arnold Foster, B.A.G. Rev. Father Gatjthier, S.J.H.v. H. H. VON Heidenstam, Esq.G.L. George Lanning, Esq.J.L. J. D. DE La Touche, Esq.E.M. Rev. Evan Morgan. *A.P.P. Rev. A. P. Parker, D.D.P.P. Professor Paul Pelliot, LL.D.T.S. Tokdsuke Sahara, Esq.S. Rev. Father J. de la Servikre, S.J.N.S. Norman Shaw, Esq.F.S. Forsythe Sherfesee, Esq.A.S. Arthur Stanley, Esq., M.D.W.R.S. W. R. Strickland, Esq.R.P.T. R. P. Tenney, Esq.V.d.V. H. Van der Veen, Esq., C.E.W.H.W. W. H. Wang, Esq., LL.D.C.C.W. C. C. Wang, Esq., LL.D.G.G.W. Rev. G. G. Warren.E.T.C.W. E. T. C. Werner, Esq.S.I.W. Rev. S. I. Woodbridge, D.D.W. Wu LiEN-TEH, Esq., M.D., LL.D.W. F. Collins, Esq., M.Inst.M. & M., has hisname appended in full and other contributors areanonyniou.s, at their own request. In some cases anaijterisk marks a contributed article.ABBREVIATIONS.The abbreviations in this book are very few except those knownto everyone.N.C.B.R.A.S. North China Branch, Royal Asiatic Society.R.A.S.Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.B.E.F.E.O. liulletin de I'Ecole frangaise de rExtreme-Orient.S.J.Society of Jesus (Jesuits).CM. Congregation of the Mission (Lazarists),L.M.S. London Missionary Society,etc.

ENCYCLOPAEDIASINICAABACUS, #:^ suan p'an. reckoning plate,the counting-board used by the Chinese. It is aframe with a number of wire rods parallel.These are divided unequally by a transverse barof wood. On each rod are seven balls, five onone side of the dividing bar and two on the other.Each of the five on the first wire counts singly,but each of the two balls counts as five and whenboth are drawn to the dividing line they standfor ten. The next wire to the left will similariydeal with tens and the next with hundreds.It is apparently indigenous, though closelyresembling that used by the Romans ; it isderived from an old system of counting by tallies,and came into use in the 3rd century a.d.according to Schlegel, in the 12th according toLacouperie and in the 14th according toViSSlERE.It is also called ch'iu p'an ^^ ball-plate.There has recently been some enthusiasmshown for the use of the abacus and it is beingtaught in the third and fourth years of theelementary schools. But the method is only ofuse for addition, subtraction, multiplication andto a limited extent for division. The extractionof square roots on the abacus or simplification offractions, for example, is extremely difficult, andthere is always the objection that, in case of anerror the whole calculation must be made overagain.VissiEUE : Recherches sur Vorigine deVahaque chinois; Schlegel : T'oung Pao, 1893,p. 96 ; Lacotjperie : Numismatic Chronicle, vol. iii,3rd series, p. 297.ABEEL, DAVID, an early missionary toChina, sent by the American Dutch ReformedChurch g.v. (through the American Board ofCommissioners for Foreign Missions g.v.). Hereached China in company with Bridgman in 1830.He paid one visit to the west on account ofhealth, travelled a great deal in the Indies forthe Board's information, entered Amoy directlyit was open (1842), and being sent home in adying condition died at Albany, N.Y. in 1846.ABEL, CLARKE, chief medical officer andnaturalist to the Amherst Embassy. Unhappilynearly everything he collected was lost on thehomeward journey through the wreck of theAlccste in the Straits of Gaspar north of PuloLeat, east of Sumatra. He wrote an account ofthe journey and Embassy.Abel : Narrative of a Journey in the Interiorof China, etc., London, 1818.ABHIDHARMA, a Sanscrit word translatedinto Chinese as |^ lun discourses. The Lun tsangor Thesaurus of discourses is one of the divisionsof the Chinese Tripitaka or San Tsang; itcontains translations of Buddhist works onphilosophical subjects. See Buddhist Canon.ABORIGINES. The earlier occupants ofChinese soil still exist in large numbers in theprovinces of Kueichow, Ssuch'uan, Yiinnan, Kuangsiand Kuangtung. In Yiinnan about two-thirdsof the population consists of them. Altogether 180tribes have been named, numbering many millionsand occupying territory larger than that of France.In some cases they are on their own original soil,elsewhere they have retreated to the mountains.No great family in the world is so little knownas these non-Chinese races. This is largely dueto the bewildering number of senseless names givento them by the Chinese. In the Topography ofYunnan 141 tribes of them are mentioned .separatelywithout any attempt to classify them.They have been divided according to languageby both Bourne and Davies into three classes,Bourne's being Lolo, Shan and Miao-tzu ; Daviessimilarly divides them into Mon-Khmer, Shan andTibeto-Burman families. In Bourne's accountwill be found 22 vocabularies and also specimensof Lolo script.

|'AB»:>ftlG!NES ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAand occupied the conquered territory, the soldiers( Keh-lao or Miao-chia )Following Davies, who also gives varioustribes in the south-w'est, Clarke ; Davies ; Johnston.vocabularies, the Families aremarried the women of the superior Chung-chia.Pere Roux states that the name Chung-chia means(i) the Mon-Khmer Family, comprising theMiao-Yao, the Min-chia and the Wa-Palaung " sons of all races " and was given to the descendantsgroups.of this alliance. Clarke states that the wordmeans " the middle tribe " meaning the tribe(ii) the Shan Family, embracing all the tribesspeaking Shan or Tai dialects.inferior to the Chinese and superior to the Miao.the Tibeto-Burman Family, comprising the The Chinese words adopted into their language(iii)Hsi-fan, the Lo-lo and the Kachin groups.are pronounced as in the Kiangsi dialect.These groups are again subdivided. To the There appear to be three classes of Chung-chia,Wa-Palaung group belong the Wa, La, and P'u-man the Pu-i, the Pu-Na or Pu-la ^- ^ and the Pu-lung.tribes. The Moso belong to the Hsifan group. Roux states that they are called I-chia by theThe Lo-lo group includes also the Liso, the La-hu Chinese, but Clarke regards this term as anotherand the Wo-ni tribes. To the Burmese group name for the Lo-lo.belongs the Ma-ru tribe.The men dress like Chinese, but the womenThe Miaio and Yao languages, though they lack wear tight coats and long skirts and do not bindvery close resemblance to the Annamese, Cambodian their feet. They do three-quarters of the work.and Talain languages, are classified with the Mon- They appear to worship no deities, though theyKhmer Family, because of the construction of their recognise a Good and an Evil Being. They havesentences :—the noun precedes the adjective, the no legends of the creation or deluge, as the Lo-lothing possessed precedes the possessor, the subject and Miao have. Exorcists are employed in timesprecedes the verb, and the verb precedes the of sickness or calamity to drive away the evilobject. The Miao call themselves Mhong, while influences and sometimes sacrifices are offered inthe Talains call themselves Mon. Though the front of " spirit " trees. Roux writes thatMin-chia language is more Chinese in construction, formea'ly they worshipped a cross, and that at oneyet, according to both Lacouperie and Davies, time he saw one of these in a pagoda. It used toit contains a sufficient foundation of similar words be cai'ried about in procession, its arms hung withto justify its inclusion among the Mon-Khmer eggs, each covered with little crosses.Family.They are ruled by local headmen, but disputesBecause the Chinese, Shan and Tibeto-Burman they cannot settle are carried to the Chinese courts.Families are more closely allied to each otheir in They are fond- of litigation and the Chinesespeech than they are to the Mon-Khmer Family, consider them crafty and dishonest.has been supposed that the Mon-Khmer separatedThey have no written language. Their speechitin very early days from the original stock and is monosyllabic and contains different definitesettled in Indo-China long before the others. articles. Many of the words resemble those of theThere are evidences which point to the presence Shan dialect.of a smaller, darker race, before the coming of The Chung-chia do not dance but love singing.the Mon-Khmer Family.Formerly they used to hold competitions in improvisation.About many of the tribes very little has beenTheir burial saca-ifices differ fromwritten. Some notes on the more important ones those of the Chinese.are given below, in alphabetical order. To saveRoux; Clarke.repetition the names only of authors to be referred HEAD-HUNTERS. The Vonuum tribe ofto are given after each tribe, while a full list of the Southern savages of Formosa and the Atayalthe works will be found at the end of the article. tribe, the Northern savages of Formosa, are headhunters.Human heads are offered at all theirCHUNG CHIA *H ^ is the name given tosome non-Chinese tribes living in Yiinnan, Kueichou,celebrations, and adorn the entrances of theirKuangsi and Kuangtung, numbering between huts.six and seven millions. They are akin to the Shan The Wa tribe found between the Salwin andtribes of Burma, the Tai of Tonkin, the Lao Mekong rivers in Yunnan and across the border intribes on the borders of China and possibly to Burma are also head-hunters.the Li-mu or Loi tribes of Hainan. Some of theirArnold ; Taylor.houses resemble those of the Shan, being built on HEI MIAO ,^ H black miao, the mostpiles. They are a distinct race from the Miao-chia, important tribe of the Miao, so-called becauseand are more respected by the Chinese. Most of they wear dark-coloured clothes. They are foundthe Chung-chia claim to have come from Kiangsi. in S.E. Kueichou and are the most intelligent andThe probable reason for this claim seems to be self-reliant of the Miao. Some say they originallythat when Chinese were sent to subdue the wild came from Kiangsi.

theENCYCLOPAEDIA SiKiCA ABORIGINEStheir feet. The Keh-lao are great believers indemons.IIHUA-MIAO ;fe-g flowery miao, are a Miao,tribe, so-called because their women wear particolouredclothes. A bride wears a silver filagreecrown, seven silver necklets and silver bangleson each arm, silver spangles sewn over her coatand a richly embroidered skirt. The Ta Hua Miaoare morally the worst of the Miao.Clarke ; Clark.HSI-FAN ^ ^,western barbarians is thename given by the Chinese to tribes inhabitingthe regions on the borders of China and Tibet.Many are Tibetan in religion and customs, but insome districts they have a cult of their own,which includes animal sacrifice. Their languageis connected with the Lo-lo speech.DaVIES ; ROCKHILL.KACHIN ;a hill-race of Burma, but extendinginto W. Yiinnan. The Chinese call them Yeh-jenff X (savages) or more politely shan t'ou lU gg (hilltops). They call themselves ching-p'aw.Davies.KEH-LAO ^'d J:g or Liao, ^ are the oldestnon-Chinese tribes now found in Kueichou, andare nearly extinct. They live in An-shun prefecture.Their language is very different fromany other in the province. Three names are givento them : Hua Keh-lao, Vc. ^'C V^ because the womendress in various colours ; Ta-ya Keh-lao, fX ^Ht ^ because a bride's front tooth is brokenbefore marriage ; and Hung Keh-lao, ^ ^t. '^( red Keh-lao ). The men dress like Chinese, butthe women have a peculiar costume of their own,wear their hair in a top-knot, and do not bindVial; Clarke; Clark.LA is the Shan name of tribes akin to theWa, found in K'eng-ma and neighbouring ChineseShan States. They are more civilized than thosecalled Wa, and a^e not headhunters, but are notBuddhist. Those tribes, of the same stock as Waand La, who have embraced Buddhism are calledTai Loi.Davies ; Scott.LI-MU. See Loi, inf.LI-SO is the Chinese name of a native tribewhose head quarters are in Yiinnan in the Salwinbasin. They call themselves Li-su. They usecross-bows for hunting. They are wide-spread butnot very numerous. In their northern home theyare quite untouched by Chinese civilization, andlive in primitive savagery ; further south they arevery Chinese in their customs.Davies.LO-HEI is the Chinese name of the La-hu, ahill-tribe that lives in south Yiinnan between theMekong and the Salwin. They talk a Lolo dialectand are probably a mixed race of Lo-lo and Wa.They are very war-like, the men using cross-bowsand poisoned arrows. The men (in China) haveadopted Chinese dress, but the women wear longcoats, breeches and gaiters, their tribal costume.Davies.LOI, (Li mu, etc.), %, aborigines of Hainan;many of these have so far adopted Chinese clothesand manners as hardly to be distinguishable.Others, while entirely under Chinese rule, retaintheir own dress and customs—they are called 'tameLois.' But a third class retain also something oftheir own ancestral government. These occupyperhaps half the island, especially in the south,and much of their country is mountainous. Theyhave no market towns, the architecture of theirvillages is their own and they have their ownsystem of village rulers and laws.The various tribes differ somewhat in custom.The men of the tribe living towards the north-eastof the district wear their hair in a large knot, andtheir costume consists of a short coat open downthe front and girdled, and two pieces of cloth hungfrom the waist. Another tribe lives in the southand its men fasten their hair with bone pinswhile the women wear their hair tied as a horse'stail is in wet weather. The men in the southwestpart the hair from ear to ear, with the fronthair knotted on the forehead, and the rest broughtover one ear and tucked into the knot. All thewomen are tattooed and wear short coats and petticoatsending above the knee. The clothing ismade from tree-cotton or from Chinese cotton.In one district ornaments of bone and silver areworn ; in another, large brass earrings, eight toten hoops of 5 inches diameter in each ear, are theprincipal ornaments; while heavy bead collars areworn in a third district.They provide for themselves nearly all theyneed, but bring deers' horns and hides, rattan, etc.,into the Chinese markets.They seem to have no writing and no idols ;they are superstitious and suspicious but are describedas gentle and amiable.Their relations withthe Chinese are always unstable and revolts arefrequent. Some of ,Loi are found in thepeninsula of Luichow in Kuarigtung, and it hasbeen thought by some that they were the same raceas the Chung-chia of Kueichou and Kuangsi, whoare similar to the Tai, and that they were drivensouth while the Chung-chia were pressed to thewest.Most of the Loi dialects have the same grammaticalconstruction as Annamese and Siamese,From a comparison of vocabularies Parker is 'jfopinion that the Loi are sprung from the Siamese.In stature and complexion they seem related tothe Malays. They occupy the centre and South3

Aborigines EJfCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAof Hainan, and are divided into 15 or 16 tribes.Their name is pronounced variously as Le, Lai, Liand Loi.Jeremiassen; Calder; Schaeffer; Henry.LO-LO, Jgig, etc., the Chinese name for animportant native race in the South-west. Lao-laoand Liaoliao are other forms of the name. TheliO-lo resent the use of these terms and are morepolitely called / chia ^-^ . The Chinese also callthem Man tzu, JjJ-^ or Man chia; this is the namecommonly used in Ssuch'uan. The Lo-lo nativename is No-su or Nei-su.There are various explanations of the Chinesename; Lo may be a corruption of No; but otherssay the name was given because they carry basketssupposed to contain the souls of ancestors, theChinese word for such baskets being Lo-lo.They are the most widely spread of all thenative races of W. China, being found fromW. Ssuch'uan to Kueichou, and forming the bulkof the population in Yunnan. Their stronghold isthe Ta Liang range in Ssuch'uan and the Chiench'ang}g ;g. valley which is the passage betweenSsuch'uan and Yiinnan. Here they are independentand in the majority, and lord it over the Chinese,whom they only tolerate that they may barter withthem. The territory they occupy is estimated at11,000 sq. miles. They are divided into ' black 'and • white,', or blackbones and * ' whitebones ''the former being superior. In Ssuch'uan, wherethey are pure or mingled with E. Tibetans, theyare comparatively fair, a fine, tall, race; furthersouth they are smaller, darker, inferior, thoughstill better than other aborigines, and are beingabsorbed by the Chinese. Their origin is unknown,but they have been suspected of Indo-Europeandescent.It is surmised that either the Ssuch'uanLo-los may be of the original stock, while thosein Yunnan may be the product of a mixture withanother darker race; or that the shorter, darkertype may be the original type, and the tall Lo-loof the North may have some infusion of Aryanblood.They have a ^written language, consisting ofsome three thousand words, and, according toBourne, only used for religious purposes. DuHalde gives an early account of them ; Baber wasthe first of recent writers on them ; and they havesince received a great deal of attention.Cordier'spaper in the T'oung-pao gives a resume of all thathad been written about them up to date, with a.bibliography, and was prepared in view of thed'Ollone mission then exploring the Ta Liangmountains.Baber; Vial; Clarke; Davies; Cordieb;Legbndre; Madrolle; Lietard; d'Ollone.MA RU, a Yiinnan tribe found on the Eastbranch of the Irawadi, extending over the borderinto China in small numbers. They eat dogs.DaVIES ; POTTINGER.MIAO-CHIA, IS ^ or MIAO-TZU g ^ is thename given by Chinese to tribes calling themselvesMhong, whose head-quarters are in Kueichou, butwho are also found in south Yunnan, Ssuch'uanand Hunan. They appear to have originally comefrom Hunan. In 800 B.C. the king of Chou sentan expedition to Changsha against them. In thereign of Ch'in Shih Huang Ti they were drivenwest. There are many tribes of them, differingin dialect, dress, etc. In Kueichou they are theserfs or tenants of the Lo-los. They are verysimple ; in morals they are inferior to the Chinese.Drink is their curse, and even their women areseen frequently drunk. They love music and dancing,their chief instrument being the lii-sen ^ ^similar to the Chinese shtng ^ Young people areallowed to court. They have no writing but havelegends of the creation and the deluge.They haveno idols, but sacrifice to their dead. They believein a future existence. They are in great dread ofdemons and constantly employ sorcerers, exorcistsand mediums. They are ruled by headmen whoare responsible to the Chinese magistrate. Therehave been frequent revolts of the Miao, the lastgreat one being during the T'ai P'ing rebellion.The Miao women wear wonderfully embroideredclothes and short, white kilted skirts. Both menand women wear dark blue turbans. The menuse cross-bows and poisoned arrows. The HeiMiao, Hua Miao, Ya chiao Miao, are amongstthe most important of their tribes in Kueichou.Vial; Clarke; Davies.MIN-CHIA g^ isthe name given by Chineseto a very mixed tribe found in Yunnan, chiefly inthe plains of Ta-li fu and Chao-chou, and notwidely scattered. They call themselves Pe-tso.They claim that their ancestors came from Nankingand they have adopted a Chinese construction intheir sentences and many "Chinese words. It is amost puzzling language to classify, but Lacouperieand Davies agree to place it in the Mon-Khmergroup. They have no written language. In the5th moon they hold a festival of music and dancing.Davies; Clark.MO-SO 01? or Mo-sha, or Mo-ti, or Li chia isthe name of a tribe living in the prefectures ofLi-kiang and Ho-king, in Yunnan. They callthemselves Na-shi or La-shi. They formerly inhabitedS.W. Tibet, and claim to have originallycome from Mongolia. They founded a powerfulstate with the capital at Li-kiang, and were partof the kingdom of Nan-chao. In 1263 they weresubjugated by Khubilai Khan. Their languageresembles that of the Lo-lo somewhat, but they

IENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNICA ACCENTORINAEdeny that they are related to the Lo-lo, whom theyscorn. Their religion is a Tibetan Buddhism, andthey worship their ancestors. They are grosslysuperstitious, believing in demons, spirits andmagic. The deluge legend is not unknown. Theyburn their dead. Their sorcerers use a hieroglyphicwriting. The men wear Chinese dress with earringsof green stone, and the women wear pleatedskirts and their hair in a top-knot.Davies ; CoRDiER ; Johnston/ Henei d'Or-LEANS.P'U-MAN is the Chinese name for a tribeliving in South and South-west Yiinnan. Clarkesays that P'u is the name given by the Chineseto Yao /^ . They are supposed by some to be aShan race, but they scattered, and isolated groupshave taken over the language of their most powerfulneighbours. Davies found some who couldspeak nothing but Chinese. He places them inthe Wa-Palaung group.Clarke; Davies.SHAN is the Burmese name for a race foundin Burma, Siam and China. They call themselvesTai, pronounced T'ai in Siam. The Chinese namefor them is Pai-i, or in Kueichou, Chungchia. InChina they are found in Yiinnan, Kueichou, Kuangsi,KuangLung and on the Ssuch'uan borders. Manyhave been absorbed into the Chinese race ; indeedthe Cantonese may be mainly of Shan blood.Before Yiinnan was conquered by Khtjbilai Khan,there existed the Shan kingdom of Nan- chao, withTa-li fu as the capital. The majority of Shansin Yiinnan call themselves Tai No or NorthernShans. The Chinese call them Pai-i. Anothertribe of Shans are the Lii in South Yiinnan, calledby the Chinese Shui Pai-i. The Shans live in thehot valleys, the Chinese keeping to the hills.The men dress like Chinese, but the women'scostume varies in different localities. Their languageand the style of their monasteries vary eastand west of the Salwin. They have two distinctforms of vrriting, one for religious and the otherfor ordinary purposes. Some of the Shans inYiinnan are Buddhist in religion, but in the easternpart they are ignorant both of Buddhism and ofwriting.Davies; Johnston.TAI LOI is the Shan name of hill-tribes inYiinnan, akin to Wa and La tribes, but Buddhist.They can talk the Shan language and have largelyadopted Shan customs. Tne women wear stripedcoloui-ed skirts and coats ornamented with shells.Davies.WA is the Shan name for a head-hunting tribefound between the Salwin and the Mekong inYiinnan, lat. 22° to 23°, the majority howeverbeing in Burma. They are shorter, darker, uglier,and less friendly than the other tribes in Yiinnan.They wear few or no clothes, and have frequentexpeditions for hunting heads. They are probablythe same as the more civilized La tribe.Davies ; Scott.WO-NI ^J/g a general name given by Chineseto hill-tribes in South Yiinnan who speak Lo-lodialects. Amongst them are the Pu-tu, Pi-o andKa-tu. The A-ka is a Wo-ni tribe which eats dogs.Davies.YAO /[§ is the name given to a race inhabitingKuangsi as their headquarters, Kuangtung, Yiinnanand, some say, Hunan. Roux and Clarke bothsay they preceded the Miao and Lolos in Kueichou,but that none are left in that province now. Theironly remains there are mounds of earth containingburnt bricks. According to Chinese tradition theirhomes were like large burrows in the hill-sides.Davies speaks of them as comparatively new-comersin Yiinnan. Their language is somewhat similar tothat of the Miao.Davies ; Clarke ; Clark ; Vial (Roux) ; Hosie.YA-CH'IO MIAO SF'^-® is a tribe of Miaowho claim they come from Tonkin. They sacrificeto Heaven and Earth once a year, an ox toHeaven and a pig to Earth. Their women wearclothes of dark blue and white. Clarke.Arnold : Tlie Peoples of Formosa; Calder :Notes on Hainan and its Aborigines, (ChinaReview, vol. xi, p. 42) ; Clark : Kueichou andYunnan Provinces ; Clarke : Among the Tribesin South-west China; Cordier : Les Mo-sos(T'oung-pao, 1908) ; Davies : Yunnan; d'Ollone :Les derniers Barbares; d'Orleans : Du Tonkin auxIndes; Henry : Lingnam; Hosie -.Three Years inWest China; Jeremiassen : Loi Aborigines of Hainan.(China Review, vol. xx) ; Johnston : FromPeking to Mandalay; Lietard : Essai de DictionnaireLo-lo Franqais, (T'oung-pao, 1911) ; Le-GENDRE : Far West Chinois, (ibid. 1909) ; Madrolles: Quelques Peuplades Lo-lo, (ibid. 1908)Pottinger : Upper Burma Gazetteer; Rockhill :The Land of the Lamas; Sainson : Histoire particulierede Nan-Tchao, 1904 ; Schaeffer : The Lois,(East of Asia, vol. iii) ; Scott : Gazetteer of UpperBurma; Taylor : Aborigines of Formosa, (ChinaReview, vol. xiv, p. 121) ; Vial (Roux) : Les Lolos.ABUTILON. See Fibres, textile.ACADEMY. See Imperial Academy.ACCENTORINAE, Hedge Sparrows or Accentors,a Sub-family of the Turdidae. The speciesknown in China are as follows.Accentor nipalensis, the Eastern Alpine Accentor,found in high altitudes in Kansu, Mu-p'in,etc. A. erythropygius, in the hills near Peking,in Ni Chihli and Manchuria.Tharrhaleus strophiatus,the Rufous-breasted Accentor, in W. Ssiich'uan,Kokonor, the Ch'inling range. T. montanellus,

ACCIPITRES ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAthe Chinese Hedge spara-ow, in Chihli, W. China,Manchuria. T. inimactdatus , the Maroon-backedAccentor, in the mountains of W. Ssuch'uan.T. Tvbeculoides, in Kansu. T. fvlvescens, Alashan,N. Tibet, Gobi desert.Svvinhoe: P.Z.S., 1870, p. 124; David etOusTALET : Les Oiseaux de la Chine.ACCIPITRES, the order of birds which inchidesthe Ospreys, Falcons, Eagles, Vultures, etc.There are many species in China. Their distributionis as follows.Vtdtur monachus, the Cinereous Vulture, hasbeen taken in Chihli, Kiangsu, Chekiang, Fukienand Mongolia ; Gy-ps himatayensis, the HimalayanGriffon ; Gypaelus barbatus, the Bearded Vulturethese three species are rare in China and are foundless rarely in Mongolia. Otogyps ccdvus occurs inYunnan. Aquilu chrysaetus, the Golden Eagle, iswidely resident in the mountainous districts ofChina and eastern Siberia. The Chinese take itwith nets, the wings being used for fans and thefeet and head as medicine.A. heliaca, the ImperialEagle, is found in Mongolia and in China, especiallyin the central provinces. A. orientalis Cab.,{A. clanga D. & 0.) ; some are resident in Mongoliaand N. China, but it is not found in large numberstill spring. A. macvlata Gm. Observed in Chihli,Kiangsu (breeding), Fukien and Kuangtung.Spizaetus nipalensis is resident in Chekiang, Fukienand Formosa, and in Mongolia. HaliaUus alb.icUlaL. The White-tailed Sea-Eagle, common throughoutChina. HaliaUus pelngicus is found in easternSiberia and in Mongolia, but it is rare. HaliaUusleucogaster occui-s on the Fukien and Kuangtungcoasts. H. Itucoryphus, Pallas' Fishing Eagle,taken at Shaweishan or Gutzlaff. H. leucocephalvshas been seen in N. China (Sowerby) andrecorded once from Mongolia by David.Pandion haliaUus, the Osprey, is identical withthe European bird, and is common in China.Haliastur indus, the Brahminy Kite, is met within Kiangsi, Fukien and Chekiang in the summer.Milvus melanotis, the Black-eared Kit€, is abundantin all parts of China. M. govinda, the CommonIndian Pariah Kite, is said by David to be foundon the south coast biit is rare. Elanus caeruleus,the Black-winged Jiite, visits the South in summer,and has been taken in Chekiang. Butastur indicvs,the Grey-faced Buzzard-Eagle, occurs on migrationin Eastern China and is found in Manchuria andin the Western Hills near Peking. Buteohemilasius, the White-tailed Buzzard, is commonin N.E. China, and on the Yangtze, and straysdown to S.E. China. B. qjluviipes is met with inEastern China in winter. Achibuteo straphiatus,the Himalayan Rough-legged Buzzard, is not uncommonin the north and west of China, and inManchuria and Mongolia; it has been taken inFukien and at Shaweishan. It probably occursas far as Kuangtung. C'ircaUus galliciLS, the ShorttoedEagle, was seen by David both in N. Chinaand Mongolia. Spilornis cheela, the Crested Serpent-Eagle,is found in S. China and Formosa.iS'. Tutherfordi occurs in Hainan. Lophospizatrivirgata, the Crested Goshawk, occurs in Formosa.Astur palumbarius, the Goshawk, is common inChina, especially in winter. It is the bird mostcommonly trained for the hunting of hares andpheasants, and is called Huang Ying or YellowHawk, though this name more properly belongs toFaico sacer.A. poliopsis, a sub-species of A. badius,the Shikra, is found in S. China and in Hainan.It is common in Cochin-China. A. cuculoides isfound from the south up to Peking and beyond.A. soloensis is found in S. China and on the LowerYangtze. Accipiter affinis, a large race of A.virgatus, the Besra Sparrowhawk, has been taken inFukien and inhabits Formosa. A. gularis, theJapanese Sparrowhawk, is common in EasternChina on migration. It is known to the Chineseby the name Yao g^ and is used for the chase ofsmall birds. A. nisus, the Sparrowhawk, is foundeverywhere and is used in hunting. Circuscyaneus, the Hen-Harrier, called by the ChinesePai ying j^ ^ or White Hawk, is seen in mostprovinces. 6'. melanohucus , common in Chihli on.migration, rare in S.E. China. C. macrurus hasbeen seen at Peking and on the Yangtze, but isvery rare. C. pygargus occurs rarely in passage.G. aeruginosus, the Marsh Harrier, is very common,especially in the South ; it has been seen inMongolia. C. spinolotus is abundant in S.E.China on passage and in winter. Microhieraxmelanohucus is common in Fukien and has beentaken in Kiangsi and at Nanking. Falco sacer,the Saker or Cherruq Falcon, is found in Mongolia,Chihli, Shensi and Ssuch'uan. This bird especiallyhas the name Huang ying ^ f^ Yellow Hawk.F. peregrinus, the Peregrine Falcon, is commonin China. F. peregrinator, the Shahin, occurs inS.E. China from the Yangtze southwards. F.subhuteo, the Hobby, is found in all parts of China.Aesalon regulus, the Merlin, is only seen in winter.Erythropus amurensis, the Eastern Red-leggedFalcon, comes up to North China in the springwhere it commonly breeds. Cerchneis pekinensis,the Eastern race of the Lesser Kestrel, is met within Chihli. C. alaudarius, C. japonicus and C.saturatus occur in East China, where they are allcommon except the first, which has been taken inFukien a few times. HieraUus fasciatus, Bonelli'sEagle, occurs from the Lowesr Yangtze to Fukien.Pernis ellioti, the Eastern Honey-Buzzard, passesEastern China on migration.David et Ocstalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine.

IIENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA AGLENACUPUNCTURE, or piercing the flesh withneedles, is an exceedingly common remedy inChina for rheumatism, sprains and other troubles.It is an ancient science, attributed in traditionto Huang Ti, and is certainly treated of veryminutely in works of many centuries ago, andthe operation is performed to-day very dexterouslyby its practitioners.At one time the subject excited much interestin the v/est and a great deal was written on it.The first knowledge of the art as practised inChina seems to have been given by a Dutchphysician, in a work which appeared in London in1683, and Kaempfer in 1712 in the third fasciculeof Amoenitates Exoticae has a paper on thesubject. A long analysis of the works writtenat the beginning of last century for and againstthe practice of acupuncture will be found inRemusat.Remusat : Sur V Acupuncture {NouveauxMelanges Asiatiques) ; Lockhart : The MedicalMissionary in China; Lay : The Chinese as they are.ADAM, the Persian missionary, presbyter,chorepiscopos and papas of China who wrote theSyro-Chinese inscription on the Nestorian Tablet.On the stone his name is given as Ching ching^ j^ of the Ta Ch'in monastery i

AGLIARDI ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAin China in 1888,He was Commissioner at severalpores, and in 1903-4 acted as Chief Secretary to theInspectorate-General. He became Deputy Inspector-Generalin 1910, then Officiating Inspector-General,and finally Inspector-General in 1911, whichposition he still holds in 1917. He has receivedvarious honours from the Chinese Government.AGLIARDI, ANTONIO, archbishop ofCaesarea and later, Cardinal. When the Popein 1886 thought of sending a legate for permanentresidence in Peking, his choice fell on Agliardi,who accepted his nomination. On objectionsbeing made by France the project was abandoned.Chine,CoRDiEii : Histoire des Belations de laetc..AGRICULTURE.This subject is of supremeimportance in China, where it is estimated thattwo-thirds of the population cultivate the soil.It is naturally, however, not a subject to attractthe first attention of foreign students of the country;few have combined the necessary knowledgewith the necessary amount of travel, and therefoo-ecomparatively few books on agriculture canbe referred to.Such books as there are must be read withcaution : for example in one valuable work somestatistics are worked out for Shantung on theassumption that a mou is one-sixth of an Englishacre. More local knowlege would give very differentresults, since the mou generally quotedin Shantung is nearly one-half an English acre.It may be added that in that province one mou permouth is sufficient to provide for the family.In the thousands of years during which therace has practised agriculture the art has arrivedat the highest perfection which could be attainedempirically, but the scientific farming which inthe Western world is new is, of course, in Chinastill unknown. The great natural fertility of thesoil,combined with the patient and unceasing toilof the farmer are the chief factors in Chinesefarming.It has been said that Chinese agriculture isintensive rather than extensive. This probablymeans that little is done to open up new areas ofcultivation, while everything is done to squeezethe best result from the land which is worked.Poverty among the people, governmental inaction,and the difficulty in depending on the governmentto protect new ventures must account for much landlying idle. Under the Republic, with its Ministryof Agriculture and Commerce, a new state ofthings may be expected.The methods of farm-work vary according tolocal and climatic conditions, but are always of aprimitive style. The plough, for example, maybe carried home on the shoulder at the end of theday's work : it is probably the plough of manycenturies ago. But in every part of China thereis no difference in the infinite care which isbestowed on the fields. Manure is valued as ifit were gold ; and wisely under the conditions,though in these days of sewage destructors it mayseem to us absurd. Cultivation is necessarilyshallow. Rotation of crops is not a commonpractice, but it is in use to some extent where itis found possible. There is very little selectionof the best produce for sowing again ; the averageseed is generally considered as good enough. Thereis an almost complete absence of meadow-land,domestic animals being more economically fed oncut fodder, with some grazing on hill-sides, etc.The Chinese are not without knowledge of irrigationand drainage, but difficulties in cooperationprevent anything being done in such matters exceptlocally and in a small way.Grain culture is of such importance in thenational life that, as may be read in any generalwork on China, the Emperors used to set theexample to the people every spring. Rice is thechief grain, and is grown wherever possible. Wheatcomes next, after which follow maize, kao-liang,various millets, hull-less barley, hull-less oats andbuckwheat.Of beans there are innumerable local varietiesof the soy-bean ; cow-peas are quite importantbroad-beans are cultivated as a winter crop in themilder regions, and as a summer crop on the tablelandsand mountain valleys of W. and N.W. China.Other beans, such as gram-beans, adzuki-beans,moth-beans, etc. are also much grown.Plants which give oil-bearing seeds are varywidely cultivated, such as sesame, rape, soy-beans,hemp, Perilla, etc.Fibre plants occupy a good deal of land,such as cotton, pai ma ( Abutilon avicennae ), hemp,jute, ramie, etc.Starchy root-crops are abundant, but are nolas important as in Western lands. The main rootcropsare taros, yams, sweet potatoes, arrowleaf( Sagittaria sinensis ), etc.Vegetable culture is in a high state of perfection,and no race can compare with the Chinesein the way they get succulent vegetables fromsmall patches of land.Fruit-growing is practised wherever it pays,but through lack of scientific culture is not assuccessful as it should be. ( See under variousfruit names ).King : Fanners of Forty Centuries; Meyer :U.S. Department of Agriculture, Reports; Richard: Comprehensive Geography.AH LUM CHEONG, the baker whose breadmade some four hundred people ill at Hongkong

ENOyCLOPAEDIA SINTCA ALAUDIDAEon January 15, 1857. Analysis showed the whitebread contained 60 grains of white arsenic inevery pound. Such appears to be the meaningof Eitel's statement, which is unintelligible asit stands. The dose was too heavy to be effective,that is to say, the sufferers discovered at oncethat they were poisoned and drank emetics asfast as they could be supplied ; those who ateleast suffered most. No one died of the poisonbut the health of some was permanently injured,and the nervous shock through the sudden senseof insecurity was perhaps worse than the poison.Lady Bowring, the Governor's wife, was deliriousfor a time and had to return to England.Ah Lum's own wife and children were amongthe sufferers, and he himself having gone toMacao that morning was voluntarily returningto Hongkong when he was arrested. Nor didhis workmen attempt to run away but werearrested to the number of fifty-one many hoursafter. There was not sufficient evidence toincriminate anyone, but Ah Lum as a suspiciouscharacter was expelled from the island for fiveyears. In a civil action against him W. Tarrant,editor of the Friend of China, obtained $1,000damages. It was believed by the whole communitythat the attempt was the crime of theCantonese officials, with or without the connivanceof Ah Ltjai. a smaller dose would no doubthave killed so many of the British that Hongkongcould have been easily attacked and taken.EiTEL : Europe in China, p. 313.AHUNG or AMONG psj ^. The title of thelowest official in the Mohammedan mosques ofChina; probably from Persian Akhun, which isfrom a root meaning to instruct.AIGRETTES, ILE D', a name given by theFrench to the island nearest Kuangchow in theleased territory. It is also marked on some mapsas La Rigaudiere:AIGUN^^, inHeilungkiang province, Manchuria,is on the southern bank of the Amur,20 miles below Blagovestchensk and on the oppositebank. It is one of the self-opened ports of theKomura Convention of 1905. The old Aigun wasdestroyed by the Russians in 1900 and has neverrecovered its former importance, the mercantilecommunity preferring to settle at Taheiho (calledby the Russians Saghalan) directly oppositeBlagovestchensk. Lat. 50° 5' N. ; Long. 126° 29'E. The population is 25,410.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports Hk. Tls. 547,176 356,947Net Chinese Imports 775,033 794,041Exports 324,299 413,419Total Hk. Tls. 1,646,508 1,564,407AKUTA pjl

ALBATROSS ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAaccording to David, are not found in Mongolia.These arrive in China at the beginning of thecold season and go back north again in April. A.codivox Swinh. is abundant in S. China to theYangtze.A. sala from N. Formosa and A. waitersidiffer slightly from .4. codivox of the Pescadoresand S. Formosa. Otocorys alpestris,common in northern Europe and Asia is seldommet with in China, and then only in the winter.The Chinese cage it for the sake of its song. Theydo the same with 0. sibirica the Siberian HornedLark, which is common everywhere in Mongoliaand is found in N. China in the winter.Galerita leautungensis is common all the yearround in Mongolia and in the north and westof China as far as N.W. Ssuch'uan, and isgenerally found in the foothills. Alaudula chehensisand Calendrdla hrachydactyla are abundantin Mongolia, coming down in the cold season tothe northern plains of China; the former breedsabundantly in Chihli and Shantung. C. dukhunensisoccurs in W. China and has been taKen ii.migration at Shawei shan. Mdanocorypha mongolicacomes south to China only in small numbersin the winter, but is found in cages in everyprovince as the Chinese are especially fond of itssong.David et Oxjstalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine;(Alaudides).ALBATROSS. See Tuhinares.ALBAZIN, a town or fort built on the banksof the Amur by Khabarov during his expedition of1648-51 ; it did not receive its first governor till 1672.In 1675 Nicolas Spatar Milescu, returning froman embassy to Peking, advised the inhabitants ofAlbazin not to continue their expeditions on theAmur and to keep on good terms with the Chineseadvice that was not listened to, and the Chineseprepared in 1684 to begin hostilities. Albazin wastwice besieged. In the first siege, 1684, thirty orforty Russians ' including a priest, were madeprisoners and taken to Peking. After some yearsthey were set free but stayed in the capital. Permissionwas given for priests to be sent them fortheir religious needs, and this was the beginning ofthe Russian Ecclesiastical Mission [q-v.).In 1689 the Treaty of Nerchinsk was signed,by which the Russians were pushed back from theAmur, and Albazin, after a short and troubledexistence of thirty-eight years was destroyed.It isprobable that some ruins of the fort may still beseen, and an inscribed monument has been put up onthe spot.CORDIER : Histoire des Relations de la Chine,etc., Ravenstein : The Russians on the Amur;DvDGEON : The Russian Ecdesiastical Mission,Chinese Recorder, vols, iii & iv ; Innocent : TheRussian Orthodox Mission in China, ibid., vol.xlvii.ALBION PRESS, a printing pressbelongingto J. R. Morrison at Macao, at which theAnglo-Chinese Calendar for 1833 was printed,besides a sermon by Dr. Morrison and fournumbers of a periodical called The Evangelistand Miscellanea Sinica. In May, 1833, it wasinterdicted by civil authority, the reasons givenbeing that the publications issued containedmatter contrary to Roman Catholic teaching, andthat the printing press was prohibited everywherein Portuguese territory unless the king ofPortugal sanctionedit.Chinese Repository : vol. ii, p. 92.ALBUQUERQUE, ALPHONSO D', thefounder of Portuguese empire in the East, wasborn in 1453. After conquering Malacca, he sentPerestrello to China in 1515, and thus openedthe chapter of modern trade between Europe andChina. He died on December 16, 1515.ALGAE, the Order containing Auks, Guillemotsetc., Alca antiqua Gm., of the sub-familyAlcinae, is Bering's Guillemot; it is found in theFormosan Channel.ALCESTE ISLAND m^k ^i ^" tao,a smallisland N.W. of the Shantung Promontory. Theboat in which Lord Amherst came as ambassadorwas named Alcesie, and the island probablyreceived its foreign name at that time.ALCHEMY, ^ ;f5-Zten tan. The mediaevaltheories as to the transmutation of metals and theelixir of life exist almost in their entirety inChinese thought. Dr. Martin and other sinologueshave made a strong but not complete case for theorigin of alchemy in China ; Waiters thinks ithad its origin in India; and Giles speaks of it asintroduced from the West into China after theHan dynasty.Alchemy has been an important branch ofTaoist study. Proceeding from the theory ofprogressive evolution (v. Yin and Yang) it wasthought that the various forms of matter (v. FiveElements) gradually changed, and that the essenceof man could similarly be modified. Hence Chinesealchemy, as in Europe, had two sections :, (1) Nei Tan ft ^ or spiritual alchemy, inwhich by ascetic practices, spiritual exercises,communion with virgin nature and the use ofnatural minerals and vegetable drugs, the bodyand soul gradually become transformed into thesubstance and spirit of an ethereal being (Hsien jUlwith theurgic powers. Many of the Taoist sagesand saints are believed to have thus attainedperfection.10

IENCrCLOPAEDIA SINICA ALMALIK(2) Wai Tan^fN^, or material alchemy, whichaimed at transforming inorganic matter, especiallymetals.The two great desires of men, — perhaps ofChinese especially,—for long life and for wealth,are thus combined.To what extent such practical knowledge ofchemistry as the Chinese have may be due to theresearches of alchemists is uncertain. That severalEmperors were deceived by Taoist impostors anddrank the Elixir vitae is a matter of history.Allegorical language similar to that employedby European alchemists abounds in Chinese bookson the subject, and, as in Europe, there is aperplexing tendency to alternate the emphasis on,first, the inner or spiritual process and, second,the outer or physical process.Tan fi- or cinnabar (mercury sulphide) islargely referred to as the matrix from which goldis produced, gradually by nature or rapidly by art.Jade is also an object and material for alchemicalprocesses.Martin : Hanlin Papers; and Lore of Cathay;Chatley : Alchemy in China, (in Journal of theAlchemical Society).[H.C]ALCOCK, RUTHERFORD, k.c.b., d.c.l..Sir, was born in London in 1809 and died there in1897. He first came to China in 1844, was Consulat Foochow, Shanghai and Canton, and after servicein Japan from 1858 to 1865 he returned to Pekingas Minister. He retired in 1871. His writingsinclude nothing on Chinese subjects, except thepreface to the account of Maugarx's journey.MiCHiE : The Englishman in China.ALENI, JULES3tff:§. Ai Ju liao, was bornat Brescia in 1582, became a Jesuit at 18 andarrived in Macao in 1610. After some yearsspent there in teaching mathematics he was sentto Peking; thence he went to Shanghai and toYangchow, where he baptised a mandarin as thefirst Christian of the district, and followed himwhen appointed to Shensi. Later he worked inShansi and in 1620 went to Hangchow. Calledto Ch'ang shu '^'^% he made 220 converts in afew weeks. The Kolao Yeh retiring to Fuchowinvited him to follow. He went in 1625, and forsome years had very great success in the Provincebut in 1638 through troubles caused by theimprudences of members of another Order, heand other priests were exiled to Macao, theChristians were persecuted and the many churchesfell into heathen hands. Contrary to all hopeAl-f.ni returned to Fuchow the next year. Hewas vice-provincial of South China from 1641 to1648. He died in 1649.Havret : La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fu,vol. ii, p. 29, note.ALFALFA or Lucerne, B ^ to« hsu. NnxsEbbesen Hansen, professor in the South DakotaState College of Agriculture, found that thisimportant forage plant grew in Asia much furthernorth than had been supposed. The bluefloweredvariety was found as far as 45° northlatitude in Hi; and north of that and stretchingaway far northward beyond the Trans-SiberianRailway between 50° and 64° north latitude, wasa yellow-flowered variety. The importance ofthis lies in the hope it gives of cultivating profitablythe North American desert regions, right upto the Hudson's Bay district.Mu-hsii is not uncommon in the northernprovinces of China. Some seed was sent toEngland and elsewhere, obtained by Hosie inShensi. In 1912 half a ton of the seed was senttoPretoria.KrRKWOOD : The Romantic Story of aScientist, in the World's Work, April, 1908.ALLEN, HERBERT JAMES, born in India,where his father was in the Civil Service ; he cameto China as student-interpreter in 1861. He retiredfrom the Consular Service in 1888 and died inWales in 1911. He wrote various papers, translations,eve, his best-known work being EarlyChinese History; or are the Chinese Classics forged?(1906)ALLEN, YOUNG JOHN, born in the UnitedStates in 1836, died in Shanghai in 1907. He cameto China in 1860 as a missionary of the MethodistEpiscopal (South) Church, but the Civil War beganhe lost the support of the home churchsoon after,and he entered the service of the Chinese Government,first as teacher then as translator. He waseditor for many years of the IFon Kuo Kung Pao'Ui^'SX^ which he began at his own expense underthat title in 1875 and carried on thus for some 15years ; he then edited it for the Christian LiteratureSociety till his death ;—the most successful of suchperiodicals issued by foreigners for the Chinese.ALL SOULS' DAY, a name used for theBuddhist feast held by Chinese on the 15th ofthe 7th moon. See Yii Ian p'en.ALMALIK, the Mohammedan name for thecity called Alimali by the Chinese, and Armalec,Armalegh, etc., by European travellers of theMiddle Ages. It was a seat of rule both forTurkish and Mongol authority at different times.It stood somewhere on the Hi river, but its siteis uncertain. It was a Roman Catholic see butonly had one bishop. According to Gams, theFranciscan Richard of Burgundy was appointedin 1338 and martyred in 1342. It was the sceneof several other martyrdoms.Yule : Cathay and the Way Thither, (1914)vol. iii, p. 87, note.11

ALMANAC ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAALMANAC. The Chinese almanac is commonlycalled Huang li^^ or Li pen f^^ but the;oiBcial name is Shih hsien ^AwRtM^. It is agovernment monopoly and there is a severe penaltyfor issuing unauthorised editions. In its morerecent form it dates from the beginning of theCh'ing dynasty, though it had also been issued inthe preceding dynasty.It was the special work ofthe Imperial Board of Astronomy, ch'in t'ien chien.(See Astronomy, Board of). There is in it acertain amount of useful astronomical information,—the days of the month, the moon's phases, theequinoxes, solstices, etc. But to most people theastrological part is probably more important, sincethey learn from it the days and hours that arelucky for every undertaking in life, from a weddingto taking a bath.It might have been supposed that the Republicwould have ceased to fool the people with suchsuperstitions ; but though the almanac has improvedin some respects it is as much as ever the guide to'lucky days.'A. P. Parkek : The Chinese Almanac, ChineseRecorder, vol. xix.ALMONDS; there are no almonds grown inChina, but kernels of apricot-stones of certainspecies are often mistaken for them and calledalmonds. See Apricots.A LOP EN ISf m ^. The founder of the NestorianMission in China, who arrived in a.d. 631.See Olopen.ALTAI, meaning Golden Mountains and sometimesso translated in Chinese ( ^ [U chin shan) ; arange extending in a southeasterly dkection fromRussian territory into N.W. Mongolia.peak is 14,000 ft.Its highestALTAR OF EARTH. See Temple of Parth.ALTAR OF HEAVEN. See Temple ofHeaven.ALTYN TAGH, a range of mountains connectedwith the K'un-lun mountains, and with themseparating Turkestan and Tibet. They rise to13,000 or 14,000 feet.A LUM. See Ah Lum.ALUM Pei-fan Q His produced to some extentin Kuangtung and Anhui, but the chief supplycomes from P'ing-yang, a few miles south of Wenchouin Chekiang. The aliun is obtained from theFan Shan in the Sung-yang hills, near theFukien border, first visited by Gixtzlaff in 1855."The alum is taken in stone blocks (first split withfire, and then broken with a sledge hammer) fromthe sandstone in which it lies. It is then boiledand soaked, and carried away in crystals." Theannual output is estimated at 200,000 piculs, someof which is used in dyeworks. The quality is saidto be very good. Alirni is used in making paper,as a mordant in dyeing, in tanning and in cementfor masonry. The demand increased very much in1916, owing to shortage of dye-stuffs.Export abroad, 1914, 29,970 piculs, valueTls. 60,762 ; 1915, 43,846 piculs, value Tls. 77,583.A-LU-T'E pBI^.igF, the Empress Chia Shtjn^)®,daughter of the Manchu Duke Chung Ch'i ^i^^,and wife of the Emperor T'ung Chih. She wasleft with child when T'tjng Chih died, and if shehad borne a son he would have reigned. But thisdid not suit the Empress-dowager's plans ; KttangHsii become emperor and A-lu-tk either committedsuicide as a protest or was murdered. See BlandAND Backhouse; Annals of the Court of Peking.AMAH, from Portuguese ama; the word usedby foreigners in China for the Chinese nurses oftheir children.AMARAL, JOAO MARIA FERREIRA DO,a Governor of Macao. In 1849, finding the freeport of Hongkong was spoiling the business ofMacao, he issued a proclamation on March 5,ordering that no duties should be collected inMacao and that the Hoppo's office should beclosed. The Chinese naturally regarded this asthe first sten towards asserting complete independence.Many merchants, with their familiesand deuendents, left Macao with the Hoppo, andthe streets were deserted. Amaral then orderedthat if more Chinese left Macao without permission,their property should be confiscated.On August 22, as he was riding near theBarrier, eight men attacked him ; unarmed andhaving no right hand, he was easily overcomehis head and left hand were cut off and carriedaway. The Portuguese soldiers took possessionof the Barrier (Porto da Cerco) and Chinesefort; two British men-of-war came from Hongkong,and the American and French officials sentprotests to the Kuangtung Viceroy. The Chinesewere, however, so obstructive that it was not tillJanuary 16, 1850, that the head and hand wererecovered from them and placed in Amaral'scoffin.The immediate result of this murder was thatPortugal paid no more rent for Macao, thoughthe independence of the place was not recognisedb^ China till 1887.Morse : The International Relations of theChinese Empire; Montalto de Jesus : HistoricMacao.AM BAN 1^ f^ a Manchu word meaningminister of state :A'^. Europeans use it for tHepolitical representatives of China in Mongolia,12

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNICA AMERICAN BAPTISTTurkestan and Tibet.An attempt has been madeto connect it with the a7nbactus of Ceesar, GallicWar, vi, 15.AMBASSADORS' ROAD, a name given bytravellers to the road between T'eng-yiieh andTa-li fu; it is about fourteen days journey.According to Richard a similar name wasgiven to the road from Canton through the Kanchiangvalley in Kiangsi, the road traversed byMacartney, Amherst and other ambassadors ontheir way to Peking.Ward : The Land of the Blue Poppy, p. 11.Richard : Comprehensive Geography, p. 145.AMBER hu p'o^iQ. Early Chinese writersdescribe amber as being the resin of the pine andfir, which, having sunk into the earth is in processof time transformed into a lustrous substance of^ a blood-red colour, and which when rubbedpossesses the property of attracting mustard seeds.The first mention of amber by a Chinese writeris by Pan Ku in the first century of our era, whostates that it was imported from Kashmir. Anotherwriter of the same period refers to its beingobtained from the country of the Shans. We aretold that in the same century the amber minesof North Burma were exploited and amber sentthence to Yunnan. Several places in Yiinnan aresaid by Chinese writers to have produced indigenousamber; but the so-called Yunnan amber ofthe present day comes from the Burma mines, thecentre of the industry being Maingkhwan, inhabitedby Shans, 110 miles from Yung-ch'ang fu.Amber was brought from Persia in or beforethe 6th century, according to the Wei annals, andin the 10th century tribute of amber was sent toChina from Turfan. Amber, presumably fromIndia, is much used in Tibet, and is thence transportedto Kansu. In the 17th century the DalaiLama sent some as tribute to the Chinese Emperor.As regards importations of European amberinto China, it is known that in the middle agesRussian amber was transported via Siberia toTurkistan and thence to China. The Dutch importedamber into Formosa in the 17th century,and the Portuguese carried it to Macao in the 18thcentury, though it is not certain whether this wasEuropean amber or from the Indian Archipelago.The reports of the Chinese Maritime Customsshow that the chief sources of the present supplyare Prussia, Japan and the Indian Archipelago.The amber used in Korea comes exclusively fromPrussia.Chinese imitations of amber date from earlytimes. A 15th century account describes imitationamber as being made from dyed sheep's horn.The present imitations are made from copal,shellac, colophony and glass. Amber-coloured glassbeads are made in Po-shan in Shantung, while animitation amber is made in Canton from the upperpart of the beaks of cranes.A powder made from amber is much used inChinese medicines.Jet is referred to by Chinese writers as blackamber. See Jet.Latjfer : Historical Jottings on Amber in Asia;HiRTH and Rockhill : Chau Ju-hua.AMBOYNA, a port in the Moluccas wherethe East India Company had a large factory forthe trade with Japan. In 1623 the Dutch massacredten or twelve English factors and traders,on the pretence that they had been plotting withJapanese to seize the Dutch fortress. At thetime, Holland and England were at peace, butthe English government was too weak to getreparation. The Company therefore abandonedthe Japan trade and turned with more energy toopening commercial relations with China.Cromwell, in 1654, got £80,000 from theDutch government as an indemnity for the massacre.Eames : The English in China.AMERICAN ADVENT MISSION.Headquarters :—Boston, Mass.Entered China, 1897.Works in Anhui and Kiangsu.The Society's work was begun by Mr. and Mrs.G. H. Malone, who settled in Nanking in 1897,opening a school in a Buddhist temple, and holdingservices there for two and a half years. Work wasalso begun near Wuhu, but all was stopped by theBoxer rising. In 1901, Nanking was re-occupied,,and Wuhu and Ch'ao Hsien ^ H (near Wuhu) wereopened.Nanking is the principal station, and there isa strong industrial work done there both for boysand girls, who are taught cabinet-making, mattressmaking,weaving, tailoring, brass work, baking,etc. In 1917 the Mission reported,Foreign workers 16Chinese assistants 38Communicants 580AMERICAN BAPTIST FOREIGN MISSION-ARY SOCIETY.Headquarters :—Boston, Mass. U.S.A.Entered China, 1842.Works in Kuangtung, Chehiang, Kiangsu,Kiangsi and Ssiich'uan.South China Mission. This Society, like theL.M.S. and other of the older-established Missions,did not begin its work for the Chinese in ChinaProper. As early as 1833, one of the AmericanBaptist missionaries went from Burmah to Siam.and his first three converts were Chinese fromKuangtung province. The first church formed was13

AMERICAN BAPTIST ENCVCLOPAEDIA SiNiCAat Macao in 1837 ; but when China was opened in1842, workers were sent at once to Hongkong. Oneof these, the Rev. 1. J. Roberts, settled two yearslater in Canton, where Hung, afterwards theleader of the T'ai P'ing rebels was for some weeksunder his instruction, but was refused baptism.When Hung was at Nanking in 1853, he invitedMr. Roberts to go and preach the gospel there.Mr. Roberts, aftea* various delays did so, andremained fifteen months with the rebels, then leftthem in disgust, being unable to influence them ashewished.Swatow became a treaty port in 1858, and in1860 the work from Hongkong was moved there,the missionaries being familiar with the Swatowdialect, as. they had used it both in Siam andHongkong. The work of which Swatow is thebase naturally divides itself into two pai'ts, onewhere the Ch'ao-chou ^ (Swatow) dialect is/^jfused, and one the Hakka department. The formerwas all worked from Swatow till 1893, whenUng-kung f^ 133 was opened ; Ch'ao-chou cityitself being occupied in 1894 ; Kit-yang Jg [^ in1896, Ch'ao-yangJlUil, in 1905, and Ho-po jTiJ^in 1907. Swatow is by far the strongest centre,and has a large hospital, and strong educationalwork, including the Ashmore Theological Seminary.Medical work is also done at Ch'ao-yang andKit-yang. The Hakka work has its centre atKa-ying^J^, opened in 1890. Here there are aBoys' Academy, lower Schools, Girls' and Women'sSchools. Chang-ning ^^, in Kuangsi, opened in1912, is an extension of the Hakka work northward.It is four days' journey from Ka-ying.Since 1913, the A.B.C.F.M. has maintainedwork in Canton city in connection with the ChinaBaptist Publication Society.East China Mission. This was begun at Ningpoin 1843 by a medical missionary, Dr. D.J.Macgowan, who was the first to succeed in establishinga permanent station here, owing largely to hismedical skill overcoming native prejudice. TheRev. E.C. Lord arrived in 1847, and the Rev.J. GoDDARD was transferred from Siam in 1849, hisson joining in 1868; in addition to other workers.The work progressed slowly, with evangelistic,educational and medical branches all represented,special attention being given to the training oftheological students under the care of tlie Rev.H. Jenkins ; this branch was transferred to Shaohingin 1889, and finally to Shanghai under theUnion scheme {v. infra).The second station occupied was Shaohing ^^. After the usual delays and disappointmentsland was bought in 1869, and the church organizedin 1870. Kin-hwa ^ ^ was opened in 1883. Asearly as 1867, one of the missionaries was invitedto this city by some natives of the place who hadUbecome Christians at Ningpo. He went, rented ahouse, and stayed for several months, but wasfinally driven out, and no other foreigner went theretill 1883, though work had been kept going by aChinese preacher. Dr. S. P. Barchet (afterwardsof the U.S.A. Consular Service) opened a hospitalhere in 1894.Huchow ^ i^l"!, 60 miles N. of Hangchow, wasopened in 1888 after repeated failures caused bythe bitterly anti-foreign spirit of the literati; andfor some time, the Mission was threatened withriots. The medical work here is shared with theM.E. (South) M.Hangchow was not permanently occupied bythe Society until 1899, though as early as 1866 theRev. C. T. Kreyer had organized a church there,composed of Christians from Ningpo ; but he left theMission in 187o, and except for two short periods,the work was in charge of a Chinese preacher inthe interim. In this city, in addition co the WaylandAcademy for Boys, the Mission has a sharein the Union Girls' High School. The Boys' andGirls' schools ac Kin-hwa, Shaohing and Huchoware of lower grade, and act as feeders to theHangchow High Schools. Ningjio, from itsposition, has its own schools of Academy grade.The Medical work is done at Ningpo, Shaohing,'Kin-hwa and Huchow, where there ar-ehospitals.The Kiangsu work centres in Shanghai andis educational and administrative. The first agentsof the Mission to reside permanently in Shanghaicame in 1907.In addition to secretarial, fiscal and administrativework for all the three divisions of theA.B.F.M.S. the only work in this port is inconnection with the Union College and TheologicalSeminary which was opened in September, 1906,in rented quarters (Dr. R. T. Bryan, President),and was removed to its own buildings at the Pointin 1907, under the name of Yates College, thepresent Head being the Rev. F. J. White, D.D.West China Mission. Work was begun in1890, by the Revs. W. M. Upcraft and G. Warner,at Sui-fu in Ssuch'uan. Large reinforcementsarrived within a very few years, and a hospitalwas established, and a Bible Training School anddayschools opened.Kia-ting ^ ^ and Ya-chou J^ }\\were occupiedin 1894, Ning-yiian ^ ^ in 1905, and Chengtu in1909. The points selected, with the exception ofNing-yiian, are all great trade centres, Sui-fubeing the terminus of the great trade route fromBurma through Yiinnan to Ssuch'uan ; Kia-ting,at the confluence of the Min, Ya and T'ung riversYa-chou, on the great road from Peking to Lhasa,and the centre of the tea-trade with Tibet ; whileChengtu is the capital of the province. Ning-yiian

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA A1VIERICAN BOARDis 12 days' journey from Ya-chou over high mountainpasses in the midst of the border tribes. Itwas occupied in the hope of planting a line ofstations to link up eventually with the mission'swork in Burma, but the Intensive Policy {v. infra)has vetoed this.In 1893, and again after the Bo.xer year, strongreinforcements were sent from the U.S.A. ; and in1917, there were 46 missionaries of the Society inSsuch'uan.The Mission has a shai'e in the West ChinaUniversity at Ghengtu (q.v.) and all its educationalwork is affiliated to the West China EducationalUnion, probably the best-developed scheme inChina. There are in addition to the dayschools.Senior Primary Boarding schools for boys and girlsat each central station and Schools of Middle gradeatSui-fu.The medical work centres round Ya-chou andSui-fu where there are hospitals, Ning-yiian,where a hospital is already planned, and the UnionMedical School at Chengtu.Central China Mission. Until 1916, the Societyhad a fourth sphere of work known by this name.Work was begun in Hanyang in 1894, by Dr. J. S.Adams, and was encouraging and successful. In1911, however, the Board adopted what is knownas the " Intensive Policy " viz., concentration onfewer stations, and development of existing work,rather than opening up new territory, even ifalready assigned to it; and as the Central Chinawork was less developed than those of the otherthree divisions, it was withdrawn. Two of thecentres elected to join with the W.M.M.S. whichwas in the district : the rest were placed, continuingas Baptist churches, under the supervision of theL.M.S., and retained the Church building andparsonage at Hanyang. The L.M.S. purchased theremaining property.Women's Work. The first single lady workei'of the A.B.F.M.S. was Miss Adele M. Fielde,who arrived in Swatow in 1873, after some yearsin Siam. Two others came to Ningpo in 1878-9,and now in all three divisions there are a considerablenumber of ladies sent out by the Women'sBoard of the Society ; in whose charge is most ofthe work done for girls and women.IStatistics for year ending December 31, 1916.Foreign missionaries ... ... 143Chinese staff 569Communicants 6,529AMERICAN BIBLE SOCIETY, THE.Headquarters :—New York.As early as 1832, the Rev. E. C. Bridgman ofe A.B.C.F.M. (the lirst American Missionary toChina), appealed to the American Bible Societyfor " means to prepare and circulate the ChristianScriptures;" and in response the Society madeits first appropriation for that purpose in 1833,though the work of distribution was done bymissionaries without any expense to the Societyfor 33 yeaffs, the funds being used for translatingand publishing.The Briugman and Culbertson version of theBible (See Delegates' Version) was published bythe Society in 1862, and a share was borne in theproduction of Dr. Goddard's Pie vised New Testament,(1853) and one in Southern Mandarin (1854)made by Medhurst and Stronach.In 1356, the plan of selling the Scriptures ata nominal price was substituted for thfe formerpolicy of indiscriminate free distribution, andnative colporteurs were first employed.An Agent for China and Japan was appointedin 1875 in the person of the Rev. L. H. Gulick,D.D. who greatly extended the use of nativecolporteurs and also employed foreigners in thatcapacity.In 1890, Dr. Gulick retired, and was followedby Dr. L. N. Wheeler, on whose death in 1895,the present Agent, Dr. John R. Hykes took hisplace.In the period 1833—1915, the Society publishedindependently 207 versions of Scripture (chieflyportions), and 37 in conjunction with the otherBible Societies.During 1916 nine foreign superintendents innine centres, directed the efforts on the field of 334workers nearly all of whom were Chinese.The number of sales during the year was,Bibles 12,982Testaments 62,951Portions 2,198,777Total direct issues fromthe China Agency ... 24,374,562AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERSFOR FOREIGN MISSIONS, THE.Headquarters :—Boston, Mass.Entered China, 1830.Works in Chihli, Shantung and Shansi (NorthChina Mission) ; in Fukien (Foochow Mission) ; andin Kuangtung (South China Mission).South Chin4 Mission. The work of the Societybegan in 1830, by the arrival in Canton of theRev. E. C. Bridgman {q.v.) the first Americanmissionary to China. He was accompanied by theRev. D. Abeel [q.v.) of American Seaman's FriendSociety, and they found Morrison of the L.M.S.alone. In 1833, came Rev. S. Wells Williams(q.v.), and in 1834, Rev. Dr. Peter Parker {q.v.)the first medical missionary to China.The first War (1840) suspended the work forfive years ; and in 1854, war again interrupted it,the missionaries being driven out, and all theirproperty burned. Work was begun again in 1858,but was discontinued in 1866, when lack of re-I15

AMERICAN BOARD ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAinforcements, and the arrival of other Societies,leilto the work being handed over to them.In 1883, the A.B.C.F.M. re-opened their SouthChina mission at the earnest request of CantoneseChristians in California. It was at first calledthe " Hongkong Mission " and was begun by Rev.C. R. Hager in 1883, who worked alone for eightyears. In 1893, the name was changed to " SouthChina Mission." A church was organized in Hongkongin 1897, which has always been entirely seli-BuppoTting. Work was gradually extended to tendistricts on the mainland. Canton city itself beingre-occupfed in 1890. The " Chinese CaliforniaMissionary Society " has taken a prominent partin the work, which is very prosperous.In 1847, Mr. Bridgman removed to Shanghai,but the base of operations was removed to Tientsinin 1860, and the work in Shanghai handed over toother missions.In 1842, Mr. Abeel (who, though a minister ofthe (Dutch) Reformed Church in America (q.v.) wasnow working in connection with the A.B.C.F.M.)began work in Amoy ; but on the Reformed Churchdeveloping a mission of its own in China, (1857),the A.B.C.F.M. handed over its share of this worktothe new Mission.FoocHOW Mission.The work here was begunin 1847, on the island of Tong-chou rji>|«|, in theriver Min, by the Rev. Stephen Johnson, and theRev. and Mrs. L. B. Peet, who had all labouredamong the Chinese in Siam ; and within the nextsi-K years, ten other workers aa-rived, including theRev. Justus Doolittle, author of "The SocialLife of the Chinese," and of a Vocabulary andHandbook.In 1849, premises were secured on the presentforeign community side ; but the mission centrewas afterwards removed to Ponasang, '(^jfg,U. Atthe close of the first decade, ill -health and deathhad reduced the thirteen workers to five, and onlyone convert had joined them, the teacher of theboys' school, baptized in 1856. At the close of thesecond decade (1867) the whole Mission staff wasonly eight, while the converts numbered sixty-fourand during this period the first uniform edition ofthe New Testament in Foochow colloquial waspublished, two members of the A.B.C.F.M. cooperatingwith two members of the M.E.M. in thiswork. These two Societies and the C.M.S. dividedthe Foochow field between them at this time.In ].874, the prefectural city of Shao Wu gpg^,250 miles from Foochow, was opened. In 1891,Pagoda Anchorage was occupied in order to reachmore easily the Lower Min and Diong-lo ^ ||gfields which had been worked since 1863 fromFoochow. In like manner Ing-hok, ^fg, 40 milesS.W. of Foochow was occupied as a resident stationin 1898, the district having been worked from 1865.Educational work was begun in 1849, when aday-school was started. The opening of the firstboys' boarding-.school (afterwaa'ds developed intoFoochow College) took place in 1853; and in 1854,the girls' boarding-school was opened, now theGirls' College.In October, 1916, the Foochow Mission had astaff of 2?.2 teachers, teaching in schools of allgrades, 5,635 pupils; and was a partner in theFoochow Union Medical, Normal, Language, andTheological Schools, and in the Fukien UnionCollege, now the Arts Department of FukienUniversity {q.v.).Union is also prominent in evangelistic work,and there are over seventy organized churches.Medical work is carried on at all four centres.In addition to other activities, the Foochow Missionthroughout its history has done a great deal ofimportant literary work in the Foochow dialect,the translation of the Old and New Testamentsinto the same in collaboration with other missions,text-books, etc., etc.North China Mission.— Chihli District.Thiswork was begui. by the Rev. Henry Blodget in1850. Mr. Blodget had arrived in Shanghai in1854, but his health gave way, and, hoping toregain his strength in the north, he followed theforces of the Allies to Tientsin, and for a timelived in the barracks with the English soldiers,though his first residence was the temple of theGoddess of Mercy. This temple was afterwardsrented for a place of worship, and services wereheld there until 1854. In this year Dr. Blodgetremoved to Peking, leaving the work at Tientsinto two of his colleagues.Peking was opened in 1864 by Dr. Blodget, andin the same' year Mrs. Bridgman, widow of thepioneer missionary of the American Board, tookup her residence in the Tartar city, buying withher private resources a very .fine property not farfrom the East Gate of the Imperial city. This sheafterwards gave to the Mission, together with anadjacent piece of ground, and the buildings thereon,which were the homes of the missionaries untildestroyed by the Boxers in 1900. Mrs. Bridgmanhad charge of the girls' school till her retirementin 1868. Another munificent donor to the PekingMission was a Mrs. Tank of Wisconsin, who builtthe first Protestant church in the city ; afterwardsthis was rebuilt on a larger scale from her estat-e,and still later, the Woman's Union College also.A number of workers arrived in Pekingbetv.'een 1864 and 1880, and were there for shortperiods, and a printing-press was established in1869, at which the Peking Committee version ofthe Mandarin New Testament was printed andpublished, From the yeaa- 1880 onwards, when16

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAAMERICAN FREEEev. and Mrs. W. S. Ament arrived, the staff was near the N.W. angle of the province, was openedplaced on a permanent basis.as a station in 1880. A hospital was built in 1883,P'ang-chiiang, 6 miles from the Qr^^nd Capal, and Communicants 136In 1900, the Press, the church, and the whole and boys' and girls' schools followed. Althoughplant of the Mission both in Peking and out-stations situated in a very exposed position, the stationwere destroyed by the Boxers, and two hundred escaped quite uninjured in 1900, and only two ofand fifty of the converts were massacred. The the converts were killed, though many were robbed.whole compound was rebuilt in foreign style after In 1915-16 the station was removed to Te-chouthe rebellion was put down.^ ^H, with its two hospitals and the boys' andTungchow, 15 miles west of Peking, was girls' schools.opened as a station in 1867, Rev. and Mrs. L. D.Lin-ch'ing chou, forty-five miles S.W. of P'angChaptn being transferred from Tientsin for thi.s chuang, was opened in 1886. In the upheaval ofpurpo.se. The first converts were baptized in 1868, 1900, some of the converts were killed, and manyand a small boys' boarding-school opened, the pillaged, and the Mission property much damaged.nucleus of Tungchow College.For some years after this the work was carried onIn 1869, Rev. and Mrs. D. Z. Sheffield joined from P'ang chuang, but was re-organized, and thethe staff, and in 1873 a Theological Seminary was city re- occupied, after nearly ten years' absence, andstarted under the Rev. C. Goodbich. In 1900, schools and medical work re-established, a fine newevery building belonging to the Tungchow Mission ho.spital being completed in 1915.was destroyed. One hundred and forty of theS/iansi district. This work originated in thenative Christian community suffered martyrdom, Theological Seminary at Oberlin, Ohio, in 1881,while the city itself was nearly ruined with the when some of the students decided to form ancoming of the Allied troops. Two years afterwards,'Oberlin Band" for foreign missionary work. Thethe station was re-occupied, and in 1903 all thefield chosen was Shansi, and in 1883 six workersbuildings were completed. The College was rebuiltarrived at T'ai-ku ;i(c ?? on the T'ai-yiian fu plain :as the North China Union College, by union withand Fen-chou fu j}}- ^|I }Jtfwas opened in 1887. Inthe A.P.M. and L.M.S. and under the same schemethe Boxer uprising of 1900, six members of thethe Theological Seminary was removed to Peking,T'ai-ku station, seven of those at Fen-chou fu, andwhere there had also been established a Woman's more than eighty Chinese Christians sufferedUnion College.martyrdom, and the Mission property was greatlyIn Pao-ting fu ,i^^J^ work was begun as injured ; but when the rebellion was over, theearly as 1873, but land was not purchased till 1884. stations were re-occupied and the work continued.In 1900, forty of the Christian community The literary out-put of the North Chinasuffered death through the Boxer movement, eitherMission has been very great, including the worksdirectly or indirectly, and the three missionaries(in English) of Dr. A. H. Smith, and (in Chinese)who had remained on the station were killed.those of Drs. Blodget, Goodrich, Sheffield, etc.When the work was reconstructed after theStatistics for the whole Mission, January 1, 1916.rebellion, closer union with the Amea-ican Presbyterianswas effected by a redivision of the field,Foreign missionaries 155Employed Chinese Staff ... 450by the establishment of the Union School for girls,Communicants (Jan. 1915) ...11,187and the leaving of medical work in the hands ofthe Presbyterians.AMERICAN FREE METHODIST MISSION.Kalgan JgSjjn , was opened in 1865 by Rev. andMrs. John T. G click, reinforced in the next threeHeadquarters :—Chicago, 111.Works in Honan Province.years by four other workers. In 1882, land was The work of this mission in China was begunbought, and a church, a hospital, boys' and girls' in 1904, when the Revs, C. F. Appleton and G. H.schools, with dwelling-houses, were gradually built ScoFiELD were sent out, and went in the first placeby 1893. A promising work was begun among the to Ssuch'uan where they studied the language.Mongols, but through the growing claims of the In 1906, Miss Clara Leffingwell with two otherChinese work it had to be given up.single ladies went to Cheng-chou in Honan, butIn 1900 more than thirty Kalgan Christians died there in the same year. Mr. Appleton wassuffered death at the hands of the Boxers. In 1909 then appointed superintendent and went to Honan.the station was handed over to the Methodist Jung-tse ^ vl was opened in 1906, Kai-feng fu inProtestant Mission (q-v.).1907" and Ch'i hsien ;fQ % in 1909- Cheng-chou wasShantung District. After itinerating work had relinquished in 1917. In 1917 the Mission reported :'been going on for twelve or thirteen years inForeign missionaries 17Western Shantung from Tientsin, the village ofChinese staff 14I17

AMERICAN GOSPELENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAAMERICAN GOSPEL BAPTIST MISSION.This mission was farmed in 1893 by a numberof missionaries working in Shantung under theSouthern Baptist Convention of U.S.A., whoseparated from that Society for two reasons ; first,to confine themselves to evangelistic work, so as toraise up a church not relying on foreign moneysecond, to avoid being govea'ned by a Board, aseach missionary wished to be supported directlyby some home church, which was thought " morescriptural." Seven workers seceded on thesegrounds and were shortly after joined by reca'uitsfrom America.In 1894, T'ai-an ^ ^ and Tsi-ning Chou,SfJPW» vfere chosen as spheres of work; andafterwards stations were opened in North Honanand North Anhui.The chief promoter of this movement died in1902 ; and by the death of some, and the returnof others to the Board, the ranks were considerablyreduced.In 1916, one station namely T'ai An, wasreported, with ten foreign workers; but in 1917there only remained two.AMERICAN LUTHERAN BRETHRENMISSION.Headquarters :—Minneapolis, Minn, U.S.A.Entered China, 1902.Works in Honan and Hupei.This mission has three stations, one in Hupei,Tsao-yang^fg,- (1902) and two in Honan, T'ungpeitl3tt(iyi0) and P'ing-shih chen ^Pitif, (1911),and in 1916 reported thirteen foreign workers.AMERICAN METHODIST EPISCOPALMISSIONS. See Methodist Episcopal Mission andMethodist Episcopal (South) Mission.AMERICAN PRESBYTERIAN MISSION.Headquarters :—New York.Entered China, 1843.This, the largest denominational Society inChina, has seven Missions, working in the provincesof Kuangtung, Kiangsu, Chekiang, Hunan, Shantung,Anhui, and Chihli.South China Mission. The first four missionaries,the Revs. J. A. Mitchell and R. W. Orrand their wives, reached Singapore in 1858 andworked among the Chinese there. When thefive Treaty ports were opened in 1843, it wasdecided to enter China, but this was found impossiblefor several years, and in the interim themissionaries resided in the East India Company'spremises at Macao, where a boys' school wasbegun. Revs. A, P, Happer, W. Speer andJohn B. French settled in Canton in. 1847. Theyopened a dispensary and a girls' school in 1851,and the first church was organized in 1862 with13 members. Among early recruits were JohnG. Kerr, M.D. (died 1901), and Rev. H. Y. Noyes(died 1914).Bitter opposition to the foreigners and persecutionof the Christians were chronic for manyyears.In 1894, an epidemic of bubonic plague sweptover Canton, in which 100,000 perished. Thopopulace believed this outbreak to have been causedby the foreigners and a riot ensued in which oneof the chapels was burned (for the third time) anda Chinese Christian murdered.In 1900, nearly all the country stations werewrecked, and the Christians much persecuted.An extensive propaganda is carried on, inwhich emigration to, and return from, the U.S.A.has played a great part, many who have becomeChristians in the States returning to teach theircountrymen, or sending large sums of money tosupport evangelists and pastors.The Canton station possesses a splendid equipment,having, in addition to 69 day-schools aBoys' College and Girls' Seminary, the lineal descendantsof the two early ventures ; a KindergartenTraining School, a School for Nurses and throeSchools for the Blind. The mission started theCanton Christian College [q.v.) and still shares init as a Union institution, and also in the UnionTheological College, and the Hackett MedicalCollege for Women. The J. G. Kerr refuge forthe insane is well known ; it had 500 inmates in1916. The David Gregg Hospital is for womenand children.Yeung-kong p^ Jl , 112 miles S.W. of Cantonwas occupied in 1886. It has Boys' and Girls'Boarding Schools, and 22 day-schools, a Hospital,and 26 places for wor.ship.Lien-chou ig ^\\ , 125 miles North-west ofCanton, was opened in 1890, but suffered muchloss in 1900, while in 1905 the station, includinga hospital, was wrecked, and the missionaries (fivein number) killed by a mob. In 1917, there areBoys' and Girls' Boarding Schools; a BibleInstitute for Women ; a Theological class forpreachers, seven day schools, and Men's andWomen's Hospitals. The country church-workcentres round 11 out-stations.Ko-chou ;^ ^ station dates from 1912, thoughworked as an out-station for 20 years; it has 12day-schools and 22 out-stations.Shek-lung ^ f| for many years a sub-station ofCanton, was opened as full station in 1915; ithas 17 out-stations, and 10 day schools with341 pupils.Hainan was originally worked from Canton, butwas made a separate mission in 1893. An independentmissionary, Mr. C. C. Jeremiassen,began work in the island in 1881, at the port ofHoihow, 3 miles from Kj^ng-chou, the capital.1§

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAAMERICAN PRESBYTERIANHe became a member of the A.P.M. in 1885, whenKiung-chou was occupied. Work had been begunin Nodoa the year before, and Ka-chek ^ igf , theremaining centre, was opened in 1900.The Kinngchou-Hoihow station has Boys' andGirls' Boarding-schools and Bible Women's School,in addition to day-schools. The hospital is atHoihow, and adjoins the Jeremiassen MemorialChurch, the two being worked in close connection.At Nodoa, the church is self-supporting.There are 6 schools of all grades, including a Boys'High School, where the pupils speak 5 differentdialects, and a Girls' Middle School. Ka-chekhas 2 Boarding and 6 day-schools and a Hospital.The evangelistic and church work in Hainancentres round these 3 places and 24 out-stations;and a footing has been obtained in the Lui-choupeninsula on the mainland.The Central China Mission is the oldest fieldof the Mission in China, Ningpo having beenoccupied in 1844 by D. B. McCartee, M.D. andRev. W. M. LowRiE, {q.v.).In the next year, a printing press, which hadbeen prepared years before China was opened, wasremoved to Ningpo from Macao. It was transferredto Shanghai in 1860 (See Mission Presses).A boys' Boarding School was begun in 1845, butwas removed to Hang-chou in 1867 ; a girl's schoolwas opened in 1846. The first church was organizedin 1845.The Ningpo station now has in addition to 18day-schools, a Boys' Academy with a Chineseprincipal and two Boarding Schools for Girls.The McCartee Hospital is in the charge of aChinese physician. A specialty is made of tractdistribution in evangelistic work.Shanghai was occupied in 1850, instead ofAraoy, which had been entered in 1844, but thework was much hindered by the T'ai P'ing rebellionfor some years. The Revs. J. K. Wight andM. S. CuLBERTSON Were the pioneers, and the firstchurch was organized in 1860. The work here islargely administrative, and a large number of thestaff is employed in the Shanghai Mission Press,the largest Mission Press in the world. One memberis Chairman of the Presbyterian China Conncil,formed in 1910 to co-ordinate the work of theseven missions, and meeting annually ; whileanother is Chairman of the China ContinuationCommittee {q.v.\. The station has Boys' andGirls' Boarding Schools, eleven primary schools, aNevtus Memorial Institute and a Bible School forWiimen. There are four churches ; the one in Hongkewbuitt itself a new place of worship and amanse in 1915, at the cost of $5000.Hang-chou though often visited, was not openedas a station till 1859, when the Rev. J. L.Nevius and his wife arrived, but were soon compelledto retire, through the T'ai P'ing disturbances.The station was re-opened in 1864, andthe first native church constituted in 1866. Thepresent Hang-chou Christian College and the Girl'sBoarding School are both Union Institutions; andthe A.P.M. has nine day-schools with over 300pupils. There are two country fields with 24 outstationsin addition to the city work.Soochow was opened in 1871 by the Revs. G. F.Fitch and M. C. Schmidt. In this rich city thebeginnings were very difficult and slow, but oflate years the work has made great progress, andthe large city church is practically self-supporting.There is a Hospital for Women, an Academy forBoys, eight elementary schools, and nine outstations.The North China Mission has three stationsoccupied by foreign missionaries, namely; Peking,(1863), Pao-ting fu (1893), and Shun-te fu (1903).Peking was opened by the Rev. W. A. P,Martin (q.v.), who in 1869 became President ofthe T'ung Wen Government College. The Missionearly established Boys' and Girls' Boarding Schools,and medical work began in 1880. In 1900 all thePresbyterian missionaries and Christians in Pekingwent into the British Legation, where they remainedduring the siege ; but nine-tenths of the countryChristians, and most of the adherents, weremartyred. An indemnity for the destroyed propertywas paid on the restoration of order, and theground lost was speedily more than recovered.The equipment now comprises shares in theUnion Theological Seminary; the North ChinaUnion College (to be affiliated with Peking University),Union Bible School fco- Women, UnionMedical College for Women, and a Union Girls'Boarding school. The mission itself has 15 priman-yschools and three boarding-schools. There arehospitals for Men and Women; nine places ofworship, and seven out-stations.Pao-ting fu ,fJi^^/|J was a prosperous stationwhen the Boxers swept down on it, burning thehouses, in which four missionaries and threechildren perished. The Chinese Church was almostexterminated. In 1901, a public memorial servicewas held for the martyrs, and a better site beingprovided for the mission, it rapidly regained itspro.sperity.The station has Boys' and Girls' BoardingSchools (the latter in conjunction with theAmerican Board), a Bible School for Women and14 day-schools, 2 hospitals, 17 places of worshipand 14 out-stations.Shun-te fu |a^;|tf, has a men's hospital.Girls' and Boys' Boarding Schools, 4 day-schoolsand 4 out-stations. A large evangelistic work isdone both in the city and country.19

AMERICAN PRESBYTERIANENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAThe Shantung Mission, said to be "the largestin tia world," began in 1861, when the Eevs.J. L. Nevius, Danforth, and Gayley, with theirwives, occupied Teng-chou, under very difficultconditions. Cholera and brigandage were raging,the unrest made the obtaining of funds very difficult,and the gentry were first suspicious, and, whena few converts had been made, actively hostile.The first church was organized in 1862, andtwo years later the Rev. C. W. Mateeb and hiswife opened a school with si.x pupils. This graduallydeveloped into the Shantung College (1881)and in 1904, was moved to Weihsien as part ofthe Shantung Protestant University {g.v.). A Boys'Boarding and High School was at once opened inthe emptied College buildings, the teaching of Englishbegan in 1913, and in 1916 there were 127 pupils.As early as 1862, the teaching of girls was begunthe present commodious Girls' School was openedin 1913. There are 38 schools of all grades in thedistrict. Medical work, begun in 1871, is carriedon in a fine new hospital opened in 1913.Evangelistic work made very slow progressfor many years, but there is now a large Christiancommunity.Chef00 was opened in 1862, by Dr. D. E.McCartee and wife, the Rev. Hunter Corbett andwife following soon after. The Shantung Presbyterywas formed in 1865, and the long itineratingtours inland begun, for which Drs. Nevixjs, Corbettand Mills (of Tengchow) became famous. A greatdeal of famine relief work was done in 1878. Thecountry work is now divided into two districts,in one of which the Korean Church maintains threemissionaries.In 1898, a new plant was obtained at Chefoo;a museum and industrial work were started, andthere are also many institutional activities, clusteringround the new church opened in 1914.Educational work is carried on at the EnglishSchool for Boys; Girls' and Boys' High Schools;Mens' and Womens' Bible Training Schools, andeight primary schools.Medical work is. done by 2 physicians, thepresent hospital and dispensary having been completedin 1913.Tsi-nan fu ^^jjj, was occupied by the Rev.Jasper McIlvaine in 1872, but work was not regularlyestablished till 1874-5. Mr. McIlvainedied in 1881, and in the same year, a riot compelledallthe workers to retire.Dispensary work was begun in 1880, by Dr.Stephen A. Hunter, and a hospital opened in 1893.Another for women followed in 1898, vacant landin the East Suburb having been at last secured, towhich most of the work of the Mission has graduallybeen transplanted.In addition to all the activities of the ShantungProtestant University in this city the A.P.M.itself has a Boys' Academy, erected in memory ofDr. W. B. Hamilton, and a Girls' High Schoolbesides 40 primary schools in the city and district.The City Church is a union of the A.P.M.and English Baptist Mission Christians.Weihsien was opened in 1883. The city wasintensely hostile to all foreigners. The stationwas built, a mile outside the gates, in spite ofthe violent placards put up by the gentry incitingthe people to murder the new-comers on a certaindate.In 1900 the whole compound, containing achurch, two hospitals, three boarding-schools, anda number of residences, was totally destroyed bythe fires of the Boxers ; but all was rebuilt on amuch larger scale after order was restored.The Arts College of the Shantung ProtestantUniversity was opened here in 1904, but will probablybe ready to remove to the provincial capitalby the fall of 1917, when the buildings will beutilized for district work.The Educational work in Weihsien and district,apart from the University, is very large, includinga Boys' Academy, a Girls' High School, 6Higher Grade Schools in the country, and 57primary schools, 17 being self supporting. Thereis also a Bible Women's Institute.The country evangelistic work is carried onfrom 176 out-stations; the Chinese Christians arevery active in the propaganda, and of recent yearshave erectedi for themselves a large number cichurch buildings.In 1904, under the University Scheme, twomembers of the A.P.M. went to Ts'ing-chou futo co-operate in the Theological College. Withthe removal of the College to Tsi-nan fu in 1917,this arrangement v?ill cease.Tsi-ning chou district had been itinerated formany years, when in 1890 an attempt was madeto settle in the city. The missionaries were atonce driven out, but returned in 1892. The peoplesoon became so friendly that in 1900, when allthe foreigners had to leave, their premises andbelongings were not touched. There are now twogood hospitals and a dispensary : the LaughlinAcademy for Boys : the Kenarden School for Girlsa number of day-schools and a Women's Bibleinstitute. Evangelistic work is carried on in afield estimated to contain 5,000,000 souls ; and thereare 60 churches and chapels.Tsing-tao was opened in 1898 a^ter the Germanoccupation, and the German Governor, AdmiralOscar von Truppel, gave the mission its compoundin a beautiful situation.In 1914, owing to the siege by the Japanese, thework was stopped, and the missionaries had to20

IENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNICAAMERICAN PRESBYTERIAI^leave. During their absence their premises wereoccupied, first by German, and then by Japanesetroops, and were partially damaged and looted.Work was begun again as soon as the Japanesepermitted the workers to return.The educational work is done in Boys' andGirls' High Schools, a Women's Bible School, and56 Primary Schools.The Christian community of this field is presidedover by 5 Chinese and 2 American pastors.Several churches have always been self-supporting,notably that of Tsingtao city, which has built itsown church and manse, school, and Y.M.C.A.building ; also chapels in the East and Westsuburbs. There are 175 out-stations worked fromTsingtao.I-chou in-[fX'}\]f^ , 330 miles S.W. of Chefoo,was opened as a station in 1890, though a largework had been going on for many years in thedistrict, and there were a considerable numberof country Christians.Educational work began in1894 in 2 primary schools in the city. There arenow an Academy for Boys ; a High School forGirls ; a Bible Institute for Women, and dayschools.There are two good Hospitals; a largeYi-hsien 1^,1^(1905) is in a region where veryitinerating work is done, and there are 7 outstations.little preparatory work had been done. It now hasa flourishing Industrial School, and a Girls' BoardingSchool, besides ten day schools. The medicalwork done in hospital and dispensary is subscribedto regularly by the mine and railroad officialsnear,for the benefit of their employes. There is agreat deal of evangelistic work done in the district.T-'eng hsien ^ |g, was opened in 1910. TheSouth Shantung Bible and Normal School herewith 180 students, is under the principalship t»fa Chinese, the Rev. Liu Sze-i. There are also aGirls' Boarding School and ten day schools : a dispensaryunder a Chinese physician : and elevenchurches and chapels.7'Ae Kianrj-An Mission works, as its nameimplies, in Kiangsu and Anhui. There are threestations, Nanking, Huai-yiian, and Nan Hsxi-chou.Nanking was opened in 1875 by the Revs.Chables Leaman and Albert Whiting, after manyvisits and much opposition from the authorities.Mr. Whiting died three years later of famine feverin Shansi, where he was doing relief work. Mr.Leaman in 1917, still lives in Nanking. The forceof A. P. Missionaries in this city is largely connectedwith Union work in Higher Christian Education,in Nanking University {q.v.) and Ginling College.The Mission itself has a School of Theology, andthere are also a Girls' High School, and a TrainingSchool for nurses.There is a large Institutional Building openedin 1915, containing a large chapel, a Girls' School,Men's Reading Room and night-school, small dispensary,etc., etc. The whole is intended as anaddition to the evangelistic equipment. The churchwork centres round 6 city and 8 country chapels.Huai-yuan ^-g, was opened in 1892, and hasBoys' and Girls' Boarding schools and day-schools.Medical work is carried on at Hope Hospital, bymen and lady physicians.—A new Women's chapeland building was erected in 1915 for special classand evangelistic work among women; and thereare 22 churches and chapels in the city and district.Nan Hsii-chou f^ ;(^ j^, opened in 1912, hasBoys' and Girls' Schools in the city, and 3 dayschools in the out-stations. Medical work is beingundertaken, in the first instance in a buildingoffered by "the elders, the teachers and the merchants"of the city. The whole of the Kiang AnMission has 27 out-stations, from which evangelisticwork goes on.Hunan Mission. The A. P.M. first entered thisprovince from its field in Kuangtung, out-stationsbeing established in 1887 and 1889 ; in 1900, some ofthe workers settled in Siang-tan ^ J$ but the Boxermovement forced them to leave for the coast.They returned in July, 1901. The station has(1917) Boys' and Girls' Boarding Schools, and sixday-schools ; and a flourishing medical work withMen's and Women's Hospitals. Heng-chou 'gg ^Jj75 miles S. of Siangtan, was opened to foreignresidence in 1902. It has an Evangelists' Trainingschool. Boarding-schools for Boys and Girls, tenday-schools, and a Women's Hospital.Chen-chou i^ j\\ (1904) has Boys' and Girls'Academy and 10 day-schools, and a hospital, witha nurses' Training class.Ch'ang-te i^^, was opened in 1898 by the CumberlandPresbyterians. In 1906, this body unitedwith the Northern Presbyterian Church of theU.S.A. and its work in Hunan came under the Boardof the latter. A fine new church was opened here in1915 and there are Boys' and Girls' BoardingSchools : two day-schools and a Hospital.Tao-yiian, (1904), is a sub-station of Ch'ang-te,and has a Boys' Academy, a day-school and selfsupportingmedical work under a Chinese physician.Chang sha, the capital, was not occupied till1913. Here the mission has a share in the UnionTheological Seminary being one of four unitingMissions, and in the Union Bible School, and runsa Girls' High and Normal School in additionto day schools. The church and evangelistic workin Hunan centres round the 6 above-named stations,and 48 out-stations.Literary Work. For the literary work accomplishedby the Mission as a whole, the cataloguesof the Presbyterian Mission Press should be con-21

AMERICAN PRESBYTERIANENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAsuited. Drs. W. A. P. Martin, C. W. Mateer,John Wherry, J. M. W. Farnham, J. L. Nevius,W. M. Hayes and many others, have combined toproduce hundreds of works, some in English andsome in Chinese, dealing with religious andeducational matter of every kind.Statistics of the A. P.M. as given in theReport published May. 1916.Foreign missionaries ... 427Chinese staff 1,984Communicants 34,329AMERICAN PRESBYTERIAN MISSION(SOUTH).Headquarters :—Nashville, Tennessee.Works in Chchianfj and Kiangsu, and is dividedinto the Mid-China and North Kiangsu Missions.Mid-China Mission. This was begun in 1867,two years after the close of the Civil War, by theariival in liangchow of the Rev. E. B. Inslee. In1872, Dr. and Mrs. H. C. DrBosE were sent out,and occupied Soochow. During the yeaa-s 1875-9,owing to the financial conditions in the SouthernStates, no reinforcement was possible, but between1880-1887, eleven new workers arrived, and between1888 and 1895 no less than forty-seven were sent,including five physicians and eleven single ladies.Tung-hsiang hsien;^^/^^, close to the Grand Canal,and ?T. P.^ Kiang-yin were opened in 1895.There was considerable difficulty in securing afoothold in all these places. For example, afterthe missionaries had settled in Soochow, it wassaid that their residence spoiled the feng-shid, andthe Chinese who had acted as middleman in thepurchase of the property was beaten with 1000blows. The Mission therefore had to move toanother part of the city.From the year 1891, the Mission tried to enterKa-shing, but in 1895, had to content itself witha town nine miles away. In 1905, through medicalwork a foothold was at last obtained in Ka-shingitself. Ch'ang-chow ^^-l, on the Grand Canal,halfway between Soochow and Chinkiang, wasopened by the Mission in 1911, but in 1916, throughdepletion of staff was, at least temporarily, vacated.In connection with the initiation of TheChristian Intelligencer, a paper for Presbyteriansof China, Dr. S, I. Woodbridge, a member of theMission, was stationed in Shanghai; The circulationof this paper is given in January, 1917, as7000 weekly. The business manager of the Missionalso resides in Shanghai.In 1905, in connection with Union HigherEducational work in theology and medicine, Nankingbecame a station of the Society, which alsohas a share in the Union institutions of theHangchow Christian College (Boys) and HangchowHigh School (Girls). The total number of schoolsof all grades in the Mid-China Mission, accordingto the report for 1916, is 49, with an attendanceof 1920 pupils; and there were 24 theological and17 medical students at Nanking. Two members ofthe Mission are on the staff of Nanking University{q-v.), and one physician on that of the Tsi-nanMedical College. (See Shantung ProtestantUniversity.In addition to evangelistic, church and educationalwork, medical work is carried on in Kashing,and Soochow, there being a hospital in each place.The native assistants number 54, and there are6 foreign physicians in residence .The North Kiangsu Mission works from8 stations, the earliest of which was the treatyport of Chinkiang, opened in 1885; Ts'ingkiang puTnttjfii. was occupied in 1889, and ^§^ Suchien,in 1894. In each case considerable difficultieswea-e met with. In Suchien the missionaries" occupied for two years a mud hut under thecity wall, where they were plentifully suppliedwith brickbats." Hsii chou :^ j^|•Ii'^ N.W. Kiangsuwas opened In 1896, and a small work there washanded over to the' Mission from the EnglishBaptists of Shantung.In 1900, the North Kiangsu Mission escapedwithout injury, being outside the Boxer sphereof action. Since then four other foreign-mannedstations have been opened, namely Huai an ^^^120 miles N. of Chinkiang, in 1904; Hai chou ^;H1-on the borders of Shantung and near the YellowSea, in 1908; T'ai chou ^)\\, in 1909; and thenewest station Yen cheng^^K) opened in 1911.The educational work of the North KiangsuMission is represented (in 1916) by 90 schools ofvarious grades, with 2000 students, and 101 teachers.The schools are well-patronized by non-ChristianChinese of good position, and pay a large part oftheir own expenses.Medical work is done at all stations exceptChinkiang ; and at Ts'ing kiang p'u, Hsii-chou lu,and Haichou (or according to its new name)Tung Hai;^^, three new. hospitals were completeand occupied in 1915. A class of men nurses isa new experiment at Suchien, promising well.The A. P. Mission (South) has always consideredallits other work as subordinate to the evangelistic,and the native church itself takes a large part informing new groups of enquirers and opening newstations.A. P.M. (South) Statistics for June 30, 1916.Foreign missionaries 143.*.Chinese staff 525Communicants 4,237AMERICAN REFORMED PRESBYTERIANMISSION (COVENANTERS).Headquarters :—Philadelphia, Pa.Works in Canton province.22

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAAMERICAN RELATIONSThe first two missionaries and their wivesarrived in Canton in 1895, and after spending twoyears at the language selected as their centreTak-hing ^g on the north bank of the West River,150 miles from Canton. They were obliged toleave their work in the Boxer year, but returnedin the fall of 1901. Lo-ting chou M^H\ > '^^'as takenover from the Christian and Missionary Alliance in1913. Work was opened in Do-shing on the WestRiver in 1910; and a work begun among lepersabout the same time. The lepers were attackedand murdered by Kuangsi soldiers during therevolt in the spring of 1916.The educational work consists of two schoolsfor girls, two for boys (grammar-school grade) onefor women and ten primary schools. A kindergartenwas begun in Lo-ting in 1917, and a High Schoolis proposed for Tak-hing in 1918.There are hospitals at Tak-hing and Lo-tingand three dispensaries ; and one physician is locatedat Canton, cooperating with ten other missions inmedical education.In January, 1917 the Mission reported :Foreign missionaries ... ... 18Chinese staff 36Communicants 469AMERICAN RELATIONS WITH CHINA.The first American ship to trade with China wentin 1784, and with many advantages over othernations the Americans soon took an important sharein the business at Canton. In 1798 the firstAmerican Consul was appointed, and the Americanflag was first hoisted at Canton in 1802. In 1821,they handed over to the Chinese and to unjustdeath an Italian sailor named Teruanova who hadaccidentally killed a Chinese woman. Their tradein tea declined when an English Act of Parliament(5 Geo. IV, c. 88) allowed the East India Companyto e.xport any goods from China to Canada andother American colonies. In the Report to theHouse of Commons, 1830, the Company stated thatAmerican ships were 20 in 1828, as against 42 in1826. When the opium was surrendered in 1839the American merchants gave up 1540 chests throughCaptain Eliot. In the succeeding troubles, whenBritish ships refused to enter Canton, the Americancaptains signed the required bond to bring noopium and their trade was not hindered; they dida great deal of unlawful business in carrying thegoods of English traders and a good number ofBritish ships were transferred to the Americanflag. In the gireat debate' on the war, held in theBritish House of Commons on April 7, 1840,Palmeuston, in defending the action of the Government,mentioned that the American merchants inCanton had appealed to their Government atWashington to join with England and France ina blockade of the China coast unless the Britishdemands on China were yielded to. But theAmerican Government did not respond to thisappeal and so had no part in the so-called " OpiumWar " which ended in 1843.In, general it may be said that the relationsbetween China and the United States have beenfriendly. The position was defined, in 1843, asone of complete neutrality and friendship, with adistinct purpose on the part of the United Statesto preserve China's sovereign rights and her territorialintegrity. The friendship on the part ofChina was due largely to the decision of the UnitedStates not to allow her citizens to have anythingto do with the opium trade. Again, the UnitedStates Government's aid in the suppression of thecoolie traffic greatly strengthened China's friendshipfor that country. The appointment of Mr.Anson Burlingame as United States Minister toChina, during Lincoln's Administration, was amo.st important factor in maintaining good relationsbetween the two countries. Burlingame reachedCanton in 1861. He spent some months in visitingvarious treaty ports in order to familiarize himselfwith Chinese affairs, and arrived at Peking in 1862.On reaching the capital he entered into his missionin full accord with the spirit of friendliness andforbearance which at that time actuated theAmerican Government. After six years spent inPeking he was, a^ the suggestion of the greatChinese statesmen. Wen Hsiang, appointed therepresentative of the Chinese GovernmeHt to WesternNations, with authority to attend to everyquestion arising between China and those countries.His mission had its origin in the proposed revisionof the Treaty of Tientsin of 1858. Unfortunately,the death of Mr. Burlingame at St. Petersburg,while he was on his visit to the nations, preventedthe consummation of his mission, and the onlynation which immediately acted upon the proposalfor the revision of the treaty was the United States.The Revised Treaty, drawn up by Mr. Seward,was a model of justice and friendliness, embodiedin admirable language.Many other factors have combined to produceand maintain that harmony and good will whichhave, for the most part, characterised the relationsbetween China and the United States during themore than 130 years since they came into closecontact. There have been many able and sympatheticMinisters from the United States toChina; many of the Presidents of the UnitedStates have shown great wisdom and tact in theirdealings with China; United States consuls andadvisers to the Chinese Government ; the great workdone by numerous American missionaries ; thehearty cooperation of many able and well-disposedChinese; the work undertaken, in recent years, byI23

AMERICAN RELATIONSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAthe China Medical Board Mission ; the work ofAmericans in famine relief ; the manifest absenceof "land hunger" on the pai't of the United States;etc.,—all these things have combined to give theChinese that confidence in the sincerity and goodwill of the United States that is so necessary toharmonious relations.The one serious drawback to the uninterruptedharmony between China and America has been theExclusion Policy adopted by the latter country.Article 5 of the Burlingame Treaty recognizedupon the part of both governments the inherentand inalienable right of man to change his homeand allegiance, and also the mutual advantage ofthe freest immigration and emigration of theircitizens and subjects respectively from one countryto another for the purposes of travel, of trade,or for permanent residence. Article 6 providedthat the citizens and subjects of each country respectivelyshould enjoy the same privileges in respectof travel or residence as may be enjoyed by thecitizens or subjects of the most favored nation.Immediately following the adoption of the BurlingameTreaty Chinese immigration into theUnited States rapidly increased. Chinese laborerspoured into California and their wages being s^cheap, they soon began to seriously interfere withwhite mechanics and laboring men of all kinds,throughout the Pacific coast states. The Americansraised a cry of distress and the hostility to Chineseimmigration became so great that in 1876 a jointcommittee of the two houses of Congress wasappointed to visit the Pacific coast and investigatethe character and extent and effect of the immigration.Two reports were submitted by this committee.The majority report recommended therepeal of the immigration law, while the minorityreport as strongly recommended that the law beallowed to stand. Many attempts were made tofind a solution of the question and the agitation ofthe subject passed through many vicissitudes,especially in the years 1880, 1882, 1888, and 1894.The net result of it all is that the immigration ofChinese laborers has been entirely prohibited, andonly Chinese scholars and merchants are permittedto enter the United States. This failure of theUnited States to find a satisfactory solution of theimmigration problem, and her exclusion of Japan-^ese, as well as Chinese, laborers, has also causedill-feeling between Japan and America. The boycottof American goods by the Chinese in 1907 is anevidence of the illwill engendered in China, also,against the people of the United States by thisexclusion policy. The present situation is an intolerableone and some satisfactory solution of thequestion has still to be found.The so-called " Open Door " policy was inauguratedby the United States Secretary of State,John Hay. In 1900, Secretary Hay secured atreaty signed by every leading nation, pledgingeach to respect the integrity and independence ofthe Chinese Empire, and to claim no rights oftrade that were not freely conceded to others.Unfortunately, the United States Government hasbeen either unable or unwilling to make sufficientlystrenuous efforts to secure the execution of theprovisions of this Open Door policy, and the resultshave not been at all commensurate with the highhopes that were held with regard to it when it wasfirst inaugurated. See Emigration; BurlingameMission, etc.[A.P.P]The following is a complete list of UnitedStates Ministers and Charges d'affaires at Peking.Note.—The names of Charges d'Affaircs are initalics ; where they are also indented it signifiesthat they served during the temporary absence ofthe Minister and not between the terms of officetwo Ministers.Messrs.Caleb Cushing Feb. 27, 1844—Aug. 27, 1844James Biddle, U.S.N. Aug. 8, 1845—Apr. 15, 1846Peter Parker Apr. 15, 1846—Oct. 10, 1846A. H. Everett Oct. 10, 1846-June 28, 1847 (Died)Peter Parher June 28, 1847—Aug. 24, 1848Com. John W. Davis,U.S.N. Aug. 24, 1848—May 25, 1850Peter Parker May 25, 1850—Jan. 31, 1853Humphrey Marshall Jan. 31, 1853—Jan. 27, 1854Peter Parker Jan. 27, 1854—Apr. 15, 1854Robert M. McLane Apr. 15, 1854—Dec. 12, 1854Peter Parher Dec. 12, 1854—May 10, 1855Com. J. Abbott, U.S.N. May 10, 1855—Nov. 9, 1855S. Wells Williams Nov. 9, 1855—Dec. 31, 1855Peter Parker Dec. 31, 1855—Aug. 25, 1857S. Wells Williams Aug. 25, 1857—Nov. 25, 1857Thomas B. Reed Nov. 25, 1857—Dec. 8, 1858S. Wells Williams Dec. 8, 1858—May 18, 1859John E. Ward May 18, 1859—Dec. 15, 1850Com. C. K. Stribling,U.S.N. Dec. 15, 1860—Oct. 14, 1861S. Wells Williams Oct. 14, 1861—Oct. 24, 1861Anson Burlingame Oct. 24, 1861—Nov. 21, 1857S. W. Williams May 5, 1865—Sept. 19, 1866S. Wells Williams Nov. 21, 1867—Sept. 29, 1868J. R. Brown Sept. 29, 1868—July 5, 1869S. Wells Williams July* 5, 1869—Apr. 20, 1870Frederick F. Low Apr. 20, 1870—July 24, 1873S. Wells Williams July 24, 1873—Oct. 28, 1874Benj. P. Avery Oct. 28, 1874—Nov. 8, 1875 (Died)Chester Holcombe Nov. 8, 1875—Jan. 1,1876George F. Seward Jan. 1, 1876—Aug. 16, 1880Chester Holcombe June 8, 1878-June 19, 1879James B. Angell Aug. 16, 1880—Oct. 13, 1881Chester Holcombe Oct. 13, 1881—Aug. 17,1882John Russel Young Aug. 17, 1882—Apr. 8, 1885of24

',HandbookENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAAMOYEnoch J. SmithersCol. Charles DenbyCha-i. Denby, Jr.Chas. Denby, Jr.Edwin H. CongerH G. Squie.rsJ. G. CooUdgeW. W. Rockhill/. G. CooUdgeT. E. MooreH. P. FletcherH. P. FletcherVV. J. CalhounIApr. 21.P. S. Hcintzlenian June 27,E. T. Williams Aug. 11,E. T. WilliamsPaul S. ReinschJ.V.A. MacMurrayJ.V.A. MacMurrayApr. 8 , 1885—Oct. 1, 1885Oct. 1, 1885-^uly 10, 1898Mar. 17 , 1894—Oct. 27, 1894May 14, 1896—Aug. 1, 1895July 10; 1898^Jan. 14, 1905Mar. 11, 1901—Aug. 17, 1901Jan. 14, 1905—June 1, 1905June 1, 1905—June 1,1909Oct. 21, 1906—Nov. 23, 1906Nov. 23,8, 1906Feb. .27,Nov. 15,July 6,1906—Dec.1907—Apr.1909—Apr.,Oct. 1,15, 1908June 1,21, 19101910—Feb. 27, 19131911—Aug.1911—Nov.1913—Nov.1913—11, 191112, 191115, 19131914—Sept. 30, 1914Junel4, 1915—Sept. 27, 1915Memorandum.The Legation was located at :Macao from Feb. 27, 1844 to Aug. 27, 1844.Canton from Aug. 8, 1845 to July 20, 1862.pelting from July 20, 1862 to present.AMHERST MISSION. Lord Amherst's embassywas the second from Great Britain toChina, Lord Macartney's (1792) being the first.The suite included Sir George Staunton, Sir JohnDavis and Dr. Morrison. The object was topromote a better understanding between the twocountries.It arrived at Peking and left again the sameday,—August 29, 1816. The I'eason for this abrupt,inglorious conclusion of the mission was thatimmediately after being hurried over the road fromTientsin to the Summer Palace the ambassadorwas urged to present himself at once in his dusty,weary condition before the Emperor (Chia Ch'ing).He refused to depart from the previous arrangementby which his reception had been fixed for thenext day. when his baggage, with uniforms,presents, etc., would have arrived, and he couldappear decently before the Emperor. The pressureon him was urgent ; he interpreted it as disrespectto his mission and his sovereign, and as heremained firm, he was summarily dismissed andwas hurried back coastward the same afternoon.The explanation of this strange proceedingseems to be that the officials had assured theEmperor that the h'o t'ou ceremony would beperformed. On finding with what firmness LordAmherst refused to prostrate himself, they usedthis device to screen themselves ; either the ambassador,in the excitement of being hustled into theEmperor's presence would k'o t'ou, or the failure425of the audience would be put on other groundsthan that of the ceremony.Davis : Sketches of China.AMHERST, LORD (the ship so named).See Lord Amherst.AMHERST PHEASANT. See Pheasants.AMIDISM, jf ± ching Vu, pure land, a schoolof Buddhism. See Buddhist Schools.AMIOT, JEAN JOSEPH MARIE aE^^»,a Jesuit missionary who was born at Toulon onFebruary 8, 1718, and was sent to China in 1740.He mastered Chinese and Manchu, and won theconfidence of the Emperor Ch'ien Lung. Hiswide knowledge enabled him to ascertain and giveto the west much new information about theChinese. Most of his varied writings are foundin the Memoires co7icernant Vhistoire, .... -parles missionaires de Pekin (Paris 1776-89). He alsoissued a Manchu grammar. He died at Pekingin October, 1793.AMITABHA; also Amitu, etc.,^ ^ pg andthere are otlier variations ox the name. At firstthe term was impersonal, meaning the ideal, andboundless light. It was probably a Persian orGnostic idea introduced into the Buddhism ofKashmir or Nepal, whence it reached China viaTibet. It is not mentioned by Fa Hsien or HsuanTsang, it is unknown in Southern Buddhism, orin the earliest Sutras brought to China ; and thefirst Sutra that alludes to Amita does not give himany importance. He came to the front early inthe 5th century a.d. When the poetical notions ofthe Lotus-school ^|£^ or Pure-land school j^db^concerning a Paradise in the West began toinfiuence the common people Amita became thefavourite Buddha, and is now the most popularBuddha, in China.There are various traditions as to his origin.He is an incarnation of the 9th son of the ancientBuddha Maha bhidjiia jnafia bhibhu ; or the 2ndson of a certain Indian of the lunar race ; or he isthe celestial reflex of S.\kyamtjni, etc., etc.He* is strangely obscure in the early art andliterature of Indian Buddhism, and is in factbarely mentioned. It is also to be noticed thatthe Chinese translations of the principal AmidistScriptures,—two in the second century and fourin the third,—are all by natives of Central Asia,while the chief features of the cult are allPersian.EiTEL :of Buddhism; Johnston :Buddhist China.AMOGHA, AMOGHAVADJRA. See PuK'ung.AMOY ^ f^ ,Hsia men, one of the fiveTreaty ports opened to trade by the Treaty of

AMPHIBIAENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCANanking in 1842. The city is on the island ofHai-men, in the province of Fukien ; its latitudeis 24° 40' N. and its longitude 118°. E.The chief export was formerly tea, but thattrade has almost entirely ceased, partly owing tothe deterioration of the native growth and partly tothe occupation of Formosa by the Japanese; Formosanteas having been formerly warehoused inAmoy before being shipped to foreign markets.Large numbers of coolies went from this portto the Malay peninsula, but this traffic has alsodeclined greatly in recent years. The populationis 114,000.The foreign population is about 280, mostlyresiding on the Island of Ku-lang-su {q.v.).1915 1916Net Foreign Imports Hk. Tls. 8,855,282 8,106,473Net Chinese Imports 8,131,567 6,138,067Exports 3,230,371 3,153,017Total Hk. Tls. 20,217,220 17,397,562, Pitcher : In and about Amoy; and FiftyYears in Amoy.AMPHIBIA. There are two distinct faunaein China; one tropical and oriental and the othermore or less common *to the temperate parts ofEurope, Asia and North Africa. Thus, in MidandNorth China the Common Frog of Europe[Rana temporaria) and the Common Toad ofEurope {Bufo vulgaris) are met with. The genusof Fire-bellied toads {Bomhinator) consists onlyof three species, of which two are European andthe third Chinese. The little green Tree Frog[Hyla arborea) also extends from Europe rightacross the temperate part of the continent toChina, where also a closely allied form (Hylaarborea sinensis) is found even as far south asFormosa. The Edible Frog (liana esculenta) isanother European form found in China, extendingcertainly as far south as Fukien. The green Toad[Bufo viridis) from southern Europe extendsthrough the middle of Asia along the Himalayasto South-China.Of the tropical forms the common toad ofIndia (Bufo melanostictus) is found all over SouthChina, certainly as far north as the Yangtze valley,and is the common toad found around Shanghai.The largest Indian frog, the Tiger Frog (Bonatigrina) is also found as far north as the Yangtze.The commonest Shanghai frog (Rana limnocharis)is also the commonest species in Formosa andextends throughout the Malay Peninsula andIndia. The tree frogs of the genus Rhacophorusalso extend from India through China up to theYangtze ; while a few species of the familyEngystomatidce extend from the Tropical Orientinto South China.The Giant Salamander (Cryptobranchus maximus)is peculiar to North China and Japan. TheSalamanders with the exception of Tylototrilon,which is found in India and the mountains ofYiinnan, are all northern animals.As regards the distribution of species, Chinais divided into two regions. South China isincluded in the Oriental Eegion, which comprisesSouthern Asia and the Malay Archipelago ; and isessentially tropical. North China is included inthe Palaearctic region, which comprises Europe,the adjacent part of Africa and Asia north of theIndus, Himalayas and Nanling mountains. TheNanling mountains, which are only some threethousand feet high, divide the watersheds of theYangtze and the West Eiver. There is, however,no hard and fast line of division in China.Fukien, as regards botany, shows an almost equalintermingling of tropical and temperate forms.The same holds good as regards Amphibia andReptiles, and makes Fukien perhaps the bestcollecting ground in China.The Himalayas and other mountains anddeserts of Central Asia effectually prevent theentry of many northern species into India, but nosuch natural obstruction to the migration of speciesoccurs in China, so that, although Foochow maybe considered the point of division on the coastline between the northern and tropical Amphibia,there is so deep an intersection that, for practicalpurposes, it is probably better to take the Yangtzevalley as the middle of the dividing zone betweenOriental and Palsearctic species. [A. S.]AMPHITRITE, L', probably the firstFrench ship to go from France to China fortrade. She was sent by the Compagnie de I'lndeand Sieur J curdan, but the promoter and soulof the enterprise was Pere Bouvet. The shipsailed from La Rochelle commanded by CaptainDE LA EoQiJE, on March 6, 1698. Pere Bouvetwas on board with eight other missionaries,among whom was Premare. The Amphitritereturned to Port Louis on August 3, 1700. Latershe made other voyages to China. The accountof the first voyage was -written by de Ghirardiniand also, strange to say, in an anonymous Englishwork in 1859—a translation of an unpublishedmanuscript. This was translated back again intoFrench, and is given in Madrolle.Madrolle : Les premiers Voyages fran(^ais ala Chine; Belevitch-Stankevitch : Le Goutchinois en France, c. iii.AMPHITRITE ISLAND, the name givenby the French to the Tung Hai [^ ?§ island southof Kuang-chou wan, included in the leasedterritory.A M U R , R I V E R . See Hei lung chiang.AMURSANApsiIi^Jilft, a claimant for thechieftainship of the Mongols, who on being26

IENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAANGLO-CHINESE COLLEGEdefeated fled to Peking (1740) and beggedassistance from Ch'ien Lung. An army was sentto establish him as ruler of the Mongols invassalage to China. He soon began to plotrebellion, but an expedition was sent againsthim : he fled into Siberia and there died, ofsmall pox.. AMYOT.AMYGDALUS PERSICA. See Peaches.See Amiot.ANALECTS, CONFUCIAN. This isthe titleused by Legge for Lun Yiif^fg, discourses anddialogues, the first of the Four Books. It containsdiscussions between Conftjcitjs and his disciples,his answers to their questions, and one book fullof the sayings of some disciples. The title mayalso be translated Digested Conversations. Thework dates, according to Legge, from the end ofthe fourth or the beginning of the fifth centuryB.C. and was produced by the disciples of the disciplesof the Sage. The Han scholars who editedthe classics after the burning of the Books hadtwo texts of this work, and another was afterwardsdiscovered hidden in the wall of Confucius' house.The work contains twenty books. It has beentranslated into English by Legge (1861) ; Ku Hung-MiNG, (1908) ; Lionel Giles, (1907) ; Soothill,(1910) ; into Latin by Zottoli, (1879) ; into Frenchby CouvREua, (1895) ; and into German byVVilhelm. There are various other translations,for which see Cobdier's Bibliotheca Sinica.ANCESTRAL WORSHIP. The honours paidto the dead are so called, though many object tothe word 'worship' with its English connotation.It appears as an established cult at the verybeginning of Chinese history, and it remains to-dayas the chief religious practice of the race. Muchof its present form however dates only from theSung period.Among the common people every householdpreserves in a shrine the wooden tablets, inscribedwitli names, dates, etc., in which the spirits of thedead members of the family are supposed to dwell.Every clan has its ancestral temple where incenseis daily burnt before the tablets, and twice amonth there are ceremonial offerings of food. Onall occasions when the family life is affected,— bymarriages, deaths, etc., formal announcements aremade to the ancestors. In spring and autumn thereare also ceremonies at the graves.The good side of this is the filial piety whichis a great moral asset of the race. The sentimentsexpressed may be compared with the westernbedecking of the grave with flowers. The evilside is the fear lest neglected ancestors shouldwork evil to the family. Love and commemorationoften give place to superstitious fears.It is obvious that the matter is of primeimportance to Christian missions, and it has causedmuch controversy. No one can object to humanhonours paid to the dead; but if the departedspirits are invoked as tutelar powers, able to workgood or evil to descendants, if the 'worship' paidthem is comparable to that we owe to God, thenChristianity must call it idolatry and condemn it.Even then, however, there will remain the questionhow to deal with it ; some attack the system withdirect hostility ; others prefer to arouse no opposition,confident that when Christian truth is accepted,correct views on other matters will inevitably follow.The question was so discussed and decided inthe 17th century as to wreck the work of R. C.Missions in China. (See Bites Controversy). Viewsof modern Protestant Missions on the matter maybe gathered from the lively discussion at theShanghai Conference of 1890.Maetin : Lore of Cathay; Records of GeneralConference of Protestant Missionaries, 1890.•AN CHI YEN g^5E. See Yakoob.ANGLICAN CHURCH, CHINESE. SeeChinese Anglican Church.ANGLICAN MISSIONS. Four foreign missionarysocieties represent the Anglican communionin China, viz., (i) The Church Missionary Society(including the Church of England Zenana Society),which entered China in 1844, and has five dioceses(ii) The Domestic and Foreign Missionary Boardof the Protestant Episcopal Church in the U.S.A.which entered China in 1845, and has three dioceses(iii) The Church of England Mission in NorthChina, somewhat incorrectly called the S.P.G.Mission, which entered China in 1863, and has twodioceses; (iv) The Church of England in CanadaMission, which entered China in 1910, and has onediocefo. See Church Missionary Society, etc. ; andChinese AnglicaA Church.ANGLO-CHINESE CALENDAR, AN, publishedfor most years between 1844 and 1855, in Macaoor Canton at the office of the Chinese Repository.It contained a list of foreigners in China, a list ofChinese officials, postal information etc., etc^ SeeAnglo-Chinese Kalendar.ANGLO-CHINESE COLLEGE AT MA-LACCA, THE, was founded in 1818, and wasthen the only Protestant college east of theGanges. Its object was announced as'thereciprocal cultivation of Chinese and Europeanliterature.' It had a press, at which very importantwork was done, such as the printing ofPrf.mare's Notitia Linguae Sinicae in 1831, theDelegates' Version of the Bible, etc.It was founded by Dr. Morrison, who gave£5000 down and £100 a year for five years fromits commencement ; he was President of the.27

ANGLO-CHINESE FRIENDSHIP ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACollege till his death. The putting up of thebuildings was Dr. Milne's work, and he wasPrincipal till he died in 1822.Chinese Repository, vol. iii, p. 183.ANGLO-CHINESE FRIENDSHIP BUR-EAU, ^^H^blt'^ Chung Ying yu i hut; a Societyfounded in London in 1913 for purposes which areBufficiently indicated in the name. Membersliving in China decided to form a similar Societyin Peking, to work in close co-operation with whatit calls in the same sentence 'the London branch'and the parent 'Society.'The object of the Bureau in China is togive information to students proceeding toEngland, to give them letters of introduction andarrange that they may be met on arrival and behelped in getting lodgings, etc. ; and also to usethe English Society to recommend Englishmen forbusiness and professional posts in China. Socialmeetings in Peking are arranged for, and a Journalis published, No. 1 being dated December,1915. The subscription to the Society is si.x dollarsper annum.ANGLO-CHINESE KALENDAR AND RE-GISTER, THE, 1832, E. I. Co. Press, Macao.Edited by J. R. Morrison, for three years, afterwhich he issued the Cominercial Guide; theKahndar appeared in 1835 edited by the editor ofthe Canton Register.$ ^ a province whose name is derivedAN H U Ifrom its two chief prefectures, An-ch'ing andHui-chou. Its .boundaries are Honan, Kiangsu,Chekiang, Kiangsi and Hupei. Its area isestimated to be 48,460 square miles and theinhabitants have been reckoned by different authoritiesat nine millions and at thirty-four millions.Probably the most careful estimate is twenty-threemillions. The Huai river runs through the northernhalf of the province and the Yangtze through thesouthern, but the two rivers have no connectionwithin the limits of the province. The northernpart is an alluvial plain foamed by the Huai andthe Yellow River, part of the Great Plain ; thesouthern is hilly.Under the Ming dynasty it, with Kiangsu,formed the old province of Kiangnan. Its literaryname is Huan fi^Its chief city is Anking (Nganking) on theYangtze left bank, and the treaty port of Wuhuis within its borders.Richard : Comprehemive Geograjjhij; Havret :Nganhoei, (Var. Sin. No. 2).ANISEED, or Stax-anise. The tree whichproduces aniseed is confined to small areas inWestern Kuangsi and to Tonkin. It is IlliciuTnveram, Hook. Star aniseed is called pa-chiok A ^eight horns, from the shape of the fruit, whichconsists of eight seed-capsules arranged to form astar. From the amber-coloured seeds aniseed oilis e.xtracted. The export from Kuangsi practicallyconstitutes the world's supply, and has increasedconsiderably of late years, the amount shippedaveraging 12,000 picals, worth nearly 300,000 Hk.Tls. Unfortunately the Chinese dealers adulteratethe oil with spirits of wine and kerosene oil.Aniseed oil is used more as a drug and less as aspice than cassia oil. See Star-anise Oil.Illiciuvi unisatum ^ '^ Mang-ts'ao is a falsestar-anise produced in Japan and imported toChina. It is highly poisonous.ANISODACTYLI, an Order of birds whichMeropidaeincludes the families Coraciidae (rollers),(tee-eaters), Alcedinidae (kingfishers), Upupidae(hoopoes),etc.Merojjs viridis and Melittophogus swinhoiioccur in Yunnan, and Ni/ctiornis athertoni inHainan. Merojjs philippinus, the Blue-tailed Bee-Eater, is a summer visitor in S. China ; and M.sumatranus has been taken in Fukien and Kiangsi.Eurystovius caloni/x, the Broad-billed Roller, iscommon in China. Coracias afmis occurs in Yunnan.Alcedo hengalensis, the common Kingfisher, isfound everywhere in China. In S.E. China thesebirds are netted in large numbers ; their captorspluck the back feathers, which they use in makingthe well-known kingfisher feathci' jewellery, andthen release the birds. Alcedo grandis, a veryrare bird, and Ceyx tridactyla, both in Hainan.Halcyon pileata, tlie Black-capped Kingfisher, isfound in summer all over China. H. .miy mens is,the White-breasted Kingfisher, is found in Hainan,and frcra Canton to Shanghai. Callialcyon lilarina,the Ruddy Kingfisher, is met with in Formosa.It has been taken in Fukien, Kiangsu and Manchuria.Sanropatis chloris, taken once at Shaweishan.Ceryle varia, the Indian Pied Kingfisher,is common south of the Yangtze. C. lugubris, theoriental Pied Kingfisher, is found in South Chinato valley of Huangho( ?) L'pvpa epops, the EuropeanHoopoe, is a common bird throughout China. Utndica is found in Hainan.David et Oustalet : Les Oiseavx de la Chine;(Alcedinides).ANKINGgi^jg an ch'ing, or Nganking, capitalof Anhui province, is on the north bank of theYangtze, 370 miles from Shanghai in lat. 36° 9' N.and long. 116° 5' E. : it is a port of call fon- riversteamers. The population is said to be 40,000.ANN, the name of a British brig which leftChusan for Macao on March 8, 1842 and waswrecked on the Formosa coast three days later.Two men perished in the wreck ; the rest, fifty-fivein number, were seized by the Chinese, strippedand taken to Tai-wan fu. The iourney took tiU28

IENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAANTI-FOOTBINDINGthe 24th and was full of suffering; some of themwere completely naked in the rain and cold ; theyslept in common jails, twenty-five in a room lessthan eight feet square ; they were ticketed likecattle, handcuffed and fettered, and assured, bysigns, that they were going to be beheaded. FromMarch 24 to about August 13 they were kept inprison and terribly ill-treated ; then forty-fourof them were beheaded. Eleven were released inOctober. The official responsible for this brutalityas well as for the slaughter of the crew of theXerbudda (q.v.) was ordered to be punished : itis known that he was rewarded.Chinese liepository, vol. xii ; Journals kepiby Mr. Gully and Capt. Denham."ANNA" CASE, THE. In September1875, a German schooner Anna left Amoy forTientsin but was beached and plundered by theChinese crew after the two German officers hadbeen murdered. The mandarins of the districtnear Foochow where the ship was beached seemedto be in connivance with the pirates and allowedthem to get off with their booty, and the GermanGovernment therefore exacted $39,000 compensation.ANNALES DE LA PROPAGATION DE LAFOI, the celebrated missionary magazine of theAssociation de la Propagation de la Foi (q.v.).It is a continuation of the other famous series ofLttttres Edifiantes. The first cahier as it wastermed, appeared at Lyons in 1822, and was soldat 50 centimes ; the second in 1823; at 75 centimesand the third in 1824 at 50 centimes. Then threecahiers were issued in 1825, and the six werepublished as volume I with an index. The workhas been very popular, and is now illustrated.Besides the French edition, still issued from Lyons,there have been for many years translations intoGerman, Flemish, English, Dutch, Italian, Portuguese,Spanish, Batsque, etc.ANSERES, an Order which consists of theDucks, Geese and Swans. The species known inChina are as follows.Anser serrirostris, the Eastern Bean Goose.-4. segetum., the Bean Goose, the most common ofthe geese that visit China in their migrations.-4. middendorfji, the great Bean Goose. A. ferus,the Grey Lag Goose, and A. albifrons, the WhitefrontedGoose, both are common on the coast,especially in the South. .4. erythropus, the DwarfGoo-tse or Lesser White-fronted Goose, abundant onthe lakes of the eastern provinces, especiallyKiangsi. A. cygnoides, the Chinese Goose, comesfrom the north in large numbers to winter inChina. Cygnus olor, the mute Swan seen once atPeking and shot once at Chinkiang. C. musicus,the Whooper, in great numbers in migration ; somenpass the winter in China. C. jankowskyiJangkowski's Swan, N. China to Fukien. C.dcvidi~l)\viD's Swan,—Chihli. Anas boscas, theMallard, abundant in the north. .4. zonorhyncha,the yellow-nib duck, resident in China andMongolia. Tudorna cornuta, the Sheldrake, commonon the coast. Casarca rutila, the RuddySheldrake or Brahminy Duck, abundant in Mongolia,where it an object of religious reverenceit winters in China. Sarcidiornis melanonota, theComb duck, obtained one year in Fukien. Dafilaacuta, the Pintail ; many pass the winter in thecentral and southern provinces. Dendrocygndjavanica, the Whistling Teal, taken in Fukien andKiangsu. Mareca penelope, the Widgeon, commonin S. China in the winter. Chaulelasmus streperus,the Gadwall, is found in China but rarely. Spatulaclypeata, the Shoveller, common, in the winter andat the times of migration. Nettopus coromandelianus,the Cotton Teal, in Central China insummer, in small numbers. Aix galericulata, theMandarin Duck, resident in southern and centralChina. Querquedula circia, the Garganey or BluewingedTeal, China and Foa-mosa. Nettium crecca,the Common Teal, and N. formosum, the BaikalTeal or Clucking Teal, and Eunetta falcata, theFalcated Teal, these three are common in China andFormosa, in winter and at the times of migration.Oidemia carbo, the Eastern Velvet Scoter, visitsthe coasts. 0. americana, the Eastern Black Scoter.Clangula glaucion, the Golden Eye, winters inChina. Nyroca ferina, the Pochard or Dun-bird,common in China in winter and at the times ofpassage. N. rufina, the Red-crested Pochard,Fukien. A", ferruginea, the White-eyed Duck,winters in China. N'. viarila, the Scaup, abundantin winter on the coast. N. fuligula, the TuftedDuck, common in winter. A", baeri, the EasternWhite-eyed Duck, common in winter. Mergusalbellus, the Smew, common in Central China inwinter. M. serrator, the Red-breasted MerganserM. merganser, the Goosander ; M. squamatusGould's Merganser, these three winter in China.David et Oustalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine;(Anatides).ANTEATER, SCALY, Manis dalmanni, isfound at Amoy, in Formosa, in Hainan andelsewhere in the south. It is described by Swinhoeinthe second paper named below.Swinhoe : P.Z.S., 1870, pp. 236, 650.ANTI-FOOTBINDING. Several of the ManchuEmperors issued edicts against the custom offoot-binding, the most famous being K'ang Hsi,who in 1665 issued orders that all parents bindingthe feet of children born after the first year of hisreign should be severely punished. Though manyhigh officials backed up the effort, it was a

ANTI-FOOTBINDINGENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAcomplete failure, and four years later the edictwas withdrawn. One of Tag Kuang's concubinesonce attired herself as a Chinese lady with boundfeet, but was instantly ordered away in disgrace,and the Emperor never saw her again. As late as1838, the Manchus threatened severe punishmentfor foot-binding.After the T'ai P'ing rebellion half the peoplein Kuangtung, Kuangsi and Chihli ceased thepractice.Christian missionaries strongly discouragedfoot-binding among their converts, in many casesmaking unbinding a condition of receiving pupilsinto their boarding-schools, and in a few places,a condition of entering the Church.The chief difficulties in the way were thatnatural feet were in many places associated withprostitution, and that no husbands could be foundfor girls with unbound feet. The attempt wasmore successful in the South than in the North,where the custom was almost universal, slave-girlsand Buddhist nuns being the only exceptions, tillChristian schools arose.The great majority of Chinese girls, even inChristian families, still had bound feet, and thenon-Christian part of the population was appa/rentlystill untouched by the new ideas, when in 1895, tenladies of several different nationalities formed theT'icn Tsu Hui ^£,-§", Natural Foot Society, withMrs. Archib.ald Little as President. This bodyat once decided to memorialize the Empress-Dowager, who as a Manchu, was a natural-footedwoman.After being drawn up very carefully in English,and then translated into Chinese, the memorial wasdistributed to get signatures, and nearly all foreignladies in the Far East added their names.The memorial was forwarded through theAmerican Minister to the Tsung-li Yamen whothought it a matter which they could not bringbefore Her Majesty, but offered to keep it on theirshelves. It is believed that it reached the palacebut the Anti-footbinding Edict she issued in 1902(the last of the many Manchu attempts to alter thepractice) was probably the result of her wish tocurry favour with the foreign ladies in the capital,with whom she made special efforts to be friendlyat that time.The Society also sent memorials and lettersto all Viceroys and provincial governors ; andpublic meetings were held in most of the provincialcapitals and many large cities. At these meetingsthe President of the Society addressed large Chineseaudiences,—a very great innovation in those days.Over a million tracts, leaflets and placards weresent out from Shanghai alone, as well as a largenumber from five other centres ; a number ofbranches were established all over the Empire; aschool was opened in Shanghai for natural-footednon-Christian Chinese girls; and in every possibleway public opinion was educated.During the Reform movement of 1896-8, K'angYu-WEi ^y^% formed the Pu Ch'an Tsu Hui7fM^^ in Canton, which had before long 10,000members, and after the cowp d'etat was removedto Shanghai. A considerable number of smallersocieties having the same object arose over China,to what extent directly inspired or stimulated bythe T'ie?i Tsu Hui cannot be estimated.Eventually, all Viceroys and Governors issuedproclamations against the custom, that of H.E.Chang Chih-tung being very widely circulated.The T'ien Tsu Hui issued its " tenth and lastreport " in 1906 ; it was handed over to a committeeof Chinese ladies in 1908, and seems to have shortlyafter ceased to function, its work being done, thesocieties of Chinese origin taking its place. Itundoubtedly had a very large share in creating a'strong public opinion against the practice of footbinding,and the custom has been abandoned bypractically all people of the official classes, andthough it is still widely practised among the lowerranks especially in the North, its extinction canhaffdly be far distant. See Foot-binding.Giles : Historic China; Report of PekingHospital, 1858 ; Mrs. A. Little : Intimate China.AN TE HAI ^'f|?S, the favourite eunuch ofTz'u Hsi the Empress-dowager, in the early daysof her power ; commonly known as Hsiao An /J-»^Little An, on account of his small stature. Hispower and arrogance were very great and hisinfluence over Tz'ii Hsi such as to give rise tomost scandalous reports. In 1869 she sent himinto Shantung to get money for her privy purse.It was contrary to dynastic house-law for a eunuchto leave the capital, and Prince Kung tookadvantage of this to persuade Tz'u An, theco-Regent Empress-dowager, to sign a decree commandingthe immediate execution of the insolentAn Te-hai. The sentence was promptly carriedout in Shantung, several other eunuchs being gotrid of at the same time. Tz'u Hsi knew nothingof itfor some days, when her wrath against PrinceKung and the Empress Tz'u An was very great,nor did she ever forgive them.An Te-hai was succeeded by the notoriousLi Lien-ying (q.v.).ANTELOPES. There are four species in N.China, and Mongolia. They are as follows, withtheir distribution :Gazella suhgutturasa, N. and E. Mongolia ; G.gutturosa, Inner Mongolia; G. przewalskii, Ordos,Hsinchiang; G. picticaudata, S.W. Kansu, Tibet,Hsinchiang.30

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAAl'RICCTSOf these G. gutturosa is the largest and G.picticaudata the smallest. Both G. gutturosa and G.subgutturosa have an enormous larynx which swellsup in the rutting season ; the former is hence knownasthe Goitred Antelope.SowERBY : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii.ANTIMONY. See Minerals.Ch'in.AN TU -^tP, Antioch, the capital of TaSee Ta Ch'in, Fu-lin.ANTUNG^;^,was opened as a Treaty Poreby the Commercial Treaty with the United Statesin 1903, but on account of the Russo-Japanese warthe actual opening dates from the spring of 1907.It is on the right bank of the Yalu River, thirtymiles from its mouth. The river is closed by icefrom the end of November to the end of March.The Chinese population is abouc 40,000 in thewinter, but in the busy months that number isperhaps doubled by immigrants, chiefly from Shantung.There is a Japanese Settlement with apopulation of about 20,000. The pore is connectedwith Mukden by rail.A British Consulate was established in 1907,but was closed again in 1909.1915 1616Net Foreign Imports Hk.Tls. 13,563,056 18,507,536Net Chinese Imports 1,842,430 1,625,365Exports 8,806,245 8,609,965Hk. Tls. .24,211,731 28,743,866ANZER, JEAN BAPTISTE, was born in1851 at Weinricht, Germany, and died at Romein 1903. He belonged to a newly created Mission,and reached China in 1879, when he was madepro-vicar in the southern part of Shantung. In1883 he was attacked by Chinese and left for dead.In 1885 Southern Shantung was made into abishopric and Anzer became bishop there. In 1890he abandoned the protection of France andaccepted that of Germany ; this gave Germany apretext for the seizure of Tsingtau when missionarieshad been murdered in 1897.See Tsingtau.APAOKI pSIf^t^, the first ruler of the unitedK'itans. See K'itans.APE'S HILL, so called from the number ofmonkeys (Macacus cyclopis) formerly found there,is near Takao in Formosa, and Takao is sometimescalled Ape's Hill Harbour. The hill stands aloneand is 1,710 feet high.APOSTOLIC FAITH MISSIONARIES, arerepresentatives of a recent religious developmentin the U.S.A. and hence have only made theirappearance in China within the last few years.They show a great tendency towards " hiving off "to form other small missions, known as Full GospelMission, etc., etc. They do not publish statistics,on principle ; but in the Mission Directory for 1916,they are given as 82 in number, working inShanghai and Soochow ; at Peking, and two otherstations in Chihli ; at Tai-yiian f u, and two otherstations in Shansi ; with one station each in Shensiand Mongolia. As there is but little organizationeither at home or on the field, there is smallcohesion in the work done, and the personnel isconstantly changing. Their headquarters is at HotSprings, Arkansas U.S.A. See Assemblies of God.APPIANI, LOUIS m'^Hi^, a Lazarist missionary,born in Piedmont on March 22, 1663. He wassent to China by the Propaganda with the titlevice-visitor apostolic, and reached Canton onAugust 14, 1699. When the Legate de Tournoncame to China in 1705 he chose P. Appiani asinterpreter to accompany him to Peking. Whenthe Emperor angrily ordered the Legate to leaveChina, P. Appiani was arrested on the journeysouth and brought from Nanking back to Pekingthen he was sent for trial into Ssuch'uan wherehe had worked ; brought back to the capital he wasimprisoned for two years there, then exiled toCanton and kept in prison there twelve years. Hedied at Macao on August 29, 1732, and was buriedin the Dominican church.Favier : Peking, p. 172.APPLES, Malus spp. ^^ p'in kuo. Thetrue apple M. sylvestris does not seem to befound in China (unless, of course, in a fewforeign gardens). The larger, whitish varietiescultivated by the Chinese seem to belong to theM. prunifolia group. The fruit is often handsomein appearance, but it is soft and spongy in textureand of insipid flavour.Another group is small and generally red,and though often mealy the taste is sour. Thesetrees are probably derived from the wild crabapple,M. baccata, which grows all over N. Chinaand Manchuria and is used as the stock forgrafting all apples on. The crab -apple treesometimes reaches 40 to 50 feet in height; thefruit is very abundant and is about the size ofa green pea ; it is eaten raw, dried or made intopreserves.Meyer :Agricultural Explorations, etc.APRICOTS, (Prunus armeniaca), ^ hsing.The wild Apricot is common in N. China, andthere are many varieties in cultivation. They aregrafted on seedling apricot stock or on the wildpeach. The trees are generally ' not grown inregular orchards but in small groups, especiallyOil terraces on the hill-sides.Perhaps the finest varieties are found inShantung. Apricot kernels ^ ^,from apricotsgrown at Yenching and Wan-ping, N. and W.of Peking are exported from Tientsin to Europe.These are sweet. Bitter kernels grow in many81

ARAHANTENCYCLOPAEDIA SINlCAdistricts of Chihli, Honan and Shantung. Theapricots ripen in .June and the shipping seasonstarts in August; the fruit itself is uneatable.These edible kernels have given rise to the mistakenidea that almonds are grown in China.Meyer : Agricultural Explorations, etc. ; FarEastekn Review, February, 1915.ARAHANT, Chinese Lo han (q.v.) the idealwhich Sakyamuni taught that every man shouldstrive to be. An arahant is one who has travelledthe Eightfold Path, has reached enlightenmentand is saved to all eternity. For the oppositionof this ideal and the Mahayanist ideal ofbodhisatship see Bodhixattva.ARCHAEOLOGY. Very little archaeologicalwork has been done by foreigners in China Properand though the Chinese are keen students andcollectors of their own antiquities, archaeologicalresearch as foreigners understand it is unknownamong them. Immense sums are paid for treasureswhich are found by accident, but money is notapplied to the systematic search for what wouldillustrate history. Feng shui, the lack of cooperation,the weakness of the government, the suspiciousnessof the crowded population, are all againstsuch enterprises.The chief work which foreigners have done inthis line has been in the less populous parts ofW. China and Turkestan (Hsin-chiang).The discovery by Bower, de Rhins and others,of ancient manuscripts at Kucha and Khotan led tothe first purely archaeological mission, which wasRussian, under Klementz. It went to Turfan in1897, and found that early manuscripts wen'e socommonly exhumed that the people used them forwindow paper !In 1902 the Congress of Orientalists organizedan International Association to encourage suchwork, the head-quarters being in Petrograd, whileeach nation was left free to make its own plans.Stein, sent by the Indian government, was the firstin the field in 1900-01. GRiiNWEDEL next took upKlementz' work at Turfan, and was followed byLecoq. Then France sent Pelliot, who worked atKucha in 1907, then went to Urumtsi, Turfan,Hami and Tun-huang.The principal spoils of these expeditions wereliterary. Vast numbers of Chinese manuscriptswere obtained from every centre, both secular andreligious; some found near Tun-huang dating backto B.C. 98, proving very early intercourse ; numerousSanskrit works were found, including the oldestSanskrit manuscripts known and one lost canonicalwoork ; Tibetan manuscripts were abundant, especiallyon the south side of the desert and in Tun-huang.Works were found in strange languages which atfirst received the names Tokharian and Nordarisch.Further research, however, has resulted in theirbeing called Kuchan and Khotanese, since theywere certainly the languages used at Kucha andKhotan. There were also three other Iranianlanguages, all in alphabets of Aramaic origin, twobeing apparently tongues of Persia (Manichaeanworks only), and the third Sogdian (Manichaean,Buddhist and Christian texts). There were someChristian texts in Syriac; some manuscripts in oldTurkish dialects in Runic alphabet, others inUighur, another in Semitic (a fragmentary form),believed to belong to the White Huns, orEphthalites. One of the main results of the Steinand Pelliot Missions was the finding of a greatlibrary at Tun-huang, containing Chinese, Tibetan,Sanskrit, Sogdian and "Khotanese" works of the7th, 8th and 9th centuries. Among other relics ofNestorianism Stein brought from Turfan fragmentsof the New Testament of the 9th century and onefragment belonging to the 5th century.Besides securing manuscripts these expeditionsexamined caves decorated with stucco figures andwith frescoes; statues (mostly stucco), paintingson silk and paper, embroideries, coins, etc., werealso obtained. The civilization thus revealed is amixture of Persian, Indian, Chinese, Hellenic, etc.In 1907 an important Mission was sent fromFrance in charge of Chavannes (See MissionArchdologique). It worked especially at the LungMen caves in Honan, at the Ta-t'ung fu cavetemplesin N. Shansi, and in Manchuria.A Japanese mission was organized by CountOtani and conducted by Tachiba, who broughtback much from Liao-lan, Turfan and Tun-huang.The Japanese have also done some interestingwork in Shantung and Shansi, and have madeimportant researches in the prehistoric archaeologyof Manchuria and Eastern Mongolia. Their workin Korea has resulted in the discovery, amongmany things, of the earliest extant Chinesepaintings.In 1914 an archaeological mission visited W^esternChina, the members being MM. Gilbert de Voisins,Victor Segalen and Jean Lartigue. The full resultsof their journey are being published, but a briefaccount is given in the Journal Asiatique for 1915.Plates are given, showing some of the Hansculptures, pillars, etc., which were found. Theart is said to display ext)tic influence, chieflyIranian in character.The discovery of the Oracle Bones (q.v.) inHonan was of great interest and importance inArchaeology.According to an announcement in the Journal,N.C.B.R.A.S. for 1914, it was proposed to foundan American School of Archaeology in Peking,but the project appears to have been still-born.32

,togique,ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAARCHITECTUREStein: Ancient Khotan, 1907; and Ruins ofDesert Cathay, 1912 ; Chavannes : Mission Archeo-1913 ; Pelliot : Les Influences iraniennes,etc., 1911, and La Mission Pelliot, 1909;B.E.F.E.O., vol. xi, p. 171.ARCHERY.Chinese historians naturally, andperhaps in this case rightly, ascribe the inventionof bows and arrows to the period of Huang Tiand Yao, while the bow-case and arrow-tube aresaid to have been made by Shun, the cover forthe bow being called tu^. The bow was in allprobability evolved from the primitive drill-bow.The Shu Ching states that the war-chariot ofB.C. 2190 contained an archer, a javelin-thrower anda charioteer. In later times soldiers practised archeryon horseback as well as on foot. In thelater Feudal period bows were adorned witli greenbands and ornaments of ivory and horn, and differedin size and colour according to the user's rank.Bow-cases to hold two bows were made of tiger-skinand later of seal-skin. Arrows were made of sedge,tipped with barbs of metal, stone, ivory or bone.Under the Ch'in dynasty the bow used was fourfeet long and made of bamboo, and poisoned arrowswere employed. Later a cross-bow was in usewhich could discharge 10 iron arrows at once. TheT'ang bows were of mulberry-wood and horn, andthe cross-bows could shoot arrows 300 paces. TheMing dynasty introduced bows bound with silk.Under the Ch'ing rule the soldiers practised archerysix times a month both on foot and on horseback,the greatest experts being from Manchuria andSsuch'uan. There were four types of bow, the longbow over 5 feet in length, used by foot-soldiers, theshort bow 4 feet long used by horsemen, the trainingbow used to strengthen the arm, and thecross-bow. The bows were graded according totheir pull, eighty and even a hundred and twentypounds pull being spoken of. The strings were ofsilk, gut or strong twine. The Chinese bow is ofthe composite type, the outer layer to resist•Jtretching being of sinew, the inmost layer to resistjontraction being of horn, while a layer of wood])etween provides support for both. When unstrungsuch a bow goes into a strongly reversed:'orm.Not only was archery practised by the armybut by Buddhist and Lama priests even in theManchu dynasty. Archery was also a favouritepastime with the common people in ancient times.Werner : Sociology; Bois-REyMOND : ChineseArchery (Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xliii).ARCHITECTURE. That Chinese architectureii! monotonous is an indisputable fact. The modelmost generally employed for the majority of buildings,be they dwelling houses, temples or palaces, istliat of the Ving i^ Ithus described by Bushell in I533Chinese Art."This consists essentially of a massiveroof with recurved edges resting upon short columns.The curvilinear tilting of the corners of the roofhas been supposed to be a survival from the days oftent dwellers, who used to hang the angles of theircanvas pavilions on spears; but this is carryingit back to a very dim antiquity, as we have norecords of the Chinese except as a settled agriculturalpeople. The roof is the principal feature of thebuilding and gives to it, when finished, an effectof grandeur or simplicity, of strength or grace.To vary its aspect the architect is induced occasionallyto double or even triple it. This preponderanceof a part usually sacrificed in Western architecture,is justified by the smaller vertical elevation of theplan and the architect devotes every attention tothe roof by the addition of ante-fixal ornaments,and by covering it with glazed tiles of brilliantcolour, so as to concentrate the eye upon it. Thedragons and phoenixes posed on the crest of thisroof, the grotesque animals perched in lines uponthe eaves, and the yellow, green and blue tileswhich cover it are never chosen at random, butafter strict sumptuary laws, so that they maydenote the rank of the owner of the house orindicate the imperial foundation of a temple."The great weight of the roof requires the use ofmany pillars, and though stone is common in Chinathese are generally of wood; one notable exceptionbeing the magnificently carved marble pillars tobe seen at the temple of Confucius in Ch'ii Fou,Shantung. The space between the pillars is filledin with bricks or blocks of stone, these not beingintended to serve in any way as supports; in factthe construction is curiously like that of the modernAmerican building of the newest type, where steelsupports sustain the structure, and the portionsbetween are filled with concrete.As Chinese buildings are constructed of bricksand wood they are most perishable, therefore butfew ruins of note exist; from the ancient books,however, we can obtain some idea of the architecturein early days.Apart from the form described above therewas another known as the T'ai ^ or lofty towerthese T'ai being the first large buildings describedin the canonical books. Three sorts are describedby Bushell; "one intended as a storehouse oftreasure, a second built within a walled huntingpark for watching military exercises and the pleasuresof the chase, and a third fitted up as anastronomical observatory." Among later representativesof the T'ai he cites the towers of the GreatWall, the storied buildings surmounting the gatesof cities, and the observatory at Peking, also asquare tower mounted on a wall.In addition to buildings Chinese architectshave erected beautiful memorial arches of stone

ARCONA ISLANDENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAknown as P'ai lou (q.v.) ; wonderful bridges ofboth marble and stone; and, under the influenceARHAN. ARHAT. See Arahant.ARKONA INSEL (Arcona Island), the nameof Buddhism, pagodas, or T'a V^, of infinitegiven to the small island in the bay at Tsingtau,variety.immediately opposite to the town. The ChineseThe cupola does not exist ; the structure bearingthe nearest resemblance to it being the " stupa,"^ ^ green island,name of this island is Tsingtauand the name has been transferred from it toor " dagoba " erected over the remains of Buddhistthe town on the mainland. It bears a lighthouse.priests.The Japanese name is Kato-jima.Paleologue : VArt Chinois; Bushell : ChineseArt; MiJNSTERBERG : Chinesische Kunstgeschichte ARMEALEC, ARMALECH, ARMALEGH.BoERSCHMANN : Daukunst der Chinesen. [F.A] See Almalih.ARCONA ISLAND. See Arkona Insel.ARMY. The Chinese forces consisted till 1895ARDEAE, a Sub-order of Herodiones, (q.v.), of the Eight Banners [q-v.) and some Provincialcontaining the Herons aud their allies. The followingare the species found in China.these did not constitute an Army in the moderntroops raised in each province independently; butArdea cinerea, the Common Heron, throughout sense of the term. After the China-Japan warthe north in summer and the south in winter. some attempt at reorganization was made; fiveA. manillensis, the Eastern Purple Heron, China Divisions of a proper army were raised, but werecoast provinces ; it sometimes winters in Ssuch'uan. disbanded during or after the Boxer outbreak.Herodias alba, the Large Egret, and H. intermedia, Only one Division under Yiian Shih-k'ai was leftthe Smaller Egret, both found in the south all the as the beginning of a new army. The new army,year round, and in the north in summer, ff. Lu chiin |^ "S^ land forces, was decreed in 1901.garzetta, the Little Egret, throughout China. H. Only in Chihli, under Yiian's Viceroyalty, was theetdophotes, in Formosa and S. China. Bubulcus decree effective; here, between 1903 and 1906 sixeoromandus, the Cattle Egret, in Formosa and the Divisions were organized. Then the Lu-chun Pusouthern half of China, in the summer. Butorides or Ministry of War was established and a schemejavnnica, the Little Green Heron, in S. China. was sanctioned to form thirty-six Divisions withinB. amurensis, China coast on migration, Manchuria ten years. In 1907 it was determined to completeand Formosa. Ardeola bacchus, the Chinese Pond- this scheme by 1912. It is obvious that theHeron, in the south all the year, in summer in the Revolution, and the later divisions in the StateYangtze valley up to Ssuch'uan. Nycticorax have interfered with the steady carrying out ofgriseus, the Night Heron, common tliroughout any programme. There were said to be 800,000 menChina. N. magnifica, Eukien, Anhui, Hainan. under arms at the date of the abdication, and inGorsachius melanolophus , the Malay Bittern, in August, 1913 the strength of the regular army wasFormosa. G. goisagi, Fukien, Shaweishan. Botaurigstellaris, the Bittern, in the north. ( ?) Dwpetorgiven as 500,000. China Year Book, 1916.ARROW CASE, THE; an incident of 1856flavicollis, the Yellow-necked Bittern, common inwhich led to the second war with China.summer A boatin the south and centre of China, andin the Canton river, flying the British flag, wasin S. Shensi. Ardetta cinnamomea, the Chestnutboarded by Chinese who pulled the flag downBittern, passes the summer in China and Manchuria.A. eurythma, Amoy, Shanghai, Chefoo,and carried off to prison 12 men. It wascontended by the Viceroy Yeh that the boat waset*. ; a migrant, China coast, Manchuria. A.Chinese and that among the arrested men was asinensis, in all parts of China ; Manchuria.pirate; it is certain that the British registrationARENDT, CARL, Professor of Chinese inof the boat had expired 10 days earlier, but thisthe Seminary of Eastern Languages in Berlin, haswas unknown to Yeh. Mr. (Sir Harrt) Parkeswritten various papers on Chinese subjects and ademanded the return of the crew and that anygrammar of Chinese.charges against them should be examined at theARGALI. See Sheep, wild.British Consulate. Yeh .would make no apologyARGOLS, the dried droppings of the yak and for the insult to the flag nor acknowledge that hiscamel, used as fuel by Mongols and Tibetans.action was wrong. The incident was the culminatingpoint of many years of insolence, andA R GO ON, half-castes, generally the offspringof temporary marriages (as allowed by Mohammedanlaw) between Turki merchants and Tibetan Arrow as the inviolability of the flag and thethe question was not so much the injury to thewomen. It is found under Argon in Jaeschke's whole of the future relations between China anddictionary, and defined as the offspring of mixed the outside world. Sir Michael Seymour atmarriages between Chinese and Tibetans.RocKHiLL : The Land of the Lamas.uonce attacked Canton, and the war led to theTreaty of Tientsin.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAARTARROWROOT.What is exported from Chinato Europe under this name is (1) the Ou fen Wk'^,the flour of the Water-lily root, Nelumbiumspeciosum. It is coarse, light-brown, resemblingjoss-stick powder. Chieh fin fij l^i' is made fromthe root joints and is more expensive. It comesfrom the Huai river district. (2) Ling fen ^ ,^,Water Caltrop flour, Tra-pa bicornis. This iswhitey-brown like coarse wheat flour. (3) Ma t'ifen i^Eg,^, Water Chestnut flour, Eleocharus orScirpus tuberosus. (4) Ko fen ^,1^) the root ofPachyrhizus thunbergianus, a wild creeper.ARSENALS. The first arsenal in China ofa western character was begun by Dr. (Sir Halliday)Macartney in 1863.Macahtney, a British army officer, was then onspecial service under Li Htjng-chang, and waspainfully making better shells, powder and gunsthan the Chinese could produce alone. He tookthe opportunity of the Lay-Osborne fleet beingdispersed to secure the floating arsenal whichaccompanied it, by letting Li behold it at work.It was established at Nanking when that city wastaken from the rebels.An arsenal was established at Foochow underM. GiQUEL in 1866.There are now, according to a list in the ChinaYear Book, arsenals at the following places :Canton, Chengtu, Foochow, Hangchow, Hanyang,Kai-feng, Lanchow, Nanking, Shanghai, Hsi-an fu,Te-chow, Tsi-nan fu, Urumtsi and Yiinnan fu.ARSENIC ^ :Q Jisin shih. The annualmovement of this product through Treaty portsis on an average nearly 1,000 tons, the producingports being Hankow and' Changsha, and a littleis also sent out from Kuangtung. The arsenicis sent mostly to Tientsin and the Shantungports, and then inland to be used by the peasantsfor poisoning insect pests, including those whichattack the wild silkworms.Arsenic in the form ofoi'piment occurs in many places in N. W. Yiinnan,the chief mines being near Chaochow, near Taliand in Menghua, etc. See Orpiment.ART. One has but to glance at the articleson Art in any Encyclopaedia, and to note thedates upon which the great majority of books onChinese Art have been published, and one realizesthat the knowledge, among Occidentals, of thisgreat branch of human culture is in its veryinfancy.Much study has been devoted to the subjectwithin the last decade, but until further translationsof the voluminous catalogues and histories comjiiledby the Chinese themselves are available,antil the ideals of the nation are more clearlyiprasped, dogmatic decisions are most dangerous.Certain it is that Art which is " the externalmanifestation of the idea, the revelation of theinvisible reality through the senses " (Lilly) hasflourished among the Chinese since a hoary antiquity;and since the most important "idea" ofman is that connected with his religion it may bewell to consider briefly the original Eeligion ofChina and its relationship with Art.This ancient Faith is divided by Chinesescholars into three periods ; (i), the Primal-ancient,a monotheism, a worship of Shang Ti the onlyGod in Heaven; this lasted until the rise of theChou dynasty (1122 b.c.) and then gave way to a(ii), clearly defined dualism, when the worship ofEarth was added to that of Heaven, and when abelief in gods and spirits many and various, becamerife in the land. Now, as the Chinese are,and have been since the legendary times, anagrarian people to whom the success or failure cftheir crops means life or death, it is not strangethat these spirits should, in their idea, dwell inthe mountains and rivers, the clouds which controlthe life-giving showers, and other naturalobjects. Of these spirits no images were made,but symbols suggesting them ornamented theutensils of every-day use, and the bronze vesselswhich served in the religious rites. Thus cameChinese Art to birth. From that day to thissymbols have played an all-important part in itseach and every branch ; in fact no intelligent studyof the subject is possible without some knowledgeofsymbolism.The third period, known as the " Near Ancient,"stretched to some epoch subsequent to ourera and was materialistic or, more strictly, agnostic,with echoes of the old monotheism. It saw therise of Confucianism and Taoism, as well as theintroduction of Buddhism. Ideals became naturallymore complex and man, striving to expressdeveloped art in many forms, while hethese ideals,began to fashion his gods (now becoming moreand more numerous ) in his own image.The most ancient relics of Chinese art extantare the bronze vessels and the jade carvings whichdate from periods prior to that turning-point inChinese history, the rise of the Chou dynasty.The next medium of which the Chinese artistin those far off days availed himself to express hisnascent ideas, was stone, and various carved slabsdating from the Han dynasty (b.c. 206 a.d. 25)are still to be seen, while the famous " stonedrums " which stand at the entrance to the Confuciantemple at Peking are the most preciousrelics of the Chou.Pottery next claimed his attention, and as soonas the invention of the writing brush ( which inventionis attributed to the General M£ng T'ien,appointed by Shih Huang Ti, b.c. 221—209, toI85

'ARTHINGTON FUNDENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAsuperintend the building of the Great Wall )wasperfedted, painting was added to the Arts of China.This reached its highest point of excellence duringthe T'ang and Sung dynasties (a.d. 618—1280)also known as the Golden Age of Chinese literature.The various arts were perfected from thisperiod on ; the magnificent spontaneity of the earlydays ga"e way to a polished refinement of greatcharm, which, unfortunately has degenerated inour day into a conventionalized use of the symbolswhich have become stereotyped through the ages.It is not too much, however, to hope that arenais.sance may take place; that when China shallhave passed through the present stage of transition,to her old vital appreciation of the forces ofNature,—which appreciation is the very root ofher great Art—she will add that of the best forcesin World Civilization as it develops to-day. Torealize that firm grounds exist for this hope onehas but to converse with a Chinese connoisseur, tograsp his keen appreciation of all that is bestand greatest in the artistic productions of his Land,and his realization that the productions >&f themoment are weak and lacking in vitality.See Architecture; Bronze; Cloisonne; Embroidery;Enamel; Glass; Jade; Jewellery; Lacquer,Painting, Porcelain, Pottery, Sculpture,Symbolism, and Wood-carving.Paleglogue : L'art chinois, 1887 ; Btjshell :Chinese Art, 1904; Munsterberg : ChinesischeKunstgeschichte, 1911.[F.A.]ARTHINGTON FUND, THE, was left byMr. Robert Arthington of Leeds, England, to beused in opening new work in foreign, missions, orin extension of existing work. Mr. Arthingtonwas a Baptist, but any Mission supported by a bodyof Evangelical Christians was eligible to receivefrom his bequest ; and in addition to BaptistMissions, the C.M.S., L.M.S., W.M.S., U.M.M.and Friends' Missions have all received grants forwork in China as well as a number of interdenominationalSocieties such as the Y.M.C.A.,Medical Associations, Tract Societies, etc. Othercountries besides China have received benefit fromthis Fund, which was, roughly, a million sterling.Mr. Arthington died in 1900; and as no endowmentwas set up, the Fund has gradually beenexhausted.China Mission Year Book, 1914, p. 507.ARTHUR, PORT. See Port Arthur.ASAFOETIDA. See Pharmacopoeia.ASBESTOS. See Minerals.ASOKA (A9oka), the Emperor of Maurya,who reigned from about 269 to 227 B.C. His empireextended over the whole of India, except theextreme south of the peninsula, and included thegreater part of what are now called Afghanistanand Beluchistan, He is mentioned here becausehe was the great patron of Buddhism. Many ofhis monuments and inscriptions remain, includingan inscribed pillar which marks the traditionalbirth-place of Buddha.Rapson : Ancient India.ASSEMBLIES OF GOD, THE, a termadopted by certain communities of Christians inU.S.A. of recent origin. They decline to formthemselves into a sect, and claim to follow theapostolic form of Christianity more closely thanother bodies of Christians. They have a MissionaryPresbytery which is however only an advisorybody, formed in 1914, at a General Council heldat Hot Springs, Arkansas. They are representedin China by the Apostolic Faith Missionaries{q.v.), and the Pentecostal Missionaries, {q-v.) ;and the Pentecostal Missionary Union {q.v.) isclassed with these under the heading of " Assembliesof God " in the Directory of ProtestantMissions in China, 1916. Twenty-one workers ofthe " Assemblies of God " aire also given asassociated with the South Chihli and two otherMissions. There are in all 118 names, and in thecase of the Americans, there is a great preponderanceof Scanainavian surnames. The Missionariesderive their support in an unsystematicmanner, either through the above-named Presbytery,or the London Headquarters of the PentacostalMissionary Union, or through various religiousperiodicals or from private sources. Theyare all largely independent of any home controland of each other, and members of any one of theabove-mentioned bodies are by no means willingto be called by the names of the others.ASSEMBLIES, PROVINCIAL. See ProvincialAssemblies.ASSEMBLY, NATIONAL. See NationalAssembly.ASSOCIATION DE LA PROPAGATION DELA FOI, The Society for the Propagation of theFaith. This celebrated Roman Catholic organizationwas founded at Lyons on May 3, 1822. Itsobject was to help the work of the Missions inheathen lands by prayers and regulated offeringsof the faithful. To English readers it cannot butbe interesting to read the passage in the Society'sfirst call to the faithful :*".. . everywhere isrecognized the need of opposing to the giganticefforts of the Protestant Bible Society somethingequally well organized in favour of the truth.Our French Association must always keep theEnglish Society in mind, and exert itself to do asmuch,"( . , partout on a compris la necessite d'opposer auxgigantesques efforts de la societe protestante biblique,quelque chose d'aussi bien combine en faveur de36

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAASSOCIATIONla verite.Notre Association fran^aise, doit toujoursavoir en regard la Socicte anglaise, et s'efforcer delui foire contre-'poids).In view of the importance of this Associationand the difficulty of referring to its earliestpublications the following translation of an extractof its rules is given.Ad majorem Dei gloriam.Art. I. A pious Association is founded inFrance, taking the title of Association of thePropagation of the Faith.Art. II. Its aim is to extend the society cffaithful Catholics by helping in every way it canthe apostolic missionaries appointed to spreadthe light of the Faith among foreign nations ofboth hemispheres.Art. III. It is composed of religious peopleof both sexes, whose Christian conduct mustbring down on the enterprise the blessing of God.Art. IV. The Association is divided intodivisions, centuries and sections.Art. V. Ten members form a section, tensections a century, and ten centuries a division.Art. VI. Each division, each century, eachsection shall have a chief.Art. VII. The chiefs of divisions, of centuriesand of sections are included in the sections,and are never supernumerary; so that thedivisions are composed of only one tliousandassociates.Art. VIII. The chiefs of century arenominated by the chief of their division; theycommunicate on the one hand with this chief,on the other with the chiefs of their sections.Art. IX. The chiefs of section are nominat- •ed by the chief of their century, and communicatewith him ; each of them has to see to the replacementof members who cease to make part of hissection.Art. X. Each chief of division, of centuryor of section keeps an exact list of the ten personswho are under his administration; he communicatesit to his superior chiefs whenever it isasked for.Art. XI. In no case may the divisions,centuries or sections assemble together.Art. XII. The chief means by which theAssociation hopes to arrive at the proposed endare prayers and gifts.Art. XIII. To bring the blessing of Godon the Association and on the Missions eachAssociate is asked to recite daily a Pater and anAve; it will be enough if he devotes to this purposeonce far all the Pater and Ave of his morningand evening prayer ; he will add this invocation: "Saint Francis Xavier, pray for us."Art. XIV. The Association chooses asspecial timeskof prayer and of actions of grace37The Feast of the Invention of the Holy Cross,the day on which the Association was foundedat Lyons, May 3, and the Feast of Saint FrancisXavier, whom it recognizes as Patron, (September3). Oh this day a Mass will be celebratedfor the success of the Work, in all towns where isa Council.Art. XV. Each Associate contributes forMissions five centimes (one halfpenny) per week.Art. XVI. The Associates whose zealprompts them to give more than a half-pennya week will be free to charge themselves, eitheralone or in combination with any number ofpersons less than ten, with the contribution foran entire section.Art. XVII. The chiefs of section receive thecontributions from the members of their section,and pay the total to their chiefs of century onthe first Sunday of each month; each chief ofsection is responsible for ten contributions.Art. XVIII. Within the month the chiefsof centuries pay to their chief of division thesums they have received from the chiefs of theirsections.After the Association had been established fora year, the Pope, Pirs VII having already expressedhis joy in the new organization, he was askedto make concessions of Indulgences for the Associates.He readily complied in a rescript which hadthe force of a brief. Accordingly the Associateshave plenary indulgence and remission of all sinson the two Feasts named in Regulation XIV above,and on one day a month at their own choice;always supposing that the Associate has said theprayers of the Association, has confessed, takenthe Ploly Communion, etc. In addition, every timethe Associate recites the prayers of the Associationor gives an offering for Missions or assists at anassembly held on behalf of Missions, he receivesan indulgence of a hundred days. These indulgences,whether plenary or partial, are availableper modum suffragii for souls in purgatory.The first President of the Council of theAssociation was His Serene Highness the Princeof Croy, Grand Aumonier of France, Bishopof Strasburg and then Archbishop of Rouen, Hefirst obtained the king's (Louis XVIII) approvaland then sent letters to all the archbishops andbishops of the kingdom recommending them tosupport the Association,The Association at once began the issue of thefamous Annales de la Propagation de la Foi (q.v.).In the first year of its existence, when theAssociation was only known in Lyons, Avignon,and a few other places in the south of France, thetotal contributions amounted to 22,915 francs and35 centimes. After deducting fr. 2235 for expenses

ASS, WILDENCYCLOPAEDIA SINlCAthis was divided equally between the three Missionsof the East, Louisiana and Kentucky.In 1913 the total receipts were Fr. 8,114,983.,07or approximately £325,000.Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, No. 3,January, 1824.ASS, WILD. Equus hemionus; found inChinese Turkestan ( Hsinchiang ). It is probablyE. hemionus tyficus not E. hemionus kiang, thetrue kiang of Tibet.See Equidae.ASTER ISMS. ScHLEGEL has advanced chehypothesis that the names of the constellations andasteroids on the Chinese sphere belong exclusivelyto the Chinese and go back to B.C. 17,000;. thatthese names of Chinese asterisms found on Westernglobes have been borrowed from China and addedto ; and he supports his hypothesis by many argumentsdrawn from history, tradition and geology.ScHLEGEL : Uranographie Chinoise.ASTRAEA CHANNEL, the new passage inthe Woosung river made by the Huang-pu Conservancy.It is just within the outer bar, andsouth-west of GouGH Island. H. M. gunboatAstraea was the first vessel to go through it on itscompletion in 1909 : hence the name. The ChinesecaU it ilf 7lc jM hsin shui tao.ASTROLOGY ^ ^.The fundamental principlesof Chinese astrology are laid down in theeighth section of the early document known asthe " Great Plan " [Hung Fan ^ |£) which nowforms a chapter of the Shu C/iing. It is thereinasserted that climatic change is directly relatedtj the moral conduct of the people, and that thestars, sun and moon, are the means by which suchclimatic changes [Feng Shui Mi 7K" vi'mA. andrain," q.v.) are produced. With this simple principlewas later incorporated the cosmical theory ofthe Yin and Yang [q.v.). The Five Elements [q.v.),which are also referred to in the " Great Plan,"were regarded as the constituents of all things,and each could be Positive or Negative (Yang orYin) in character. They have mutual affinities, antipathiesand "catalytic" actions, and in the heavenstheir essences are concentrated in the five planets.[Mercury = water, Venus = copper. Mars = fire,Jupiter = wood, Saturn = earth]. The planets collectivelyform the A^ |f^, shao yin, the Lesser NegativeInfluence. The fixed stars have various terrestrialaffinities, especially with certain regions of China,and collectively form the A^ p^ shao yang or LesserPositive Influence. The Sun [-k^ , Vai yang,Major Positive Influence, or Q jih) and the Moon(^PS) ^'o* 2/'"> Major Negative Influence, or ^yiieh) are the dominant factors, their potency varyingaccording to their positions in the ecliptic 3t VL,huang tao, Yellow Path) and in azimuth. Theazimuths are indicated by a division of the circuitof the horizon into twelve sectjrs named after the"twelve branches." The twelve double-hours intowhich the Chinese day is divided correspond tothese twelve azirauthal sectors. The ecliptic isdivided into twenty-eight lunar asterisms or constellations.Each of the azimuth and eclipticdivisions has affinities with the elements (planets)and is yin or yang. From this point, the systemis continued rather arbitrarily and the practice 'ofastrology has not normally proceeded on such rigidmathematical lines as it did in Europe.Although it was conceived that conjunctions ofseveral planets heralded the birth of a sage (awell-known theory in the west) and that new stars,comets and other exceptional celestial phenomenawere significant, in ordinary practice attention wasconcentrated on the computation of fortunate daysand times. The cosmic breath which animatesvegetation, animal life, man and the dead, waxesand wanes with the cycles of the Sun and Mojn,so that, in the end, all that is required to beknown is the Year (referring to the long cycles'such as that of 60 years, the Metonic or thatperiod of 500 years in which Mencius thoughtsages would reappear—like the Egyptian phoenixin the Clementine epistles), the Month, (referringto the epoch in the annual cycle), the Day, (referringto the epoch in the lunar monthly cycle), and theHouE, (referring to the epoch in the daily solarcycle). These four represented by four pairs ofthe " sexagesimal cycle " characters express themoment of birth, of the crisis or of the enquiringand by considering the mutual affinities of theseeight characters as referred to the Yin and Yang,'Five Elements, Twelve Zodiacal signs and othercorrespondences the astrologer proceeds to prophesy.DoRE : Researches into Chinese Superstitions;Dennys : Folk-Lore in China. ttt r< t[H.C]ASTRONOMY, IMPERIAL BOARD OF,i^^la cA'm t'ien chien. Though generally calledby foreigners the Board of Astronomy this is notone of the Six Boards, and the Chinese term ischien not pu ^.It was founded in the thirteenth century, buthas done nothing for fistronomical science. Theimperial government was merely concerned with thepreparation, printing and "distribution of the calendar,a government monopoly. The President ofthe Board was generally a prince, and, the postbeing more or less honorary, he merely performedcertain official ceremonies but had no knowledgeof or care for astronomy. Below the Presidentwere 196 functionaries, half Manchus and halfChinese ; they included two Directors J^ lE chiencheng and four Assistant-Directors fggij chien fu.There were also some sixty students attached tothe Observatory, with an allowance of a tael a88

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAAUDIENCESmonth, say three or four shillings ; and asastronomy oould not lead to any important andlucrative posts there were few enthusiastic studentswho spent all their lives at the Board. This stateof things continued till the beginning of the presentcentury, when the Empress-Dowager introducedsome changes.The Board was connected with the Board ofRites, but it was always more or less independentof all the other Ministries. Since 1913 it hasbeen joined to the Ministry of Public Instruction.An important fact in the history of the Boardis that it provided the door through which Christianityentered China in the seventeenth century.Until then the direction of the Board had beenin the hands of Mohammedans, and errors hadcrept into the calendar which they were unableto correct. The Jesuit missionaries were calledin to help and they proved their worth. P. SabatinDE Ursis and P. Terbenz were the first engagedin this work. They were followed by P. Rho,who introduced the most important of the missionariesin this connection,—P. Adam Schall. Hewas in great honour and of great service both tothe passing Ming dynasty and to the incomingManchus ; and though after the death of Shtjn Chihhe fell before the attacks of his enemies whom hehad displaced in their offices and honours, thework was continued by a worthy successor P.Verbiest. This official position held by themissionaries gave them their only right to residencein Peking for nearly two hundred years. A regulationin the Ta Ch'ing Hiti Tien was that twoforeigners should always be on the Board.The language used is sometimes very vague,but it should be observed that no missionary everheld the office of President of the Board ; thepost was that of Director or Assistant-Director.It is worthy of note also that no French Jesuitever held the post,the missionaries engaged beingmostly Portuguese ; the first French priest employedin the Board was the Lazarist P. Raux.Le Bulletin Catholiqtje de Pekin, 1915, p. 471.AUDIENCES. In the East an ambassadorhas always been regarded as a messenger sent byhis master but not representing him. This differencein the eastern and western views has causedcontinual trouble.It is uncercain when the custom of prostrationsbefore the Chinese ruler began ; the first occasionon which an ambassador objected to it seems tohave been in a.d. 713, when an envoy from CaliphWalid brought presents to the T'ang emperorYuan Tsung. The envoys of Harun-al-Raschid,sent in 798 to Te Tsxjng, seem to have performedthe obeisance without protest.In the Mongol dynasty there were numerousembassies from the west, liiostly for the purposeI39of converting the Mongols to Christianity. Therule that friars do not bow before laymen was aswell understood in the East as in the West;hence in most cases the question was not raisedduring this period. It must also be rememberedthat none of the envoys entered China Proper, butwent to Karakorum or elsewhere beyond theChinese frontier.In the Ming dynasty, in 1419, Yung Loreceived an embassy from Herat, and though itwas not from Europe, the account is very interestingbecause it is so detailed. It seems thatthe envoys bowed thrice to the earth but theirheads did not touch the ground.The next mission to refer to is Backhoff's,from Russia, which reached Peking on March 3,1656. It left again in September, having accomplishednothing, because Backhoff refused to give/his credentials to anyone except the Emperoi'himself. /Another embassy arrived the same year frcmaCanton, sent by the Dutch East India Companyto seek trading privileges. The Jesuit fathers atthe court did all they could to prevent theheretical Dutch from access to the Emperor, butin vain. The mission did not scruple to performall the prostrations required, at various times andto various objects. Its success consisted in thepermission for one hundred men to visit Cantonfor trade every eight years, twenty of themproceeding to Peking with the ' presents ' for theEmperor.Ides was the first Russian envoy sent afterthe Nertschinsk treaty, but unfortunately we haveno account of his audience with K'ang Hsi.In 1720 IsMAiLOFF reached Peking as an envoyfrom Peter the Great, and we have accounts leftby P. RiPA and by Bell (g.v.). The envoy perfoi'medthe nine-fold k'o-t'ou, but only afterdemur and on conditions. He seems to have placedhis credentials actually in the hands of theEmperor.A Portuguese mission under Metello arrivedat Peking in 1727. The envoy carried out thefull h'o-t'ou ceremony and placed his letter in theEmperor's hands.Earl Macartney, the British ambasador, arrivedin 1793 and was received by the Emperorat Jehol. According to the British official recordshe did not h'o-t'ou. Several writers with more orless knowledge of the affair assert that theceremony was performed, and the Chinese emphaticallystate so. Most readers will probably takethe officialaccount as true.In 1794 came Titzing and Braam, a Dutchmission. They only saw the Emperor as he passedin his chair, and they were shamefully treated,regarded as a spectacle for the populace, and

jChina,AUGUSTANAENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAobliged to prostrate themselves in season and outof season.At the request of China an embassy was sentfrom Russia in 1805. It was under Golovkin, vhorefused the ko'-tou and was therefore sent awaywith nothing done.Lord Amherst's mission in 1816 was alsodismissed without an audience, really, though indirectly,because Lord Amherst was not willingto k'o-t'ou.This long series of combats on the audiencequestion comes to an end with the case of Ward,the American Minister, who, in 1859 brought aletter to Hsien FiNC. The Chinese made sometruly ridiculous suggestions to get over the difficulties,but Ward was firm .in the matter, with theconsequence that the letter was delivered withoutan audience.The right of representatives of Foreign Powersto reside in Peking was finally settled in 1860;but the question how the ministers should bereceived by the Emperor was not raised in thetreaty. The death of Hsien Feng without returning,to the capital, with the minority of hissuccessor, postponed the matter till 1873. Then,on June 29, the ministei-s were received withoutprostrating themselves or even bending the knee.This first audience was however not whollysatisfactory. The edict which granted it used thesame term for the envoys as was used for theannual tribute-bearers from Korea; it said theysupplicated permission to present their letters; andthe audience itself was given in the Tzu Kuang Ko,a pavilion in the palace grounds where envoys fromtiibutary States were commonly received. (China,No. 1, 1874 Corresp.) And the whole affair wasafterwards grossly misrepresented in printed reports.Except for occasional audiences during thenext year the question was again in abeyance forfourteen years because of the minority of KtjangHsii. Then in December 1890 a much improvededict arranged for another audience. Once morehowever the reception itself was unsatisfactory,being held in the same pavilion as before; andthe Ministers at last intimated that they wouldgo there no more. On November 12, 1894, theMinisters were for the first time granted audiencein a proper place (the Wen-hua Tien) and ir^ aproper manner. See Embassies.GuNDRY : China Past ard Present; Rockhill :Diplomatic Missions to the Court of China (Amer.Hist. Review, vol. ii) ; China Review : vol iii.AUGUSTANA SYNOD MISSION.Headquarters :—St. Paul, Minnesota, U.S.A.Entered China, 1905.Works in Ilonan.The first missionaries sent by the Society werethe Rev. A. W. Edwins and wife, who arrived in1905 and in 1906 established themselves in Hsii-chouflip ^> OD tlie Peking-Hankow Railway, this beingthe easternmost point of their district. Work hassince been extended to Ju-chou ^^\, Honan fuMMM , Yii-choul^'^, Kia-hsien ^H, and Pao-feng5g^. As in all new fields the evangelistic side ofthe work largely predominates, but educationalwork is carried on, in primary schools, and onehigh school, together with a School for the Blind.Medical work is well developed, and there arehospitals at Honan fu, Ju chou and Pao-feng.In 1916 the Mission had 31 foreign missionaries.AUGUST EMPEROR.AUGUSTINIANS, the Hermits of St.See Imperial titles.Augustine,a mendicant Order supposed tb have beenfounded in 388, but really dating as an Order fromthe thirteenth century. The members of the Orderwho now work in China belong to the branch calledAugustiniens chausses (shod), or Augustinians ofthe Observance. The first in China were P. MartinDE Herrada and his companions who came overfrom the Philippines in 1579 (see De Rada) ; they,however, only stayed four and a half months.The Order has given two Bishops to Peking andits first Vicar-Apostolic to Kiangnan. In the questionof the rites Bishop FRAN501S de la Purificationand Alvare de Benavente were opposed to chePope's decision, but the Order generally was submissive.All the Friars are of Spanish nationality.Since 1879 they have only had one Vicariac inthat of N. Hunan. For 1916 the returnsare 31 European and two Chinese, priests, 7529Christians and 7976 Catechumens.They have agencies in Shanghai and Hongkong.Addis and Arnold : Catholic Dictionary, 1905de Moidrey : La Hierarchic Catholique en Chine.AVALOKITA, the most important of theBodhisattvas in Chinese Buddhism. In manyforms and in many ages he has been one of theprincipal deities in Asia, yet his origin is obscureand even the meaning of his name is doubtful.It means in its full form (Avalokite'svara),The Lord who is regarded, but it is often givenas The Lord who regards. Though grammaticallyincorrect the latter translation suits him, sincehe is the personification of divine mercy.He is not found in 'the Pali Canon nor inearlier Sanskrit works, but c. xxiv of the LotusSutra, a chapter which is probably a late addition,says he saves from shipwrecks, robberies, etc.,from passion, hatred and folly ; assuming everyshape,—Buddha, goblin or what not, in order toperform his deeds of mercy; he also grantschildren to women who pray to him. This lastpower, generally in the hands of a female deity,is interesting in view of his later transformationinto a goddess.40

IENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICABABBLERSThis chapter was turned into Chinesebetween 384 and 417 a.d.The Chinese pilgrims Fa Hsien and HsuanTsuANG shew that his worship was popular inIndia from the fourth to the seventh centuryitsbeginnings may therefore be put some centuryor two earlier : it would of course become wellestablished before it made its appearance instandard literature.He is somehow connected with a mountaincalled Potala or Potalaka, but the connection isa mystery. The name has, however, been transferredto the palace of the Grand Lama atLhasa and to a Lama Temple at Jehol ; it alsoappears in the name of the sacred island P'u-t'o.In older works of art he appears as a humanyouth in the garb of an Indian prince ; later heis represented with many arms and eyes, the ideabeing that he is mighty to see and save theunhappy everywhere. The symbolism has itscrudest extreme in a monstrous image to be seenin the Forbidden City at Peking^ with literallya thousand heads and a thousand hands !He is not an adaptation of any earlier Hindugod, and does not issue from any local cult, butis the idea of divine compassion, represented aseffectively as the art and mythology of the timespermitted.He is often seen accompanied by a femalefigure, Tara, which also has perhaps made easierthe transformation of Avalokita into a femaledeity. But it is apparently Avalokita himselfwho has been changed into Kuan Yin. To savemankind from their distresses he could assumeany form, and of all forms the female has seemedmost widely useful for this work, so that ithas become in popular esteem his permanentshape. Male Kuan Yins are sometimes seen inChina. The change was made in China ;probablyabout the twelfth century; religious sentimentcalled for si^ch a female aid in the sorrjws ofexistence, and found it in Avalokita who assumedall shapes and granted offspring to the childless.The meaning of Kuan Yin 2|g^ is literallyregard sound and is interpreted as She who attendsto the cries of men.The common name for her in English isgoddess of mercy. She is the central figure atP'u-t'o, and receives mjre attention throughoutChina than any other Buddhist object of worship.The resemblances between Kuan Yin in the Eastand the Madonna in the West are obvious.AWABI, |§g ^pflo yu, a shell-fish imported inlarge quantities from Japan. A larger kind comesfrom San Francisco. The shells are also imported.There are two kinds, the black and the white,the black being superior. It is imported in asmoke-dried state.BABBLERS. See Crateropodinae.BABER, EDWARD COLBORNE was bornat Dulwich in 1843. He joined the BritishConsular Service as student-interpreter in 1866,and in 1876 was attached to the Grosvenor Missionwhich proceeded tj Yunnan to investigate thecircumstances connected with Margary's death.The next year he went to Chungking as ConsularAgent, travelling thither with Captain Gill.While holding this post he made two importantjourneys in Western Ssuch'uan, and wrote anaccount of them not only valuable but verydelightful to read ; it appears in the SupplementaryPapers of The Royal Geographical Society, vol. i,1882, under the title Travels arid Researches inWestern China. In 1879 he was appointed ChineseSecretary at the Legation, but did not leaveChungking till October, 1880. In 1885-86 he wasConsul-General in Korea, and soon after was madePolitical Resident at Bhamo, where he died,June 16, 1890.BBretschneider : History of European BotanicalDiscoveries.BABU LAND, a name for the independentLolo country. It is a corruption of j)'a p'o M'^climb hill— 'the land of hill-climbers'. See Lolo.Pollard : East of Asia, vol. iv, p. 70.BADGER. See Mustelidce.BAGSPA. See Baschpa.BAKTRA, the present Balk, (36° 48' N. lat.,67° 4' E. long.), a nursery of Buddhism in theseventh century, and still famous for relics andmonuments.BAK TRIBES. Some sinologues have thustranslated the Chinese term pai-hsing, since theancient pronunciation of pai was probably pak orbak. They then suppose the march of the Baktribes across Central Asia to the Yellow Riverand their settlement in China. There are manyarguments against such a theory, which are fullygiven by de Harlez in the T'oung Pao for 1895,p. 369.41

BALFOURENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICABALFOUR, FREDERICHENRY, came toChina in the silk business in 1870. Later he devotedhimself to literature and journalism. He translatedthe Tao te ching, etc., {Taoist Texts, Shanghai),and the Divine Classic of Nanhua (Shanghai, 1881)and issued Waifs and Strays from the Far Eastand Idiomatic Dialogues in the Peking Colloquial,besides various articles, reviews, etc. He lived forsome years in Japan, then became editor of TheNorth China Daily News from 1881 to 1886. Heretired and lived in London and Italy, dying inFlorence in 1909.N. C. Herald, June 12, 1909 ; Cobdieb : BibliothecaSinica, col. 720.BALFOUR, GEORGE, Sir, first BritishConsul at Shanghai, was born at Montrose in 1809.He entered the army, and ultimately rose to therank of General. He was staff-officer of the Madrasforces in the first China War, was elected jointagent for captured public property, was receiverof the indemnity paid under the Nanking Treaty,and settled the debts due by the Hong Merchants.From 1843 to 1846 he was H.B.M. Consul atShanghai, receiving his commission as captain inMarch 1844. He became C.B. in 1854, and K.C.B.in 1870. He died in London on March 12, 1894.BALIS, BALISHI, and other forms: a termfound in mediaeval writings for a certain amountof Chinese money. The word is probably ofPersian origin, balik meaning a shoe or slipper.It was therefore no doubt an ingot of gold orsilver, or paper money of corresponding valuebut its worth varied, and it is not possible nowto calculate it with any exactness.Yule : Cathay and the Way Thither, (1913),vol. ii, p. 196; Hobson-Jobson, s.v. Shoe.BALL, JAMES DYER, was born December4, 1847, and spent 30 years in Government Servicein the Far East, mostly in the Supreme Court inHongkong. He has held the post of RegistrarGeneral in the Colony, and other offices. He isthe author of Things Chinese (4th ed. 1903), andabout a dozen works for students of Cantonese,Hakka and other dialects.BAMBOO. Under the genera Bamhnsa,Arundinaria, and PhyllostacJiys , the number ofspecies of bamboo is very large. The Chinese nameis Chu ,^ the different kinds being distinguishedby a prefix, such as pan-cAujte4jr,^potted bamboo;tsung-chu 1^^, coir-bamboo, used in the manufactureof fans ; Zu-cAu^^f , Bambvsa arundinacea.The uses of bamboo are innumerable. A listwill be found in Chinese Timber and Forest Trees,by N. Shaw, but even this is hardly exhaustive.For the manufacture of paper two kinds are used.;The Tz'u-chu or the spinv bamboo, a magnificentspecies which produces stems 75 feet tall and 8 to 10inches in diameter, and the Chin-chu ^^ . (SeePaper). The Nan-chu, De7idro calamus giganteus,is even finer ; it is especially useful for constructingrafts, in Ssuch'uan, and the wood is prized forchopsticks.The Chu-p'u ^^ ov Treatise on Bamboos,which was published in the 3rd or 4th century,gives a tolerably complete account of the bamboo,its names in the classics, and its uses in ancienttimes, which differ little from those at presentemployed. In the early days of China the bamboowas found in large forests as far north as theYellow River, but deforestation, with its consequentdessication, has driven the plant muchfurther south, though it is still cultivated in Honan.In Chinese medicine the bamboo plays its part :the leaves, the rhizome, the thin outside skin, andthe sap, are used as a tonic, anthelmintic, etc.Bamboo shoots are an important article of diet,eaten fried, salted, and fresh. In the warmer partsof China it is the shoots of B. arundinacea andB. vulgaris which are thus eaten, in the west thoseof other species, especially Arundinaria nitida.The exportation from Foochow, the greatestproducer by far, was in 1914, 130,000 piculs, worthnearly one million Taels. Very little however goesabroad.BAMBOO BEETLE. See Calandra longipes.BAMBOO BOOKS, a collection of bambootablets covered with more than 100,000 small-seal(Parker says ^reader-seal) characters, supposedto have been exhumed in a.d. 281 from the tombof Hsiang, King of Wei, who died B.C. 295. Theycontained fifteen different works, some of whichhave been neglected and probably lost; butincluded the / Ching and annals from the reignof Htjang Ti to near the end of the Choudynasty, B.C. 298.Native opinion as to their authenticity isdivided, but is generally unfavourable.Legge, in the prolegomena to the Shu Ching,gives both text and translation of the BambooAnnals, together with some account of them.They have also been translated into Frenchby E. BioT.Parker : Ancient CJiina Simplified, p. 94.BAMBOO GROVE., >ttJ5K chu Un, one of themany famous clubs ' ' in Chinese history. Itexisted in the third century and consisted of sevenwine-bibbers, the best-known among them beingLiu Ling.BAMBOO OYSTERS, small oysters found atFoochow, so called because they collect on bambooswhich are stuck for that purpose in the mud.BANKS. To one foreign Bank, the Hongkongand Shanghai Bank, a special article has beendevoted, because of the important part it has42

|ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINlCABARGAIN MONEYplayed in commercial and political intercourse,jOthers have to be left unnoticed.Native banking is quite ancient, dating at leastfrom the T'ang dynasty, according to Ma Tuan-lin,but, as in the case of other early Chineseinstitutions, its development has not been continued.Joint-stock concerns have been, at leasttill lately, quite unknown, and there has been nogovernment control of Banks.Native Banks are of five kinds; besides theShansi banks, a class by itself, which cameto grief in 1911. These are i, the Official Banks,which deal with the government taxes, etc. TheCustoms Bank was formerly the chief of thesenow the Bank of China and the Bank of Communicationshave taken its place. They receive theCustoms revenue, and Foreign Banks pay governmentloans, etc., through them. In other businesstheir scope is very limited, ii, The Hui-p'iaoBanks. These are exchange banks, set up bymerchants who have business in different parts ofthe country, iii. Ordinary Banks doing ordinarybanking business; these failed in large numbersin 1911. iv. Provincial Banks, which are reallyState Banks for the provinces, though they haveshareholders. v. Banks doing regular bankingbusiness on foreign methods but with Chinesecapital. At present these are of small account.Edkins : Banking and Prices in China; Wagel :Finance in China, and Currency and Banking;Customs Decennial Reports.BANNERS, EIGHT, A m fa ch'i.The eightdivisions of the Manchu army under flags ofdifferent colours. There were under each bannerthree subdivisions, Manchus, Mongolian descendantsand Chinese descendants of those who joinedthe Manchus against the Ming dynasty in the17th century. The flags were of the colours (inthis order), yellow, white, red, blue, with and withoutborders. They were three superior and fiveinferior. A complete division of each nationality(ku-sai,^ lU) existtd under each flag, so that therewere really twenty-four banners. They included theManchu population of Peking with various garrisonsin the Provinces. See Garrisons.BANTAM, a small state in Java, near Bataviacommercial relations were established there by theEast India Company's first vessels despatched1601-03. The British were of course hindered intrade by both Portuguese and Dutch. (SeeAmboyna). In 1670 ships were sent from Bantamto Taiwan (Formosa) and obtained permission totrade, granted by the 'King of Taiwan,' Koxinga'sson. He also later gave liberty of trade withAmoy, and in 1677 the Directors in England wroteurging that the trade in tea should be encouraged.This letter may be considered as the initial stepin the tea trade which was later to become soimportant.In 1682 the company sent orders to transferthe superintendence of the Chinese trade fromBantam to Surat ; but three weeks before the letterwas received the Dutch, though at peace withEngland, attacked and captured Bantam and expelledthe occupants of the English factory.Laterthe China trade was superintended from Madras.Fames : The English in China.BANYAN, Ficus indica, a common tree inSouth China.BANYAN C\iy^^\^ Jung ch'eng, a namefor Foochow.BAPTIST MISSIONARY SOCIETY, THE,known in China as the English Baptist Mission, q.v.BAPTIST MISSIONS. There are ten missionsof the Baptist faith and order working in China,viz., eight from the U.S.A., one from Great Britainand one from Sweden. They are :1. American Advent Mission Society.2. American Baptist Foreign MissionarySociety.3. American Gospel Baptist Mission.4. China Mennonite Missionary Society.5. Church of the Brethren Mission.6. English Baptist Mission.7. Mennonites of North American Conference.8. Seventh-Day Baptist Mission.9. Southern Baptist Convention Board.10. Swedish Baptist Mission.See under each.BARBARIAN EYE ^ t mu, an insultingterm used by the Governor of Canton in documents,applied to Lord Napieb on his arrival asSuperintendent of Trade in 1834.'Eye ' issimply equivalent to'head ' or'chief ' ; theinsult lay in Oie use of t"fie other charactermeaning barbarian.BARBARIANS, formerly the common Chineseestimate of all foreigners. The particular character^ i once used for it was forbidden in the Tientsintreaty of 1858, Art. hi; but of course other termsmeaning the same were used instead.BARBER BOAT; a small kind of boat propelledby paddles was known by this name inCanton.BAR BETS.See Zygodactyli.BARGAIN MONEY S il ting ch'ien, etc.The supercargoes of the Macclesfield in 1699 foundthat, owing to insufficiency ,of currency and lackof capital, the Chinese could not deliver themcargo unless part of the price were paid in advance.The practice has obtained ever since. In theBoxer year a good deal of the foreign merchants'losses were due to .such advances.Fames : The English in China.I43

BARLEYIfiNCYCLOPAEDIA SINlCABARLEY. The classical name was mou:^ or |^;the modern is ^0 ta mai, etc. It is not veryextensively grown in China.BARON. See Nobility.BASCHPA. This title may be found inEui'opean authors in a great variety of forms,of. which Baschpa is the least correct, though itmay be the easiest. 'Phagspa is the besttransliteration of the original ; Phagspa, Bashpa,Pa-ssu-pa E,@, E (Giles), Pa-sse-pa and Pha-klisse-pal^fl^^tii, Baghcheba, Phagpa (Pauthier),are other forms, the variety being due todifferent authors transliterating from differentlanguages.^It is a Tibetan title, equivalent to the Sanskritdrya, (noble). The name of the person meant maybe transliterated bLo-gros rGyal-mtshan. He wasa Tibetan Buddhist priest, who, in 1269 at the commandof Khubilai Khan made a Mongol alphabet ofletters adapted from the Tibetan and writtenvertically. Wylie says there are more than thirtyextant inscriptions in this script. It was an inconvenientalphabet, and before the close of thedynasty it was superseded by one founded onUighiir, which has been in use ever since.Baschpa was confidential adviser to Khubilaiand converted him to Buddhism.Wylie : Sur une Inscription Mongol; Ta'ingwan k'e mung (Introduction) ; Taylor : TheAlphabet; Griinwedel : Mythologie des Buddhismusin Tibet und Mongolei, Leipzig, 1900; Giles :Biographical Dictionary, (sub Pa-ssu-pa) ; Pauthier; Journal Asiatique, 1862.BASEL MISSIONARY SOCIETY.Headquarters :—Basel, (Bale), Switzerland.Entered China, 1847.Works among the Hakkas in Hongkong andKuangtung.The Society has 'in recent years divided itsfield into three districts, known as Southern, EastRiver, and.Moi River.Southern Division. The first missionaries ofthe Society to China were the Rev. Th. Hamberg(a Swede) and the Rev. R. Lechler of Wiirtemberg,who arrived in Hongkong in 1847. Following theadvice of Dr. Gutzlaff, the latter tried to reachthe Hoklo people near Swatow, but a few yearslater he returned to join Mr. Hamberg who wasworking among the Hakkas in Hongkong and onthe mainland. In 1851 they organized in theColony a church of 60 members. In 1852 a footingwas obtained at Li-long i$-^, in the San-on ^ ^district, through a convert from the place, whereafter a short stay Mr. Hamberg baptized ten people.In the next year he and his wife went inland tolive at a village called Pu-kak 7^ ^ ; but owing toUviJlage feuds and the consequent fighting andbrigandage life was very insecure.During the Second War, work was completelysuspended and one of the missionaries was capturedby robbers. After paying ransom for him allretired to Hongkong and worked for the Hakkasresident there. Hongkong was made a permanentstation of the Society in 1859. On the return tothe mainland, Li-long was made the centre of thatwork. Long-heu MU> ^^ miles from Li-long, wastaken over from the Berlin Mission in 1882Chong-hang kang5g$T;@, 8 miles from Li-long wasopened in 1883, and Khi-tseh hung tif J^f , close toMirs Bay, in 1879.Moi River Division. This work was begun bya Hakka convert, through whose enthusiasm ahundred persons were baptized in 1862, when thefirst missionary arrived at Chong-tschun ^^ , inthe Chhong-lok js^ ^ district. The station wasmade a permanent foreign residence in 1869.Three other places were afterwards opened, inthis same district, viz., Nyen-hang liyt^^ , in1866, Moi-limUt*, in 1889, and Chhong-lok :g ^city itself in 1908.The chief station of this Division is Kia-yingchow ^Jgj^i, opened in 1883. Medical workwas begun in 1893 and a hospital builtin 1905. In the county of Hsing-ning ^ ^Phyang-thong ip ,% was occupied in 1887, andLo-kong ^^ in 1901. In this year Phyang-thongstation was burnt down by rioters, but wasrebuilt in 1902.The East River Division contains 6 stations.In the district of 7jtgj Yun-an are Ho-shoo wan^'^M> (1885) and Ku-tschuk -g" >|t on the EastRiver (1879) three days' journey from Nyen-hang li.Hok-shu-ha ^"rjj"]^ in the Lyung-chhon f|)ll districtwas occupied in 1886. Later on, three new spheresof work were entered with the establishment ofstations in the district cities of Ho-yiin Jliji^ in1901 ; Ho-pin }g ^ in 1909 ; and Ling-ping choua!l^j'H in the same year.During the last few years the work of theMission has extended into Kuangsi and Fukien,where there are a number of out-stations.The Educational work is carried on in 125schools, including a Theological Seminary at Lilong: a Normal School at Ku-tschuk, and anotherfor girls at Kia-ying (opened in 1915) ; a languageSchool at the same place ; and three middle schoolsat Ling-ping, Nyen-hang and Ku-tschuk. Theforeign leadership in Hongkong and British Kowloonwas withdrawn in 1914 in consequence of theEuropean War, and some of the schools have beentemporarily closed. In 1914 the number of scholarswas 4631.The Literary work of the Basel Mission hasbeen very considerable, including in win li,

•meansEncyclopaedia sinicaBeALiDogmatflcs, Ethics, Symbolics, Church History,and Successive phases in Religion (?) ^ficSJiffilft(issued in 1916) from the pen of the late Rev.Martin Schatjb, head for many years of theTheological Seminary. The Church History hasbeen translated into Korean. The Hymn bookused by all the German missions is the work ofthe Basel Society ; as well as the Lutheran GreaterCatechism, the Church Rules (Gemeindeor-dnung)etc., etc. Work in the Hakka language includesthe entire Bible (in character) by the Rev. OttoScHTJLTZE, issued in 1915 by the B. and F, BibleSociety Jthe Smaller Lutheran Catechism, Booksof prayers and sermons, etc., etc. There is amonthly paper The Christian Messenger, edited byDr. Oehler, which has 2000 subscribers.A Hakka-German Dictionary, prepared by thelate Rev. R. Lechler, has been translated intoEnglish, and issued by Dr. MacIver of the EnglishPresbyterian Mission.Owing to the War, no statistics later thanthose of 1914 are obtainable. These are givenbelow.Foreign missionaries on the field, 69,, on furlough, 24Chinese staff : Ordained Pastors, 11„: Preachers, 137„: Teachers, 178: Others, 22Church members 10,324BASlLE DE GLEMONA or GEMONA.See Brollo.BATS f^ ig pien fu, the Order Cheiroptera.The Chinese have various other names for thisanimal, as f^^/u i, wing-concealer; ^^ yeh yen,night swallow; % Jg, t'ien shu, sky mouse; ^ Jg,fei shv, flying mouse ; f|Ij Jg, hsien shu, fairy mouse,etc. The loUowing species are found in the North :Ehinolophus ferrum-equinum nippon, the Horse-shoeBat, Chihli; E. ferrum-equinum, S.E. Shensi;Myotis [Leuconce) pequinius, Chihli ; M. moupinensis,Ssuch'uan ; M. mystacinus, Saghalien ; M.ikonnikovi, Amur; M. myosotis ancilla, S.E.Shen.si ; Vespertilio murinus, the Common vespertilio,Manchuria; V. superans, the Chinese vespertilio,Chihli ; Miniopterus schreibersi chinensis,Chihli; Pipistrdlus abramus, Chihli; Murinahuttoni subsp., Manchuria; Plecotus ariel, theI-ong-eared Bat, Shansi ; Eptesicus serotinus, theSerotine, Coastal regions; E. serotinus pollens,Kansu.The above is Sowerby's list and consideringits recent date it may be accepted as correct.Regarding South China, however, there is no suchlate list. Swinhoe's list of 1870 is here given forwhat it is worth, but as many bats are migratorythe same species will be found in North and SouthChina, but with different names. Allowance mustbe made for confusion in nomenclature, in this andin other lists of mammals in this work. Swinhoerecords the following south of the Yangtze;Cynonycteris amplezicaudata, the Flying FoxMegaderma lyra, the Lyre-nosed Bat; Phyllorhinaaurita, the Large-eared Leaf-nose; P. swinhoii,Swinhoe's Leaf -nose; Miniopterus blepotis, theRed-and-black Bat; Vespertilio fimbriatus, theFringed Bat; V. laniger, the Woolly-faced Bat;Vesperugo imbricatus, the Imbricated House-Bat;F. pulveratus, the Grizzled House-Bat; Dysopea{Molossus) riippclii (?), the Large-eared Tailed Bat;all the above from Amoy. Vespertilio rufo-niger,the Black-and-orange Bat, and V^esperugo pipistrellus,the Small House-Bat, both from Formosa; V.abramus, the Chinese House-Bat, Hainan andCanton ; V. molossus, from Hongkong ; Scotophilmpumiloides, S. China ; S. heathii and S. temminckii,both from Canton.La Touche reports from N.W. Fukien thefollowing : Rhinolophus luctus and ScotophUuaornatus, both recorded for the first time in China;a. pearsoni; Vespertilio murinus superans; Pipistrellussavii pulveratus; P. abramus, and Murinaleucogastra.Bats play an important part in Chinese fairylore.They are also much used in decoration, the*Five Bats being common on ' porcelain, embroidery,etc., representing the ' Five Happinesses.*This is a pun, fu i^ being used for /u j(g happiness.A similar pun is the depicting a deer |g lu, a symbolfor lu H^ emolument.SowERBY : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., 1916;Swinhoe : Catalogue of the Mammals of China,P.Z.S., 1870, p. 615; Thomas : Mammals collectedby Mr. J. D. La Touche, etc., P.Z.S., 1898, p. 769;DoRE : Recherches sur les Superstitions, p. 475.BAT'URU E.M^) Manchu 'word meaning3.brave. It was a title bestovved for bravery onofficers who already had the peacock's feather.SeeDecorations.BAYAN fgg po yen, a Mongol 'chief andKhubilai Khan's great minister and general, whocompleted the conquest of the Empire. He tookHangchow, the Sung capital, in 1276. His namegreat ' ' or ' noble,' and the Chinese formof it is sometimes written "gfl^ pai yen, hundred'eyes,' in reference to his constant vigilance.Marco Polo : Travels; Giles : BiographicalDictionary.BEAL, SAMUEL, was born in Devon onNovember 27, 1825. In 1852, he became navalchaplain, was on the China station, and therelearned Chinese. During the war of 1856-58 heacted as naval interpreter. He was a pioneer inthe study of Chinese Buddhist literature, andI45

BEALEENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNtCAcontinued his studies ih that subject after hisreturn to England. In 1877, he was appointedProfessor of Chinese at University College, London,and in 1885, received from Durham the honorarydegree of D.C.L. He died in England, August20, 1889.His chief works are The Travels of Fah-hianand Sung Yun (1869), A Catena of BuddhistScriptures from the Chinese (1871), The RomanticLefjtnd of Sakya Buddha (1875), The BuddhistTripitaka as it is known in China and Japan (1876),Texts from the Buddhist Canon (1878), A Life ofBuddha by Asvaghosha Bodhisattva (1879), AnAbstract of Four Lectures on Buddhist Literaturein China (1882).BEALE, THOMAS, born about 1775, a residentin Macao, who disappeared on December 10,1841, and was discovered dead and buried in thesand five weeks later. He had lived in Chinaabout 50 years.He had constructed a fine aviary, in whichReeves' pheasant was kept long before Reevestook a specimen to England, with many other rareand beautiful birds from China, India, theMoluccas, etc. His garden had 2500 pots of plants,mostly Chinese,Chinese Repository : vol. xi, p. 59. Bbet-SCHNEIDER : HistOTy of European Botanical Discoveries.BEAN, SOYA:^.t ; Glycine hispida, Monch.or Dolichos soja, L.This bean, so valuable for theoil which is expressed from it, has come into greatprominence of recent years, owing to the enormousdimensions of the export trade in it since theRusso-Japanese War. It is an annual leguminousplant, peculiarly suited to the climate of Manchuria,whence it is mainly exported. The oil-yieldingvariety par excellence is the yellow bean, of whichnearly 15 million piculs, or not far short of onemillion tons, were exported in 1915, 90% of thisbeing from Manchuria, and the balance fromChihli, Hupei and Kiangsi. There are also white,black, green and subvarieties, of less value. Forseveral generations beans, but more especiallybeancake, had been sent to South China as manurefor the sugar plantations ; exportation abroad wasprohibited until 1869, when shipments were madeto Japan, which soon became a large customer bothfor beans and bean oil ; foreign demand did nothowever develop until 1909, when the English oilcrushingmills started importing from Manchuria.Since then till 1915 soya beans, cake, and oil havebecome leading staples of the export trade, and£37,000,000 worth have been exported in 5 years.The yield per acre has been estimated at from1,000 to 2,000 lbs. according to soil and weatherconditions. In the Far East soya beans are used.as human foodstuffs, for making- soy, bean paste,or Chiang, as tou fW^^OT beancurd, in soups, etc. ;in cooking instead of rapeseed and sesamum oiland the cake is employed as a fertilizer and forfattening hogs. In Europe and America the oil '.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICABERLIN WOMEN'Snotes of all hp saw, and published them twentyyears later. His book includes an account of hisjourney to Persia and other travels, and also theJournal of de Lange the Ambassador's secretary,who was left behind in Peking as Agent of Peterthe Great. The first edition was in two volumes4to., published by Fotjlis, Glasgow.Bell : Travels from St. Petersburg in Russiato diverse farts of Asia; 1763.BELLS. See Musical Instruments.BENEAG A (also Veneaga), used by John deBarros and other historians for Ta mao (q.v.)It is a Malay word meaning a mart.BENJAMIN OF TUDELA, a travellerbetween 1159 and 1173, who reached the PersianGulf, and wrote a little about China, merehearsay. His English editor says he was thefirst European author to mention China by thatname, but Yule disputes this.Bergeron : Voyages de Benjamin de Tudelle,etc. ; Yule : Cathay and the Way Thither;Wright : Early Travels in Palestine, (Bohn).BERI-BERI^^, chiao ch'i and ^ wan.This disease has been known in China for manycenturies. It is found in all latitudes, but ismore common in the tropics. In China it wouldappear to be a coast disease, found inland onlyalong the course of the great rivers.It is proved to be a ' peripheral neuritis,* andto be connected with the gathering or crowding ofpeople together; but everything else about thedisease seems to be a matter of discussion. Forvarious theories as to cause, etc., see Jefferys andMaxwell, Diseases of China.BERLIN MISSIONARY SOCIETY.Headquarters :—Berlin.Entered China, 1882.Works in Kuangtung, Kiangsi and Shantung.Under the influence of Dr. Giitzlaff anorganization known as the Berlin MissionarySociety for China sent out in 1850 its first agent,the Ptev. A. Hanspach, who in 1856 began workimong the Hakkas in Kuangtung. In the period1856-69 four men in all were sent, but in 1872 theSociety seems to have ceased to exist, and its two•emaining workers with their work were handedover to the Rhenish Mission. In 1882 the workA'as taken over by the Berlin Missionary Society(established 1824), with one of the original workers,(the Rev. F. Hubrig), 450 Christians in six|'Idistrict burned down by the Triad Society, andnarrowly escaped death at the hands of the mob.The first permanent station in the interior was notoccupied till 1885.In addition to Canton city and Hongkong, theMission now has nine other stations in Kuangtung,the principal of which is Shiu chou gf^^ , openedin 1903.The whole work is divided into districts called" lower " and " upper " districts, the latter liesalong the famous old road via. the Meilin Pass intoKiangsi, in which province the Mission has onestation, Nan-an fu '^i^l^ , opened in 1903,From the beginning, educational work wasmuch relied on to overcome heathen- prejudice andenlighten the Christians. Mr. Hanspach openedas many as 150 village boys' schools before hisretirement in 1870. The first girls' school wasbegun in 1880. There are now two boys' boardingschools,and one for girls at Shiu-chou which offersa nine years' course; the crown of the educationalwork is the Theological Seminary at Canton nowclosed because of the War. Since 1911, thecurricula of the Mission schools have been adaptedto the requirements of the Chinese Board ofEducation.The first medical missionary arrived in 1854,and began work on the mainland opposite Hongkong.Being supported by private funds he workedfor both the Berlin and Rhenish Missions. At thepresent time there are no medical men on theMission's foreign staff.A member of this Mission superintends theso-called Foundling Home of the Berlin Women'sMissionary Society (q.v.) at Hongkong.On the occupation of the Kiao-chow territoryby Germany in 1898, the Mission sent to Tsingtaothe Revs. C. J. Voskamp and A. Kunze, who hadboth had many years' experience ip the south.Tse mo gPH, was opened in 1901, and has aTheological Seminary ; and Kiao chow city wasoccupied in 1908.A German-Chinese School was established atTsingtao, and a hospital in the near neighbourhood,worked by a Chinese physician.Work was carried on without interruptionduring the Revolution of 1911, but was stopped bythe siege in 1914 ; it is now (1917) proceeding undervariousrestrictions.Berlin Mission Statistics (1915)Foreign missionaries 29Chinese staff 143Communicants ... 6,253BERLIN WOMEN'S MISSIONARY SOCIETYFOR CHINA was formed in 1849, through theinfluence of Dr. Giitzlaff (q.v.), and in 1851 senta lady to Hongkong, who began a work for Chinesegirls abandoned by their parents. This institution47

BERTHEMYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAwhen Dr. Dean of Bangkok continued his work.BETHEL, SEAMAN'S FLOATING, THE, A revision of theat WhampoaNew Testament was alsowas due to the efforts of the Kev. published by T. H. Hudson ofG. LooMis,Ningpo;whoand inbegan to collect subscriptions for 1864 the Russian Mission in Peking issuedit in Decemberthe1848. The cost was $6,000, half New Testament.is well-known under the somewhat incorrect title of residents and halfof the " Berlin Foundling Home." In 1860, the by the shipping of the port. The Bethel wasMission's unhealthy house in the eastern part of opened on March 19, 1850, when Dr. LeggbVictoria was given up, and suitable buildings preached, the Eev. P. Parker assisted, and aerected at West Point. A special branch for blind hymn specially written by Dr. (Sir John) Bowringgirls was taken over about 1896 by the Hildesheim was sung.Mission {q.v.). In 1916 there were six workers.Chinese Repository, vol. xix.BERTHEMY CONVENTION, an agreement BIBLE, THE. There seems some evidence toconcluded between the French Minister and the show that the Nestorians translated at least theTsung-li Yamen on February 20, 1865. It followed New Testament into Chinese in the first half of theon the Convention of Peking which, by Art. VI 7th century, but if so nothing of it, has survived.restored to the Church all the property taken from Towards the close of the 13th century John deit during the times of persecution ; and it fixed the Monte Corvino translated the New Testamentactual conditions on which the purchase of land in and Psalms into Mongolian, but no copies are nowthe interior for church purposes should be conducted.known. The Jesuits who came in the 16th centuryIn consequence of the obstruction of provincial only translated selections of the scriptures; or ifauthorities, however, the Convention was useless a complete translation was ever made it was neverThere were several attempts to make it workable, printed; and though towards the close of the 18thbut it was not till May 26, 1895 that it was put century there were various incomplete and possiblyinto a satisfactory form by the firm demands of the complete renderings of the Bible into Chinese existingFrench Minister Geraed.in manuscript, yet when Protestant MissionsCouDiER : Uistoire des Relations de la Chine, began their work no version of the Bible had everetc., vol, i, p. 68.been issued for popular use.BERTHEMY, JULESStrange to say,FRANCOISthe firstGUST-complete Bible inAVE, born in Paris, DecemberChinese was1, 1826, wasproduced in India. Dr. Marshmanattached to the Frenchofdiplomaticthe English Baptistservice, andMission, one of the famousbecame minister in Peking in 1862Serampore 'trio,inC.\rey,successionMarshman and Ward,'to M. DE BouKBOXJLON. See Berthemyspent 16 years inConvention.the labour, assisted by anArmenian born atBETEL-NUTS, Macao, and printed the complete^m V^ng lang, one of the chieftranslation inarticles1822.of export from An account of hisHainanmethodsIsland, where thereof work willarebelarge grovesfound inof the ArecaThe Chinese Refository,palm, especially atvol. iv,Aichow and p. 253. Dr.Lingshui. TheMoreison of the Londontrees are planted someMissionary15 feetSocietyapart, andreachedbearCanton in 1807fruit fromandthe age oftentranslating firstto ninetyaloneyears. Theirbut later withmostMilne, theprolific periodis betweencomplete scripturestheirwere15th andprinted in 1824.30th year, whenTheone treedifferencewill producebetween700 Marshman'sor 800 andnuts, valuedMorrison'sat about 40cents. Largeproductions was soherdssmall as toof make itcattle are alloweda matterto roamatof regretwill throughthatthesuch labour shouldplantations, andhave beentheir manureservesduplicated.to The Newfertilize the soil. TheTestament was revisedgroves(byare said tobe the Medhurst,seat ofGiiTZLAFFmalaria, and Bridgman) inespecially 1835, andat the season whenlater,the trees are by the effortin flower. Hainanand enterprise of Gutlaff, thenuts are superiorto those fromOld Testament also.Singapore,Giitzlaff alsowhich modified theare imported for•the purpose NewofTestament asadulteration.preparedTheby Medhurst andnuts, in halves,are driedhimself.in the sun;This wenteachthrough ten orhalf is wrappedmore editionsin aleaf of the Chavecaeach revised by Giitzlaff.betel, on which a little limehas been daubed After the opening of; it is then readyChina in 1843 the workfor chewing.It makes oflips, gum translationand became easiersaliva and morea brighthopeful andred colour.The tastetheis astringent.Delegates' Versioh {q.v.) The was finished,habittheof chewingthe betel-nut is common New Testament inin1850partsand the Oldof South(which wasChina.In 1916 Pels. not strictly23,667 werespeaking doneexportedby the Delegates), in: value Tls.171,808 ;the value 1853.imported Thebeing Tls.New Testament was also translated on293,548.Notes and Queriesbehalf ofonthe BaptistsChina andby Goddard, 1853,Japan,and huSept1868. ^ was engaged on the Old Testament till his death,48

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICABIRDSThe New Testament of the T'ai P'ing rebelswas GiiTZLAFK's revision of his own and Medhurst'sversion {v. sup.). At first they issued it unaltered,but afterwards with considerable changes. Theyalso issued part of the Old Testament.The above versions were all in the literarystyle. The first translation into mandarin, thecolloquial medium of two thirds of the Chinesepeople, was made by Medhurst and Stronach in1855 ; but a Peking Committee produced in 1870the New Testament version, and Bishop Schere-SCHEWSKY in 1875 the Old Testament, which havebeen the translations most widely used. In 1890the Missionary Conference Committees were appointedto prepare ' one Bible in three versionsfor the whole of China,' i.e. a high wen li (literarystyle), a low wtn li, and a mandarin version. Atthe next Conference, 1907, it was announced thatthe New Testament was practically completed inthe three versions and the committees wereinstructed to arrange for the Old Testament to beput into xviti li and mandarin ; and further, fromthe two wtn li New Testaments to produce ifpossible a single wtn li version.To the names already mentioned may be addedthose" of CuLBERTSON, Medhurst, Griffith Johnand others who translated parts of the Scripturesin early days ; besides the members of translationCommittees appointed by Conferences. A completeNew Testament in Wcn-li was produced by theRoman Catholics in 1897.Versions have also been published in thevarious dialects, both in character and in romanized ;there are Scriptures for the blind ; and translationsinto Annamese, Manchu, Mongolian and Tibetan.Hykes : Translations of the Scriptures, etc.,New York, 1916.BIBLE SOCIETIES at work in China arethree in number, viz.,The British and Foreign Bible Society.The American Bible Society.The National Bible Society of Scotland.See under each name.BIBLIOGRAPHY offoreign works on China.A list of 402 works was given in The ChineseRepository, vol. xviii, pp. 402, 657. The ChinaReview throughout its existence gave in each issuea list of new books on Chinese matters, and manysuch partial lists are to be found in variousJournals and Reviews. In 1876 there appearedMollendorff's Manual of. Chinese Bibliography,coming down to 1876 and containing 4639 headings.The great Bibliography however is Cordier'sBibliotheca Sinica (q.v.)For Chinese works there are in English Wylie'sNotes on Chinese Literature and Mayers' Bibliographyof the Chinese Imperial Collections ofLiterature, in the China Review, vol. vi, etc.For works in Chinese see Libraries.BIBLIOTHECA SINICA, by Henri Cordier.This great catalogue of books in western languagesrelating to China was first issued in eight partsin 1878—1895, and contained some eight hundredpages. It is divided into five sections, (i) workson China Proper, (ii) works by foreigners inChina, (iii) works on the relations betweenforeigners and Chinese, (iv) works on Chineseabroad, (v) works on tributary countries. Underthese divisions are subdivisions in which theorder is chronological. A supplement in threeparts was added in 1893—5.A new edition in four volumes, revised andmuch enlarged, was issued in 1904-8. Its usefulnesswould have been increased by an index of authors.Previous to this very complete work, thoughhad been many partial lists and catalogues, therehad been nothing serious as a bibliography exceptVON Mollendorff's Manual (q.v.) published in1876. See Bibliography.BICHO-DE-MAR. See Bcche-de-mer.BILLEQUIN, ANATOLE ADRIEN, born inParis in 1837, died there in 1894, as he waspreparing to return to Peking. He was Professorof Chemistry and Natural History in the T'ungWen Kuan. He received many honours, andbesides various technical works prepared a French-Chinese dictionary. For a list of his writings seeT'oung Pao, 1894.•BIOT, EDOUARD CONSTANT was born atParis on July 2, 1803. At the age of thirty,satisfied with the modest independence which hehad acquired as a railway engineer, he devotedhis time to the study of Chinese under StanislasJulien. He published many articles on scientificknowledge in China ; they will be found in theJournal Asiatique or the Journal des Savants. Healso published Dictionnaire dcs Noms anciens etmodernes des Villes . . . dans l'Empire chinois(Paris, 1842) ; Essai sur Vhistoire de V Instructionpublique en Chine (Paris, 1847) ; Memoire sur lescolonies militaires et agricoles des Chinois (Pari^,1850) ; and Le Tcheou-Li, trad, du chinois, (Paris,1851). He died on March 12, 1859.Journal Asiatique, 1850, p. 116.BIRD, ISABELLA LUCY, (Mrs. Bishop), atraveller who wrote many books descriptive of herjourneys. About 1895, she spent a year and ahalf in China, going as far as West Ssuch'uan.She was born October 15, 1831, in England, anddied there October 7, 1904.Bishop : The Yangtze Valley and Beyond.BIRDS.See Ornithology.49

BIRDS' NESTSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICABIRDS' NESTS s^jgj yen wo. The gelatinousnests of a small swift, or sea swallow, Hirundoescuhnta, found in the Malay archipelago. Theyresemble badly-made fibrous isinglass, of a whitecolour, inclining to red. When dry they are brittleand wrinkled, about the size of a duck's egg. Thefirst quality is perfectly white, the second whiteybrown,the third or uncleaned is dark-brown oryellowish. Imitation birds'-nests are made withisinglass and vermicelli. Birds'-nests soup is afavourite delicacy in China.The value imported in 1916 was Hk.Tls. 687,365.BISHOP.The term used by Roman Catholicsin China is Chu chiao >^ f^ (rule church) ; theProtestant term is Chien tu^'^.BISHOPRICS, ROMAN CATHOLIC. (1)The Archbishopric of Cambaluc (Peking) wascreated by Clement V. in 1307, and Jean deMoNTECORViNO (Frauciscan) was appointed Archbishopand Metropolitan of Cathay. Six bishopswere named to consecrate him and be his suffragans,but only three reached Cambaluc ; they consecratedhim and became in turn bishops of Zaiton.MoNTECORViNO died probably in 1328. The Archbishopricwas extinguished in the ISQi century,when the Ming dynasty was being established andwhen Christianity disappeared.^ M M(2) Bishopric of Zaiton, either Ch'uan-chou fuor Chang-chou fu in Fukien, created in1313, under Cambaluc. It was suppressed in theMing dynasty.(3) Bishopric of Armaleck, Alimalik or Ilibalik,in Hi. A Franciscan bishop was heretowards 1338. (See references in De Moidrey'sLc hitrarchie catholique, p .3.)(4) Bishopric of Macao. At the Pope's ordaisMelchior Miguel CARNErao, s.j., went to Macaoin 1558, where he died in 1583. On his tomb heis called 'primus Macaensis episcopus; but DeMoidrey says he was bishop of China and Japan,without precise limits, Macao diocese not havingbeen then established.In 1576 Gregory XIII atthe request of King Don Sebastien created thebishopric of Macao, dependent on Goa, and includingChina, Tonkin and Japan. Some twelve bishops'names are given up to 1690, when AlexanderVIII created the dioceses of Macao, Nanking andPeking, leaving the limits to be fixed by the Kingof Portugal and the respective bishops, Macao beingreduced to Kuangtung and Kuangsi. From thatdate to the present sixteen bishops are recorded.The effective jurisdiction of the bishops of Macaodoes not now extend beyond the Portuguese Colonyof Macao, the Prefecture of Chao K'ing, the subprefectureof Hiang shan, besides Timor, etc.(5) The Vicariat-apostolic of Nanking was institutedin 1658, with the administration of Peking,Shansi, Shantung, Honan, Shensi, Korea andTartary. The second Vicar-A. was Pere Lo, aChinese, the first Chinese priest, at least in moderntijnes, and the first Chinese bishop. He was aDominican. In 1690 (see 3 above) he was madebishop (eveque), without delimitation of diocese,but properly speaking the first bishop wasAlexandri Louis Ciceri, nominated in 1695.Seventeen names are given in all down to 1856,when the bishopric was suppressed by decree of thePropaganda and replaced by a Vicariat-apostolic.(6) Bishopric of Peking, which includedPeking, Shantung and Liaotung, but was reducedin 1839 to Chihli only. From 1690 to 1856 therewere eleven bishops ; it was then suppressed andreplaced by three Vicariats-apostolic.Innocent XII in 1696 reduced the dioceseof Peking to Chihli, Shantung and Liaotung, andof Nanking to Kiangnan and Honan, and of Macaoto the Two Kuang, entrusting other provinces toVicars-apostolic. See Vicariats.BISMUTH. See Minerals.BITTERNS. See Ardeae.BLACKBURN COMMERCIAL MISSION,a mission sent by the Blackburn Chamber ofCommerce in 1896-7. Mr. (now Sir) F. S. A.Bourne of the Consular Service was put incharge of it. The route followed was fromShanghai to Chungking by the river, thence toCh'eng-tu, to Yunnan fu, to Kuei-yang, throughKuangsi and Kuangtung to Canton. Mr. Bourne'sreport to the Foreign Office was published atBlackburn in 1898.BepoTt of the Mission to China of theBlackburn Chamber of Commerce.BLACK FLAGS. See Liu Yung-fu.BLACK HAIRED RACE. See Li Min.BLACK JOKE, a schooner which left Macaoon August 24, 1839, and was attacked by piratesthe same night. An Englishman named Moss wasa passenger, and he was killed with great brutality.Only one man of the crew escaped. This murdertook place just at the time when Commissioner Linhad driven all the British from Macao (See Elliot),and it caused much excitement among the refugees,who supposed at first that it was done by theofficials.Eames : The Eiujli-h in China, p. 394BLACKWATER MtKAei ehui, a river mentionedin the Yu Kung ^ ^, probably the Kansupart of the Yellow River ; though another mentionof it says it flows into the Southern Sea. It isnow in use as the name of a ta-ibutary to the Minriver in Ssuch'uan, flowing from unknown regionson the right of that river.Morley : Chinese Recorder, vol. xlv, p. 101,50

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICABLINDBLAKE, HENRY ARTHUR, Sir,was bornat Limerick, January 18, 18^0. He was Governorin Chief of Jamaica from 1889 to 1897; he thenbecame Governor of Hongkong from November 25,1898, till November, 1903.He has published China, (1900).BLAKISTON, THOMAS W. A captain ofthe British Royal Artillery, who accompanied AdmiralHope in his trip to open up the Yangtze toforeign trade in 1861, and then from Yochow wenton a private expedition. The members of thisexpedition were. Captain Blakiston himself, andLieut. -Colonel H. A. Sakel, both on leave of absence,Dr. Alfred Barton and Rev. I. Scheres-CHEWSKY (afterwards Bishop), who acted as interpreter.They had with them four Sikh soldiers,a Chinese writer and two " boys." The little tripwhich the officers had planned and which the otherswere delighted to join in, was through China intoTibet, and then across the Himalayas into NorthwesternIndia.This plan could not be carried out; the disturbedcondition of affairs in western China madeit necessary for the expedition to turn back; "butit surveyed more than 900 miles of the river aboveYochow, brought back many valuable observations,and resulted in a very interesting book.Though the book was written by Blakiston,and though this article appears under his name,there was no leader to the party ; the enterprisewas entirely private, with no assistance fromGovernment, and the expenses were shared amongthe three first-named members of the party.Blakiston : Five Months on the Yang-tsze;1862.BLARINELLA, Blarinella grisdda, a newspecies of shrew, described by Oldfield Thomas ;there are only two known representatives of thegenus, which is related to the earless shrews ofNorth America. It is found in S.W. Kansu.SowERBY : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii.BLIND IN CHINA, THE. Chinese recordsare very meagre in their references to this subject,but we find that in the time of Confucius theblind were already engaged as musicians, becauseof their keen sense of hearing, many of the higherofficials having as many as two or three hundredsuch among their followers. Confucius himselfshowed great consideration for the blind, as isproved ' by his interview with the Music-MasterMien. {Analects, Bk. XV, Wei Ling Kung, c. xli).Again, it is said that under the Sung dynastythe blind learned to sing songs, accompanyingthemselves with a kind of guitar, and also to tellfortunes by a sort of phrenology, by necromancyand other means, a custom which has continuedto the present day.. The Chinese, with their strong' sense of familyobligation, take the support of a blind relative asa matter of course; and in destitute cases, localbenevolent societies to some extent care for blindboys and men, by having them taught to singimpure songs, to tell fortunes, or to do such menialwork as they are capable of. In general, however,the blind are regarded as worthless and sometimesalmost as social outcasts, there being a wide-spreadbelief that the misfortune is a result of wrong-doingpersonal or relative, so that assistance given tothe sufferer is not a meritorious act.The lot of blind girls is extremely pitiablemany are put to death in infancy ; others are keptshut up in a dark room ; others are sold as slavesfor immoral purposes. The number of blind beggarsin China is enormous.The first Protestant Missionary to help theChinese blind was Dr. Gutzlaff [q.v.) who rescuedsix blind girls in Canton. Two of them were sentto the Institution for the Blind in Philadelphiawhere they still are, (1917), bearing the names ofFanny and Jessie Giitzlaff. The other four weresent to England. One subsequently returned toChina, and assisted in Mission work at Ningpo,but was unable to do much to help the blind owingto ignorance of the Chinese language and customs.In 1845-8 Mr. Syle of the C.M.S. started inShanghai with local funds a small workshop forindigent adult blind. This work still continues inthe native city.During the past forty years, a number ofschools or industrial homes have been started byProtestant missionaries, in which the blind ofboth sexes have been taught to read, and to dovarious kinds of work, thus partially supportingthemselves. The brightest pupils have becometeachers of other blind, or have been made usefulin other ways to the missions. At first each missionarydevised his own Chinese Braille system andfollowed his own lines, the pioneer being Mr.W. H. Murray of Peking, who invented a" Numeral Type," and opened, a School for theBlind and the Illiterate Sighted in the capitalin 1874. A few of the newer schools have adoptedexisting systems, but even now there are sevenvarieties of Braille, and until China has a uniformspoken language, complete uniformity in Brailletype will be impossible. The schools in CentralChina, however, have adopted a single system, inwhich a number of text-books and other literaturehave been prepared.The Shanghai Institution for the Chinese Blindis the newest and the most up-to-date of suchschools. It was founded in 1911 by Dr. JohnFryer, of the University of California, who hadbecome interested in the Blind during his longresidence of forty years in China. He gave a,51

BLINDENCYCLOPAtlDiA SlNICivaluable site of land, Taels 10,000 for building, q,nda large endowment, and the Institution was openedin November 1912, with Dr. Fryer's son at itshead.Its main object is to train teachers, both blindand sighted, to teach in other blind schools, whichit is hoped the Chinese Government may open inthe future. A kindergarten course leads on tofour years primary work, in four departments,Literary, Musical, Industrial and Physical.English and typewriting are taught to the morepromising pupils, and as the school develops it isintended to take pupils up to the University. Twopupils are already working at St. John's University.The present Government is beginning to makeenquiries as to foreign methods of training theblind though nothing has been done officially upto the present for its million blind citizens ; but aBlind School on modern lines under purely Chineseauspices, has recently been established at Nan-tungchou by the progressive philanthropist, ChangChien.In March, 1917, a school was opened in Pekingby E. G. HiLLiER, Esq., c.m.g. in a house lent bythe Chief of Police. See Hillier, E. G.With regard to Missionary Institutions, it hasbeen impossible to get any authoritative statementof what Eoman Catholics may be doing for theBlind ; the following is a list of Protestant MissionaryInstitutions in 1917.1. Pehing.—Mission to the Blind and IlliterateSighted, opened 1874; 72 boys and girls.2. Eanhow.— David Hill School for Blind,W.M.M.S. ; opened 1888; 41 boys.3. Canton.—Ming Sam School for Blind,A. P.M. ; opened 1891 ; 131 boys and girls.4. Foochow.—L\n Gwan Fu Tang, C.M.S.opened 1898 ; 78 boys.5. /'oocAom;.—Blind Girls' School, C.M.S.opened 1900;45 girls.6. /irow;^on.—Blindenheim Industrial School;opened 1901 ;20 girls.7. Hongkong.—Ebenezer School; opened in1914, as a branch of No. 6 ; 45 girls.(These two schools belong to the HildesheimMission for the Blind, Hildesheim,Germany).8. Mukden.—St. Nicholas School for ChineseBlind Girls; opened 1902; 34 girls.9. Changsha.—En Nii Hsiieh Hsiao, LiebenzellMission, (associated with the C.I.M.)32 girls.10. Macao.—Pentecostal Mission Blind Schoolopened 1909 ;23 girls.11. Shanghai, Institution for the Chinese Blindopened 1912 ; 28 boys.In the Southern part of China several schoolshave been opened by graduates of the Ming SamSchool, with a total of some 80 girl pupils.BLOCKADE OF HONGKONG, an attemptmade by the Chinese officials to ruin the nativejunk trade of Hongkong. It began in October,1867. The pretence was the suppression of smuggling.Canton Customs Steam-cruisers patrolled theseas and exacted duty from all junks except thosegoing via Canton or -Pakhoi. It caused a fallingoff of 2222 junks or 117,252 tons in the Hongkongreturns of 1869. The Governor, Sir R. G.MacDonnell, was hampeired in combating it bythe fact that H.B.M. Consul at Canton, D. B.EoBERTSON, had supported the Chinese in theiraction.Correspondence and Minutes, Hongkong Chamberof Commerce, Hongkong, 1880 ; Blue Book :Corresfondence relating to Complaints, 1875;EiTEL : Europe in China.BLUBBER, SEA, ^^f^ hai hsi p'i, is composedof the dried skins of various sorts of jellyfish,and is an article of diet.BLUE DRAGON "^fl a stellar spirit, thecanonized Teng Chiu-kung, a general of the lastemperor of the Yin dynasty. He is often seenwith the White Tiger, as armed guardian at thedoor of Taoist temples. See White Tiger.DoRE : Becherches sur les Superstitions, Tomeix, p. 54.BOAR, WILD. Sus moupinensis is found inpaludosus on the Yangtze.Shensi and Shansi and S.The largest recorded from the former districtsis 400 lbs. with 10-in. tusk; larger specimens arefound on the Yangtze. On account of the mountainouscharacter of its habitat it can only be huntedwith the rifle. See Suidce.SowERBY : Fur and Feather in North China.BOARD OF ADMIRALTY. See Admiralty.BOARDS, SIX. See Six Boards.BOCCARO WARE. A fine reddish-brownstoneware made at I Hsing i£,^ in Kiangsu. Thepotteries flourished most in the Ming period. Thisfaience when first imported into Europe receivedthe Portuguese name boccaro, and is still so calledby foreigners ; the Chipese name is / Hsing Yao.Btjshell : Chinese Art, vol. ii.BOCCA TIGRIS. See Bogue.BODHIDHARMA, called Tamo ^0 for shortby the Chinese, was the twenty-eighth of thePatriarchs and the first Buddhist Patriarch ofChina. He arrived in China from India aboutA.D. 520, lived at Sung shan, Honan, and died in528. His birthday is celebrated on the 5th of the10th moon. On account of his Chinese name andthe foireign appearance seen in his images many52

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA^ONHAMhave sought to identify him with the ApostleThomas. He is regarded as the founder of theCh'an or Meditative School of Buddhists. SeeCh'an; Buddhist Schools.DoRE : liechcrches sur les Superstitions, vol.vii, p. 243 ; Johnston : Buddhist China.BODHISAT, used by some as short for theSanskrit terra Bodhisattva, (q.v.)BODHISATTVA, turned in Chinese into ^Jg^i^ p'u t'i sa t'o, which has been shortened intop'^i sa and pusa. The term means ' essence ofperfect enlightenment.' It is used for one who ison the way to reach but has not yet reachedBuddhahood.The older Buddhism regarded a Bodhisattvaas the preliminax'y form of a Buddha, waiting inthe Tushita heaven till his appointed time toappear on the earth as a Buddha ; but it did notsuggest that saints should try to become Bodhisattvasor Buddhas, or that Boddhisattvas canhelp mankind : these are Mahayana doctrinesaccording to which a Bodhisattva is one who hasvowed to become a Buddha for the sake of theworld's salvation but refrains from entry intoperfect bliss so long as one soul is still left in painand sorrow.This is the Mahayanist ideal as opposed to theHinayanist ideal of the arahant (lohan). Thearahant saves himself :. the bodhisat is willing tolose himself if he can thus save others. This isof course only a rough division and unfair toHinayana teaching. For a brief discussion of thecontroversy see Johnston, p. 66.The career of a Bodhisattva was early dividedinto stages—five or seven or ten. Later Buddhismused the term chiefly for those in the earlier stages,hence for monks by the thousand. Generally itwas supposed that none who had once entered onthe career could be reborn in a state of punishment,yet the final triumph was incalculably distant.A different development created many celestialBodhisattvas. The older Buddhism said Gatjtamabefore his last birth was in the Tushita heaven,where now Maitreya waits ; but since there canonly be one Buddha at a time it admitted no otherBodhisattvas. The position was attained by virtuepractised through countless existences. But presentlythere came to be many such—hardly any ofthem having a clearly Indian origin, and all ofthem being better known in China. Yet evenamong the early Mahayanists these great Bodhisattvashave not climbed to heaven in the oldway, but they are emanations from or sons ofsuperhuman Buddhas.Later there are mentioned millions of them,but unnamed ; but in earlier books there are quitelong lists of names. A few only have definitepersonality and importance. Avalokita andManju'sri are of supreme importance ; Maitreya(who is on a different footing), Kshitigarbha,Samantabhadra and Mahasthamaprapta are theonly ones besides who are of much note ; but theseare all-important in Chinese Buddhism. Seeseparatearticles.Johnston : Buddhist China.BOGUE, the principal mouth of the CantonRiver. The Chinese name is Hu men J^p^ tigergate, because Tiger Island lies inside. From thisthe Portuguese called it Boca Tigre, and theEnglish corruption of this name is Bogue. Butthe form Bocca Tigris {tiger's mouth) is in morecommon use.The Bogue Forts are celebrated because fromthe early days of foreign intercourse they have sooften obstructed foreign entrance to Canton andhave been so often taken by foreign forces.BOGUE TREATY. The same as HoomunChai Supplementary Treaty, (q.v.).BOHEA g^^. Two ranges of hills in Fukienon which the tea so named is grown.BON AC, the name of the first French agentat Canton ; the beginning of French trade therebeing in 1698.See French relations.BONHAM, SAMUEL GEORGE, Sir, Bart.,K.C.B., was Governor of Hongkong and H.B.M.Plenipotentiary and Chief Superintendent of Tradefrom March 20, 1848 to April 12, 1854. He hadbeen trained in the East India Company and hadserved the Colonial Office for ten years.He found it impossible to get much recognitionof treaty rights from the local officials, andonce started for Peking in the hope of doingbetter. Circumstances prevented his reaching thecapital and no tangible benefit resulted, but theGovernment was pleased with his diplomacy, promotedhim from C.B. to K.C.B. and gave him atthe same time a baronetcy, November 22, 1850.On principle he put men with no knowledge ofChinese into Consulships, over the heads of interpreters.When he thus treated Mr. Harry Parkesthe latter appealed to Lord Clarendon, and SirGeorge's system had to be reversed.On the outbreak of the T'ai P'ihg rebellion,and through insurgency in Kuangtung not connectedwith that rebellion, Hongkong profited by theinflow of Chinese and Chinese capital. Sir Georgetook the bold step of visiting the T'ai P'ing headquartersat Nanking, showed the rebels on onehand that they could expect nothing from theBritish Government, and on the other hand informedthe Foreign Office that there was nothingstable in the movement.In Hongkong he tried to introduce the beginningsof Municipal Government. The Colony's58

BRONZEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINtC^finances were in a bad state throughout his administrationand he was obliged to reduce expenditure inmany directions. The commercial prosperity howeverwas very marked. Legal enactments underSir George's rule were few ; they were mostlyconcerned with reforms in the administa'ation ofjustice. He initiated the restrictive policy withrespect to coolie emigration from the island.Questions of currency were much discussed duringthis i)eTiod. On the whole he was one of the mostpopular and successful of Hongkong's Governors,though not the best-remembered. He died in 1863.EiTEL : Europe in China.BONZE is the Japanese bo-dz, which wastheir pronunciation of the Chinese ^ @1 the 6thcentuiy way of writing Buddh ; or it may beJapanese bosi, the Chinese /a-.«AtVi :Jigjp , teacherof the law, the title of a full monk.BOOK OF CHANGES. ^^ See / Ching.BOOK OF HISTORY. m%^ See Shu Ching.BOOK OF POETRY. |t^5 See Shih Ching.BOONE UNIVERSITY, at Wuchang, belongsto the American Protestant Episcopal Mission,(American Church Mission).The pioneers of the Mission arrived at Wuchangin June, 1868, and a boys' school was opened inOctober. In 1870, land for the erection of a schoolwas bought, the nucleus of the present Campus.The new boarding-school took the name of theBoone Memorial School, and the education givenjwas wholly in Chinese, half the time being allottedto Christian, and half to Confucian books.From the beginning the aim was to preparestudents for the Christian ministry, but non-Christians were admitted. The Divinity school wasorganized in 1898, with four students.In 1891, English was added to the curriculum.A Collegiate Department was formed in 1903, andgraduated seven men in 1906.In 1907 a Medical School was opened as aUnion institution, but difficulties arose in connectionwith it, and it was dissolved. In 1909, the Collegeopened a Medical School of its own, but after twoand a half years it was decided to send the studentsto a Union Medical College at Shanghai formed bySt. Johns and Boone Universities with the HarvardMedical College.In 1909, Boone College became a Universityand was incorporated in Washington, D.C; Afterthe Boxer movement the Rev. James Jackson, D.D.became the Head of the College and began to planits extension. In the pre-Boxer days, the Girls'School and the two hospitals impinged on BooneCollege, but all have been moved out, and theirbuildings appropriated; other handsome buildingshave also been added including Ingle Hall, builtin memory of the first bishop of the HankowDiocese ; Thomas Hall, in memory of the Treasurerof the Mission in U.S.A. ; and a University Librarywhich is open to the public, for whose benefit theUniversity also arranges periodical lectures onimportant subjects of all kinds. The present campusoccupies 24 acres.In 1911-12, the University had to be closedbecause- of the Eevolution, but not before the first•'bachelors" had graduated (1911). The first M.A.graduated in 1915.The first troop of Chinese Scouts was formedhere in 1913, and the Scout -master has invented asystem of Chinese signalling. The University hasits own r.M.C.A. as well as Debating Society,Alumni Association, etc. The College students alldevote their Sunday afternoons to outside evangelisticwork, and all the branches of Y.M.C.A. workare well manned and supported.There are four schools in the University, viz.,Arts and Science. Theology, Medicine, and ChineseLanguage and Literature ; and Boone PreparatorySchool is a department of the University and underits government.Since 1911, the date of incorporation, 37students have graduated, six of whom are in holyorders.In January, 1917, Dr. Jackson retired from ihePresidency, and was succeeded by the Rev. A. A.Oilman, B.A.At this date the University reported :Foreign professors 12Chinese professors 21Other _-.mese assistants 3Students in Divinity 10College 54,, Preparatory School 267BOONE, WILLIAM JONES, 5CWin, one ofthe first missionaries to China of the ProtestantEpiscopal Church in America. After graduatingas M.D. he reached Batavia in 1837, and workedamong the Chinese there. In 1840 he removedto Macao, and two years later to Amoy, whereMrs. BooNE died the same year. In 1843 hereturned to the States, and was consecratedmissionary bishop for China in 1844. Havingmarried again he returned to China in 1845,and settled in Shahghai. He was one of thecommittee of Delegates appointed to translatethe New Testament. (See Delegates' Version).He was also a delegate for the trahslationof the Old Testament, but, with some othersof the committee, seceded and began an independentversion. In 1852 and in 1857 he againvisited the United States, and in 1863, on accountof Mrs. Boone's health, embarked with her forEurope. She died at Suez, and he, returningafter a few months in Europe, died in Shanghaion July 17, 1864.54

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICABOTANYBORAX Z^^p'eng sha; occurs in Anhui andKansu, but more especially in the lake districtsof Tibet. Borax is refined at Canton and in other•large cities and is used in glazing crockery andstluering metals, and as a flux in reducing the silexin glass, enamels, and other vitreous compounds.There is also a small amount imported.Williams : Commercial Guide; p. 111.BOTANICON SINICUM, a valuable work byBretschneider [

BOTANYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAmentioned the Kuang ch'un fang p'u ^S^^f^,A.D. 1630, fuller, more correct, and, above all,better printed than the Pen ts'ao hang mu, butwithout engravings; and the large EncyclopaediaT'u shu chi ch'eng, ^S^J!35 a.d..1726, in which320 books and numerous illustrations are devotedto Botany; but this work is again a compilation,and from the point of view of science marks noprogress. On the other hand progress is shown inthe Chih wu ming shih t'u k'ao ^t^^%^^-A.D. 1848. The author Wu Ch'i-scn ^=^f^ givesus, along with some good personal remarks, about1800 drawings, certainly the best that ChineseBotany has produced ; many are quite original, andthe descriptions are minute enough to extend tothe stamens.The works on Agriculture ought to be examinedalso; in general, they have the good and the badpoints which we have noted in the various Pen ts'ao.I shall restrict myself to mentioning the Nungcheng ch'uan shu .^il^-^9, a.d. 1640, because theauthor is Hsii Kuang-ch'i, because it is before thewriter, and because it is really well done and wellillustrated.We will omit here the books written in recentyears to introduce western botany into Chineseliterature ; they open up a new historical phase.On the whole, since the Shen Nung pen ts'aoching up to the present time. Botany has progressedslowly, but surely and in a constant manner.Only,each author hardly tries to do more than prolongfor a few steps the furrow at which his predecessorshave toiled ; there is no scientific thought, nooriginal imagination, hardly a care for materialaccuracy, no attempt to formulate laws. In spiteof all, however, we owe gratitude to the Chinesenaturalists for this continuity of their efforts in asingle direction. It makes it possible for us tofollow up the stream of the writings of the pastand arrive at last at satisfactory conclusions. Itis thus, to take as an example the first of thecultivated plants, the origin of which DE Candolletries to find (L'Originc des Plantes cuUivees,Paris, 1883, pp. 23 sqq.)—it is thus that in a paperon the genus Itaphanus given at the Sorbonne in1914, Mile Trouard-Riolle was able to demonstratethat the races of the Chinese Radish have notvaried since the 11th century, and that the radishof the present day was known in China 500 B.C.I may be allowed to add that, according toBeetschneider [Bot. Sin. ii, p. 39) the nameVu lo pei (lo fe, lo fu) given. to the Radish bythe Erh ya is too similar to the Mongolian, Tibetan,Annamite, and Malayan names (lobin, laopang,laphug, lobac) for there not to be a common origin.The Persian name turup {turma in Mongoliancomes from it, it is said,") reminds one remarkablyof t'u lo pei. One is tempted to conclude from it,a little contrary to Beetschneider, not that Chinahas given the Radish, with its name, to neighbouringpeoples, but that all the East and the Far Easthave received this vegetable from the West,through Persia, or even from Persia. This conclusioncoincides fairly exactly with that at whichDE Candolle arrives (between the Caucasus, AsiaMinor, and Mesopotamia). [As regards Japan,this conclusion ought doubtless to be somewhatmodified ; for apparently the Japanese language hastransferred to a slightly different vegetable theChinese name lai fu^ 85, in Japanese rai fu ku,according to Kaempfer, Amoen. axot. 823, and incommon Japanese daikon.']Bibliography : — The preceding data arenearly all taken from Beetschneider, Botaniconsinicum, Part i, 1882, London ; Part ii, 1892Part iii, 1895, Shanghai. A complete Bibliographyof the subject may be found there.EUROPEAN PERIOD."This period might commence with Marco Polo,but let us go on immediately to the 16th century.The Portuguese establish themselves at Canton,Ningpo, and Chang-chew fu, and then fix themselvesat Macao ; they make known different plants ; theyintroduce into their country the mandarin orangeand the Sarsaparilla {Smilax glabra).In 1581 the Jesuits penetrate into China, andduring more than two centuries carry on at thesame time the evangelization and the study of theEmpire, particularly the study of its NaturalHistory. Some publish their observations(Martini, 1655, Boym, 1655) or those of theirfellow-workers (Kircher, 1667) ; many simply sendto Europe letters, notes, very interesting studies,quantities of seeds or some living plants. Theirnames are known, but one must specially note thatof Father d'Incarville, who from Peking andMacao sends (1743) to Bernard de Jussiext acollection of 270 species, and also seeds, notes,small treatises, and a collection of 4050 Chinesedrawings relating to Natural. History. The seriescloses with a work still considered very important,Flora cochinchincnsis, by the Father J. deLoTJREiRO, (a Portuguese), Lisbon, 1790, in v/hich680 Chinese species, especially of Macao, aredescribed.During this time, the Portuguese, confined toMacao, had seen the Dutch and the Englishdispute the Chinese market with them. Theformer, from their Embassies to Peking (1656,1666) bring back at any rate good observationsmade in the interior of the Empire ; their differentsojourns in the Pescadores, at Formosa, Canton,and in Fukien permit them to perceptibly increaseour botanical knowledge. Only moderately successfulon the whole in their dealings with China, theysucceed better in Japan, and this success is of56

(AbbeENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICABOTANYinterest to us; for it has meant for us two workswhich for the most part belong to us, Amoenitatesexoticae by Kaempfer (1712), and Flora japonicaby the Swede Thunberg (1784).With the English expedition of 1701, ChineseBotany enters upon a more active phase, thanks toJames Cunningham, whose considerable collectionsfrom Amoy and the Chusan Islands, published byPetiveu, Ray, and Pluckenet, came togetherfinally into the hands of Sloane, to form thenucleus of the British Museum. We may alsomention the learned Swedish travellers Osbeck,ToREEN, EcKEBERG, SpARMANN (1751 and 1756),whose collections were described by Linnaeus.At the same time, to make use of the treasuresreceived, large gardens are organized in England,France, Holland, and Russia; Ph. Miller publishesin succession his eight editions of the Gardener'sDictionary, the Hortus Kewensis appears in 1789,and in 1815 through the pains of the two Aitons,Lamarck and the Abbe Poiret edit the plants ofSonnerat; Curtis' Botanical Magazine is foundedin 1786 and has not ceased to appear since ; otherMagazines still, the Bot. Itefository, the Bot.Register, last for a longer or shorter time ; thegreat florists turn their attention towards China;wealthy amateurs cause plants to be gathered attheir expense and purchase vast collections. Banksand Smith m England, Delessert in France. Butin all this we only touch on the southern part ofthe Empire.Northern China is no less favoured than theSouth. Gmelin, Pallas, and then Bunge exploreand describe Mongolia, Ussuri, the environs ofPeking. Later (1840 and onwards) Tatarinov,Maac'k, Regel, and Maximowicz continue the work,especially the two last, Regel with his TentamenFlorae Ussuriensis, Maximowicz with his PrimitiaeFlorae Amurensis and his Decades Plantarum.From their hands, the torch passes into those ofPrzevvalski and Potanin, who make us acquaintedwith Chinese Turkestan, Dzungaria, Kansu, andKorea.In 1840, English cannon open China toEuropean commerce, a result completed by theAnglo-French expedition of 1860. A wave ofenthusiasm then carries botanists in all directions.We can mention only some of the hundred of namesknown and honoured in the history of this scientificcampaign. The labours of Hance, Champion, andothers at Hongkong result in the fine work ofBentham, Flora Honghungensis (1861) with asupplement by Hance (1873),—1056+75 species.Fortune (1843—1851) makes us acquainted withKiangsu, Chekiang, Southern Anhui, Fukien.Hance again, by himself and with others to whomhe communicates his ardour, gathers together in>5742 years (1844—1886), from all the provinces andborder-kingdoms, 22,000 species, according to hisreckoning, (but this number should be considerablyreduced). The Plantae Davidianae, of the AbbeDavid, edited by Franchet (Peking, Mongolia,Shensi, Kiangsi, Ssuch'uan), counts 1577 species, ofwhich 247 are new. The Abbe Delavay worksfrom 1882 to 1896 in the country around Ta-li fu(Yiinnan) in a district as large as half a Frenchdepartment ; he reveals to us a whole new florathere ; he sends to the Museum of Paris over4000 species and more than 200,000 specimens.Augustine Henry vies with Delavay in Hupei,in the islands of Hainan and Formosa, and inSouthern Yiinnan. The Abbe Delavay has bequeathedhis zeal in botany to his colleagues ofthe Foreign Missions of Paris, who are evangelisingChihii, Ssuch'uan, Kueichou, Yiinnan, and EasternTibet.The Japanese, who came late to the harvest,are distingui.«hed by the conscientiousness andactivity of their labours. We might mentionTentamen Florae Lutchuensis of Ito and Mat-SUMURA, the Flora Koreana of Nakai, and otherpublications by the same author, the magnificentcollection of works of Messrs. Matsumura andHayata on Formosa, of which 8 volumes haveappeai'cd, 7 of them being by Mr. Hayata alone,containing 215 plates and 3325 species. We mustalso mention, in connection with Korea andFormosa, an incomparable collector. Father U.Faurie (died 1916). Finally, we get good lists ofpurely Chinese plants from Kiangsu, Chekiang, etc.,from the hand of Mr. Matsuda.Altogether the writers established in the greatEuropean museums seem overwhelmed under theflood of materials which reach them for descriptiona large number of plants have not yet beenpublished, in spite of the devoted efforts ofseveral—Hooker, Franchet, and now Mgnr. H.I eveillf. (Bull. Geog. Bot., Fepertorium ofFcdde, .Flora of Kueichou; Flora of Yiinnan inpreparation). On the other hand, the informationnecessary for study is scattered in all thepublications of general Botany, in the Reports ofthe Botanical Societies, in special Reviews for theFerns (e.g. H. Christ), the Mosses (Gal. Paris),•the Lichens Hue,) etc. ; and even in theFloras of Japan (Thunberg, Siebold, and Zuccarini,xMiguel, Franchet and Savatier) and ofIndo-Chine (Lecomte, Finet and Gagnepain, etc.),and finally in the Prodrome and its sequels, and inthe great Indexes (Kunth, Walpers), etc. Todirect us through this forest, an invaluable guideis the Pndex Florae Sinensis, by Forbes andHemslEy, taken from the Journal of the LinnaeanSociety, London, 1886 to 1905, volumes 23, 26, and36 ;printed separately ix\ 5 volumes,

!HeBOURBOULONENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAConclusion. After this wonderful putting forthof efforts, do we know the Chinese Flora? Notyet. The Index Florae Sinensi?, after havingenumerated 8271 Phanerogams, roughly estimatesthose which were then lying hidden in the collections,and arrives at a minimum total of 12,000species. Again, the discoveries of Delavay and ofA. Henry were already leading us to suspect whatMr. Hayata (Formosa), after Missionaries in Koreaand western regions, has shown plainly, namely,that it is not at all enough to explore, evencarefully, the country surrounding a few largetowns, and to pass rapidly through several districts,even at the favourable season ; there has to be amethodical exploration through all districts and atdifferent seasons of the year. To that we havenot yet attained. Let one read in Bretschneider{Hist, of Eur. Bot. Discoveries, pp. 1077—1090) thelist, province by province, of the collections priorto 1898; having finished let one count also thatthere are not more than 25 species mentioned forAnhui, and the floral page for Honan is still blank,the very province where the principal ChinesePcn-ts'ao were composed.Bibliography : — Bretschneider : EarlyEuropean Researches into the Flora of China,Shanghai, 1881 ; Id. : History of EuropeanBotanical Discoveries in China, London, 1898CouDiER, BibUotheca Sinica, col. 442/508, 1498/1532,3081/86; The works of Messrs. Matsumura andIto, Nakai, and Hayata are published in twoReviews : The Botanical Magazine, (Tokyo), Journalof the College of Science, Imp. Univ. of Tokyo(each article is for sale separately) ; the IconesPlantarum Formosanarurn is published by theBureau of Productive Industries, Government ofFormosa, Taihoku.[F.C.]BOURBOULON, ALPHONSE DE, bornTroves on December 15, 1809, was attached to thediplomatic service of France. He was sent asMinister-plenipotentiary to China in 1851, andagain as Envoy-extraordinary in 1859. He retiredin 1866.BOURNE, FREDERICK SAMUEL AUG-STUS, was born October 3, 1854. He entered theBritish Consular Service in 1876, and in 1885-6 wasemployed in exploration on the Tonkin border.He was called to the Bar in 1890. In 1896 he wasConsul in charge of the Blackburn Mission (q.v.).He was in June 1898 appointed Assistant Judge ofH.B.M. Supreme Court for China and Korea andJudge of High Court at Wei-hai-wei. He wasmade C.M.G. in 1909. He retired in 1915, andreceived the honour of knighthood.BOUVET, JOACHIM, one of the five Jesuitpriests sent to China in 1685 by Lotris XIV. Heatwas born at Mans on July 18, 1656 and died inPeking, June 28, 1730.Together with Gerbillon he was instructor inmathematics to K'ang Hsi. The Emperor sent himto Rome as the bearer of presents, and he returnedwith ten new missionaries, including Premare.From 1708 to 1715 he was engaged in a survey ofthe Empire, and altogether did some fifty years ofscientific work in China. He was much honouredby the Emperor. His works are. Present Etat dela Chine, en figures gravies par P. Giffart sut lesdessins apportes an lioi par P. J. Bouvet, Paris,1697 ; Portrait historique de VEmpereur de la Chine,Paris, 1697. The Library at Le Mans has hismanuscripts, including a dictionary.BO VI DAE. In N. China and neighbouringdistricts there are fourteen species of this family.They will be found under Yak, Sheep, Gored,Serow, Talcin, Antelope.BOWEN, GEORGE FERGUSON, Sir,G. C.M.G. ; Governor of Hongkong from 1883 to1885.BOWER, HAMILTON, Sir, was bornSeptember 1, 1858, and entered the army in 1880.While captain in the 17th Bengal Cavalry in1891, he made a journey through Tibet fromnorth-west to south-east, from Leh to Batang.He thus explored at least eight hundred miles ofcountry that no western traveller had visitedbefore, most of it over 14,000 feet high. FromBatang he went to Shanghai and then back toIndia by sea, reaching Simla twelve and a halfmonths after leaving it. This journey is recordedin the Geographical Journal, I, 1893, and also inthe book he published in 1894 under the title Diaryof a Journey across Tibet.It was on this journey that he discovered theimportant manuscript since known as The BowerManuscript (q.v.).was accompanied by Dr. W. G. Thoroldwho made a botanical collection. He found oneflowering plant at a height of 19,000 feet, thehighest known.He received the Founder's Medal of the RoyalGeographical Society. He took part in the ChinaExpedition of 1900, and was commandant of theBritish Peking Legation' Guard from 1901 to 1906.In 1910 he was made C.B. and K.C.B. in 1912.BOWER MANUSCRIPT, some writings onbirch-bark, obtained by Bower in 1890 at Kuchain Chinese Turkestan. They are in Sanskrit, andconsist chiefly of proverbs and medicinal lore.The date of them is supposed to be earlier than500 A.D. Such leaves of birch-bark had alreadybeen obtained by Dutreuil de Rhins, amongwhose papers they were found after his murder.These discoveries led to Stein's explorations.58

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICABOXERISMThe Manuscript has been published in facsimilewith a translation, by the ArcheologicalSurvey of India. See below.HoERNLE : The Bower Manuscript, Calcutta,1893 ; Lansdell : Chinese Central Asia; Hoebnle :Asiatic Society of Bengal Journal, 1891.BOWRA, EDWARD CHARLES, was born inKent, England, in October, 1841. After a shortexperience in a government office in London (whichappointment, one of the earliest obtained on thethrowing open of the Civil Service to public competition,he relinquished in order to serve as avolunteer in the Foreign Legation in Garibaldi'scampaign for the liberation of Italy) he came toChina in May, 1863 to join the Chinese Maritime('ustoms, under the appointment of Mr. H. N. Lay,then Inspector General. Learning Chinese withfacility, he was sent by Mr. (Sir) R. Hart asEnglish interpreter and secretary with Taotai PinCh'un's mission to the various countries of Europein 1866. A diary of this mission was published bythe Taotai in Chinese. On his return he becameInterpreter-in-charge of the Customs in Canton in1867 ; Acting Commissioner at Ningpo 1868-70Acting Commissioner at Canton 1870-2 ; Commissionerat Canton 1872. In 1873 he wentto Vienna as a member of the Chinese(commission to the Vienna Exhibition of thatyear, receiving the Austrian order of the IronCrown. He died suddenly on October 15, 1874,while in England on leave. A Chinese student,a man of wide literary and historical culture, a keen.student of Natural History, especially Botany, anda brilliant writer, during his comparatively shortcareer in China he contributed a number of valuablearticles on Chinese subjects. Among them areThe Manchu Conquest of Canton; The NationalMonuments at Yaishan; The Liu Family, or Cantonof a portion of the Hung Lou Meng (Chinaduring the period of the Five Dynasties; SuTung-po; Hainan (China Review, 1872-4) ; a translationMagazine 1869) ; and an Index Plantarum, siniceet latine, in Doolittle's Vocabulary and Handbook,vol. ii. His report on the trade of Ningpo for 1869ranks almost as a classic in that branch of literature.Bretschneider : History of European BotanicalDiscoveries in China.BOWRING, JOHN, Sir, was Governor ofHongkong, H.B.M. Plenipotentiary and ChiefSuperintendent of Trade from April 13, 1854 toMay 5, 1869. He was born at Exeter, October 17,1792. He was first engaged in commerce, becameknown as a linguist, turned to literature and wasthe first editor of the Westminster Revieiv. Hewas employed by the Government in various ways,received from Groningen in Holland the honoraryKgreeof Doctor literarum humaniorum, entered59Parliament, and, having had money losses wasglad to accept in January, 1849, the Consulshipat Canton. Being home on furlough in 1853 hewas knighted and appointed Governor of Hongkongin succession to Sir George Bonham.In 1855, with the help of Mr. Harry Parkes,he succeeded in making a commercial treaty withSiam. The scheme of training Consuls andsupplying the service with student interpreters isdue to him. In 1854 he went north to the Pei-hoin a vain attempt to open direct communicationwith the Court. He had to deal with the rabidlyanti-foreign Yeh, Governor of Canton, and couldmake no impression, though he saved Cantonfrom the T'ai P'ing rebels by sending a forcenominally to protect the foreigners in the city.Sir John had the case of the Arrow lorcha (q.v.)to manage in 1856. In the hostilities whichen.sued the foreigners in Hongkong had a veryunpleasant time, the poisoning of the bread fromthe bakery of Ah Lum {q.v.) being one incidentin the troubles. Sir John was violently blamedin Parliament and was replaced as Plenipotentiaryby Lord Elgin. Throughout the slow war theunrest and insecurity in Hongkong continued, andthe journalistic scurrilities of the Friend of Chinaand the Daily Press made bitter the life of thegovernment : both editors went to jail, but Hongkonggot a bad reputation in England. Sir Johnalso suffered greatly through conflicts with theCouncil and with law officers, and had muchanxiety over the finances of the Colony, and thoughin five years he doubled the revenue he could notmake it equal the expenditure. To decrease crimehe proposed to license the gambling houses, butthe Government in England would not allow it.Piracy was unusually common during his administration,as was natural, because of the Arrow warand the T'ai P'ing rebellion.He was not a popular Governor, and wasmuch reviled by the press at his departure. Onreturning home he spent a quiet life, and died80 years old on November 23, 1872, at Exeterwhere he was born.Eitel : Europe in China.BOXERISM. This is the name given to theanti-foreign disordea-s of 1900. TheThe Cult.organizers called themselves ^jR]^,The Public-Spirited Harmonious Band. By othersthe band was called J; g| Bandits, ^ or , jffi ^,The Public-Spirited Harmonious Boxers, so termedfrom^the boxing antics that distinguished it. Thefraternity was a revival of an association long existingand never wholly extinct in Shantung, whichhad its rise in political unrest. What had beenunder a ban for long was officially recognised andwelcomed in 1900, under the title of Volunteers.They received help from Government funds.

dOXERlSME5NCYCL0PAEDIA SlNlCiOnce started, and officially enmagicMagiccouraeed, the Boxer movement spreadEquipment. ^', . ,., a . i iwithagreat rapidity. As it developedit gathered strength from certain magical ideasthat possessed the members. Some youths werefound to be susceptible to charms, and weresedulously trained. These were taught certaingibberish, and by continuous mutterings of theirincantations they became initiated (j^ ^) untilfinally they were under the s/je//(J:f£). These magicarts stirred the popular fervour, so that the peoplein many parts lost their mental balance, and cameunder the sway of wild delusions. Especially didthe mysterious and miraculous workings of the RedLamp Society (^^M) confirm the magic powersof the initiated, and increase the waves of terrorand inspiration that passed over the people. ThisSociety was started by a woman ; and young girlswearing red trousers and girdles joined it in greatnumbers. By means of hypnotism, administeredto a youth, whole bands reaped spiritual benefits,and divine powers descended. Millions of spiritsoldierscame to encamp with the faithful. Thenthe inspired came to believe they were endued withqualities that gave them immunity from dangers,and made them invulnerable to bullets. These ideaswere assiduously diffused ; and the superstitiouspeople readily succumbed to these wily arts, sothat genei'ally the whole of North China becameinfected. The minds of men were distui'bed andawed by the conceived proximity of spiritualpowers.Further, the people attributed to foreignersthe possession of similar powers. Hence it wascommonly believed that these spiritual agents didmuch mischief to China. Under the guise ofhuman beings they bought up the cereals of theland, and paid a good price for them, in silveringots. The cereals were whisked away and theingots became ashes. The land was under a cluudof terrifying superstitions which in pagan countriesis a necessary concomitant of rebellious movements.Whether the movement was instigated by thegovernment, or arose independently of it, is notquite clear : but this much is plain, that the movementwas led to rely on Imperial favour andprotection ; and a Prince became its President.The Government in turn was emboldened, by therise of such a powerful instrument, to try conclusionswith the foreigners, and drive them outof the country. But it did not wholly rely on theBo.xeTs. It had a fairly well equipped army.Prepared thus materially and magically the Governmentand the people of North China embarked ona hazard that was momentous and daring. Theyproposed to challenge the world.It is difficult to trace fully the causes^' that led to such a challenge. But itmay be concluded that the sources of irritation hadbeen in existence for years ; and that the morerecent political events and foreign aggressions combinedto stir the Chinese to this action : they, ontheir part, being ignorant, conservative and bigoted.Some of the indirect causes may be found inthe pressure and encroachments of strong nations,who, through the discovery of steam, were breakingdown the distances of past times. The wars of1842 and 1860 : the Japanese conquest of" Korea :the French war of 1884 ; these all had left a rootof bitterness. The introduction of the new learning; of telegraph wires ; of religion supported bythe sword, and the establishment of churches, calledchiao, (a term most objectionable to the Chinesemind), disturbed the easy routine of officialdom,and created alarm in the minds of the Confucianists,who held in great esteem their own doctrineof civilization. This may be seen in the virulentHunan tracts, and the constant hostility of theliterati. Thoughtless discussions about the partitionof China, the race for concessions, formining rights, and railway building perplexed anddisgusted the Chinese and helped the growth ofhostile feelings.Some of the more direct and immediate causeswere the Sino-Japanese war ; the seizure of PortArthur (1895) : the occupation of Kiaochow, andthe menace to Shantung from a military despotismthat paid very little regard to the feelings of thepeople : the proximity of the Germans to theTaoist settlement on the Lao Shan in Chi Mi ( gp g)which aroused the fraternity to carry on a propagandawhich became widespread against theforeigner : the coup d'etat in 1898 : the internalmovement towards reform, as seen in the ReformEdicts of 1898; were some of the more signal anddistinctive acts that combined to bring about sucha state of anger, uncertainty and perplexity as tolead finally to war. These fires had been smoulderingfor long as might be gathered from sporadicanti-foreign riots. The people also, in many cases,were getting dissatisfied with the state of theirown government and wanted a change. The Sibylwas whispering that the years and the dynastywere full. Further the prevailing distress fromfamines and drought •vfras a factor.The object was complex. (a) Undoubtedlythe chief aim of the movementwas to expel the foreigners and stamp outforeign religion, f^gj|Jj^, Protect the countrxj an(idestroy the foreifpier became the motto. It wasat first only intended to terrorize foreigners andconvince them that China was no place for thei^n.Such men as Li Ping-een-g $^^, Hsii T'ung"^ij^, and Kang I ^IJ^, were strongly in sympathywith such ideas. Th6y were no longer willing toyield to these constant foreign demands. Their60

IENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICi\BOXERISMideas were patriotic and they were enraged byforeign dictation, (b) But there were other factorswhich must not be forgotten. There were diverseinterests and factions in the State. These were :(i) an attempt by the revolutionists to discreditthe Manchus. (ii) Dynastic and Clan factions.It was the aim of some to oust Kuang Hsii fromthe throne, and the name of the substitute wasP'u TstTN J^f^, son of Prince Tuan (Presidentof the Boxers).The murder of Rev. S. M. BrooksSymptoms (December 31, 1899), and certain^^'^i^^^^ EdictsOutbreak(1899) blaming theGovernors for supineness in pastyears, and exhorting them to more watchful attentionagainst foreign aggression, indicated disturbedand unsettled conditions. Letters early in 1900from missionaries and others warned the Legationsof impending danger. It is clear the Ministers didnot apprehend the gravity of the situation. Theytotally failed to see the significance of the firstcoup d'etat of 1898, or of the second, of January,1900, when the Emperor was deposed : and theyseemed to ignore the transfer of Yii Hsien (theGovernor responsible for the murder of Bkooks)from Shantung to Shansi. This practical acquiescencegave courage to the infatuated reactionaries,and weakened the authority of the pacific partyat the same time the difficulties of British armsin S. Africa did not pass unnoticed ; the reactionarieswere not slow in drawing certain inferences,as that, if a few farmers could win victory' overa great power, it was not impossible to hope fora victory for the Chinese. Further, the transfer ofTung Fu-hsiang from Kansu to Peking was significant.At a feast in San-yiian, Shensi, Tung saidthat he was on his way to exterminate nations.Thus more than" a year before the outbreak animpression was made that China was preparingfcffwar., It is not quite clear who were res-po"^^^-® ^^^ *h® movement. It isOriainatorsalmost certain that the Governmenthad a share in it, though it is difficult to stateprecisely how far it intended to go. Possibly theauthorities at first saw only an opportunity inBoxerism to further their hazy intentions. Yet itcannot be said that they acted without popularsupport, for the people of Shantung in particularwere enraged by German militarism and the voxpopuli. gave strong encouragement to the Governmentto carry out its own purposes. Thus confidentof national support, and having made the preliminarypreparation, the Government drifted towardswar without definite declaration. It must howeverbe remembered that the better informed and coolerbrains amongst the Chinese, led by Kuang Hsii,opposed such a mad policy, clearly foreseeing thedisastrous results.This was evident at the ImperialCouncil called by the Empress-Dowager for opinionand decision, when sane advice was rejected for apolicy of adventure.Since 1898 there hadyj^gbeen anarchyOutbreak J" the Imperial Council Room. OnePeking and party wished to overthrow KuangTientsin. Hsii, another was hostile to such amovement and opposed the attempt to make P'uTsuN the true successor of T'ung Chih ^ f^ The.internal discussion was skilfully suppressed bycreating hatred against the Christian. For theanti-foreign riots were undoubtedly engineered byclan and dynastic dissensions. Thus the politicalstruggle was forgotten for the moment in thepopular cry of " away with the followers of theforeigner."It was the severe persecution of the Christiansin the South of the Metropolitan Province thatinduced the crisis and determined the issues. TheChristians were accused of turning away the favourof the gods, a calamity resulting in famine anddistress. Soldiers and Boxers fraternised. Foreignerswere warned to leave Peking. Servantsand helpers deserted. On May 28 the railwaybetween Peking and Pao-ting was destroyed, theengineers being bravely rescued by M. and Mme.Chamot. Others fled to Tientsin, some being killedon the way ; seventeen missionaries remaining inPao-ting were massacred on June 30 and July 1.As things were looking serious in Peking a compositeforeign guard of 340 men arrived (May 31) ; onJune 2 two members of the S.P.G. were murderedin Chihli. On June 6 an edict was issued proclaimingprotection to Christians but it was withoutavail because insincere. The country was seethingwith disaffection and foreigners had difficulty ingetting to the safety of Peking. On the 10th ofJune Prince Tuan, head of the Boxers, becamechief of the Foreign Office.The Great Powers prepared to meet theemergency. On the 10th Admiral Seymour leftTientsin with a composite force of 1800 ; but onJune 24th he was completely cut off, and thoughonly 25 miles away from Peking was compelledto cut his way back to Tient^ where he arrivedon the 26th, being helped by a small Russian forcewhich had gone to his relief.Events wei'e moving rapidly, and the positionwas getting more critical, as was seen by themurder of the Japanese Chancellor of LegationSuGiYAMA on June 11th. Tung's soldiers persecutedChristians during these days and thousands werehounded to death. On the 13th the Austrian Legation,etc., was destroyed. It was about this datethat the Imperial Clan Council, already mentioned,met and decided on a policy, the warlike clansvoting for war a routrancc and carrying their61

BOXERISMENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICApoint, in face of the wise advice of cautious andexperienced statesmen. Hsii Ching-ch'eng ^T^fSYiiAN Ch'ang ^ Ig, Hsii Yung i^ ;fj ^and Lien Yuan ^ y^, were put to death foroppo?ing this policy. The die being cast, Yung LuIS ^ > was ordered ( June 21 ) to bring in histroops to attack the Legations, Baron von Kettlerhaving been murdered the previous day. Edictswere issued ( June 20-25 ) ordering the indiscriminateextermination of all foreigners : but until thecapture of the Taku Forts { June 17 ) no declarationof war had been made, and this action led theChinese to put the onus of war on the Powers.The capture of the forts relieved the serious pressureon Tientsin, which had been severely attackedand bombarded by Chinese troops. The Arsenalwas captured on July 11th by the Allies, and thecity on the 14th. The relieving force arrived in Tientsi.ion the 18th and organized the relief of Peking.The refugees were centred, in (a) the BritishLegation,( 473 civilians and a garrison of 400men, with 2700 converts and 400 servants in theadjoining compound Su-wang fu) : (b) thePei T'ang or North Cathedral, ( three or fourthousand converts under the leadership of BishopFavier helped by 40 French and German marines).In these two centres the beleaguered organizedthemselves, and withstood the half-hearted assaultsof the Chinese, from June 20 until relieved at3 p.m. August 14th by a force under GeneralGaselee.TheProvinces.YiiAN Shih-k'ai maintained orderin Shantung by a ruthless treatmentof the Boxers. Foreigners escapedto points of safety, but many native Christianswere massacred and much property destroyed.Shansi, where Yii Hsien was governor, sufferedmost. Fire and sword reigned here, Yii Hsienhimself taking part in killing the Catholic andProtestant missionaries, to the number of fifty-one,in his Yamen on July 9th and 11th. Some partieswere able to escape from the South, but throughmuch suffei'ing : others were killed on the roads :some wandered in the mountains until the stormblew over. Over sixty foreigners were killed inthe province, besides those already mentioned asmassacred in T'ai-yiian fu. But a party of fifteenescaped from Kalgan across the Gobi desertand reached safety in Irkutsk. Native Christians,Protestant and Catholic, suffered cruelly, a greatnumber being put to death.Foreigners in Honan escaped but not withoutmany difficulties. Tag Mu and Tuan Fang gaveprotection to foreigners and native Christians inKansu and Shensi, though the Boxers were activehere too.There were murders here and there in theCentral and Southern Provinces, the most notoriousbeing the massacre of Mr. D. B. Thomson andparty, eleven people, in Chii-chou fu on July 21—24.Chang Chih-tung and Liu K'un-i in compact withthe British Consuls did much to control mattersand keep the peace in these parts.The proximity of Japan did much towardsquelling Boxer activity in Manchuria, yet therewas much disturbance and foreigners escaped withdifficulty. Bishop Guillon was massacred inMukden, and others in other parts. Many Christianssufiered. The Boxer outbreak in Newchwangwas easily suppressed by the Russians (August 4).The Chinese attack on Blagovestchensk (July 18)was met with savage retaliation.. . The court fled on August 14th : theRetrihution. ^-jg ^^ Kuang Hsii being first forcedto commit suicide. It travelled via T'ai-yiian fu.That it endured much suffering may be seen fromthe Edict giving the Imperial apologia to the world(February 14, 1901). The Emperor says " on thejourney between Chang-ping and Hsien-hua, Iattended the Empress-Dowager in ragged cottonclothing, and we were not able to get so much asa bowl of congee." Prince Ching and Li Hung-CHANG were appointed to negotiate with the outragedPowers. Sir E. Satow^ (from Japan) changedplaces with Sir C. MacDonald. Li had moved forpeace earlier and asked the good offices of theJapanese Emperor without result. A message fromthe Emperor to President McKinley on the 23rdJuly asking his help met with a similar fate.The Allied armies took possession of Tientsinand Peking and the adjoining districts. At firstmany of the soldiers of the composite body actedin a brutal and licentious way. Men, women andchildren were outraged and murdered and citieslooted. " The once crowded Peking is a desertand the first few days of foreign occupation haveseen much that need not have occurred, and willcertainly be regretted." (Sir R. Hart). Someforeignei-s came to the captured districts for loot :a most disgraceful episode.Count VON Waldersee arrived on September 21to assume the post of Commander-in-chief of theAllied Forces. Punitive expeditions were sent toPao-ting fu where the Treasurer and Tartar-Generalwere executed and others punished. Part of thewall was destroyed and reparation for outrages wasexacted. The expedition destined for T'ai-yiian fuwent no further than the Niang-Tzu Kuan pass, onthe borders of Shansi. The U.S. Minister withjustice protested against the military action ofCount Waldersee round Peking.Tentative proposals for the withdrawal oftroops were made by Russia and the United States,but Great Britain refused assent until satisfactoryterms were arranged. Finally a protocol wassigned on September 7, 1901. The more important62

NouveauxENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICABRACHYPODINAEitems were (a) an indemnity of 450 millions of taels ;to be amortized in 39 years. Interest to be 4%and the tael to be reckoned @ 3/- (b) An embargoplaced on the importation of arms, and the suspensionof all examinations for five years, (c) Punishmentof principal culprits; and special envoys tobe sent to Berlin and Japan, (d) Cemeteries thathad been desecrated were to be restored, andrestitution of houses and goods was to be made,(e) The Legation quarters were to be isolated andthe Taku Forts razed, (f) Guards were to remainin Peking and keep the right of way to the coast,(g) Hortatory Edicts were to be published widelyand Commercial treaties to be amended, (h) A newForeign Office was to be established.These terms were accepted on December 27 andthe Court returned to Peking on January 7th, 1901.Local indemnities were paid : but the ProtestantChurch refused any indemnities for the liveslost. In lieu of this it was agreed in Shansi toestablish a LTniversity on Western lines, to be maintainedby the authorities, and under joint controlfor ten years at the annual cost of taels 50,000.The buildings were an additional charge.Yii HsiEN ; Prince Chuang ; Ch'i. Hsu ; HsijCH'iNG-HSiiEH were executed. Kang I ; Chad HsiiCHiAO ; YiNG NiEN Were ordered to commit suicide.Others like Yu Lu committed suicide without thecommand.Bibliography :D'AxTTHouRD : Le,s Boxers; Backhouse andBland : China Under the Empress-Dowager, andAnnals and Memoirs of the Court of Peking;Bboomhall : Martyred Missionaries of the ChinaInland Mission; Clements : 7'Ae Boxer Rebellion;Edwauds : Fire and Sword in Shensi; Forsyth :The China Martyrs of 1900; Hart : The PekingLegations; Headland : Chinese Heroes; Ketleii :The Tragedy of Pao-ting fu; Martin : TheSiege of Peking; Shanghai Mercury Office :The Boxer Rising; Morrison : Articles in theTimes; Smith : China in Convvlsion, andOhina from within; Thomson : China and thePowers; Glover : A I'housand Miles of Merciesn China.'In Chinese) :'PKlE§- Commercial Press (?)l^iF-5^|,lE. ^iri^^B Christian Literature Society[E.M.]BOY, the term commonly used by foreignersin China to denote the man-servant who waits attable, etc., not coolie or cook. Cf. the Frenchuse of gar^on.BOYM, MICHEL, VM-^ Pu Mike, a Jesuitraissionary, born in Poland in 1612. He reachedTonkin in 1645, thence went to Hainan and in1650 to Kuangsi, where he made several convertsat the court of the fugitive Ming emperor Yung Li.The recently baptised princesses and Constantine{q.t\) the emperor's son charged him with lettersto the Pope, and he reached Venice towards theend of 1652. His mission was a very difficultone, and it was not till December 1655 that hereceived official answers from Pope AlexanderVIII. A few months later he embarked at Lisbonwith eight companions, five of whom died duringthe journey. He reached Tonkin to find theaffairs of the Ming dynasty in a hopeless state;but in his anxiety to be faithful to his mission heplunged into Tonkin to reach Kuangsi by landhe was, however, too much exhausted by hisexertions and he died on the Kuangsi border,August 22, 1659.He made a word for word Latin translation ofthe Nestorian Monument inscription in 1653, whichwas published in 1667 by Kircher in ChinalUustrata. His acquaintance with Chinese was,however, not as good as was necessary for sucha task.His writings include Flora Sinensis, publishedin Latin at Vienna in 1656. A French translationof it is given in Thevenot's Relation des Voyages,1696. In the Vienna edition there is also apicture of part of the Nestorian Monument. Healso translated a work on medicine, giving a listof 289 Chinese drugs. The manuscript had topass through Batavia, and the name of the Jesuittranslator was there removed. The work waspublished with other stolen matter by AndreCi.eyer at Frankfort in 1682.Remusat : Melanges Asiatiques, vol.ii ; Havret : La Stele ChrHienne de Si-ngan-fv,Part 2, p. 331.BRACHYPODINAE, a Subfamily of theCrateropodidae, containing the Bulbuls. Pycnonotussinensis Gm. ; China to the valley of the YellowRiver. /'. fornwsae; Formosa. P. taicanus Styan ;Formosa. P. hainanus Sw. ; Hainan. P. xanthorr/iousAnderson ; S. China. P. atricapilltisVieillot ; S. China. P. burynanicus Sharpe ;Yiinnan. Otocompsa jocosa L. ; Kuangtung. O.flaviventris Tick. ; Yiinnan. Hemixus castanonotusSwinhoe/ Hainan. H. canipennis Seebohm;Fukien, Kuangtung. H. flavala Hodgs. ; Yiinnan.lole polti SwiNH. ; Fukien, Kuangtung. Hypsipetesamaurotefi Temm. ; Chekiang. H. leucocepJialusGm. ; S. China. H. concolor Blyth ; Yiinnan.H. nigerrimus Gould ; Formosa. H. pernigerSwiNH. ; Hainan. Criniger pallidus Swinh. ;Hainan. C. henrici Oust. ; Yunnan. C. griseicepsHume ; Yiinnan. Chloropsis lazidina Swinh. ;Hainan, Fukien. C. hardwickii J. & S. ; Yiinnan.C. aurifrons Temm. ; Yiinnan. Spizixus semitorques63

|i'BRIDGESENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASwiNH. ; S. China to the Yangtze. S. canifronsBlyth; Yunnan.David et Oustalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine;Pycnonotides,Phyllornitides.BRACHYPTERYGINAE, a Sub family of theUrateropodidae according to the Fauna of India.The following Shortwings and Robins belonging tothis group are found in China and Formosa.Brachypteryz sinensis and B. carolinae in N.W.Fukien ; B. cruralis in Yiinnan ; B. (joodfellotbi inFormosa. Larvivora ohscura in Kansu ; L. davidiin Ssuch'uan, T'aipei shan (Ch'inling) ; L. ruficepsin T'aipei shan (Ch'inling) ; L. ci/ane in N. Chinato the Lower Yangtze and probably in W. China;L. sibilans in S.E. China, going north in summer :itbreeds in Saghalien.BRAHMA. See Fan Wang.BRANCHES, EARTHLY. See Cycle.BRAND, ADAM, secretary of the IdesEmbassy to China in 1693. See Ides.BRAVES. Properly Chinese soldiers bearingthe character ^ {brave) on their coats behind ;but often used by foreigners of any Chinesesoldiers.BREDON, ROBERT EDWARD, Sir, wasborn in Ireland on February 4, 1845. He firstentered the army, but retired in 1873, and joinedthe Chinese Customs service. He was DeputyInspector-General from 1898 to 1908, then ActingInspector-General till 1910. The Chinese appointedhim to a Board of Customs, but in deferenceto the wishes of the British Government he withdrew.He was present in the siege of theLegations, 1900. His honours include K.C.M.G.(1904) and many from foreign powers. He graduatedat Dublin as M.A. and M.B.BREMER, JAMES JOHN GORDON, Sir,was born in 1786 and, like his father and grandfather,entered the navy. After seeing a gooddeal of service elsewhere he reached HongkongJune 21, 1840, and had the naval command of theExpedition to China after Admiral Elliot retired,and before the arrival o.f Sir William Parker,that is, through the greater part of 1840-41. Hereceived the honours of C.B. (1815), K.C.H. (1836),and K.C.B. (1841). In September, 1849, he becamerear-admiral, but died on February 14, 1850.BRETSCHNEIDER, EMILE VASILIEVITCH, born at Riga (?) in 1833, died at Petrogradin 1901. He was Doctor to the RussianLegation in Peking from 1866 to 1883, retiringin 1884.His writings both on botany and geographyare extremely valuable. His Botanicon Sinicum,which first appeared in the Journal of the RoyalAsiatic Society, N. C. Branch, is a standard work.Most of his writings are in English. A list of themis given in the T'oung Pao, 1901, p. 195. Themore important and accessible are as follows :Ta-Ts'in-kuo :hMM- Chinese Recorder, III;On the knowledge possessed by the Ancient Chineseof the Arabs, etc., London, 1871; Ueher das LandFu-Sang, Yokohama, 1876 ; Elucidations of MarcoPolo's Travels in North-China, drawn from ChineseSources. By the Archimandrite Palladius.(Journal N.C.B.R.A.S., X, pp. 1-54; Noteson Chinese Mediaeval Travellers to the West,Shanghai, 1875; Notices of the Mediaeval Geo-,graphy and History of Central and Western Asia,London, 1876 ; Chinese Intercourse with the Coun- «tries of Central and Western Asia during the 15thcentury, (China Review, vols, iv, v) ; MediaevalResearches from Eastern Asiatic Sources, London,1888; Archaeological and Historical Researches onPeking and its Environs, Shanghai, 1876; EarlyEuropean Researches into the Flora of China,Shanghai, 1881; Botanicon Sinicum.— Notes onChinese Botany from Native and Western Sources,London, 1882 ; History of European Botanical Discoveriesin China, London, 1898; On the Studyand value of Chinese Botanical Works, Foochow,1870 ; Map of China, St. Petersburg, 1898 ; 1900.BRICK TEA is prepared in Central China bysoftening leaves, twigs and dust of tea with boilingwater and then pressing the mass together intobricks. It is much used in Mongolia, Siberia andTibet, not only for preparing a beverage, but alsoas a medium of exchange. It has the advantageof being easy \o handle and transport.BRIDGES. Since the character i^ Hang, abridge or beam, includes water and wood in itscompo.sition, it has been assumed to prove that theearliest bridges were of wood. This would onlybo valid if the character were in its original form.Bridges in China are of great variety inmaterial and construction. There are stone bridgesof slabs laid on uprights, or with arches of variousshapes ; wooden ones, simple planks laid on supportsof wood or stone, or arcade bridges, frequentlyfound in western China, with double or tripleroois ;pontoon bridges^; bamboo suspension bridges,planks laid on bamboo ropes of perhaps four inchesdiameter ; iron suspension bridges, planks on ironchains ; and Tibetan or Himalayan bridges of asingle rope of twisted bamboo, one end higherthan the other, across which gravity takes thetraveller holding on to a pulley or slider. A gooddescription of these last is given by Ward.A few bridges of note may be mentioned. TheLu kou ch'iao MM^ X'^^^'">(> heing bridge) acrossthe Hun river, ten miles west of Peking, is calledby foreigners the Marco Polo bridge, because64

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA B. & F. BIBLE SOCIETYthat traveller mentions it. It was later described,but with curious differences, by Le Comte and byMagaillans. It was first built in 1189 and rebuiltby K'ANG Hsi. (See Yule's Marco Polo, vol. ii.)The Polam Bridge near Chang-chou fu ^^]]^in, jFukien is famous. It is over 800 feet long(Little) or about 2,000 feet (Phillips). Some ofthe stones are of immense size, one being seventyfeet long by five wide and four thick, its weightbeing estimated at 107 tons. It dates back to 1208,and is one of the few ancient works in China. ItsChinese name is H^i-tu ch'iao ^7,^^, Tiger ferrybridge, or Chiang-tung ch'iao QJ^^, East of theriver bridge. This is according to Phillips, butelsewhere the name is given as P'u-nan ch'iaoJfill^. which has given rise to the foreign name.Other noted bridges are the Wan shou ch'iaoMmM'the Wan shou Shan Summer Palace near Peking.^t Foochow, and some marble bridges atIt is recorded that the Yellow River was firstspanned by a bridge in B.C. 257 by the Ch'in State,on what is still the high road between T'ung-chou fuand P'u-chou fu, near the end of the river's southwardcourse between Shensi and Shansi.Davies : Yiimmn; Johnston: From Pekingto Mandalay; Ward : The Land of the BluePopp,/ : China Review, vol. xxii : Bridges;Phillips : T'oung Pao, vol. v.BRIDGMAN, ELIJAH COLEMAN, ^^^born in the United States in 1801, the firstAmerican missionary to China, was sent by theAmerican Board of Commissioners for ForeignMissions, and reached Canton in 1829. Two yearslater he founded The Chinese Rejwsitory andmanaged it till 1847. He was first President ofthe North China Branch of the Royal AsiaticSociety, 1857-59. His chief work in Chinese wasthe translation, in collaboration with Rev. M. L.C'ULBERTSON, of the New Testament.He died at Shanghai in November, 1861.BRIDGMAN, JAMES GRANGER, a relativeof Dr. E. C. Bridgman, who arrived inHongkong in 1844 as a missionary of thei'lmerican "Board of Commissioners for ForeignJfissions. He died in less than seven years, attie end of 1850, after attempted suicide. Hesicceeded Dr. Bridgman as editor of the ChineseI'epository for eighteen months, and he publisheda tran.«lation of Premare'S Notitia Linguae Sinicae(Canton, 1847).BRINJAL, Solanum melongena, the egg-plant,fciund throughout China.BRISTLES?§;^CAm tsung. There is a largetrade in pigs' bristles, mostly with Great Britain,Finance, and the U.S.A. The chief producing districtsare Tientsin (20,000 piculs) ; ChungkingI(Pels. 15-16,000) ; and Hankow (Pels. 15,000). Thebest bristles are about five inches long aftertrimming and bundling. They should be thick andwiry, long and of pure colour, preferably white. Inthe region west of Chungking, where the trade hasmade great strides, there are many white pigs,which supply the best bristles in the market. Thecollecting season is from November to April, bristlesbeing soft and useless for manufacturing inthe hot months. Kueichou province and Manchuriaalso supply the market, which is capable of extensionif the suppliers would but recognise thenecessity for careful preparation and grading. Thebristles from South China are inferior. Manycleaning factories are in existence in the largecentres of the trade. Exportation : 1914, Pels.50,000. .Tls. 4,440,000; 1915, Pels. 58,000 Tls.4,875,000. In 1916 it was Pels. 62,787, Tls. 5,534,684.BRITISH AND FOREIGN BIBLE SOCIETY,The, has its chief headquarters in London, and itsChina headquarters in Shanghai, with sub-agenciesat Canton, Hankow, Tientsin, Chengtu, Yunnan fu,Tsi-nan fu, Kalgan and Mukden.The first work done by the Society for Chinawas to assist in printing the first two Chinesetranslations of the Bible made by Protestant missionaries,Marshman and Lassar's, (Serampore1822), and Morrison and Milne's (Malacca, 1823).Liberal grants were also made to three otherearly versions viz., Medhurst's New Testament,GiiTZLAFF's Old Testament, and Medhurst's NewTestament revised by Gutzlaff. The Society alsoaided generously in the distribution of theScriptures among the Chinese in the East Indies,Malaysia, Siam and Cochin China, at a time whenit had been forbidden by Imperial edict to printor circulate the Bible in China itself; and madegrants towards the many voyages of GiItzlaff,Medhurst and others up and down the coast.The first agent of the Society was Mr. G.Tradescant Lay sent out to Macao in 1836, andabout this time Chinese distributors were firstemployed. After the cession of Hongkong in 1842,this colony was made the Society's centre, and theDelegates' Version (1850-4) was practically financedby the Society, as also the mandarin version ofthe same, first printed in 1857.In 1860, missionary travel in the interiorbecame possible under the treaty of Peking, andMr. Alexander Wylie [q.v.) who had been incharge of the L.M.S.' Press in Shanghai, becameagent for the B. and F.B.S. and itinerated inseventeen of the eighteen provinces, being thefirst Protestant missionary to visit most of theground he traversed. He also introduced thepractice of selling the Scriptures at a low priceinstead of giving them away.

.'BRITISH CHAMBER ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAAt first the sales were slow, but aided by theemployment of Europeans as colporteurs theyincreased until in 1875 they reached 100,000. Freegrants were not done away with, but have alwaysbeen made on a generous scale ; and as versions ofthe Bible were made in the southern coHoquials, bothin character and Roman letters, the Society printedand published them.Corresponding committees were early formed,the first being at Shanghai in 1849; and in 1879,an arrangement was made with the C.I.M. wherebysome of its agents combined colportage withevangelistic work, by which means a very largenumber of cities, especially in North China, werefirst provided with the Scriptures. The growth inthe use of Chinese colporteurs was also steady,reaching 115 in 1890.When at the Missionary Conference of thatyear, the "Union" versions were decided upon,the cost of producing them was divided betweenthe B. & F.B.S. and the American Bible Societyand the National Bible Society of Scotland whichhad now entered the field. Some years later thewhole field was divided into sub-agencies, replacingthe earlier "Corresponding committees" which hadonly advising power, and various other improvementswere introduced.Since its first entrance into China the B. andF.B.S. has brought out in Chinese 177 versions ofScripture (mostly portions) independently, and 36in conjunction with other Bible Societies ; and 6in Tibetan, and 5 in Mongolian.The report for the year ending December, 1916,gives the following figures :Colporteurs partly or wholly employed464Bible-women ... 25Bibles, Testaments and portionsprinted3,116,168Volumes issued 2,732,030„ circulated 2,316,578BRITISH CHAMBER OF COMMERCE(Shanghai), The, was formed in 1915, with theusual objects of a Chamber of Commerce, but withaims emphasized by the war. Its intention was tobe a Chamber for China, Shanghai being regarded asa branch only of a wide organization, and an invitationwas sent to all the ports asking business menand firms to join, and to form local committees.Members pay an entrance fee of thirty taelsand an annual subscription of the same amount.The British Consul-General, Sir Everard Eraser,K.C.M.G. became Honorary President, and thethe British Commercial Attache, Mr. ArchibaldRose, CLE. the Vice-President. There are 252members in 1917.A monthly Journal is issued for the confidentialinformation of members, the first number beingdated September, 1915, and a Chinese Journal isalso distributed among Chinese Chambers of Commerce; the circulation in 1917 being 800 and 13,000respectively. A Language School has been establishedand has great success.BROLLO, BASILIO, a Franciscan missionary,born at Gemona (often found wrongly writtenas Glemona) in Italy, March 25, 1648 ; he left forChina in 1680, worked in Hu-kuang and Siam,was made Vicar-Apostolic of Shensi in 1700 anddied in that province, on August 13, 1703, accordingto CoRDiER who however gives no authority;or July 16, 1704, according to a sketch of hislife published in Italy in 1890 ; on July 16, 1706,according to Father Kennelly, s.j.; or September17, 1706, according to Father de Moideey, {LaIlierarrhie Cutholique, p. 46). See Dirtionrnies.BRONZE. The art of moulding and chisellingbronze was developed in China in very early timesand besides all the references to it in ancientliterature we have many actual specimens ofbronze art which undoubtedly belong to the Chouand Shang dynasties. According to the Shu Chiiujthe famous Nine Tripods were made still earlier,in the Hsia dynasty. They were made of metalincluded in tribute sent from the nine provinces,and each had the map of a province carved on it.But there are now no examples which can be withcertainty ascribed to the Hsia period.Bronzes are practically imperishable, and earlierspecimens are becoming more instead of lessnumerous. It is supposed that bronze vessels withinscriptions on them were hidden away in greatnumbers at the time of the burning of the books ;but it is certain that they now continue to beyielded from the soil. In the earliest examples theform is simple and the ornamentation is severe.Those before Ch'in Shih Huang' Ti, that is,belonging to the three dynasties Hsia, Shang andChou, are considered by Chinese as a first class.while all later bronzes are placed in the secondclass. The Ch'in ^ and Han work is -generally inimitation of previous art, but in the T'ang andSung periods a new originality is found.Bronzes have been for many centuries theobjects of minute and loving study, and there havebeen many important works written on them. Oneof the best known of these is the Po Lu t'u fSli'^issued in the Sung dynasty. The interest is notonly aesthetic or antiquarian, but because theearliest forms of the Chinese written character arefound on bronzes. The Shang inscriptions are few.but there are many from the Chou period. Theseare always incised, while later specimens in theHan dynasty are in relief. At lea.«t it is so said66

|ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICABubDHrsMin Strehlneek; but these easy dicta are often;snares to the amateur. Giles, translating Chad|Hsi-KU, states that "under the three earlydynasties, inscriptions were cast in intaglio. . . .From the Han dynasty onwards ,tte inscriptionswere either in rilievo, ... or they were incisedwith tools," etc.After the form and the inscription the mostimportant matter is the patina. The colour,brilliance, etc., of this depend partly on the alloy,j—on the presence of gold or silver with the lead,tin, etc. ;partly on the conditions in which thearticles lay buried, the nature of the soil and waterwith which they might be in contact, and so on.Among many famous bronzes which might bementioned, a bowl at the South Kensington Museumis of great interest and has given rise to muchinstructive controversy. Some assert that whilethe vessel is possibly antique the inscription hasbeen incised later ; these include Giles, Chavannes,Pelliot and Vissiere. Others claim that the bowland inscription belong to the 7th century B.C.Parker, Hopkins and Bushell support this claim.Bushell : Chinese Art; Paleologue : L'Artchinois; Giles: Adversaria Sinica, No. 9;Stanley: Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xliiiFerguson : Early Chinese Bronzes, ibid. vol. xlviiStrehlneek : Chinese Pictorial Art; Thom : B.A.S.i|Journal, vols, i & ii, 1834-5.BRONZE DRUMS. These are curiousremnants of ancient culture, found from theYangtze down to the Malay peninsula. They aresupposed to be emblems of authority or to beassociated with worship. Hirth has proposedto class all the aboriginal races who use or haveased them under the name Bronze drum 'nations.'The northern representatives were Man tribesof the Ch'u State, but it is impossible to say atjjresent whether the southern 'bronze drum|nations ' had any connection with China injlirehistoric time.* or not. See Man-tzu.Hirth : The Ancient History of China.BRUCE, FREDERICK WILLIAM ADOLphus,the Hon., brother of Lord Elgin, (q.v.) waslorn April 14, 1814, and died in the U.S.A. onSeptember 19, 1867. He was sent to China toexchange the ratifications of the Tientsin Treaty,lut was stopped by the Taku forts (June, 1859).After the War which followed this treachery,I'.RUCE arrived in Peking as Minister-plenipotentiaryon March 26, 1861. The crushing of the T'ai P'ingrsbellion and the incident of the Lay-OsborneI'lotilla belong to his period of administration.He left Peking on his appointment to WashingtDnin 1865, having received the honour of K.C.B.ill 1862.BUBBLING y^ELL "^^hai yen, sea's eye,a well at Shanghai, about three miles west fromthe Bund, in the road to which it has given it»(forvign) name. The water is foul drainage andthe bubbling is through the escape of noxious gaswhich, it is said, can be ignited.The well was originally on a canal, and thewater near by is said to have been quite warmabout 3 feet beneath the surface. There wasformerly a pavilion over it with the inscription" the fountain that bubbles towards Heaven."Two inscriptions are now decorating it, one statingthat it is the sixth spring of the Empire, the otherannouncing that it is the spot where the autraswere listened to. (The reference is to a legend ofsome frogs who were much impressed by the readingof the Buddhist Scriptures).The Chinese name of the Bubbling Well Roadis Chinr/ an ssu lu^gc#S§. the Ching an ssu ortemple being near the well ; it is said to have beenbuilt in A.D. '250.BUDDHA'S HAND. See Oranges.BUDDHISM IN CHINA. Chinese writersgive various accounts of the introduction of Buddhism.The Fa Yuan Chu Lin ^Hs.M'^W, completedin 668 by the Buddhist priest Tao Shih jgjli:, saysthat as early as b.c. 217 a native of India (knownin China as Li Fang %\\^) arrived with seventeencompanions at the capital, Hsi-an, as Buddhistmissionaries, and that they were imprisoned bythe reigning First Emperor, but were miraculouslysetat liberty.The same work gives a mass of evidence toprove that Buddhist books were known in Chinabefore the Ch'in dynasty, and says they wereamong those burned by the First Emperor, thoughit is more than doubtful whether at this timeBuddhist doctrine had been collected in writtenform even in India. Another statement (quotedby Rf.mfsat) is that in B.C. 122, during a militaryexpedition of the (Chinese to a " country beyondYarkand," sent by the Han Emperor Wu Ti, agclden statue of Buddha was taken and broughtback to the court, with some account of hisreligion.All these statements are questioned by critics.Yet even if we doubt the existence of Indianinfluence on the Chinese thought found in Taoism,there must have been considerable intercourse withIndia from very early times. However, neitherSsu-MA Ch'ien, nor the History of the Western HanDynasty (206 B.C. to 24 a.d.) says anything aboutBuddha or Buddhism, and it is supposed theywould have mentioned its introduction had theyknown of it. Giles however thinks the evidencefor the above stories as good as that for theauthorized version, which is, that Buddhism wasintroduced into China in the reign of the EmperorMing Ti, (58-76 a.d.) of the Eastern Han. It isIt>7

BUDDHISMENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA«6aid that about 63, the Emperor had a dream inwhich he saw "a high shining gold image of a god,which appeared to him, and entered his palace."A courtier (some say the Emperor's brother),interpreted the dream by saying the gold imagewas Buddha, who thus demanded to be worshippedin China; as a consequence, the Emperor sent anembassy of eighteen men to India, to ask forBuddhist books and teachers. The messengersleft the capital (Lo-yang, now Honan fu) in 63,and travelled across Central Asia, until they reachedKhotan. The exact dates both of the dreamand of the return, differ in different accounts.The embassy brought back with it images ofBuddha, Buddhist Scriptures, and two Buddhistmonks, Kas'yapa Matanga, known to the Chineseas Ssi Mo TKNG^^Jg, and Gobarana or ChuFa-lak S}iB5» »-«-j Fa-lan from India. (Theformer died soon after his arrival, the second died,also in China, at over 60 years of age). Theycame with white horses, and for this reason, thefirst temple, which was erected in the capital, wascalled Pai Ma Ssu, White Horse Temple. Theysoon began the translation of various sacred books,and a Life of Buddha from northern tradition,though they do not seem to have translated controversialmatter, nor to have stood definitely flprMahayanist views. The stream of Indian missionarieswho followed them continued for 600 or 700years.The new - religion, though under the directpatronage of the Emperor, did not make rapidprogress. For 250 years its authorized representativeswere all foreigners, whose most importantwork was the translation of the Buddhist Canon,which went on steadily all the time. In the 2ndcentury, an Indian translator named by the ChineseChi Kung-ming, did 40 years' work at Lo-yang,producing, inter alia, the first Chinese version ofthe Lotus of the Good Law. Three hundred andfifty books were produced before the Han dynastyclosed ; and during the Three Kingdoms, translatorswere still busy, one of them being tutor tothe crown prince of the Wu Kingdom, at Nanking.The first Chinese name among the translatorsis found under the Western Chin ^ dynasty.Buddhism greatly prospered among the lesscivilized of the short-lived states of the fourth andfifth centuries. The second prince of the laterChao ^g (in modern Chihli and Shansi), gavepermission in 335 for native Buddhists to takemonastic vows : 42 convents were soon erected inthe capital alone : and in 381, nine-tenths of theinhabitants of North-west China were estimatedto be Buddhists,The Eastern Chin ^ favoured the religion, andthe 9th Emperor Hsiao Wu Ti (373-397) became aBuddhist, the first Emperor to do so. About thistime the first ruler of the Posterior Ch'in ^^state (parts of modern Shensi and Kansu), did thesame ; and his successor was an ardent disciple,who in 405 gave a title and a hall to Kumarajiva,{

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICABUDDHISMWu Ti, but not being satisfied with his reception,passed on to the Wei Kingdom and finally tookup his abode at Lo-yang. Here he is said to havesat for nine years with his face to a wall, wraptin meditation. Wen Hsiian Ti, the first emperorof Northern Ch'i, compelled Taoists and Buddhiststo discuss their tenets in 555, saying one or othermust be unnecessary. He decided in favour ofBuddhism, and ordered the Taoists to becomebonzes or die. Only four chose the latter.The first emperor of the Ch'en ^ dynastyretired, after a four-years reign, to a monastery.Some years after, the prince of the NorthernChou prohibited both Buddhism and Taoism, buthis son reversed the father's edict. This is afair sample of Buddhist history in China ;prosperousor declining, according to the tastes orpolitical necessities of the ruler, but always condemnedby the Confucian literati.The Sui dynasty was favourable to Buddhism,and three collections of the Tripitaka (q.v.) weremade between 594 and 616, while the Annals saythat the Buddhist books out-numbered the Confucian.The T'ang dynasty was on the whole the periodof Buddhism's greatest })rosperity, but the earlyrulers were not favourable. A second persecutionbroke out under them, and Kao Tsu suppressed anumber of monasteries. In the second reign,however, HsiiAN Tsang went to India and washonoured on his return, and spent the rest of hislife translating by Imperial command the bookshe had brought back. The notorious EmpressWu also was a nun for a time, and even gaveherself out to be Maitreya, and ordered a newsatra which made this statement to be distributedbroadcast. Under the Emperor Hsuan Tsung(713-755) a great persecution arose. The religionwas prohibited, and more than 12,000 priests wereforced to return to secular life. The Emperorlater modified his views, for the Tripitaka waspublished under his auspices in 730. From thistime for 150 years all the T'ang rulers saveWu Tsung (841-7) were pro-Buddhist. The latterhalf of the 8th century, marks at once greatincrease of popularity, and growing corruption ofdoctrine and ritual, with added ceremonies forthe dead.Su Tsung had a Buddhist chapel in hispalace, and made his eunuchs and guards dress upasbodhi.sattvas and genii.The next Emperor used himself to expoundthe scriptures ; and when a temple was built tohis dead mother, he appointed 1,000 monks andnuns to " say mass " every year on the 15th ofthe 7th moon. This is the origin of the ChineseAll Souls' Day (q.v.) ; and was an official recognitionof the ceremonies and doctrines which haveIendeared Buddhism ,to the heart of the people,at the cost of nobler teachings neglected.The last-mentioned three Emperors were allpatrons of Amogha, a Cingalese monk who arrivedin China in 733 and became known to the Chinesea,s Pu-k'ung ;t;^, "Not hollow," which is themeaning of the Indian word. He taught theYoga or Tantra doctrine, the chief characteristicsof which are ecstatic meditation (really a kind ofself-hypnotism) combined with mysterious movementsof the hands and fingers and the use ofincantations, all for exorcistic and magic purposes.In 819, HsiEN Tsung, hearing that a monasteryin Shensi had a bone of Buddha which workedmiracles every 30 years, had it brought in stateto the capital; on which occasion Han YiJ (q.v.)made his famous protest, and nearly lost his head.Wu Tsung (841-7) was devoted to Taoism,and violently averse to Buddhism. He describesthe Buddhist temples as " eclipsing the imperialpalaces in splendour," and monks without numberliving on the people. He again prohibitedBuddhism, ordered 4,600 large, and 40,000 smallertemples to be demolished, and their lands confiscated.Monks and nuns to the number of 260,500were secularized, and 150,000 temple slaves setfree. The numbers are probably exaggerated. Intwo years, the Emperor was taken ill as the resultof Taoist elixirs, and became dumb ; his successorkilled the Taoist instigators of the Buddhist persecution,revoked the edict, and began reconstruction.Yet he also received favourably a memorialthat monks and nuns must get permission beforetaking their vows.The devotion of the T'ang dynasty toBuddhism has passed into a proverb. De Groot,however, says that the faith never recovered fromthe injury the T'ang rulers inflicted on it.During the next three centuries, the history ofBuddhism chiefly concerns its influence on artblock printing was to give a great impulse toConfucianism ; but the first Sung Emperor's reignwas marked by the issue of the first printedBuddhist canon, with a preface by His Majesty.This dynasty saw 274 new translations, thoughthese were naturally fewer than in earlier times,most of the work being already done.The second Emperor built a stupa 360 feet highfor relics. Jen Tsung, the 4th Emperor, was notvery much given to Buddhism, but neverthelessin 1035 appointed fifty youths to study Sanskrit.Hui Tsung, the 8th Emperor, hated Buddhism,having been turned out from his novitiate in boyhoodfor misconduct. He was an ardent Taoistand tried to amalgamate the two faiths, in sucha way as to suppress Buddhism. He ordered thatthe title of Buddha should be exchanged for onelike those of the Taoist divinities. Priests were

YiianBUDDHISMENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAno longer to be " seng," nor monasteries " ssuyiian," Taoist terms being substituted. Theattempt was a complete failure; the edict wasreversed; the Taoist instigator degraded, andTaoism itself persecuted.With the Southern Sung dynasty, and theremoval of the capital to Hangchow, eclecticismin religion prevailed. Thus, Chu Hsi studiedBuddhist literature in his youth, and though afterwardsstrongly anti-Buddhist, his writings beartraces of his contact with Buddhist thought. Infact, the Sung philosophy is more than anythingelse the answers given by Confucianism to the newquestions raised by Buddhism. (See Philosophy).The . dynasty consistently favouredBuddhism, though in a form more Tibetan andMongolian than Chinese.Khtjbilai Khan, in fact, took up a newattitude. Hitherto the Empire had been aConfucian institution, and any other religion wasonly a concession. But Khubilai convertedImperial temples, which were really Confucian,to Buddhist uses; and put Confucianism in asecondary place. A census taken at the end ofthe 13th century, gives the number of temples asmore than 42,000, and that of the monks as over215,000.It was complained of Khtjbilai's successorsthat they spent 3,000 gold taels in writingBuddhist books in gilt letters, and committedother extravagances. There was plenty of literaturepublished at this time ; including the ninthTripitaka, and many translations into Mongolianof Sutras, etc. It would appear that Lamaismand Buddhism were not regarded as differentsects. A Lama ecclesiastic was at the head of theBuddhist hierarchy. It is possible that theChinese Buddhism of the time was tainted withSaktism, from which Peking Lamaism even to-dayis not free. The last emperor is said to havehastened the downfall of his house by witnessingindecent plays in company with lamas ; and thesethings caused a reaction in favour of Confucianism.The first Ming Emperor had once been aBuddhist monk ; and in his reign we first hear ofsecular clergy, who might marry, and did not livein monasteries, and though decrees were issuedagainst them in 1394 and 1412, they increased innumber. This shows the influence of Lamaism,in which celibacy is not insisted on. The Mingrulers, being the restorers of native civilization,naturally backed up Confucianism ; but they foundit profitable to conciliate the Mongolian andTibetan hierarchies so as to get safety on thenorth and west. Few of them cared much for anyreligion. The third Emperor, Yung Lo, thougheducated by a Buddhist priest, yet restrictedordination, and on one occasion sent into the army1,800 young men who had come up to take thevows. However, the 11th collection of the Canon,called northern because printed ' in Peking, was'issued with his preface. He sent into Tibet forHalima [q.v.), gave him high titles, and made histhree chief disciples the chief prelates of thewhole Buddhist church. Since then, Tibetanclergy (red) have had precedence of Chinese clergy(grey).In 1426, the fourth Emperor ordered examinationsto be instituted for would-be monks, andfour years later, no monastery was allowed to havemore than 50 mow of land. In 1458 the restrictionof ordinations to once a year was decreed. HsiekTsuNG was a puppet of the priests but his sonHsiao Tsung drove out the eunuchs who wereresponsible for abuses and extravagances, and healso burned the Taoist books. In the reign ofWu Tsung, who is said to have known Sanskrit,Mongol, and Arabic, and to have been completelyswayed by the eunuchs, 40,000 Buddhist andTaoist priests were made. In his successor's reign,the Confucianists once more memorialized thethrone against Buddhism, but only got theBuddhist chapel in the Forbidden City done awaywith ; for the Emperor, while also favouringTaoism, .distributed the Tripitaka widely, repairedP'u-t'o, and joined in the ceremonies. In the latterpart of the dynasty, new enemies to Buddhismarrived in the persons of the Jesuit missionaries,who at once regarded the Buddhists as theirchief rivals.The Ch'ing dynasty showed but little favourto Buddhism ; and almost at once ordered theinspection of monasteries, and limitation of monks.Shun Chih wrote prefaces to Buddhist booksand, according to one account, took the vowsbut the great K'an6 Hsi was stoutly Confucianist,and Yung Ch'eng's harsh remarks on heterodoxiesin his expansion of the Sacred Edict have hadgreat weight with his people ever since. However,the lamas from Tibet and Mongolia were alwaysreceived respectfully. The 12th Tripitaka collectionwas issued under Yung Ceeng and Ch'ienLung. The latter received Teshu Lama withhonour. The late Empress-Dowager received theministrations of the Dalai Lama, and her formercolleague, Tz'ii An, was a devout Buddhist. Onthe whole the Manchus were less favourable thanany previous dynasty, issuing many restrictions,and not rescinding them. The effect was toincrease the number of secular clergy, who wereallowed to have one disciple each.With the fall of the Manchus, and the proclamationof religious liberty. Buddhism also haslifted up its head. Its state had, with certainnotable exceptions, fallen very low, but a revival,partly under Japtinese influence, can be noted.70

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICABUDDHISM, HOLY PLACESThis Japanese influence is keenly resented, however,in certain quarters, and when in 1915, amongtwenty-one demands made by the Japanese ministerin Peking two asked (1) for Japanese hospitals,churches, and schools in the interior to have theright of owning land, and (2) that Japanese subjectsshould have the right of propagating Buddhismin China, the Chinese government refused bothdemands.See Buddhist Canon : Buddhist monasteries :Buddhist Schools; Sacred Hills of Buddhism,etc., etc., etc.Edkins : Chinese Buddhism; Hackmann :Buddhism as a Beligion; Johnston : BuddhistChina; Giles : Confucianism and its liivals;Parker : Studies in Chinese Beligion.BUDDHIST CANON.The extant BuddhistScriptures in the Chinese language are called = litSan Tsancf, three treasuries, which is a translationof the Sanskrit Tripituka. In spite of translatingand retaining this name, the Chinese have added afourth division.The divisions are, i Sutra, j^ ching, works ondoctrine ; ii Vinaya, ^ lit, works on asceticism andmonastic discipline ; iii Abhidharma, tn I'un, workson philosophy ; iv jjs| tsa, miscellaneous works.The first three divisions or tsang (treasuries)are all translations ; the fourth, added by theChinese, includes both translations and originalChinese works.Just as the Chinese Collection, consisting offour divisions, should not properly be designatedTripitaka or San Tsang, meaning Three Thesauri,so the collection has no real right to be called aCanon. It is simply a theological miscellany, acorpus scriptorum sanctorum, all the very diverseworks in it being, or having at some time been,of literary or doctrinal value ; while the validityof the collection is entirely dependent on imperialauthority.The Tripitaka as it exists in China to-day isonly the latest one of several such collections thathave been made. Twelve are enumerated betweenthe sixth and eighteenth centuries, the latest fivehaving been printed, while the rest remained inmanuscript. Each collection included works notin the preceding one ; but with addition, therewas also excision and compression, so that thepresent collection contains fewer works than thefirst that was issued, at the beginning of the sixthcentury. This is due, not to the rejection ofworks which to changing thought became heretical,or to the critical mind became apocryphal, butto the fact that many early translations were only_Mion of the wh(provisional, or incomplete, or partial versions,which could be superseded by the complete transionof the whole.Of the latest three Collections, the first, byHung Wv, founder of the Ming dynasty, and thesecond, by Yung Lo, differ only in the number ofChinese works admitted into the fourth division.They are known as Southern and Northern respectively,one having been printed in Nanking, theother in Peking. The last Collection, by YungCheng and C'h'ien Lung, is the revision of HungVVu's Collection, with the addition of 54 Chineseworks.The total number of works included in theChinese Canon is 1662, nearly two-thirds of thembeing in the first division (Sutras). A cataloguewas made of the whole Collection by Bunyiu Nanjioin 1883, which may be consulted for the subdivisionof the Canon. The Catalogue is withoutan index to the Chinese titles, but this lack hasbeen supplied by E. D. Ross.A new edition of the Canon appeared in 1913,known as the " Hardoon Reprint," the expenses ofthe undertaking having been chiefly met by themunificent gifts of Mr. and Mrs. S. A. Hardoon ofShanghai, who also entertained the scholarsresponsible for the work, during the years of theirlabours. The most prominent of these able andlearned Buddhists was a monk who bears themonastic name of Tsung Yang.There are also two well-known Japanese editions,published in recent times, one in Tokyo andone in Kyoto.EiTEL : Chinese Buddhism; Bunyiu Nanjio :A Catalogue of the Chinese Translation of theBuddhist Tripitaka; Ross : An Alphabetical Listof Titles, etc., (Archaeological Department of India,1910); Johnston: Buddhist China; Beal : TheBuddhi-tt Tripitaka in China and Jajjan, aCdtdhxjuf, etc., 1876.BUDDHISM, HOLY PLACES OF, are generally found on hills or mountain-tops ; and theword jli,mountain, is commonly used of places ofpilgrimage, even when situated elsewhere. Inmany cases, peaks already " holy " have beenappropriated, partially or completely, by theBuddhists. China, indeed, abounds both withTaoist and Buddhist mountain-shrines. Four places,however, have come to be specially sacred toBuddhism, and pre-eminently objects of Buddhistpilgrimage. They are i, Wu T'ai Shan 3J.^ll], inShansi, which from its position is especially theseat of Mongol Lamaism. The presiding Bodhisattvais Manju'sri, {q.r.); ii, Chiu Hua Shan^^lU, in Anhui, whose patron divinity isTi Tsang f^M, (g-v.), the Ruler of the dead, andalso the protector of little children; iii, P'u T'oShan # pg Uj, off the coast of Chekiang, whereKuan Yin (q.v.) is the main object of worship;iv, Mei Shan ISMUI i" Ssuch'uan, whose templesare dedicated to the Bodhisattva, P'u Hsien (q.v.).7X

BUDDHISM MONASTERIES ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAThese mountains must not be confounded withthe " Five Sacred Hills," whose sanctity is ofan earlier date than Buddhism, and which arechiefly associated with Taoism. Among the numberlessmountain-monasteries of Chinese Buddhism,the above-mentioned four are not the highest, northe most famous for learning, nor for foundinga new school, nor have they exclusive rights orpowers; and it seems certain that their preeminencearises from their position in the land.It is clearly stated by Chinese writers that thenumber of the chosen mountains is four, to connectthem with the four cosmogonical elements ofBuddhism, Air, (Wu T'ai) Fire, (0 Mei) Water,(P'u T'o) and Earth (Chiu Hua), the elementsbeing thus assigned because of certain peculiaritiesof situation or climate at each place.In addition to the four referred to, there are" eight small famous hills," some of which sharetheir fame with Taoism. The most importantfrom the Buddhist point of view, are T'ien T'ai5c "n in Chekiang, Wu Tang ^"gT in Hupei, andin Fukien. Many otheir heights famousWu I^^,in Buddhist story might be mentioned ; in factthe Shan Chih, lU iS^ , or ' History of BuddhistMountains in China,' runs into thousands ©fvolumes.Pilgrimages to these places naturally takeplace at the seasons when the weather is likelyto be good,—roughly speaking, the spring and summerin the north, i.e. the lower peaks are visitedin spring, and the lofty heights in summer; whilewinter pilgrimages are common in the south.The pilgrims are mostly pious laity, but a greatmany monks also join them. The calling of thelatter entitles them to free food and shelt«r at thevarious monasteries en route.Many ' guides,' or books for the informationand edification of both classes of pilgrims exist,and a detailed and interesting account of one ofthese is given in Johnston's work, Chap. vii.Johnston : Buddhist China.BUDDHIST MONASTERIES. Probablyearlier Chinese monasteries imitated the arrangementsat Nalanda and other great Indian establishments,but unfortunately the Chinese pilgrims giveus .little information as to the buildings in Indianmonasteries. In China the arrangement is generallya quadrangular space surrounded by a wall. Thegreat gate faces south, and either outside of itor in the first court inside, there is a pool, filledwith red lotus and tame fish and crossed by abridge. The sides of the quadrangle are occupiedby dwelling rooms, refectory, guest chambers, storerooms,library, etc. The inner space is dividedinto two or three courts with a temple in each.The first temple is called The Hall of the FourGreat Kings 05^^ Ssu t'ien wang containingfigures of beings who have not yet reached Buddhahood.Generally the Guardian of the North, ^ figTo Wen is black and holds a pearl and a snakeKtjang Mtj ^ g Guardian of the East, is whiteand bears a sword ; J§ ^ TsiNG Chang, Guardianof the South, holds an umbrella and is red ; theGuardian of the West, ^ g Ch'ih Kuo, is blueand carries a guitar. The figures include imagesof the four kings, Maitreya (Mi Lei) 5^ ^ thecoming Buddha, Wei T'o ^pg, a military Bodhisattvasometimes identified with Indra, and veryoften Kuan Ti |J3 if?, god of War.The second court is the principal one, andcontains the principal images ; it is called thePrecious Hall of the Great Hero :A:^fiJ^ta hsiungpao tien. Behind the chief altar there may be asingle figure, in which case it is always 'Sakyamuni ;more often there are three figures, called vaguelythe Three Precious Ones. They are usually'Sakyamuni and two of the superhuman Bodhisattvas,or Buddhas, Amitabha (O-mi-t'o), Manju'sri(Wkn-Shu) or some other. The central figure issometimes Kuan Yin or Mi T'o. The commonexplanation that the triad represents the Buddhaspast, present and to come, is not correct.In this Hall, or at the side of it, other Bodhisattvashave separate shrines : Ti Tsang, TaShih Chih and others. Kuan Yin generally has aspecial shrine at the back of the chief altar, facingthe north door of the Hall. The Eighteen Lohan.are arranged along the side walls of the Hall.The third building is called the Fa fangand contains only small images. It is used forthe religious exercises of the monks, but there isalso exposition of the Scriptures for the laity, andsometimes preaching.In very large monasteries there may be afourth Hall, used for meditation, and called theCh'an fang H^.Monasteries are of all sizes, and in any of themthe number of monks is always changing. This isbecause the monks do a certain amount of wandering;at one time many may be absent from theirmonastery, at another it may be filled with visitors,A large monastery may have from thirty to fiftymonks ; a very large one may have as many asthree hundred.Most monks are dedicated by parents whilebut children ; a few become monks from sincerereligious conviction after they are men. Thechildren have the head shaved and wear monasticgarb ; at twenty years old they are formally admittedinto the Order. There are three ceremonies,originally belonging to three stages of the religiouajlife, but now crammed into the space of a fei(days. This is partly because, up to the endthe Ch'ing dynasty, only certain monasteries hel72

; responsesENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICABUDDHIST SCHOOLSthe government's permission to ordain, so thatcandidates might have to travel some distance,and would naturally wish that one journey shouldsuffice for the whole ordination.At the first ceremony, the candidates areadmitted as novices ; two or three days later theyaccept the robes and bowl, and promise obedienceto the rules of the Pratinwkoksha. The third andfinal ceremony is the most important ; it is calledshou P'u-sa chieh ^i^^^ "accepting the Bodhisattva'scommandments," that is, the fifty-eightprecepts of the Fan wang ching (q.v.). Thecandidate's head is branded at this ceremony infrom three to eighteen places, by lighting bits ofcharcoal stuck on to the shaven pate.It seems that burning and branding as partsof initiation ceremonies were known in India inthe first centuries of our era, but that they werenot commonly practised ; and that they were notgenerally accepted in China till the eighth century.I Ching, who died in 715, seems to know ofnothing beyond the two-fold ceremony for novitiateand monkhood. The third ordination must bepart of the later phase of Buddhism introduced byAmogha (Pu K'ung) about 750.By these three ordinations the candidate becomesa h OS hang or full monk and takes a new name.AJl monks pay obedience to the abbot, and in somecases the abbot represents the entire clergy of aprefecture vis-d-vis the government; but eachmonastery is independent in administering its ownaffairs and there is no hiei'archy outside.The monks are divided into two classes termedWestern and Eastern. The former are the religiouspart of the house, concerned with ritual, etc. ; thelatter manage the business affairs of the establishment.The diet in the monastery is strictly vegetarian ;a? a rule there are three meals a day, all eaten insilence. The monks do not go round with the begging-bowl; they wear the garments prescribed inIndian Buddhism, but supplemented by Chineseclothing worn underneath, whatever is madenecessary by the climate.»Either two or three services each day are heldhe principal Hall, the ritual including verses,and chanting, with the presentation ofofferings, tea, rice, etc.In the course of most ceremonies the monksmake vows on behalf of all beings, and take oathto work for their salvation. They have also todeliver sermons and listen to them, and to spendtime in meditation. Some of them also have tolieach the novices to read and recite religious books.It is usual for the monks to spend some timein wandering in the spring and autumn. There aremany festivals, some purely Buddhist, some purelyC'hinese.As to the laity : they are at liberty to attendthe daily services, which are however primarily forthe monks. Generally the laity worship at anyhour, lighting a few tapers and often trying someact of divination before the idols. But at certainseasons, the temples are thronged with lay pilgrims.The services of the monks are required by thelaity chiefly for funerals. In addition to thenumerous monasteries there are a large number ofnunneries, organized in the same way and undertheir control. These are more numerous in theSouth than in the North; and at the present dayneither institution bears the best of characters;e.g., in 1840 all the nunneries in Soochow weresuppressed for immorality ; and a little later themonasteries (?) in Foochow suffered the same fateon the same charge.Hackmann : Biiddhiwi as a Religion, andBuddhist Monastery Life, East of Asia, vol. i.BUDDHIST SCHOOLS.The history of thesewould fill a large volume, yet Buddhism had beenknown in China for several centuries before anythingwas heard of ' schools.' When Bodhidkarmacame in 526, he came as a reformer, perhapsHebecause his ideas were not acceptable in India.founded the Ch'an pp. (Sanskrit, Dhydna) orContemplative School ; feeling that too muchattention was paid to sacred writings and outwardobservances, he proclaimed that the heart, ratherthan the words, of Buddha must be the chief guideof his followers. Bodhidharma's system has beencalled the "Buddhist counterpart of the SpiritualExercises of St. Ignatius Loyola" ; it is indeedthe way of all mystics ; the tending of the innerlight, the realization of the Eternal as immanentin the human Soul, through calmness, meditationand prayer. It had the defects, as well as thevirtues of mysticism, e.g. leading to the neglect oflearning, if leading away from priestcraft andexternalism.The Ch'an school early divided into North andSouth ; the former soon decayed, but the latterflourished, and after the death of the 6th (Chinese)patriarch, there being no one head to whom torefer new doctrines that they might be classed asorthodox or heterodox, the Ch'an school subdividedinto five main branches, and other schools alsoarose. Buddhism, moreover, is essentially a tolerantreligion, recognizing " many ways of salvation,"and it took kindly to the idea of different streamsflowing from the one source, and complementaryrather than antagonistic. Persecution and excommunicationhave been little known, and division,amalgamation and interpenetration have been constantlyat work among the schools. The immensesize of the Canon was also a factor in the developmentof sects, special teachers emphasizing theimportance of their favourite scriptures.1078

BUDDHIST SCHOOLSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAThe Chinese reckon that there have been tenprincipal schools (^J tsxtng). According to Hack-MANN, they are as follows : 1. Lii Tsung # ^2. Chii She Tsung ift#^. 3. Ch'eng Shih Tsung^K^-4. San Lun Tsung :£i^^. 5. T'ien T'aiTsung. 6. Hsien Shou Tsung KM^- 7. Tz'u EnTfung 3gs,lgl^ . 8. Ch'an Tsungf^^^. 9. Mi Tsung^^. 10. Ching T'u Tsung ??±^.Of these, four, viz. Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 9, nolonger appear as schools in China, although theirinfluence remains, and they themselves are foundin Japan. This is especially the case with theMi Tsung, also called Chen Yen Tsung {see below).No. 8, the Ch'an or Contemplative School, haspractically absorbed all the rest. It subdivided' inthe eighth and tenth centuries, as above stated,into five sects, sometimes from their importancealso called ^ and causing confusion. The properterm is ^ chia or ' families.' These are namedfrom the places where they originated ; being, inchronological order, the Hui-yang, Lin-chi, Ts'aotung,Yiin-men and Fa-Yen Schools ; of these theLin-chi figj^ is by far the most important. Itbegan in Shantung in the 9th century. Its founderdied in 868, and his dagoba was erected nearTaming fu in Chihli. Most educated monks ofto-day profess to belong to this school or 'family'.It is an interesting fact that it was among theChinese, who are supposed to be above all thingsa practical people, rather than among the peopleof India that Contemplative Buddhism was mainlydeveloped, and it is at this day the prevailing form,though much modified by alliance with the ChingT'u or Amidist School. The special object of theLin-chi Tsung is to teach that while selfimprovementis hard, man has resources in himselfto overcome all difficulties. This doctrine approachesto Confucianism, and the school is heldin high esteem among the thoughtful classes inChina, who despise the image worship of theignorant multitude.The five .^, the Lii, T'ien T'ai, Hsien Shou,Tz'u En and Ching T'u Tsung, are sometimescalled Chiao men ifcf^ , as against the Ch'an Tsung,known as Tsung men .^p^ They all agree on theimportance of externals, while differing from eachother on other matters as much as they differ fromthe Ch'an.i. The strictest is the Lii Tsung, also called theNan Shan, Southern Hill, School. It was foundedby Tag Hsuan, who died in a.d. 667, and laysgreat stress on the minute observance of the oldLii {Vinaya) regulations. The chief seat of thisschool at the present day is at Pao-hua Shan tothe east of Nanking, where the rule is exceedinglysevere, the priests eating only two meals a day,drinking nothing but tea, and dressing in black.ii. The T'ien T'ai School was founded byChih I ^$^ (died 597) and was an attempt to combineesoteric and exoteric teaching ; meditation,wasstill to have the first place, (though the use of books,which BoDiiiDHARMA had forbidden, was permitted) ;and yet ceremonial was regarded as having objectivevalue. The founder's favourite siitra was the*Miao Fa Lien Hua Ching ^JJ^ipg. His homewas in N.E. Chekiang among the beautiful T'ienT'ai Mountains, still a great Buddhist stronghold,iii. The Hsien Shou Tsung originated in theT'ang dynasty, but is named from a great reformerwho afterwards arose. Its favourite sutra is theHua Yen Ching ^^^, and another and commonername for the school is Hua Yen Tsung.iv. The Tz'u En Tsung was founded by ChiehHsien ?S^on the Wei Shih Lun, one of the bookstranslated by the famous pilgrim HsiiAN Tsang,and insists, as the name "kindness-and-compassionschool"implies, on the necessity of love towards allbeings, as the highest sign of true religion. Itpractises a special kind of meditation based uponpeculiar psychological views.V. The Ching T'u Tsung or Lien ^ ^, alsocalled the Amidist or Lotus School, was foundedby a native of Shansi in the 4th century. Hisname was Hui Yuan ^]^ and he lived under theEastern Tsin dynasty. To this school belongedChu Hung, the priest who opposed Matthew Ricciin letters which are still extant, who also foundedthe famous Yiin Ch'i g ^ monastery near Hangchow.In reality his was quite a distinct interpretationof Buddha's teaching, but there has beenso much borrowing, that a pure Amidist is not tobe found. Some monks say that "Amidist teachingis Ch'an doctrine simplified for the multitude."Its especial cult is that of Amitabha, the Buddhaof the West. The favourite scriptures are threesiitras of the Pure Land, which were not theproduct of early Buddhism.This is the form of the religion which, rightlyor wrongly, is supposed to have most in commonwith Roman Catholic Christianity, having itspurgatory, its Goddess of Mercy, its elaboratemachinery for delivering the dead from pain andmisery through the good offices of the priests, andgaining them an entrance into the Pure Land ofthe Western Heaven. It is also the form whichis most affected by the ignorant laity, and KuanYin and Amita Buddha are more often on Chineselips than any other religious names, both havingendeared themselves to the popular mind by theirdevotion to the human race. The school has itsown doctrine of Salvation by Faith, but no punishmentsare eternal. The mere repetition of thename Amitabha has saving efficacy. (See PureLand School).74

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICABURGEVINEOf the four schools now extinct in China, themost important is the Mi Tsung ^ -^ ,SecretTeaching School, or Chen Yen Tsung fptW^ > TrueWord School, the latest of the schools of Buddhismto arise in China. It was introduced from Indiain the eighth century. Its principal scripture isthe Ta-jih ching;A:0iJ'? or Sutra of the Sun-BuddhaVairocana ; and in its higher forms it is an elaborateand fanciful pantheism. In its popular use,however, it is a short cut to salvation by meansof spells and ceremonies. The higher teaching ofthe School never had much importance in China,but the use of spells and magic appealed to Chinesesuperstition very strongly, and such ideas nowform a large part of Chinese Buddhism, thoughintroduced at such a comparatively late period.It was introduced into Japan in 805, where it isknown as the Shingon sect, and is one of themost influential at the present day.The Chii She Tsung is the Kusha School ofJapan ; the Ch'eng Shih Tsung, is known asJojitsu, and the San-Lun Tsung as San-Ron.Hackmann : Die Schulen des ChinesischenBuddhismus; (Mitth. Seminar, 1911) ; and Buddhismas a Religion; Edkins : Chinese Buddhism ;Johnston : BuddhiH China. [C.E.C.]BUFFALO,--WATER, bos huhalus, an unv.'ieldy and powerful animal much in use foragricultural work in the south. The head is soset that the whole body may be submerged, withonly the tip of the nose showing above the surfaceof the water. The hide is black, with few hairs.Though the animal is vicious with strangers, it isgenerally seen under the control of small boys.BUGLIO, LOUIS, 5fll^Srr a Jesuit missionary,was born at Mineo in Sicily, January 26,1606. He entered the Society when 17 years old,and after teaching for some years in the RomanCollege he was sent to China in 1637. He is saidto have written and spoken Chinese with remarkableease. He was an excellent draughtsman, andit was in this capacity that he was assistant to P.ScHALL and shared his labours and persecutionsin Peking. He died there in 1682.BosMANS : Ferdinand Verhiest; Louvain, 1912.BULBULS. See Brachypodinae.BULLETIN CATHOLIQUE DE PEKIN,LE, a magazine published by the Lazarist Mission,primarily intended for missionaries. The firstnumber appeared in December, 1913, and it hasbeen issued monthly since then, with the exceptionthat it appeared twice a month for twomonths. An edition in Chinese is also issued.The price of the Magazine is two dollars perannum.BULLOCK, THOMAS LOWNDES was bornSeptember 27, 1845, and entered the BritishConsular Service in China in February, 1869.He was advanced to vaa'ious important posts, andin 1897 become Assistant Judge and Consul atShanghai. In July of that year he retired, and in1899 he succeeded Legge in the Chair of Chineseat Oxford. He held this post till his death,March 20, 1915.His writings are few,—a small number ofpapers in periodicals and Progressive Exercises infhf Chinese Written Language.BUND, Hindustani band, an artificial causewayor embankment. In Shanghai the bund of theInternational Settlement is 3500 feet in length.In Hongkong the word fraya is used instead.BUNDER, from Bund [q.v.]. A word usedin Shanghai for an untrue rumour or canard.BUNGALOW, (Hind. Banglah), a onestoreyedhouse.BURGEVINE, HENRY ANDREA, anAmerican, born at Newbern, N. Carolina in 1836,a subordinate to General Ward, who took commandof the Ever Victorious Army after Ward'sdeath. By his overbearing manners, by interferencewith the civil rule at Sungkiang and inother ways he made himself obnoxious toLi Hung-chang, then Fu-t'ai or provincialGovernor. Li begged General Staveley to removeBur GE vine and appoint a British officer in hisplace, but the General declined to interfere.When Burgevine's troons were ordered to Nankingthey refused to go until their arrears of paywere given them. In quarrelling with Ta Chi,the Bank or banker holding the funds, Burgevinelaid violent hands on the money and struck thebanker. For this he was dismissed. CaptainHolland being placed in temporary command andCaptain Gordon being recommended for thepermanent appointment.Burgevine went to Peking to claim redress, butthough Sir Frederic Bruce and Mr. Burlingamewere strongly in his favour, it soon becameevident that there was no possibility of hisreappointment. He was irritated, weak from animperfectly healed wound, and, it is said, in thehabit of taking enough stimulants to disorder hismind. He got together some one hundred andfifty foreign rowdies and went over to the rebelsat Soochow. There was great danger of Gordon'sofficers deserting to their old leader. Burgevineseems to have had an idea of entrapping andseizing Gordon ; he also met him and tried topersuade him to join in an independent campaignagainst rebels and imperialists alike ; he arrangedwith Gordon to desert to him, on a guarantee thatno proceedings should be taken against him or hisofficers for their service with the rebels. Whenthe desertion did take place Burgevine himselfI75

'AmonBURHELENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAgot left behind in Soochow, and it was only byGordon's diplomacy and the T'ai P'ing leader'sgenerosity that he got away in safety. TheFu-t'ai handed him over to the American Consul,who, at Gordon's request, agreed to take noproceedings against him on condition that he leftthe country. For some time he lived quietly atJiokohama, but in 1865 he made a trip toShanghai, then to Amoy, where some rebels werein arms. At Amoy, while drunk, he agreed tojoin the rebels once more. A black servantbetrayed him to the Chinese authorities, whoarrested him on the way to the rebel lines andarnjed to the teeth. The American Consuldemanded custody of him, but was refused; theAmerican authorities having failed in their dutjto arrest him at once on his return. The utmostto be obtained from the Chinese was a promiseto keep their prisoner unharmed tiH the Governnentat Washington had been consulted. He wassent to Li Hung-chang ; but on the way, at LanChi hsien in Chekiang, he was drowned by thecapsizing of a ferry-boat, June 26, 1865. Enquiryfailed to find any signs of foul play ; but a certainamount of doubt must always remain about adeath so opportune to two governments.Wilson : The Ever-Victorious Army.BURHEL. See Sheep, wild.BURIAL OF THE LIVING. See Sacrifices.BURLINGAME MISSION. In 1867 Btjr-LINGAME resigned the post of United States ministerto China, and accepted the leadership of a Missionon behalf of the Chinese Government to theWestern powers. After visiting the United States,France, Prussia and England, he died in Russia,1870, before his work was finished.The Mission included J. McLeavy Brow^n,(who had been interpreter to the British Legationin Peking), as First Secretary, and M. Deschamps,(a Frenchman who had been connected with theChinese Customs) as second Secretary; besides twoChinese officials and some students. This beingthe first Embassy ever sent by China to Westernpowers, was a most exciting matter to all interestedin the opening of China to Western influence, andin a mass of writing on the subject, the mostvarying views were expressed. To some it markedthe beginning of a new and better era for China;to others it appeared a gigantic piece of humbug.The movement was certainly prejudiced by theinjudicious and exaggerated public utterances ofBuRLiNGAME. The Chinese Government was representedas desiring and intending to introduceWestern methods, but only gradually, as the peoplebecame convinced, and not hastily at the urging offoreign powers. On the other hand foreigners inin China regarded the Government as insincere,and desirous only to put off all change as long aspossible. The time had arrived for the revision ofthe Treaty of 1858 with England, and theBritish minister, backed by the mercantile communitiesof the ports, proposed the immediate openingof China by railroads, telegraphs, navigationof inland waters, mining, right of foreign residenceand other means. In the light of later Chinesehistory it 'is clear that such proposals must havebeen abhorrent to the mandarins of those days.At this juncture, Burlingame succeeded in makinga Treaty with United States endorsing the "unqualifiedadmission of the right of China to resistall pressure from without as to material improvementsor progress." (Despatch of Sir RutherfordAlcock, November 10, 1868). The Chinese Governmentwas at once made strong to resist the Britishproposals, and after tedious delay and fruitlessendeavour by the British minister, the new Treatywas signed with a few petty additional concessionsgranted.To many, the great effect of the Mission, notonly by the Treaty it made, but the change itbrought about in the attitude of Western powerstowards China, was to confirm her arrogance andseclusive, conservative mind, and contempt of theforeigner, and to give the victory to the foes ofprogress. To others it was a noble attempt to dojustice to a Government placed in a difficultposition.A decision on the wisdom or foolishness of theMission and on the goodness or badness of itsfruits can only be made,—if it is possible todecide,—after a study of both sides of the questionas shown in the mass of contemporary criticism,discussion and correspondence. See American relations.F. W. Williams :Burlinfjame.BURNING OF THE BOOKS, THE, an expressionwhich generally refers to Ch'in ShihHuang Ti's notorious deed in b.c. 213. At thesuggestion of Li Ssu, his prime minister, he orderedthe destruction of all books except those onmedicine, divination and agriculture. Withinthirty years the Han dynasty reversed the order,and perhaps not so much harm was done to literatureas is sometimes assumed. The lacunae, differentreadings and general disorder in classics are commonto all ancient literatures. Finding the literati stillin opposition Shih Huang Ti destroyed ( ^ some)four hundred of them in the capital Hsien-yang.There were other occasions when a clean sw^epwas made of literature : Wylie mentions five'bibliothecal catastrophes' in his N^tes on ChineseLiterature.TscHEPE : Histoire du Enyaume de Ts'in.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACAMBRIDGE REACHBURNS, WILLIAM CHALMERS, born in1815, died at Newchuang, 1868. He was sent toChina as a missionary by the English PresbyterianChurch, reaching Hongkong in 1847. He workedin several of the ports and left a reputation behindhim for both scholarship and piety. The widelyused translation of Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress ishis work, and he wrote some well-known hymns.BUSHELL, STEPHEN WOOTTON, wasborn in 1844 in Kent, took his medical degree atLondon University, and became medical officerto the British Legation at Peking in 1868. Hewas made C.M.G. in 1897, retired in 1899 and diedat Harrow in England, September, 1908.He wrote a number of papers on Chineseinscriptions, antiquities, numismatics, natural historyand art; his Chinese Art, (2 vols.) a SouthKensington Museum Handbook, is well-known,and his Chinese Porcelain (1908) is a standardwork. A full list of his writings is given inI'Untng pao, 1908, p. 596. The most important areOiimtal Ceramic Art {the Walters Collection),New York, 1897, and Chinese Porcelain, Oxford,1908.BUSTARDS.See Grallae.BUTTERFLY CHUANG, a titlegiven to thephilosopher Chxjang Tzu from a famous passage inthe end of the 2nd chapter of part I of his workin which he likens himself to a butterfly.BUTTON. The round knob, about an inch indiameter, worn on the dress cap under the Manchudynasty to denote the rank of the owner. Thereare nine classes, each being divided into principaljE and subordinate \j^, the former being plain, thelatter bearing the character g shou, old age. Thenine classes, beginning with the highest are,i, transparent red,—ruby; ii, opaque red,—coral;iii, transparent blue,—sapphire ; iv, opaque blue,lapis lazuli ; v, transparent white,—crystal ; vi,opaque white,—stone ; vii, plain gold ; viii, workedgold ; ix, worked gold with two characters (shou'),being the button for graduates of the lowe.st degree[Itsiuts'ai).cCACIANFU in Marco Polo, is Ho-chung fu fnjr{i f^ which is now P'u-chou fu, y^^'/]^ in Shansi.CAHEN, GASTON, the author of a Historyof the Relations between Russia and China in thetime of Peter the Great. The author had accessto the archives in Russia, and produced muchnew material. The work was in French, but thetext with some of the notes was translated byW. Sheldon Ridge in the National Review,Shanghai, 1913-14.Cahen : HiHoire des Relations de la Russieliver, la Chine sous Pierre le Grand (1689-1730)Paris, 1911.CALANDRA LONGIPESor Cerculio longipes,which4i"§S^, Chu hsun ch'ung, the bamboo beetle,bores holes through the bamboo to lay its eggsiiside.CALENDAR OF SUPERSTITIONS. Bes des the Imperial Calendar with its lucky days,ei/C, for use by all, there is a Buddhist calendarfor the priests' use, Ch'an men jih sung pP^. B ISEvery day has its feast or fast or duty. Most ofit is given in Dorf.'s Recherches sur les Sv])erstiijons,p. 391 et seq.GALLERY, JOSEPH GAETAN PIERREr|LRIE,a distinguished sinologue who came toChina as a Lazarist missionary, but apostatized.He was born at Turin, June 25, 1810, but in 1845or 1846 he was naturalized as a French subject.He joined the Missions Etrangeres and was sentto China, reaching Macao in 1836, where he studiedthe language under G0N9ALVES. Besides Chinesehe learned Korean. In his spare time he studiedthe botany and geology of the district.He returned to France in 1842, and the nextyear was appointed Interpreter to the FrenchConsulate at Canton, and was attached to dkI

CAMELENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA900 tons, arriving just before the blockade, wassold to Russell •& Co., the American firm, whorenamed it the Chesapeake and sold it to theChinese. These filled it with powder and ruffiansand sent it to defend the boom below Whampoa.The Nemesis was the first to attack it and toboard it. It was set on fire and blown up,February 1841. In Hall's Narrative he speaksof the vessel as the Cambridge formerly known'as the Chesapeake.'Hall : Narrative uf the Voyages and Servicesof the Nemesis, p. 352.CAMEL. The camel used as beast of burdenbetween Mongolia and China is the two-humpedBactrian camel. It is constantly seen in thestreets of Peking and on the main roads in thenorthern provinces. It is found wild in the region.south and east of Lob nor.CAMOENS (CAMOES), LUIS VAZ DE, wasborn at Lisbon in 1524. He gave offence at Court,and went as a private soldier to Morocco, where helost an eye. Later he went to Goa, where, thoughalready renowned as a poet, he made enemies byhis satirical attacks on government corruption, andas a punishment he was sent to take part in themilitary occupation of Macao (1558). At the endof his term of service he returned to Goa, but underarrest for some intrigue against the Governor ofMacao* and was wrecked on the way. At Goa,being tried, condemned and pardoned, he was againarrested for debt ; and it was only after many othermisadventures and seventeen years' absence that hereached Lisbon. During all his troubles he hadworked at his great poem Os Lusiadas (The Lusiad),the only thing he saved when wrecked. One of thesights of Macao is the grotto in which he wrote.On publishing the work he became famous andreceived a pension. He died in 1580.CAMPHOR, ^chang; from Cinnamomumcamphora, Fr. Nees and Eberm. The habitat ofthe tree is the Nanshan range along the southerncoast, especially in Fukien ; it is also found scatteredin Ssuch'uan, where it grows up to 3,500 ft. altitude.The wood is much used, especially at Canton fordressing cases, as the oil contained in it renders itdistasteful to insects. But it is especially valuedfor its steareopten, Chang-nao10f.f^, which is largelyused in medicine, either crude and in flakes orrefined in cakes. This is produced by destructivedistillation, i.e. by chipping the trunk, root, andbranches of the tree and boiling the chips in acovered vessel lined with straw. The sublimedcamphor condenses on the straw and is gathered inthese impure flakes and packed in lead-lined chests.It is employed as a diaphoretic, carminative,sedative, anthelmintic, and anti-rheumatic remedy,for decayed teeth, and in shoes to cure perspiringfeet; also in the manufacture of fireworks and topieserve clothes, although it is not altogether infavour for the last purpose, as it is thought toinjure the texture of fabrics. In the North it isalways called Ch'ao nao i||)fl§,from Ch'ao chow inKuangtung.Until Formosa fell into Japanese hands, thatisland was the source of almost all the camphor usedin or exported from China. The supply, situatedin the hills reclaimed from the savage tribes or justwithin their borders, was regarded as the propertyof the State, and camphor was declared to be aGovernment monopoly from the early days of theconquest of the island ; it was not until 1868 thattraffic in the article was permitted to private dealers.The annual average e.xport in the years 1865-67, 7,1C0piculs, was doubled in the three years 18&8-1870.Exports were well maintained until 1880, whenwarfare and fires extinguished the trade forsome years, after which a government monopoly wasagain established. In 1890 a demand arose forcamphor, to be used in the manufacture of smokelesspowder, celluloid, fireworks, etc., and, withenhanced prices the Government was enabled toraise a considerable revenue from excise, restrictingthe trade to licensed persons. In 1891 nearly17,000 piculs were exported, and the industryseemed to promise well. Then came the loss ofthe island, with the passing of the trade intoJapanese hands. The world's supply of camphoris almost entirely derived from Formosa, but,with State encouragement, China itself couldundoubtedly produce a large amount. After thecession of Formosa, traders sought for camphorsupplies in Fukien, where the trees grew inabundance in several prefectures (Kienning, Lungyen,Yungchun, etc.). An official from Formosaobtained the sole right to collect, and taught thepeople to make camphor, and later on the Japanesesought to obtain the monopoly, but without success.High profits led to a reckless exploitation of theindustry, and in 1905 there were 20 distilleries inFoochow, and over 11,000 piculs were exported.Soon, however, all the available trees were cutdown, and the industry has now become practicallyextinct in Fukien. It can only be revived undergovernment supervision. Efforts have been madeto develop the camphor industry in Kiangsi, wherecamphor forests grow in Kanchow and Kiandistricts. A factory was stai'ted at Kiukiang in1934, and the average export is now 1,600 piculs.In South Hupei a syndicate holds the monopolyof development, a company was granted the rightto exploit the Chekiang camphor, which is foundin Chuchow, in 1903, and there is a small trade inKuangsi. In the Shan States of S.W. Yiinnanthere are immense numbers of camphor trees[Szemao Customs Beport, 1900) which await

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACANADIAN METHODISTdevelopment, and especially better transportationfacilities. In short, the industry might be revivedand developed to a very great extent, if Statesupport were only given to it. The export in 1916was pels. 2,377, value Tls. 181,673. [N.S.]CAMPICION, Marco Polo's name for Kanchou, ^ capital of^'I'lKansu.CAMPO, a name given to the foreign settlementat Ningpo, being corrupted from kong fo,the local pronunciation of ^;ifc chiang pei, meaning'north of the river.'CANADIAN HOLINESS MOVEMENTMISSION.Headquarters :—Ottawa.Works in Hunan, at Ch'ang-te ^ ^ (opened1910) and Anhsian;/, ^ ^ (opened 1911), with 7foreign missionaries in 1916.CANADIAN METHODIST MISSION.Headquarters :—Toronto.Entered China, 1891.Works in Ssuch'uan.The first missionaries of the C.M.M., eight innumber, arrived in China in the end of 1891, butanti-foreign riots in the Yangtze Valley preventedtheir proceeding inland till early in 1892. Theywere led by the Rev. V. C. Hart, D.D., who hadformerly been the Superintendent of the M.E.M.in Mid-China. They went in the first place toChengtu, already occupied by the C.I.M. andM.E.M. Kia-ting]^^, 100 miles S. of Chengtuwas opened in 1894.In 1895 anti -foreign riots broke out at Chengtu,and for more than twenty-four hours the mob wasallowed by the Provincial Government (which hadmany thousands of soldiers at hand) to work itswill on every mission in the city. Every compoundwas looted and destroyed. Both the Protestantand Catholic missionaries, however, were kept insafety in the yamens, and after ten days were sentoff with a strong escort, reaching Shanghai insafety. The foreign governments whose subjects *had been concerned brought such pressure to bearupon Peking that the Viceroy of Ssuch'uan wasdegraded, and indemnities were paid both toProtestants and Catholics. Seven months afternheir enforced flight two of the CM. missionarieswere back ; and three months later all had returnedlo Kia-ting or Chengtu, and re-building at oncebegan.Two and a half years later, the work was againhindered through disturbances caused by a bandcf outlaws known as Yii man-tzu ^@^-, whotarrorized Central Ssuch'uan for some time.In 1900, all the members of the Mission, incommon with representatives of most other Societies,Protestant and Catholic, were sent down to thecoast by Consular orders. The outburst in Ssuch'uandid not, however, last very long, owing tothe firm hand of a new Viceroy, H.E. Ts'knCH'UN-HsiiAN ^#ji:. No foreigners lost theirlives ; but a few Protestant converts, and manyRoman Catholic Chinese were killed, and muchproperty belonging to the Christians was destroyed.In 1905, two additional stations were opened,viz. Jen-shou f:! ^ and Jung-hsien ^ U ;and inthe next decade, three more, viz. P'eng-hsien g^ ^,Tzu-liu tsing ^j^^ and Lu chow -^^'H. In additionto the above new territory a large part of S.E.Ssuch'uan was handed over to the C.M.M. by theL.M.S. when it withdrew from the province, about1909. The centre of this field was Chungking,where the L.M.S. had begun work in 1888. Sincethe transfer to the C.M.M. two other stationshave been opened, viz., Chung chow ^.•)^, andFow chow-Tg^i, 1913.In the Revolution of 1911-12, the missionarieshad again to leave their stations through the disturbances,and all building was suspended for ayear ; and the European War has once morehindered the work by preventing much neededbuildings from being put up, owing to straitnessof funds.The CM. Mission Press.—This, the firstMission Press in W. China, was erected in 1897at Kia-ting. In 1904, it was removed to Chengtu,and formally opened in the presence of the Viceroyin April, 1905.In 1914, the press turned out over two millionbooks and tracts in the Chinese, Tibetan and Miaolanguages, (representing over 34,000,000 pages), and650,000 pages of English. In 1915, it turned out1,250,000 pages in English, and 28,000,000 pagesin Chinese.In addition to printing Scriptures for theAmerican Bible Society, and other relig'Iousliterature, a great deal of the output is for theuse of the schools under the West ChinaEducational Union, for the West China University,and for the Union Schools at Chengtu. Chineseinstitutions, such as the Post Office, the SaltGabelle, etc., also give the Press many orders.Educational work:—From 1892 to 1905, theeducational work was limited to day-schools ineach of the central stations ; but in 1905 onemissionary was specially designated for this work,and two schools of higher grade were at oncebegun. Even during the repeated absences ofthe foreigners, most of the schools were kept openby Chinese teachers most of the time.The Society unites with the F.F.M.S.,A.B.F.M.S. and M.E.M. in the We.st ChinaUniversity, (q.v.), the Union High and NormalSchools, all at Chengtu ; and in the Union Middle(High) School at Chungking. There are primaryschools at all stations and most out-stations, and79

CAMAOIAN PReSBYT^RlANENCYCLOPAEDIA SINlCAall the school work connects with the W. ChinaEducational Union.After the Revolution, a very successful YoungMen's Guild was opened at {Chungking somewhaton Y.M.C.A. lines, and Kia-ting and Chung chowafterwards followed with similar Institutionalwork, these efforts being largely financed by localCJiinese.Medical ivorh.—There are dispensaries at allthe ten stations, and hospitals at seven of them.The Mission has already built three GeneralHospitals at Chengtu ; the first, completed early in1895, was destroyed in the same year by therioters ; the second was built on the same site andopened in 1897; and a third fine modern hospitalwas built in 1913. Another for Women was openedin 1915.At Jung hsien, the present fine building wasput up in 1914 : and in the same year, aninteresting experiment was made, viz. unionmedical work with the Chinese of the city; theC.M.M. providing the building, heavy furnitureand physicians, and having charge of the religiousside of the work, while the city has control of thepatients, collecting fees and paying current expenses.The Woman's Missionary Society of the HomeChurch sent out its first agent with the pioneerparty in 1891, and the schools for girls, the workfor women, and Woman's Hospitals and dispensariesare mainly in the hands of this auxiliary.Statistics of Canadian Methodist Mission foryear ending December 31, 1915 (including Women'sMissionary Society),Chinese Staff 276Communicants 1,633CANADIAN PRESBYTERIAN MISSION.Headquarters :—Toronto.Entered China, 1871.Works in Formosa, North Honan, and Kuangtunrj.Foreign Missionaries 168Formosa Mission.—The first missionary sent toChina was the Rev. G. L. Mackay, who choseNorth Formosa as his sphere. For 23 years hewas practically alone. He settled in Tamsui, andafter a year baptized his first converts, five innumber. For twelve years he met with bitteropposition, the climax being reached during theFrench invasion of 1884-5, when seven of thelargest churches were wholly or partially destroyed.In addition to work among Chinese, Mr. Mackaypreached among the half-civilized tribes of theN.E. Coast, and the untamed barbarians of themountains. He was without success among thelatter, but the former became in the course of afew years, in name at least, mostly Christians.This hindered the work among the Chinese,, whofrom pride of race, refused a religion the despisedPepohoans had accepted. The native evangelistswere trained peripatetically—following the missionaryin his itineratiorls, and learning as occasionserved.After the departure of the French in 1885,till 1895, when Formosa was ceded to Japan, butlittle active opposition was shown. At the closeof the Franco-Chinese war, the Governor-Generalpaid $10,000 as compensation for the propertydestroyed by the mobs. Better and larger churcheswere built with the indemnity, and also a TheologicalCollege in Tamsui, which in 1914 was movedto Taihoku, as a Union College for the Englishand Canadian Presbyterian Missions. Mr. Mackaydied in 1901. In 1904 the Presbytery of NorthFormosa — quite independent of the CanadianChurch,—was organized, and the first pastor wasordained in 1906. Shortly after this date, thework ceased to be reported among. China Missions,having been transferred to the Japan branch of theMission.The North Honan Mission was begun in 1888,the first workers being the Rev. J. Goforth andthe Rev. J. Frazer Smith, M.D. and their wives.Some months were spent in Shantung, studying thelanguage and waiting for an opportunity to enterHonan, and other agents having arrived in 1889,a beginning was made. Chang-te ^ ^ andVVei-hui ^^ had been chosen for centres, as beingon the line of the proposed Peking-Hankow railway,but official hostility prevented their being occupied,and two market towns—Ch'u Wang, and HsinChen—both on the Wei River, were opened instead.Even in these quieter places, riots occasionallybroke out. In 1894 a fine site was secured outsideChang-te city : and about this time a large numberof additional missionaries arrived, and the workbegan to flourish. In 1900, however, all theforeigners were obliged to flee from the Boxers,and divided into two parties, one going north toChefoo, and one southward to Hankow. The• southern party was attacked, and some wereseriously wounded, but all eventually reached aplace of safety. The mission buildings werepartially or totally wrecked, but the Christianswere not interfered with. When the missionariesreturned in 1901, Ch'u Wang and Hsin Chen werenot re-opened, as it was found possible to enterboth Wei-hui and Huai-ch'ing S g in 1902.Tao-k'ow Jg p was opened in 1908, Wu-an ^ 3cin 1909, and Siu-wu ^j^in 1912.In the Revolution of 1911, Honan was one ofthe two provinces which did not go over to theRevolutionaries, through the influence of H.E.YiJAN Shih-k'ai, himself a native of Chang-te, andthe mission work was not seriously interrupted.Medical work is carried on in four of thestations, and a fine well-equiijjjed modern ho.-^pital80

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACANTONwas opened in Chang-te in 1914. There are Boys'and Girls' Schools at three stations, and the HonanTheological College at Wei-hui (opened 1914).The higher educational work is gradually beingdeveloped in union with the Canadian Anglicans,who work in South Honan.The Mission is responsible for the evangelizationof all Honan north of the Yellow River.The South China Mission was undertaken atthe entreaty of some Chinese converts in Canada,natives of Kuangtung, who promised to supportone of the missionaries sent. In response to this.Rev. W. R. Mackay, M.A., B.D. and his wifewent to Macao in 1902, other workers following.In 1907 the mission was removed to the newlyopened Treaty port of Kong-moon on the mainland,the work at Macao being handed over to theLondon Missionary Society, and the AmericanPresbyterian work at Kong-moon being handedover to the Canadians. A hospital was opened in1912, and a Girls' Boardi^ig School in 1916.Statistics for the year ending Dec. 31, 1915.Foreign workers 84Paid Chinese assistants ... 177Communicants 3,215CANDARIN or CANDAREEN; Chinese^ f(n, Malay kondrrn; the hundredth part of anounce or tael, q.v.CANDIDA, the baptismal name of the daughterof Hsii Kuang-ch'i {q.v.). She was left a widowat 30, and till her death at 73 she was full of piousand charitable works. According to Du Halde shebuilt 39 churches, printed 130 Christian books,established a Foundling Hospital and did somethingfor the blind. She died on October 24, 1680.Ili-'>toire d'une dame chreticnne de la Chine;Paris, 1688.CANGUE; Portuguese canqa, a yoke .^H chia•\. large square wooden frame, fastened on the neckas punishment for smaller offences. The wearerhas sometimes to stand in some public place andsometimes has to wear it day and night. Itfrevents lying down or feeding oneself.CAN I DAE. The dog family of the Comivorais represented in North China by the followingfive species; Catiis lujms tschiliensis, the ChineseWolf, in Chihli ; C. alpinus, the Wild Dog, inManchuria and Kansu ; C. corsac, the Corsac Fox,ill Inner Mongolia; Vulpes tschilietms, the ChineseFox, in Shansi, Shensi, Kansu, Manchuria andIM ongolia ; and Nyctereutes jjrocyonides, the RacoonDog, in Manchuria.The above list is recent. For South ChinaSwiNHOE reported in 1870 the Racoon Dog, fromFikien, Hankow and Shanghai; Vidpes hoale, theSouth-China Fox, in Amoy and Hongkong; V.liiieiventer, the S. China Mountain Fox, in Fukien.SowERBY : Recent Research upon the Mammalia,etc.. Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii;SwiNHOE : Catalogue of the Mammals of China,P.Z.S., 1870.CANON OF CHANGES. See / Ching.CANON, BUDDHIST.See Buddhist Canon.CANONIZATION, a term constantly used byEnglish authors writing of Chinese worthies. Beinga purely ecclesiastical term its employment for amerely civil honour is rather unfortunate.It denotes the bestowal by edict of an honorificposthumous title. It is often granted many yearsafter death. Generally with the new name thereis also given a title of nobiliEy such as ^ duke.But these are very empty, having no effect ondescendants.CAN OSS I EN NES, 'FiUes de la Charite', aCongregation of Roman Catholic sisters withschools, orphanages, hospitals, etc., in Hankow,Hanchung fu (Shensi), Nanyang fu (Honan) andMacao.There are 84 Sisters altogether in China (1916),but the Missions de Chine does not indicate howmany of these are Chinese.CANTON. The name is an imitation of thelocal pronunciation of Kuangtung f^ ^. Thecapital of the Kuangtung Province, in lat. 23°. 7'10" N., long. 113^ 14' 30" E., on the Chu Kiangor Pearl River. From ancient legends it derivesalso the names among Chinese of City of Rams,and City of Genii. It is one of the most importantplaces in the Empire and is the residence of theViceroy of the Two Kuang (Kuangtung andKuangsi, q.v.) and of the Governor of Kuangtung.Up to B.C. 110, it was the capital of the kingdomof Nan Yiieh, which included the present Kuangtung,Kuangsi and part of Tonkin.Canton was the first Chinese port to whichforeign trade was attracted. The Portuguese werethe first Europeans to arrive (1516), but Arabtraders had used the port for centuries before.The Dutch followed about a century later, andthe English came in 1637, and by the end of thecentury nearly all the trade was in their hands.The East India Company established a factorythere in 1684—their monopoly terminating in 1834.Five years later Great Britain was at war withChina as a consequence of the insolence andarrogance with which her traders and officers hadbeen treated for years, and especially on accountof the manner in which the opium trade washandled ; Canton was threatened with capture in1841, but was ransomed for $6,000,000. The warended with the Treaty of Nanking, by whichCanton and four other ports were opened to Britishtrade and residence. The city still remained closedhowever till 1857, when in the Second War it was1181

CANTONENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAtaken and held by British and French troops fornearly 4 years.In September 1883 there was a serious antiforeignriot in Canton, when part of Shameen wasburnt; in the French war of 1884, Canton wasunmolested. There have been no serious disturbancessince then, until the Revolution, but piracyis always rife in the surrounding countryside.The foreign concessions at Canton (French andBritish) are situated on the island of Shameen,(q.v-)- The city proper is 6 miles in circumference,and the whole circuit, including the suburbs, isabout ten miles. The population is 900,000, includinga large permanent boat-population.Of late years many improvements have beenmade. Electric lighting was introduced (afterprevious failures) in 1909 ; waterworks were openedin 1908, and a fine bund was completed in 1914after many vicissitudes. The Samshui railway(30 miles) was opened in 1904 ; the Kowloon linein 1911 ; and the Canton-Hankow line has now beencarried as far as Shiukuan, 140 miles from Canton.The city is the centre of a net-work of waterwaysextending through a great part of the province andinto Kuangsi : its distributing area has decreased,however, since the opening of the West Riverports to steam navigation.The chief exports of Canton are silk and silkpiece goods, tea, matting, cassia, and medicines.Among minor exports are ginger, glass bangles, andfireworks, the last manufactured in and nearFatshan, a large city in the vicinity. Canton isrenowned for its purely native manufactures, suchas ivory-ware, black- wood furniture, etc., and thejade market is famous. In modern industryCanton has not yet developed to as great anextent as might have been expected. There are3 brick and cement works, 2 glass and 2 leatherfactories, 2 paper mills and a cigarette factory.There are, besides, numerous small enterprises,(silk filatures, flour mills, etc.), which in theaggregate make up a considerable volume ofindustry. There are oil tanks, situated on thewestern side of the river, near a new and growingquarter of the city.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports ... 25,872,846 25,045,582Net Chinese „ ... 29,558,061 22,958,565E.xports 48,386,288 61,077,491Total Hk.Tls. ... 103,817,195 109,081,638The following is a list of British Consuls sincethe post was established at Canton in 1843.1843, Dec. 30, Francis Coleman Macgregor, Consul.1849, Jan. 4, Dr. John Bowring, (later, Sir John),Consul.1854, Aug. 10, Rutherford Alcock, (later, SirRuTHERfORD), Consul.1858, Dec. 21, Daniel Brooke Robertson, (later,1877, Nov 9, James Mongan, Consul.1880, Feb. 25, Arthur Rotch Hewlett, Consul.1886, Apr. 20, Chaloner Alabaster, (later. SirChaloner), Consul.1891, Apr. 1,1893, June 15,1899, May 13,1900, June 9,1902, Apr. 5, James Scott, Consul-General.1906, Apr. 21, Robert William Mansfield,1909, Jan. 21, James William Jamieson,Sir Daniel), Consul.,,Consul-General.Byron Brenan, Consul.Benjamin Charles George Scott,Consul.,,Consul-General.Consul-General.Consul-General.CANTON CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, THE,a non-sectarian institution, a university in all butname, founded chiefly through the exertions ofthe Rev. A. P. Happer, D.D. of the A.P.M. whobecame the first President in 1887. In 1893, theCollege was incorporated under the laws of theState of New York, and a body of trustees appointed.The work was carried on in rented quarterstill 1894, when some buildings were bought, butthey proved unsuitable.In 1900, the work was removed to Macao forsafety, returning to Canton in 1904 ; and in thenext year land was bought and building begun.While the College was in exile at Macao, asmall girls' school was begun in connection withit; and in 1906, after the return to Canton, a fewgirls were admitted to co-education, at the instanceof two prominent Chinese Christians, one of whomis now the head of the Chinese Department andDean of the Middle School.In 1913, a separate Woman's Department wasopened, including a grammar and middle school,specially designed to provide a high-class collegeeducation for the girls of all the Missions in theprovince, which have about 5,000 in their schoolsof various grades.The College Department of the C.C.C. offerscourses in General Arts, Natural Sciences, Agricultureand Etonomic Sciences. It. is hoped shortlyto add a course in Medicine, there being alreadya Medical Department which runs its own dispensary,etc. (See Medical Missionary Societyin China).A Department of Education was organized in1916, and a " Teachers' College " is planned forthe near future.(The Agricultural Department is partly supportedby the Kansas State Agriculture College,and the Pennsylvania State College Mission toChina; and Columbia University and Vassar.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINTUlCARMELITESCollege Christian Associations and other institutionsin the U.S.A. assist in various ways).The largest division of the College is theMiddle School, and there is a Primary School,where the boys and girls study together.The campus covers one hundred acres, on thePearl River, about two miles below Canton cityit has fifteen acres in crops for the AgriculturalDepartment. The chief buildings are Martin,Grant and Swasey Halls, four dormitories erectedby Chinese friends of the College, and nine facultyresidences.The President is the Rev. C. K. Edmunds,B.A., Ph.D., and in 1916 the College reported,Foreign Faculty 23Chinese Faculty 31Chinese assistants about ... 30Students 526Students studying in U.S.A. 76CANTON REGISTER, the earliest Englishpaper in China. See Prp.

CARNIVORAENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACARNIVORA. This Order is represented inNorth China by thirty-nine species and sub-species,belonging to four Families. See Felidce, Canida,Ursidce and Mustelidce.CARPINi. See John de Piano Carpini.CASA BRANCA, the Portuguese name forthe city of Ch'ien-shan Hj^U. on ^l»e north of theinner harbour of Macao.C ASSAY, another mediaeval form of Cansay,Kinsay, etc., the modern Hangchow.CASSINI CONVENTION, the name given toa secret treaty signed at St Petersburg by LiHuNG-CHANG and Prince Lobanov as the resultof conferences with Count Cassini in Peking. Itwas ratified in Peking in September, 1896.Dr. Dudgeon, with much difficulty, obtainedit from the Tsung-li Yamen and it was printed inThe North China Daily News of October 28, 1896.In the form given it is, according to Cordier, ahybrid document, partly the Eusso-Chinese Bankagreement concerning railroads in Manchuria andpartly a short treaty signed by Li Htjng-changand Lobanov respecting Kiaochow, etc.The treaty—if there was such a treaty — gavepermission to Kussia to continue the Siberian railway,then near completion, to various points inManchuria, and to guard it with Russian troopsit also agreed to lease to Russia the harbour ofKiaochow in Shantung for a period of ten years ;and it gave to Russia some rights at Port Arthurand Ta-lien wan.Cordier : Histoire des Relations de la Chine,etc., vol. iii, p. 343.CASTOR OIL q)i ma |£J^; liicimis communis.The plant, which was introduced from Tartary, ischiefly cultivated on the borders of fields, partlyto prevent cattle straying into them and partlyfrom considerations of economy. The crushedseeds are used in Chinese medicine as an outwardapplication in a large number of diseases, combined"wiUi the oil, or the pulp is taken internally. Theoil, strange to say, was not used especially inmedicine apart from its pulp ; its special use isfor mixing the colours for Chinese seals.CATS IS int^o- Rats destroy silkworms, butcats keep the rats away ; hence the superstitionthat cats are protectors of silkworms, the pictureof a cat (gJfSi ts'an mao, silkworm-cat), stuck ona wall, being powerful to ward off harm from theworms.Cats are also credited with a general powerto put evil spirits to flight— perhaps because oftheir being able to see in the dusk. It is saidthat in some parts, worship is paid to the catapirit.Dore, Recherches sur les Svperstitions, p. 472.Dennys, Folklore.HCATALAN ATLAS. This is a manuscriptof the date 1375, from the library of the Frenchking Charles V. It is now in the MazarinGallery of the Bibliotheque Nationale. It consistsof six wooden plates each covered withparchment on both sides, on which is traced themap, coloured and illuminated in gold and silver.The lettering is in the Catalan language. China(Cathay) is very well defined, and Cordier hasmade a valuable study of this portion of theAtlas.Cordier : L'Extreme Orient dans I' AtlasCatalan, etc., (in 'Bulletin de Geographic historiqueet descriptive,' 1895).CATCHPOLE, ALLEN, The first presidentin China of the East India Company, and King'sMinister appointed by William III. He does notseem to have used his diplomatic powers butbusied himself as President. He had too manydifficulties in Chusan and in 1703 sailed away toPulo Condor, an island off Cochin China. For ayear or two there was an effort to develope PuloCondor as a trading centre, but the effort ceasedwhen a firmer foothold had been obtained inCanton.Catchpole left England in 1700 and the la.stmention that is made of him is in 1703. See Presidentin China.Eames : The English in China.CATHAN, a mediaeval name for China,connected with Khitan as Cathay with Khitai.CATHAY, a form of the name by whichChina is known in Central Asia. It is derivedfrom the race called Khitans who occupied theSungari basin and established the Liao dynastyin China (a.d. 937-980). Other forms are Khata,Khitai, and Kitai, which last is used in Russia,whose acquaintance with China was throughCentral Asia.CATHCART, CHARLES Colonel, sent by theBritish Government as special envoy to Peking in1787. He died in the Straits of Sunda on hisway out. A tablet to his memory stands outsidethe Cathedral at Shanghai.CATTANEO, LAZARUS IB ^- ^? ,was bornnear Genoa in 1560 and entered the- Society ofJesus in 1581. He spent seven years in Indiabefore being called to Macao, and after studyingChinese passed on to Chao chou, 1594. He wasRicci's companion in his first journey to Peking,and was sent to Macao to report thereon. Aftervarious charges, including that of Visitor to Malacca,he was accused of conspiracy against the Empire,but his innocence being established he returnedto Nanking. Two years later the GrandCouncillor (Kolao) Paul Hsii, retiring to Shanghaibecause of his father's death, invited Pere

! twoiENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACERTHIIDAECattaneo to Shanghai. There Cattaneo foundedi flourishing church, and in 1610 founded also thechurch at Hangchow, and in 1620 that at Kiai-ingM S • He spent his last years at Hangchowand died there in 1640.Havret : La Stele chretienne de Singan-fouii, p. 11, note.CATTY, (Malay, Kati), a weight called chinfr in China, equal to 1^ lbs. avoirdupois.CAVES OF THOUSAND BUDDHAS =^pMch'ien Fo tung, are caves near Tun-huang in Kansu.They contained a library of about 15,000 scrolls inChinese, Tibetan, Mongol and Brahmi script, thelatest dating from a.d. 976-997. Amongst them isa Nestorian tract and a Manichean manuscript.The caves were walled up in 1036 and wereexamined by Pelliot in 1908, who acquired forthe French government the more valuable portionof the library.Pelliot : Une Bibliothtque. Mcdievale;B.E.F.E.O., vol. viii, p. 501.CELADON, called in Chinese Lung-ch'uan yaoH ^ ^, or Ch'ing tz'u fl^ :5^ a famous green porcelainfrom Chekiang. That produced in the Sungperiod was bright grass-green ; later it became agreyish green, or sea-green.BusHELL : Chinese Art.CELESTIAL EMPIRE. A common term forChina among foreigners ;probably a translation of^ ^A t'icn (li'm), heavenly dynasty, which iscommon in Chinese.The poetical use of Vien as an adjective is,however, no excuse for the absurd use of'celestial' as a noun to denote a Chinese,—in suche:;pressions a.s 'bright cele.stials,' etc.CELESTIAL EMPIRE, THE, a weeklyShanghai journal founded in 1874 by PedroLoureiro and first edited by F. H. Balfour. Itis now the weekly issue of The Shanghai Mercury.CEMENT is manufactured at Green Island,Hongkong, by the Chee Hsin Co., (established in1936) ; at Tangshan near Chinwangtrfo, capacity603,000 barrels yearly ; and by the Onoda CementCo., near Dairen, capacity 150,000 barrels yearly.There are other works, e.g. at Tayeh, Canton, etc.,but of smaller capacity. The export from Chinain 1916 was pels. 239,328, value Tls. 185,733 ; whileth(! import amounted to Tls. 964,104.CENSORS {'U^ yii -^hih, etc.). A body of 56,under two presidents, stationed in various di.strictsthioughout the eighteen provinces. Their dutywa,5 to report to the throne on all subjects connectedwith the welfare of the people and the conduct ofgovernment. They were hence called, among otherlames, fllQ*^ (erh mu kuan, eyes and ears officials),rhoy were at liberty to censure the sovereign forinything blameworthy they saw in his conduct orgovernment, without risk A being put to death,though they might be degraded. The whole body,the Censorate or Court of Censors, with presidents,etc., was called t|5^^ Tu ch'a Yuan or (literary)^£a Yu shih T'ai.The Censorate is an ancient institution, beingknown in the third century b.c. Some modificationsof it as above described were made in 1906, thepresidents being reduced to one.CENTURION, the first foreign ship of warrecorded in Chinese waters. It was British, underCommodore Anson, and arrived in November, 1741.By great firmness Anson succeeded in getting toCanton to refit. Later he captured a Spanish shipand took her into the Canton river. The Centurion'screw helped to extinguish a great fire in the city,and Anson was subsequently admitted to a friendlyinterview with the viceroy, November 30, 1742, butcould obtain no benefits for traders.AuBER : China, an Outline, p. 163; Morse:International Belations.CERNJJSCHI, HENRI, born at Milan in1821, died at Mentone in 1896. He was of awealthy family and a politician. He was naturalizedin France and after the Franco-German warhe travelled to the Far East, reaching Japan inthe midst of the Revolution. At such a time,and having both wealth and taste, he was ableto make a splendid collection of works of art.He crossed ft> China and bought largely therealso. He gave this magnificent collection to Parisin 1882. The Gernuschi Museum is at the cornerof the Pare Monceau and the Avenue Velasquez.CERTHIIDAE, a family comprising theCreepers and Wrens. Certhla fumilinri.i, the commonTree Creeper, occurs in Manchuria and Siberia andis rare in China Proper, never being seen south ofPeking. C. hivialayana is the Tree-Creeper of theHimalayas and Sikkim, not rare in the hills ofVV. Ssuch'uan and Mu-p'in ; it comes 'down to theplains for the winter. IHchodroma muraria, tHeWall-Creeper, with red wings, is only seen in thewinter ; it spends the summer in rocky parts ofhigh mountains, hunting the spiders which are itschief food. It has been taken in Chihli, Kiangsu,Shensi, Mu-p'in, Kiangsi and Fukien. Anorthurafumigata, the Japanese Wren, occurs in the northernprovinces, but is not common ; it is also found inFormosa. A. nepalensi.?, the Nepal Wren, is notuncommon during the cold season in westernSsuch'uan. Pnoepyga sqvamatn, the Scaly-breastedWren, is found in western China but is very rare.P. pusilla, the Brown Wren, is found in N.W.Fukien. P. formosana occurs in Formosa.Spelaeornis troglodytoides belongs to W. Ssuch'uanand Mu-p'in. It lives in deep woods on the highmouhtains. S. halsueti, a very rare species, is85

CERVID/EENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAfound in Shensi. Elachura punctata has been takenin N.W. Fukien.David et Oustalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine.CERVID/E. There are eleven species of thedeer family in North China. They are the following,their distribution being also given. In thepresent state of knowledge and nomenclature it isnot possible to give so clear a list for the rest ofChina.Cervits xanthopygu-o , Manchuria, Chihli, Shensi;C. kaftsuensis, Kansu, Hsinchiang ; C. mantchuricvs,Manchuria; C. dybowshii, Eastern Manchuria; C. mandarinus, Chihli, W. Shensi ; Caprealuspygargus, Manchuria ; C. bedfordi, Chihli,Shansi, Sherjsi ; C. melanotis, Kansu; Moschussibiricvs, Manchuria, Chihli, Shansi ; M. sifaniens,Kansu, Ssuch'uan, Tibetan Border ; Elaphurusdavidianus, Chihli. See Elaphure ; Siko.SowERBY : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlviiMritfOiRES concernant Vhistoire naturelle, etc.,"Shanghai.CHAIRS OF CHINESE have been establishedin many Western Universities. That at Cambridgewas founded in 1888. Sir Thomas Wade was thefirst professor, succeeded in 1897 by the presentholder, Prof. H. A. Giles. When Dr. Leggeretired from missionary work in Hongkong a sumwas subscribed by friends to endow a Chair ofChinese at Oxford, with the condition that heshould be the first Professor (1875). He wassucceeded by Prof. Bullock, 1898. There is nowno Chair at Oxford. There has long been a Chairat King's College, London, where Samuel Fearonwas appointed in 1847 and Summers in 1853 andmore recently R. K. Douglas and G. Owen. Therewas another at University College, London, whereSamuel Kidd taught and later Lacouperie andGeorge Brown in 1901. A Chinese Chair is to beestablished at the new Oriental School in London.Owen's College, Manchester has a Chair ofChinese, occupied by Prof. E. H. Parker.In The United States there are or have beenseveral such chairs ; at Yale, where S. W. Williamstaught ; at Berkeley, California, where Dr. JohnFryer is Professor ; and at Columbia University,New York, (inaugurated by Prof. H. A. Giles),to which Dr. F. Hirth was appointed in 1902.At the Petrograd University Ivanov andAlexeiev are Professors of Chinese ; and there isan Oriental Institute at Vladivostok. M. EdouardChavannes is at the College de France in Paris ; M.Vissisre at I'Ecole. de/^ Langveft Orientaleii in Paris ;and M. Courant at Lyons. At Leyden GustaveSchlegel was professor, and at his death wassucceeded by J. M. de Groot (now Professor inBerlin). Since his resignation, the Chair has beenvacant.There are Chairs in Berlin (Forke and dbGroot), in Hamburg (Franke) and in Vienna(KiiHNERT).In Hanoi, a Chinese professorship was foundedin 1901 for Professor Pelliot (now of the Collegede France in Paris), who was succeeded in 1911 byH. Maspero.CHAIR, SEDAN ^^J^ cktao tzu.The commonand ancient means of conveyance, especially incities, and also on country journeys for those whocould afford it. There were definite rules withregard to the use of chairs. Thus, none but theEmperor might have sixteen bearers ; a prince ofthe blood had eight; the highest provincial officialsmight also use eight; all other officials down tothe actual (not expectant) chih-hsien or sub-prefectmight have four. Also the chairs of officials downto the Commissioners of Justice, Finance and Saltwere green ; chairs for lower ranks were blue. ATau-t'ai's chair should be blue but he usually hada green one because of his brevet rank.Foreign Consuls used green chairs as being bytreaty of equal rank with Tao-t'ais.CHALA HI ffi^{cha Ian) the proper meaningbeing a palisade, such as is found across the streetsof a Chinese city at night. It is known toforeigners as the name of the Portuguese cemeteryat Peking. The name is an abridgement ofT'eng kung cha lan|^^^|g|. The Gate of T'engthe Eunuch. T'eng was a powerful eunuch ofthe middle of the sixteenth century. The historyof the property is somewhat obscure. It wasgiven by Wan Li to the Jesuit missionaries for aburial olace for P. Ricci in 1610. The place hassince been enlarged by purchases, and there isnow there the Provincial House of the LazaristMission and a Provincial House of the Marists.In the cemetery there are eighty-eight graves,including those of Ricci, Longobardi, Schall,Verbiest and other famous missionaries. Besidesthe name Chala the name Shih men ^ f^ stone gatesis common^ used. The position of the propertyis on the west of Peking, about three-quarters ofa mile outside the P'ing-tzu Men.Favier : Peking; Bulletin Catholique deP^kin, 1915, p. 274.CHALFANT, FRANK HERRING, a missionary of the American Presbyterian Mission,North. He was born in 1862 in Pennsylvania, anddied at Pittsburg U.S.A. in 1914. In 1906 hepublished Ancient Chinese Writing, in which hewas the first to announce the important find ofinscribed bones in Honan, of which he and Mr.Couling were the first foreign collectors. (SeeOracle bones). In the volume Shantung edited byForsyth, he wrote a valuable paper on ChineseCoins, which has also been issued separately. At86

TheENCYCLOPAEDIA SINTCACHANG CHMENhis death he left a work containing drawings ofall the oracle-bones known, with identification ofcharacters as far as possible, but it has not yetfound a publisher.CHALMERS, JOHN, was born in Scotlandin 1825, and graduated at Aberdeen University.He came to Hongkong in 1852 for the LondonMissionary Society. He succeeded Dr. Legge incharge of the Hongkong Mission, prepared atranslation of the Bible in Wenli, and receivedthe honorary degree of D.D. from his alma materin 1878. His chief writings are The Origin of theChinese, 1865, Sjieculations of the 'Old Philosopher,'1868, .4 Pocket Dictionary of the Canton Dialect,1872, The Concise Kanghsi Dictionary, 1877, andStructure of Chinese Characters, 1882. He alsodid important work in revising the Delegates'Version. He died in 1900.China Review, vol. xxiv.CHAM, a corruption of Khan. " The greatCham of Tartary" (meaning Chknghis Khan) isfound in English literature.CHAMBERS OF COMMERCE.FOREIGN. The first organized in China wasthat at Canton, established by the British Merchantson August 25, 1834, to ensure unity of action at thetime when Lord Napier was trying to force open thedoor in China. A General Chamber was formed inNovember, 1836. It was dissolved in April, 1839,at the time when the opium was being surrendered,while the foreign community was under forcibledetention and while the bond was being forced onthem never to introduce opium again. TheChamber dissolved "until the restoration of our"trade, the liberty of egress from Canton . . ."enables the Chamber to serve the community in"a legitimate manner."The Hongkong Chamber held its first meetingon May 29, 1861, sixty-two firms being originalsubscribers. From the beginning it has frequentlycommunicated directly with the Minister in Peking,and it rejected the suggestion of a consul someyear.s ago that all communications should be withthe Colonial Government.In 1870 it gave $2,000 towards the Moss comiiercialexpedition up the West River. In January1834 it received the privilege of electing onemember for the Legislative Council ; it elected Mr.T. Jackson of the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank.Other Chambers are those at Chefoo, Changsha,l^'oochow, Hankow, Newchwang, Swatow andTientsin. The Shanghai Chamber, British till 1863,then became General. See British Chamber ofCommerce, Shanghai.CHINESE. When Yuan Shih-k'ai was(Governor of Shantung he proposed the establishmentof a Chamber of Commerce for the province,and this was carried out; the regulations may befound in the Kiaochow Ctistoms Decennial Reportfor the period 1892-1901, page 128. In the lastyears of the Ch'ing dynasty, when reform was inthe air, the movement for the establishment ofChambers of Commerce spread all over the country.In Kuangtung the Chamber at Canton has affiliatedChambers at many important towns, e.g. at Sainam(established 1909) and in the Kowloon district, fromwhose members two representatives are selected forthe Provincial A.ssembly. These Chambers are, inKuangtung, as elsewhere, powerful factors in thedevelopment of trade. They have in some districtsvery considerable powers; thus at Chefoo theycontrol the cash shops ; that at Shasi took overthe government during the revolutionary troublesin 1911, kept the strictest order, regulated the priceof rice, helped the destitute and carried out faminerelief works.CHAM DO ;the Eastern division of Tibet ^7^^also called ^ K'ang, from which geographershave made Kham and Chamdo.CHAMPA, a Kingdom of some importancefrom the third century till the end of the fifteenth.It was the southern portion of the present Annam,and, like Annam, was probably a littoral Kingdom.From first to last Hinduism of the 'Sivaitetype was its national religion but it also receivedBuddhism from China, and one of its Kings wasan ardent Buddhist. I Ching, the ChineseBuddhist pilgrim, visited the country, and writesof it as Lin I ^ g . Cham language wasnot used for liCerary purposes but Sanskrit. Thereare still about 130,000 Chams ; those in Cambodjaare all Mohammedans ; those in Annam still retainsome traces of Hinduism.Maspero : Le Royaume de Champa (T'oungpao,1910-12).CHAMPLEVE. A kind of enamel-work,similar to cloisonne. See Enamel.CH'AN ^i in Japanese Zen, the Contemplativeschool of Buddhism founded by Bodhidhakma,iq.v.) Practically all monastic Buddhism in Chinabelongs to this school. See Buddhist Schools.CHAN BALECH, a name found in theCatalan Atlas. See Khanbaliq.CHANCJO, in the Catalan Atlas [q.v.) forKan chou, in Kansu.CHANG CH'IEN gg ^g a minister of Wu Tiof the Han dynasty, was sent, about b.c. 138, ona mission to the Yiieh-chi ^ ^ who had conqueredBactria, to get their help against theHsiung-nu. On the way, he was captured by theHsiung-nu and kept in captivity for over teoyears. He then escaped and reached Bactria.Failing to persuade the Yiieh-chi, after stayingwith them for a year he returned to China, being87

CHANG CHIH TUNGENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAagain captured by the Hsiung-nu, and again,after a year of captivity, making his escape.He had started with one hundred followers, ofwhom onlv one returned. He brought back muchinformation about the countries on the Jaxartesand the Oxus, and he is said to have introducedinto China the cultivation of the grape and themaking of wine, as well as hemp and the walnut.He was sent again to negotiate treaties with thevarious kingdoms of the west, and by B.C. 115 hadopened up regular intercourse with thirty-sixstates. He was made marquis for his services.An interesting legend about him is given in Giles.Giles : Chinese Biographical DictionaryYule : Cathay and the Way Thither.CHANG CHIH TUNG 3l:t?3 a native ofChihli, born in 1835. He became Governor ofShansi in 1882. In 1884 he became Viceroy of theLiang Kuang, and in 1889 of Hu Kuang to carryout his proposal of a railway from Hankow toPeking. At Hanyang he started ironworks, cqttonfactories and coal mining. In 1894 he becameViceroy of the Liang Kiang. Later he was madeGrand Secretary and appointed to the GrandCouncil.At the end of 1898 he produced a work whichmade a great stir, the Wi'^M''^'i'on hsueh p'ien.This has been translated by P. Tobar, s.j., (Var.Sin. with text), and under the title Learn by Dr.S. I. Woodbridge. It is a powerful plea for reformin Chinese Education.He was regarded by foreigners as an honestjiatriot and he was noted for fine scholarship. Hedied in 1909 and was canonised as35;|g Wen Hsiang.CHANGCHUN :g# Ch'ang Ch'un, a town onthe South Manchurian Railway at its junctionwith the Chinese Eastern Railway.There is also a line from this place to Kirin.The town comprises a Japanese Railway town, aRussian Railway town, a foreign Settlement anda native town. It was formerly called K'uanCh'eng tzu %^^.CHANGES, BOOK OF, or CANON OF.See / Ching.CH'ANG PAI SHAN :gQ|t|. It also hasthe name Lao-pai shun ^ fi llj A mountain inManchuria. Through James' book it is commonlyknown as the Long White Mountain. Ch'ang ^however, means long either in time or space, andis used here adverbially—the ever-white or constantly-whitemountain. The whiteness is notdue to snow, but to a light-coloured gravel andto the greyness of limestone rock. The mountainwas supposed to be sacred to the Manchu rulingfamily, since it was there that their greatancestor AisiN GiORO, (not Nurhachtt as Hosieseems to say) was miraculously begotten. Thereis much legend connected with it. Its height isabout 8,000 feet. It lies in Kirin province,some 200 miles east of Mukden, and the riversSungari, Yalu and Tumen have their origin there.James : The Long White Mountain; Hosie :Manchuria.CHANGSHA ^-^f long sands, the capital ofHunan, on the right bank oi" the Siang river, about100 miles from the Yangtze, in lat. 20°„10' N. andlong. 113° 1' E.The name first occurs as the 36th and last ofthe commanderies into which Ch'in Shih HuangTi divided his empire. Liu Kao Tsu, the founderof the Han dynasty changed the title and Kingdomof his military companion, Wu Jui, from King ofHengshan to King of Changsha in 202 B.C. Jui diedseven months later, but five of his descendantsruled after him, until in 157, the last died withoutposterity. In 155 Liu Fa, the sixth son of theEmperor, Ching Ti, succeeded to the title as TingWang, and arrived in Changsha with Chia I, oneof the foremost writers and statesmen of the day.There are still memorial temples to both, that toChia I, containing a relic. Ting Wang's son diedin 101, and the title became extinct.Scarcely anything of national importance occursin later days till we come to the T'ai P'ing siegein 1852. Changsha never forgets that she was inviolatethrough a siege of ninety days during whichthe Eastern Prince, who seems to have been theablest soldier in the rebel ranks, was killed by aball from a cannon which was still worshippedafter the Republic began. (Iconoclastic soldiershave thrown it down from its stand and it is nowlying exposed and neglected).Changsha was opened as a treaty port by theChina-Japan treaty of 1903; the Customs Housestarted on July 1st, 1904 ; a Japanese Consul arrivedin November. A British Consul came the nextyear. The German and American consulates werenot opened till the second decade of the century.The main line from Canton to Wuchang runsround the east wall.In 1910, there were serious riots. The Governor'syamen was set on fire. Most of the foreignbuildings and many of the government schools wereburnt.There are antimony refining furnaces and othermetals are worked. The low water in winterinterferes with the foreign steamer trade.The population is estimated at 250,000 to300,000.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 10,255,902 9,951,696Net Chinese ., 3,449,756 2,943,213Exports 12,883,576 15.761,316Total Hk.Tls. ... 26,589,334 28,656,22588a

1t5.ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACHAVANNES, CHANG TAO LING Slllg^, often vulgarlyspoken of by foreigners as the first Taoist Pope.He was born in a.d. 34, probably at T'ien-mushan in Chekiang, and was descended from ChangLiang the minister of Liu Pang, founder of theHan dynasty. He devoted his life to study,esi^ecially to alchemy, magic and the search for theElixir vitae. He was very successful, becameyoung again at 60, received from Lao Tzu himselfa book of talismans, and at 123 years of ageascended to heaven. He left his secrets to hisson. He may be considered the founder of Taoisma.s a system of magic, charms and talismans, asystem by which the ignorant too shih have eversince been able to live at the expense of a moreignorant laity. The Confucian w^riters early dubbedhim Rice ' thief.' The Sung emperor ChenTsung gave to Chang Tao-ling and his descendantsthe title of True Princes Jt ^- As to the title nowenjoyed by his successors see Master of Heaven.DoRF. : Becherches sur les superstitions : tomei.\', p. 525; Mayers: Chinese Reader's Manual.CHAN KUO ig^. See Fighting StatesPeriod.CHANKUOTS'E ^^tg Documents of fightingStates, a historical work about the 'FightingStates Period' (q-v.). The word ts'e is alsotranslated stratagems or counsels. The author isnot known, but the work was revised andrearranged in the Han dynasty by Liu Hsiang.A well-known edition is Chrni kuo ts'e chiao ckuISSIS'SS^ by Wu Shih tag of the Ydan dynasty.Wylie : Notes on Chinese Literature, p. 25.CHAD PING ^^. The ninth and lastEmperor of the Sung dynasty. In 1278, theEmperor Chad Shih having died, the Sung causewas nearly abandoned as hopeless, but Li Hsiu-fuproclaimed Chad Shih's youngest son as. Emperorand continued the resistance to the Mongols.Early in 1279, a final disastrous defeat wassuffered, and Li Hsiu-fu leapt into the sea withChao Ping on his back, and the Sung dynastyC£me to an end.CHAO, STATE OF, ^ one of the Threeor the three States into which Tsin wasliivided in B.C. 451, the others being Wei ^, andHin ^. The imperial recognition of it took place\n B.C. 403. The ruling family was of the sameancestry as that of Ch'in, ^ and Ch'in Shih HuangTj was later born to a Chao man by a Chao motherm the Chao State. It was one of the Six MartialStates generally leagued against Ch'in, and it producedone of the Four Leaders who delayed Ch'in'sfinil conquest of the Empire. Its capital was inwestern Chihli. Like Ch'in it was so situated asto absorb Turko-Tartar tribes, and to adopt aIdrdeal of Tartar custom. For example, theking Wu Ling wore Tartar costume, and introducedcavalry into his army. It had many greatw^rs with neighbouring States, but it foughttogether with them against the common enemyCh'in. It was finally destroyed by Ch'in inB.C. 222.Tschepe : Histoire des Trois Royaumes, Han,Wei et Tchao; Hirth : The Ancient History ofChina.CHAO T'OjgfB, a Chinese general engaged inthe conquest of Yiieh [q.v.) by Ch'in ShihHuANG-Ti. On the downfall of the dynasty he sethimself up as King of Southern Yiieh, extendinghis sway to the present Kuangsi. He was afaithful vassal of the Han dynasty when it arose,till he died in B.C. 215, leaving his throne to hisgrandson. The Han dynasty, when firmlyestablished, soon reconquered the country, andpoured in military colonists.CHAPDELAINE, AUGUSTE, an Abbe ofthe Missions Etrangeres working in Kuangsi.He was born at La Rochelle on January 6, 1814,and reached China in 1852 ; and was most brutallytortured and martyred at Si-lin |g j^ February 29,1856.This murder was the pretext for France joiningwith England in the Second War.CoRDiER : L 'Expedition de Chine, 1857-58 ;Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, 1855, p. 461.CHATS. See Saxicolinae.CHAO JU KUA ffi J* ig, a member of theimperial family of the Sung dynasty, who wasSuperintendent of Customs at the busy port ofCh'iian-chou in Fukien, where he came into contactwith merchants and goods from Arabia, Persia,India, etc. He collected a quantity of informationwhich he published in a work Chu fan chihit H ^ 'Rerords of Foreign Nations', (or 'ofBarbarians'). It has been translated and annotatedby HiRTH and Rockhill : Chau Ju-kua; St.Petersburg, 1911.CHAVANNES, EDOUARD, one of the firstof living sinologues, was born at Lyons on October5, 1865. Since 1893 he has been Professor in theCollege de France, and, since 1903, a Membre derinstitut.He has published some most valuable worksthe principal are a translation into French of Ssu-maCh'ien, Les Memoires historiques de Se-ma Tsien,traduits et annotes, (5 vols., 1895-1905); Documentssur les Tou-kiuR (Tares) occidentaux, (1903) ; LeT'ai chan, essai de monographic d'un culte chinois,(1910) ; Cing cents Contes et Apologues extraits duTripitaha chinois, (3 vols., 1910-1911) ; MissionArchcologique dans la Chine septentrionale, (q.v.);besides many articles in the T'oung-pao, the Journal

33'CHEFOOENCYCLOPAEDIA SJNICAAsiatique, the Mtmoires concernant I'Aste Orientaleand Ats Asiatica.CHEFOO ^^, the foreigners' name for aTreaty Port in Shantung ; the proper name ofYen-t'ai j^ "^ being always used by the Chinese.Chefoo is a purely Chinese village on the otherside of the bay.The port is in lat. 37° 20", N. andlong. 121° 25' 2" E. It was opened to foreigntrade in 1858, by the Tientsin Treaty. There isno Settlement or Concession, but there is a districtrecognised as the foreign quarter, which is well lookedafter by a committee of foreigners which collectsvoluntary contributions for the purpose. The portlacks a harbour and breakwater, but there is hopethat the want will soon be supplied through cooperationwith the Chinese. Work on the breakwaterbegan on September 1, 1915. (See ChefooHarbour, etc.) It also needs and hopes for railwaycommunication with the interior. The chief tradeis in beancake, vermicelli, groundnuts and silksthere is also a good business done in pongee, hairnets,lace and fruits ; the last being due to theRev. Dr. Nevitjs, who, thirty years ago, graftedforeign fruits and gave instruction to the Chineseinfruit-growing.The port ships about one hundred thousandcoolies to Siberia every year. In 1893 a winegrowingcompany was started on the neighbouringhills by some Singapore Chinese, and the produceis of excellent quality, but is not on the openmarket. This, the only experiment in viticulturein China, is described in the Chefoo CustomsReport for 1908. The population is 54,000.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports ... 6,900,571 6,733,290Net Chinese „ ... 9,831,128 7,857,570Exports 22,613,560 20,486,972Total Hk.Tls. ... 39,345,259 35,077,832CHEFOO AGREEMENT.the murder of Margary in Yunnan.This resulted fromAn indemnitywas agreed on and certain articles aimed at openingthe way between India and Yunnan. Ichang,Wuhu, Wenchow and Pakhoi were opened to trade.It was agreed that British importers of opium mustkeep it in bond in hulks or warehouse till sellingtime, when the importer pays the duty and thebuyer the likin tax.The Agreement was signed by Sir ThomasWade and Li Hung chang at Chefoo, September13, 1876.By an Additional Article signed at Peking,March 31, 1890, Chung-king was opened as a TreatyPort.It is frequently spoken of as the ChefooConvention.Hebtslet : Chinese Treaties.CHEFOO CONVENTION. See ChefooAgreement.CHEFOO HARBOUR IMPROVEMENTThe anchorage at Chefoo is exposed to heavy N.E,and N.W. winds; and as all cargo is dependent onlighters the loss to the port has been heavy, sinc^there are from 34 to 54 days per annum on whic]loading and unloading are impossible.A scheme for a breakwater was first taken ujseriously by the Chamber of Commerce after 1900jbut it was not till May, 1913, that the "Chef'Harbour Improvement Commission" was createconsisting of the Superintendent of CustomsChairman, a representative of the Consular bodythe Commissioner of Customs and the Chairmen o:foreign and Chinese Chambers of Commerce.It was decided to build a breakwater to th(east and a mole westward, running N.E., enclosing"about 250 acres, to be dredged partly to 20 andpartly to 25 feet.The estimated cost was Hk.Tls. 2,500,000.The contract was obtained by tender by theNetherlands Harbour Works Company, and workwas begun in August, 1915. The engineer is Mr.O. C. A. van Lidth de Jeude, c.e., who haswritten a Report (Kelly & Walsh, 1916).See Conservancy Work.CHEFOO INDUSTRIAL MISSION, THE,was founded in 1895 by Mr. and Mrs. JamesMcMuLLAN, previously of the C.I.M. The makingof pillow lace had been taught to a few Chinese in1894 by a lady of the A. P. Mission, but Mrs.McMuLLAN was the virtual beginner of the Industryas it exists to-day.In 1895 she opened the IndustrialMission School, in which the pupils gave paitof their time to making lace ; and Mr. McMullanopened a business for exporting the lace, and otherproducts of Shantung, the manufacture of pongeebeing afterwards taken up on a large scale, andother industries, such as drawn-thread work,embroidery, hair-nets, etc.The work was carried on in rented premisestill 1902, when premises were built outside Chefoo.In the same year a church was formed.An orphanage was begun in January, 1912.In February, 1917 it is estimated that employmentis given to 10,000 people in the province; andwith the exception of the Orphanage, the Missionis self-supporting, i.e. the business side makes goodthfi deficit of the other branches of work.There is a Church-building which seats 400,and the communicants number about 100, thechurch being part of the Shantung Presbytery.The orphanages (one for boys and one forgirls) have fifty inmates ; the four girls' schoolshave 368 pupils, most of whom make lace part ofthe time, and the two boys' schools have 72.90

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACH'ENGTUThe Chefoo Lace was awarded a Gold Medalat the St. Louis Exposition, and a Diploma ofMerit at the Exhibition of Women's Work,Melbourne. Another branch of the industrial workis a printing press from which is issued a monthlyChristian paper, the " Morning Star," and anumber of books and tracts, many of themtranslated by the mission helpers.CHEIROPTERA. See Bats.CHtKIANG ^ iL, a coast province, thesmallest of the provinces, having an area of 36,680sq. miles with a population of 11,580,000. Itscapital is Hangchow {q.v.) on the Ch'ien fang river•II @ tH It has three ports open to foreign trade,Hangchow, Ningpo {q.v.), and Wenchow {q.v.).Other important places are Kashing ^^ chia hsing;Shaohsing ^^ f| celebrated for wine ; and Huchoujj^ jiflThe Chusan Islands {q.v.) are part of theprovince.CH'tN DYNASTY, THE, [^|B (a.d. 557-589)was founded by Ch'en Pa-hsien ^'^5fe, a general ofthe previous (Liang) dynasty. Finally, a Chinesegeneral, Yang Chien i^ M., usurped the throne ofChou, in the north, captured Nanking, dethronedthe last Ch'en emperor, and founded the Suidynasty.Dyn. Title Accession Pteign Title Adoptedit # Wu Ti 557 3

CH'ENG-TU PLAINENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA1909, Jan. 21, William Henry Wilkinson.1911, May 25, Richard Howard Mortimore.CH'ENG-TU PLAIN, the only large expanseof level ground in S.such'uan, the bed of an ancientlake, the area being nearly 3,500 square miles.It contains the provincial capital and seventeenother walled cities, and the total population probablyexceeds six millions. Its remarkable fertilityis due to the system of irrigation introducedby Li Ping {q.v.) in the third century B.C. He cutthrough a hill near Kuan Hsien, led the Minriver through, and distributed the water by anetwork of canals all over the plain. These workshave been enlarged in later centuries and are stillkept in remarkably good repair.VaLe's paper onthe subject is very detailed.Vale : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vols, xxxiii,xxxvi ; Wilson : A Naturalist in Western China,vol. ii. c. ix.CH'ENG TZUg^, "the philosopher Ch'kng",whose name was Ch'eng Hag f^^, one of themost famous of the Sung scholars, was born atLoyang in Honan in 1032. The substance of hisviews is given in his most famous philosophicalwork, the Ting Hsing Shu, J^^^S-- ^^ AieA in1085, and was canonized as Ch'un Kung ^2» j andin 1241 his tablet was placed in the Confuciantemple.In consequence of a remark of Chu Hsi thathe had learned from Ch'kng Had, Wylie states hewas "a pupil" {Notes on Chinese Literature, p. 69)and Giles, in his Biographical Dictionary hasperpetuated the error, calling Ch'eng Tzu the'tutor of the great Chu Hsi.' But Chu Hsi wasborn half a century after Ch'eng Hao's death.Suzuki : History of Chinese Philosophy.CHERCHEN, Marco Polo's Charchan, alsocalled Charchand, Chachan, Circian and Ciarcian,the name of a river in the Tarim basin and of acity once standing near Lob nor, now reduced toa single street of 180 yards in length. The streamthere is some 30 feet wide and 3 or 4 deep. Thewhole oasis is about 6 miles long by 2^ wide.CHERRIES, ;|i;^ ying t'ao. The commonestin N. China are the'bush cherries,' Prunustomentosa. They are grafted on the wild peach.Another cherry of N. China is probably P.pauciflora; but it is not at all a common fruit.A dwarf cherry or plum, perhaps P. humilis, isalso found, but the fruit is too sour and acridto be eaten raw. All these Chinese cherries arevery small.Meyer : Agricultural Explorations, etc.CHESS. There are two games in China calledCh'i written in one case f^, in the other ^, andboth called Chess by foreigners, though the characteris written with different radicals in the twocases, being stone and wood respectively ; butthis distinction is not closely observed. The gamecalled Wei ch'i is played with about 150 counterson each side, on a board with 324 squares and361 points of intersection of the lines forming thesquares ; starting with a clear board, the objectfor each player is to occupy as many of the361 points as possible. It will be seen therefore thatthis ch'i (with a radical showing the counters areof stone ) has very little resemblance to the gamecalled chess. See Wei Ch'i.The other game is unmistakeably the game ofchess. It is called hsiang ch'i ^ ^,and sincehsiang means elephant and one of the pieces iscalledthe elephant, the game may be called ' Elephantchess.' Or again, since no doubt often playedwith ivory pieces though the radical is wood, ithas been called ' Ivory chess.' Again since hsianghas also the meanings figure, form, resemble, etc.,the game may be called ' Figure chess,' ' Symbolicalchess,' etc., a justification of such a name beingthat while on the two sides the pieces have similarpowers the names, though corresponding, are notalike ; the pawn, for example, on the one side beingtsu 25^ and on the other ping & , both words meaningsoldier.Chess is mentioned in the Lun YU and inMencius, but under the name^J^I. According toGiles this was Wei ch'i. The earliest mention ofhsiang ch'i is found in the Ke chih ching yiian )^•i^ It 1^ It is also mentioned in the T'ung chienkang mu, referring to the date B.C. 154. Theinvention of Wei ch'i is, of course, referred by theChinese to the age of Yao ; Hsiang ch'i is put later,being attributed to the founder of the Choudynasty, about B.C. 1120; although it is naivelyadmitted that it may have originated a fewhundred years later.The chess-board has, like ours, 64 squares, butthe opposing forces are divided by a blank spaceacross the board, called the river. There ai-e thustwo sepafl-ate camps of 32 squares each. Anotherdissimilarity from our chess is that the play isalong the lines and at the intersecting points andnot on the squares. The lines are numbered 1 to9 from right to left. On the back row stand 9pieces : in the middle being the General, with aMinister on each side. Further from him rightand left are the Elephants ; next to them theHorses, and on the furthest points stand theChariots. The second row of points is vacant.The third has two Ballistae (sometimes calledcannon)' on lines 2 and 8. On the fourth, whichis the front row, are 5 Soldiers on alternate points.Then comes a row of vacant points and then theriver. The four squares or rather the nine pointsin front of the General and his Ministers, are the92

iENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCACHI CHAboundaries within which these three pieces movetwo diagonal lines cross the space.As to the movements of the pieces : the Generalmoves one point at a time in any direction overthe 9 points to vi^hich he is confined. He cannotbe taken, but may take, provided he does not thusput himself in check. He may not be put or lefton the same line with the opposing General withoutan interposing piece. Being in check he musttake the checking piece, cover himself from checkby interposing a piece, or move himself out of check.If he can do none of these things he is checkmated,or, as the Chinese sometimes say, dead.The Ministers are limited to the same 9 pointsas the General, but they only move on the diagonallines, backward or forward ; each therefore controlsonly four points. They have no privilegesand when attacked must either be moved or covered,or they are captured.The Elejjhants move diagonally backwards orforwards two squares at a time if nothing blocksthe way. They cannot cross the river, so thatthere are only seven possible places for each tostand on.The Horse moves practically as our knightmoves,—one point forward, backward or sidewaysand then one point diagonally ; but it cannot leapover any intervening piece. It is free to moveover the whole board. The Chariot moves exactlyas our Castle does.The two Cannon have also the same movementas our Castle, with this strange difference that theirattack is not valid except through some interveningpiece. Thus the enemy General is not checked bya Cannon on the same line unless some other piecestands between them.The Soldier moves only forward one pointaii a time till it has crossed the river ; it may thenmove forwards or sideways a point at a time, butm ver backwards ; nor does it receive promotionon reaching the further side of the board.In all cases the capturing piece occupies theplace of the piece taken. It may be added thatthe pieces are not figures as with foreign chess,but pieces like draughts with the name writtenoreach.All evidence seems to show that Indian andChinese chess are djerived from some commonsource.Wilkinson : Manual of Chinese Chess, Shangha, 1893; Himly : The Chinese Game of Chess ascompared with that practised by Western Nations,N.C.B.R.A.S. Journal, vol. vi ; Hollingworth :A .ihort Sketch of the Chinese Game of Chess, ibid.,vol iii; VoLPiCELLi : Chinese Chess, ibid., vol xxiiiHolt : Notes on the Chinese Game of Chess, RoyalAsiatic Society Journal, London, 1885.CHESTNUTS, (Castanea sp.) 5g ^ li tzu.The chestnut grows wild in N China, and it isalso more or less cultivated ; but all the trees areseedlings and vary greatly in the quality of thefruit. It is quite distinct from the chestnut ofJapan.The nuts are roasted in sand with whichmolasses has been mixed, and are sold and eatenin great quantities in every town.A dwarf chestnut, a shrub a few feet high,is met with in the higher mountainous districts.Meyer : Agricuftural Explorations, etc.CHI jlOS, the family name of Huang Ti andtherefore of the Chou dynasty rulers, supposed tobe descended from him.CHIA CH'ING^gThe title of the reignof the fifth Emperor of the Ch'ing dynasty. Hesucceeded his father Ch'ien Lung in 1796. Itwas he who rejected Lord Amherst's Mission in1816. He was a worthless ruler, and the countrysuffered severely during his reign from pirates,revolts, etc. He died in 1820.Bland & Backhouse : Annals of the Court ofPel-iriff, p. 372.CH'IANG ^, barbarian tribes of ancientwestern China, probably Tibetan. The character,made up of ^ sheep and ^ man, shows theywere shepherds ; or some say the character showsa monster, a beast with a man's legs, denotingthe Chinese view of them as not being humancreatures.CHIANG T'AI KUNG ^*^ or CHIANGtzu Ya ||-^^ chief counsellor to Wen Wang,11th century b.c. He was supposed to haveauthority over " spirits of the vasty deep,"hence the inscription often seen written overdoors to repel evil spirits, ^:Jk^$llb "Chiang"T'ai Kung is here !CHIA-TZU ^^. See Cycle.CHIA YU or K'ung Tzu Chia Yii JL^^af-Family Sayings (of Confucius). This work isgenerally ascribed to Wang Su who died a.d. 256,though it is also said that he found it in thehouse of one of the Sage's descendants. It is furthersaid that there was an earlier work with thesame title, but it is not known whether the laterbook is indebted to it.CHI CHA ^^:L> ^ model man according tothe literati,—the fourth and favourite son ofShou Mkng, Prince of Wu, who died in B.C. 560.His father had urgently wished him to succeedto the throne, and the eldest brother also urgedit ; but Chi Cha persistently refused. He acceptedthe fief of Yen-ling, and is therefore oftenalluded to as Yen-Ling Chi tzu M'^^-p- Hewas sent the round of the States to study theirritual, music, etc., and no doubt also to acquire93

CH'I DYNASTY ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAuseful knowledge of the political situation. Hedied at the age of 90, and his tomb is still tobe seen near his home, between Ch'ang-chou fu^ ^ M and Chiang-yin jx PS in Kiangsu ; theinscription on it is believed to have been writtenby Confucius himself.TscHEPE : Histoire du Royaume de Ou;Parker : Ancient China Simplified.CH'I DYNASTY, THE, ^|E, was foundedby Hsiao Tao-cii'eng, a successful general, with thecapital at Nanking. It lasted from a.d. 479 to 502and had seven rulers. Another usurper then tookthe throne, founding the Liang dynasty.Dyn. Title Accession Reign Title AdoptedChien Yiian 479^ -ffJ-Kao Ti 479 ^tcfi ^ Wu Ti 482 7%m Yung Ming 483MW£ Yii-lin Wang 493 ^1 Lung Ch'ang 494it^aS Hai-lirtg Wang 494 5i® Yen Hsing 494M ^ Ming Ti 494 M^ Chien Wu 494^l^m Yung T'ai 498y^^M Tung-hun Hou 498 ^icTC Yung Yiian 499m 1^ Ho Ti 501 t^i^ Chung Hsing 501CHIEF SUPERINTENDENT. See Superintendentof Trade.CHI EH CHIH-T'UI -Si-Zt^- A minister inthe State of Chin, 7th century B.C. Being overlookedin the distribution of rewards, he retiredto the hills and refused to return. A late legendsays that the repentant prince tried to force himout by setting the forest on fire, but that Chiehpreferred to perish in the flames. This is saidto be the origin of the Han Shih festival (q-v.).CHIEH KUEI ^^ the last Emperor of theHsia dynasty, who succeeded to the throne inB.C. 1818, and spent enormous sums of money inbrutal orgies and especially in the amusement ofhis favourite concubine. Mo Hsi .^^ It isforcibly said of him that his wickedness driedup the rivers I, ^, and Lo, i^. Only one of hisministers dared to remonstrate, Kuan Lung-fengSS^^, and he was put to death.Ch'eng T'ang rose in rebellion, defeated ChiehKuEi in 1766 b.c. and sent him into banishment,v.rhere he died B.C. 1763. The Shang dynasty wasthen established in place of the Hsia.CH'IEN ^. A mace or the tenth part of aChinese ounce; also money, i.e. Chinese cash.CH'I EN LUNG $£^. The title of the reignof an Emperor of the Ch'ing dynasty ; the fourthson of Yung Cheng whom he succeeded in 1735.He was great both as a ruler and as a patronof literature. He waged various successful wars,but the Empire itself had great peace andprosperity, the population almost doubling itselfduring his reign. His relations with Westernpowers were friendly, and he received LordMacaetney's Mission in 1723, besides Dutch,Spanish and Portuguese embassies; but thepreaching of the Christian religion was forbiddenand Christians were persecuted during part of hisreign (1746 and 1785). Amongst other greatliterary labours he produced the Catalogue of theImperial Library. (See Encyclopaedias). He abdicatedin 1795 at the end of a cycle (sixty years)on the throne, and died three years later.CHIH FU ^!{i, knows the fu or prefecture.The Prefect, a civil official. There were 183 prefecturesin the Eighteen Provinces. The office wasabolished after the Revolution. See Chih hsien.CHIH HSIEN ^B Knows the hsien ordistrict. The District magistrate subordinate tothe chih fu. He has summary jurisdiction in civiland criminal cases. The Prefects and Districtmagistrates together collected revenue, maintainedorder, dispensed justice, conducted literary examinations,etc., and generally exercised all the directfunctions of public administration.Being—especiallythe Chih hsien,—in the closest relations with thepeople they were called ^ 1^'^ , father and motherofficials. Since the Revolution the office of Chili fuhas been abolished, and the Chih hsien, now calledHsien chih shih 1^ ^p $ or Hsien chang ^ ^is directly responsible to the Tao yin. See Govern-ment.CHIH ^ g| the Buddhist name of Ch'enTe-an, a native of Anhui, who at first followedthe teaching of Bodhidharma. Later he rejectedthe view that contemplation is all-sufficient, thoughhe still professed to derive his doctrine fromNagarjuna whom Bodhidharma followed.He especially venerated the Lotus sutra. In575, in spite of the wishes of the Emperor, whowanted to retain him in Nanking, he went awayto the T'ien-t'ai Hill in Chekiang. He did agood deal of literary work, and is said to havefounded thirty-five monasteries and to have personallyordained over four thousand priests. Hedied in 597, and the school he founded is knownas the T'ien-t'ai school, [q.v.].CHI HSIANG^p, (joodomen; the year-titleof the eighth Manchu Emperor who came to thethrone at 5 years old in 1662. Coins may be foundwith this year-title, which was almost immediatelyaltered, howevier, to T'ung Chih [q.v.).CH'I HSI U NO -t Si. See Seven MartialStates.CHIH LI ji.^ direct rule, formerly called 4hpei Northern Chihli, when Kiangnan was called^ nan Southern Chihli. It contains the capital ofChina, Peking, the provincial capital being Pao-tingfu ^X-^)U- The northern part is hilly, especiallythe north-west, where the Wei shan rises nearly10,000 feet. Most of the province is an alluvialplain, the deposit of the Yellow River and the94

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACHIN STATEPai ho. The Pai ho Q fSl white river is the mostimportant waterway, navigable to T'ung chou nearPeking. Its chief tributaries join it at Tientsin.A bar at its mouth makes it difficult of navigation,and it is closed by ice in the winter. The GrandCanal has its terminus at Tientsin ; but thisnorthern portion is of little use.The chief cities are Peking {q-v.), also calledShun-t'ien fu f^XM> Pao-ting with 80,000 inhabitants,Tientsin, [q-v.), Shan hai kuan (30,000), atthe eastern end of the Great Wall, Ch'inwangtao[q.v.), Hsiian hua ^ ^fc , Kalgan {q.v.) and Jehol(q.'V.).Pei tai»ho {q.v.), the popular watering place,is also in Chihli. There are rich coalfields in theprovince. (See Kailan Mining Administration).The area is estimated at 115,830 sq. miles, andthe population at 20,930,000.CHI-KUNG-SHAN H ^ |I| is a mountainresort situated on the border of Hupei and Honan,2,500 feet above sea-level. At its foot is Hsintien,a station on the Peking-Hankow line, 5^ hours'railway-journey from Hankow, and within an hour'swalk of Chi-kung-shan. There are two valleyscontaining foreign bungalows. Mission Valley andBusiness Valley.About 500 foreigners were there in the summerof 1916, the number in the Mission Valley includingchildren being 382, while there were about ahundred in Business Valley.CH'I-LIN jj^m, ch'i-lin also found romanizedas ch'i-ling, ki-lin, etc. The unicorn of Chinesemythology. Ch'i is the name of the male and linof the female. It is the king of all animals, andfull of gentleness. It has a deer's body, a horse'shoof, the tail of an ox and a single horn with afle.shy growth on it. It is only seen when wiseand virtuous rulers are on the throne, or to flattersome eminent man ; though it may also presage adisaster, as when one was wounded by a hunterjust before the death of Confucius.The first recorded appearance of a unicorn wasin Huang Ti's palace grounds, about b.c. 2600.Two appeared to Yao and one to the mother ofConfucius before the sage's birth. It has become,like the phoenix, a bringer of children, and its])icture is often stuck on the doors of women'sapartments.Dour. : RecJierchea sur les Superstitions enChine, p. 446.CHIN ^ the title of a Tartar tribe, (sometimeswritten Kin) also known as Nvi-Chen ^ ^Tartars. They lived to the north of the Khitans,.'ind were subject to them till they overpoweredthem in a.d. 1125. Their chief took the title of(Jrand Khan, called his dynasty the Chin (Kin)cynasty, and as Chin means 'gold' they are sometimescalled ' the Golden Horde.'Having conquered the Khitans, they nextattacked the Chinese Empire, took Kai-feng fu,the capital, demanded hostages and an immenseindemnity, and the cession of parts of the modernShansi and Chihli. On their departure, theChinese prepared to fight again, but the Chinsreturned, took the capital a second time,increased the indemnity, and took Hotung andHopei. The imperial household was carried intocaptivity, and a new ruler appointed to rulenorth China as vassal of the Chins. The Yangtzechiang divided the Chin and Sung territoriesand the struggle between them lasted till 1234,when the Chin capital, Kai-feng fu, was taken,not by the Chinese but by another Tartar tribe, theMongols, which later founded the Yiian dynasty.Nine Chin Emperors had held sway over halfChina for 118 years.Dyn. Title Accession Reign Title Adopted;5c jfilT'ai Tsu 1115 jft® Shou Kuo 1115^^ T'ien Fu 1118^ ^ Hsi Tsung 1135 ^^-f-T'ien Hui 1123jliC ^ T'ai Tsung 1123 ^-^ T'ien Hui 11235^^ T'ien Chxian 1138Huang T'ung 1141^J3CM^l Hai-lingWang 1149 ^MT'ien Te 1149^7C Cheng Yiian 1153Cheng Lung 1156jj^p^m- ^ Shih T.sung 1161 i^'/g,Ta Ting 1161g ^ Chang Tsung 1190 gfl^ Ming Ch'ang 1190;fc^ Ch'eng An 1196^f.p T'ai Ho 1201^M3i Wei-shaoWangl209 ;^^ Ta An 1209^^ Ch'ungCh'ing 1212^^ Chih Ning 1213•M ^ Hsiian Tsung 1213 ^f^ Cheng Yu 1213Hsing Ting 1217^g^-)^ Yiian Kuang 1222^ ^^ Ai Tsung 1224 jpj^ Cheng Ta 1224y^gS. T'ien Hsing 1232^^ K'ai Hsing 1233^ Mo Ti or^ rfe Hou Chu 1234 ^S Sheng Ch'ang 1234CHIN or TSIN -^,one of the most importantfeudal States in the Chou Empire. Its situationwas in the elbow made by the Yellow River, withsome territory both west and south of the river.It was thus the southern part of the present Shansi,which still has Chin as a literary name. Thedistrict had been the seat of Empire in the earlierdynasties. When Chou took the Empire, the fiefof T'ang was given to a son of Wu Wang, theChou founder, with the title of Marquis, and in thenext generation the name Chin took the place ofT'ang.The state reached its greatest height under theSecond Protector, WfeN Kung (see Ch'unc Eeh,95

CHINAENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAwhich was his personal name). No other Protectorwas able to impart a lasting prestige to his stateat all comparable to that which Chin enjoyed forthe century following his rule. Ch'u throughoutthis period disputed Chin's supremacy and thealmost annual expeditions the two made causedgreat misery to the unfortunate states which laybetween, especially to Cheng. To a less extentCh'i also disputed with Chin. There was, besides,much fighting between Ch'in and Chin over thelands lying to the west of the Yellow River andover the respective influence of the two states onthe Tartar tribes on both banks. It is interestingto note that Wkn Kung was the son of a Tartarmother and that some of his children were by hisTartar wives.In the final struggle, Ch'in won ; but it did sounder Ch'in Shih Huang Ti, of whose origin thereis considerable reason to believe that it was en'.;irelyChin (or rather Chao) and not Ch'in.When the Chin rulers became weak, thiee ofthe great families divided the State between them,in B.C. 451. The new States, sometimes spoken ofas the Three Chin, were called Han (the Honanpart), Wei ^ (the Shansi part), and Chao (theChihli part). Wei is sometimes written Ngweito distinguish it from the other Wei State lowerdown the river. These States were formallyrecognised by the Emperor in 403, and the ChinState was no more.TscHEPE : Histoire du Boyaume de Tsin.Parker : Ancient China Siviflified.CHINA— (the name). It has been commonlyaccepted that the Ts'in (Ch'in) dynasty of the 3rdcentury b.c. gave rise to the name China amongneighbouring peoples. Lately, however, the nameCina applied to this country has been found in aSanskrit work earlier than the Ts'in dynasty. Ithas been suggested that Indian traders learned thename from Malays, that it came into use throughBuddhist writers and was later on associatednaturally with the famous Ts'in. Others claimthat the date of the Sanskrit work may not be soearly as was supposed. See Latjfer's andPelliot's papers, T'oung-jwo, 1912-3.CHINA ASSOCIATION, THE, was foundedin London in 1889, when a meeting was held atthe offices of the P. & O. Company and resolutionspassed, constituting the Association andappointing Sir George Bowen as President, Mr.W. Keswick as Chairman of Committee, and Mr.R. S. Gundry as Honorary Secretary. In itsrules and regulations the objects of the Associationare defined to be, to represent British opinion inpolitical and commercial relations with the Chineseand Japanese, to promote British trade with theFar East, and to give facilities for sociall intercoursebetween members of the Association.Later,it was found that besides the central organizationin London, it was desirable to have also localcommittees at the chief commercial centres, andaccordingly committees have been formed oneafter another at Shanghai, Hongkong, Tientsinand Hankow, while the British Association ofJapan is affiliated to the London Committee.The name "China Association" therefore, thoughmost convenient, is really too narrow. There areabout a thousand members, embracing every classin the communities, business, professional andofficial. A glance at the annual reports shewsthat it has left untouched hardly a single featureof our commercial or political intercourse, and ithas by memoranda and despatches to the Governmentgiven much enlightenment and considerablyassisted British interests.One definite and important act of the Associationhas been the foundation of a school ofpractical Chinese, endowed through the liberalityof some members ; it is at present associated withKing's College, but will be transferred when theSchool of Oriental Languages has its premisesinorder.The Annual Reports of the Association area most valuable record of events and tendenciesin China.CHINA BRANCH OF THE ROYALASIATIC SOCIETY. In January, 1847, someresidents in Hongkong met and founded thePhilosophical Society of China. On asking theGovernor (Sir J. F. Davis) to become its patron,he agreed, but said that Lord Auckland, Presidentof The Royal Asiatic Society, had repeatedly wisheda branch of that Society might be established inChina. The Philosophical Society therefore aftersix days' existence became the Asiatic Society ofChina, January 19, 1847. On September 7 of thesame year it was reported that the Royal AsiaticSociety had admitted the Asiatic Society of Chinaas a branch, and the name was then altered againto "China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society."Six volumes of Transactions were issued, the lastbeing in 1859, all printed at the China Mail Office.The North China Branch [q.v.) is quite aseparate institution.CHINA CHRISTIAN EDUCATIONAL AS-SOC I.'^Tl ON, THE, is a re-organization anddevelopment of the Educational Association ofChina {q-v.) which body at its last TriennialMeeting in 1912 outlined a new constitution, andsubmitted it to all its members throughout China.It was adopted with a few slight modifications byan overwhelming majority, and established anAdvisory Council to be appointed by the eight96«

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACHINA CONTINUATIONeducational districts into which China was dividedfor the purpose.The Council was to consist of three representativesfrom each district, as well as an ExecutiveCommittee of nine, and was to meet annually inApril.The eight educational districts have BranchAssociations which follow in chronological order.1.—Educational Association of Fukien, organized1905.2.—The West China Christian EducationalUnion, 1906. (Ssuch'uan, Yiinnan and Kueichou).3.—The Kuangtung Christian Educational Association,formerly known as the EducationalAssociation of Kuangtung, reorganized in 1914.(Kuangtung and Kuangsi).4.—The East China Educational Association,1914. (Chekiang, Kiangsu and Anhui).5.—The Central China Christian EducationalAssociation, which had been organized in 1910 asthe C.C.C.E. Union, and changed its name in 1915,(Hupei, Hunan and Kiangsi).6.—The Manchurian branch of the C.C.E.A.,1916.7.—The Shantung-Honan" Christian EducationalAssociation, January, 1917.8.—A North-China branch for Chihli, Shansi,Shensi and Kansu in process of formation.The main objects of the Association are :1.—To discuss and publish the findings of thelocal Associations on the various educational problemsin China :2.—To act as a clearing-house for informationon missionary education in China and throughoutthe world :3.—To stimulate the promotion of local associations,and to keep these in touch with each other.The Association publishes The EducationalReview each quarter, and certain of its textbooks,prepared before the reorganization, which are stillin considerable demand.Since 1914 the Association has had a permanentSecretary, resident in Shanghai. The first tooccupy this post is the Rev. F. D. Gamewell,Ph.D., LL.D. (M.E.M.).CHINA CONTINUATION COMMITTEE.The China Continuation Committee of the NationalMissionary Conference, Shanghai, 1913, is a bodyof recognised leaders of the Christian Church in('hina elected by delegates to the National Missionc.ryConference, presided over by Dr. John R.MoTT, in Shanghai, in March, 1913. This conferencewas the last of a series of conferences heldat Canton, Shanghai, Tsinanfu, Peking and Hanliow.A short conference was held in Mukdeninmediately after the National Conference. Eachsectional conference was attended by missionariesand Chinese leaders, some of whom were electedby the various missions and churches of the area,and some were selected by the local committee ofarrangements. The National Committee was agathering of experts rather than a general conference.About one-half the delegates were appointedby the sectional Conferences and the remainderwere co-opted by the Committee of Arrangements.In this way no important phase of mission workwas overlooked, and no group of churches ormissions was unrepresented. In all one hundredand twenty delegates were present, of whom aboutone-third were Chinese pastors, teachers, scholarsengaged in literary work, and leaders in otherforms of Christian service. The China ContinuationCommittee was appointed by the NationalConference with the following objects :" 1. To help carry out the recommendationsof the National and sectional Conferences held inChina in February and March 1913, on behalf ofthe Continuation Committee of the World MissionaryConference, Edinburgh, 1910." 2. To serve as a means of communicationbetween the Christian forces of China and theEdinburgh Continuation Committee, its SpecialCommittees and the Mission Boards of the West."3. To serve as a means by which the Christianforces of China may express themselves unitedlywhen they so desire."4. To promote co-operation and co-ordinationamong the Christian forces of China."5. To act as a Board of Reference wheninvited to do so by the parties immediatelyconcerned.",The Committee is composed of not less than40 nor more than 65 persons, selected to representthe different nationalities, ecclesiastical familiesand departments of mission work, of whom notless than one-third must be Chinese.The Committee carries on its work by meansof Special Committees and an executive staff.The staff included (1917) a Chinese and a foreigngeneral secretary, a national evangelistic secretaryand a statistical secretary, with about ten clericalassistants.The Special Committees include those on aForward Evangelistic Movement, the ChineseChurch, the Promotion of Intercession, TheologicalEducation, Christian Literature, Sunday Schooland Bible Study, Survey and Occupation, andBusiness and Administrative Efficiency, Self-Support, Social Application of Christianity, Trainingof Missionaries, Hymnology, and Comity. Thereports of these committees are published in connectionwith the annual meeting of the Committee,and their " findings," if approved by the Continu-97

cWlWX DIRECTORYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAation Committee, stand as the expression of theunited opinion of that body.The secretaries of the Committee edit theChina Mission Year Book and the China ChurchYear Book, the two authoritative annuals in Englishand Chinese, relating to the activities of theProtestant missions and churches, and the Directoryof Protestant Missionaries in China, classified bymissions, geographically and alphabetically.The China Continuation Committee aims alsoto serve as a clearing house of information on allaspects of missionary work in China.The Offices are at 5 Quinsan Gardens, Shanghai.[C.L.B.]CHINA DIRECTORY, THE, was publishedannually from 1860 till incorporated with TheChronicle and Directory for China in 1376. It wasprinted in Hongkong by Shortrede.CHINA GRASS, or Ramie. See Fibres, textile.CHINA INLAND MISSION.Headquarters :—Shanghai, with Home Centresin England, Scotland, Switzerland, Canada, UnitedStates, Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania.This, by far the largest Missionary Societyoperating in China, was founded in England in 1865by Dr. Hudson Taylob, who had already workedin China for six years under the Chinese Evangelization,Society (q.v.). Dr. Taylor was invalidedhome in 1860, and during his stay approached theprincipal British Societies then having work atthe Treaty Ports in China, to press the claims ofthe interior upon them. As none of them felt ableat that time to extend their work into inlandChina, Dr. Taylor, with the help and sympathy ofa few personal friends, formed the China InlandMission, with the following distinctive features :1.—It was to be inter-denominational.2.—It was never to go into debt : nor to solicitdonations or subscriptions : nor to publish thenames of its supporters, although rendering annualaccounts of all monies received.3.—The workers were to have no guaranteed fixedstipend, but were to share in whatever suppliesmight come in.4.—The Headquarters were to be in China.5.—The work was to be directed by seniormissionary superintendents, and not by any HomeBoard.6—The programme was the evangelization ofthe whole of China as speedily as possible, accordingto a plan elaborated by the founder of theMission. This plan involved (a) the earlyocchpation of strategic points, such as capitals of'provinces, great marts, etc., (which were generallyvery difficult to open), rather than the taking oflines of least resistance; (6) a preponderance ofpioneer work, leaving fruits in many cases to bereaped by other Missions; (c) the complete subordinationof all other forms of work to the directpreaching of the Gospel.allIn the year 1865, when the C.I.M. was formed,Protestant work was confined to seven provinces,almost all the missionaries (112 in number) residingin the five Treaty Ports, so that eleven provinceswere wholly without Protestant workers, not tomention the great Dependencies.Dr. Taylor's plan made Ningpo, where he hadalready resided, the provisional base, with Hangchow,the provincial capital, as the first objective.Thus Chekiang was the first province occupied.Work in Hangchow was opened in 1866, and bythe end of the year there were four centres in theprovince, three of them being inland.Kiangsu was next occupied, a footing beingobtained in Nanking in 1867, and in Soochow,Yangchovy and Chinkiang in 1868. Nanking andSoochow were relinquished in favour of othermissions which shortly after arrived. Tsing-kiangp'u, on the Grand Canal, was opened in 1869.Shanghai, being the headquarters and businesscentre of the Mission, was occupied from veryearly days, and has a very strong staff workingin handsome 9,nd commodious premises given by amember of the Mission.Anhui was entered in 1869, Anking, the capital,being occupied; and for many years no otherProtestant Mission had work in this province.In Kiangsi, work was also begun in 1869, andKiukiang become the centre of a large itineratingwork.In 1874 Wuchang, the capital of Hupei, w-asentered, chiefly with the intention of extending workto the nine interior provinces still untouched byProtestant Missions.In 1876, the year of the signing of uie ChefocAgreement, Shansi, Shensi, and Kansu were visited.T'ai-yiian fu, the capital of Shansi, was occupiedas a permanent station in 1877, (though relinquishedlater) ; Han-chung fu in Shensi in 1879 : T'sin-chowin Kansu in 1877, and Lan-chou fu, the capital, in1885. In 1877, Ssuch'uan was reached, and Chungkingoccupied, Chengtu following in 1881.In 1887 Ta-li fu, the capital of Yiinnan, wasopened as a mission station, though visited asearly as 1881, and in 1887, Kuei-yang, the capitalof Kueichou, after ten years of itinerating work.In 1879, Shantung was entered, a Sanatoriumfor the mission and English schools primarily forthe mission children, being started at Chefoo. Acertain amount of direct mission work has arisenin the neighbourhood.In Chihli, Tientsin was made a business basein 1888 : the chief station in this province is Huai-lugl^, opened in 1887.i98

IIenteredI in1Hunan,Iwork,jIt'ingENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA OtMhlA ^NUAMDHonan was not opened until 1884, when astation was established at Chou-chia k'ou ^^Q,though itineration had been begun as early as 1875and K'ai-feng fu, the latest of all the provincialcapitals to open its gates to missionaries, was nottill 1901. There are now 10 other stationsthe province.after nearly 30 years of itineratingwas opened in 1901, when premises weresecured at Changsha and Ch'ang-te ^^.. Nan-chou^ ;Hi IS w-^s opened in 1904.The Mission has no work in Fukien, Kuangtung,and Kuangsi, other missions having early occupiedthe former two, and in later times, Kuangsi also.The Dependencies are scarcely touched by anyMission. The C.I.M. entered Tibet in 1897, butno station is established there ; a certain amountof work is done however from the centres in borderingprovinces. In Sinkiang, there is one station,Ti-hua fu j^i^:;!^, opened in 1908, with two workers.Space does not permit to follow in detail thedevelopments of a work which, begun in 1865through the devotion of one man and his immediatefriends on a "faith" basis, without any denominationalor other guarantees, could report itself in itsJubilee year as having 225 stations, 1063 missionaries,754 organized churches and 34,830 communicants.But attention may be called to seven greatoutstanding facts.I. The internationalizing of the Mission. Thiswas no part of the original scheme, wide-reachingthough that was, but was thrust upon the Missionfrom without. In 1887 an American gentleman(Mr. Henry W. Frost, then living in WesternNew York) came to England to invite Dr. Taylorto the U.S.A. with the view of establishing abranch there of the C.I.M. Dr. Taylor went inthe following year and visited Northfield and otherAmerican religious centres, and the outcome wasthat 14 workers were sent out in the same yearothers followed, and a Permanent Council wasformed in 1889. In 1916, the U.S.A. contingentnumbered 114. This new departure was followedby similar ones mainly among the Lutheran( hurches of Europe, and in 1917 no less than elevenMissions are associated with the C.I.M. TheI[ome Department of each is virtually autonomous,aid all financial arrangements are independent, butin other respects co-operation is complete, as wella:! the agreement in aims and principles. (For theseAssociate Missions v.infra).II. The dividing of the field. This earlyb'icame important owing to the inter-denominationalcharacter of the Mission : as, men holdingdivergent views, e.g. on the best form of churchgovernment, could not well succeed each other intl e same station. The problem became accentuatedwhen the Associate workers arrived, speakingdifferent languages, and possessing very differenttraditions from those of their British fellow-workers.The first formal division took place in Ssuch'uan,where all territory east of the Kialing River wa,sassigned in 1889 to the Church of England sectionof the Mission. (See Anglican Missions). Later,other divisions of the field took place, especially; infavour of the Associate Missions.III.—The effect of the Boxer Movement. TheMission being essentially an inland one, and itspersonnel so large (nearly 700) it was inevitablethat its losses in 1900 should be very grea,t, andno fewer tha,n fifty-eight of its missiona,ries wi^htwenty-seven of their children lost their lives,either by massacre, or as the result of privationsendured. A large number of the native Christiansalso perished. Yet in little more than a year fromthe outbreak of the troubles, work was resumed inmost parts of the field.IV.—In 1903, Dr. Taylor, finding his healthprecarious, appointed Mr. D. E. Hoste as hissuccessor in the Direction of the Mission. Dr.Taylor died at Changsha in 1905.V.—In the years following the Boxer movementall Missions in China perceived a great awakeningof interest in Christianity, partly due to the discoveryof the might of Western nations, as provedby the capture of Peking, and partly to other evenless admirable motives. This awakening took thefinal form of mass movements, and the C.I.M.,while recognizing the mixed motives often present,decided to instruct all who presented themselves.The opportunities for preaching increased a hundredfold, lands and buildings were freely offered, andcrowds came to listen. Moreover the nativechurches themselves underwent a great revival.During the 15 or 16 years since the resumption ofwork after the Boxer movement, the number ofcommunicants has more than trebled, and a churchof more than 4,000 members has been gathered inamong the aboriginal tribes in the S.W. provinces,with 7,000 enrolled enquirers, from peoples whollyuntouched before.VI.—At the time of the Revolution of 1911the lives and property of foreigners were generallyrespected by both the contending parties : butagain the C.I.M. suffered by the loss *of twomissionaries and six children who were massacredat Hsi-an fu by a lawless mob. The general effectof the Revolution and of the Declaration ofReligious Liberty which followed has been greatlyto increase the interest of the people in Christianity.VII.—Although evangelistic work has alwaysbeen regarded as the main work of the Mission,the very success which has attended it has led toother forms of activity, which have been begunwhen necessary.99

^ment.i studentsjproceeded'PekingCHINA MEDICALENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAWith regard to medical work, Dr. HudsonTaylor, himself a medical man, started dispensarywork at Hangchow as far back as 1866; and thehealing of the sick has always been regarded as'second only to the preaching of the Gospel.While Education has not been employed as anevangelistic agency, the teaching of the children ofChristians dates from the beginning of the Mission,and few of the central stations are without aschool ; and in addition to those under directMission control, the Chinese Christians themselveshave opened quite a number. There are severalOrphan schools supported by the Mission, a largeFoundling Home in N. Shansi, and a School forblind girls at Changsha. There are also BibleInstitutes in various districts for the training ofnative pastors and evangelists.The following are the Associate Missions :(1).—SWEDISH MISSION IN CHINA.Headquarters :—Stockholm, and Kingsbury,Cal. U.S.A. Formed in 1887.W^orks in Shansi, Shensi, and 38 hsien in Honan.Number of foreign workers in 1916 : 52.(2).—SWEDISH HOLINESS UNION.Headquarters :—Torp, Kumla.Began work in China, 1890.In 1896, the field between the two arms of theGreat Wall was assigned to this Mission. In 1900,all the workers, 10 in number, suffered martyrdom.The work was reopened in 1902, and in 1916 theMission reported 31 foreign workers.(3).—SCANDINAVIAN ALLIANCE MISSION,representing the Scandinavian Churches of U.S.A.Headquarters :—Chicago.Has worked in Shensi and E. Kansu since 1894.The foreign workers in 1916 numbered 58.(4).—SWEDISH ALLIANCE MISSION.Headquarters :—Jonkoping, Sweden.This mission began work in China in 1892 inin the part of Shansi north of the Great Wall,and lost heavily in the Boxer movement in 1900.The foreign workers in 1916 numbered 15.(5).—NORWEGIAN MISSION IN CHINA.Headquarters :—Randsfjord, Norway.Began work in 1889.Its sphere is the N.W. mountain district ofShansi. In 1916, the mission had 5 stations, and15 foreign workers.(6).—NORWEGIAN ALLIANCE MISSION.Headquarters :—KIristiania.Began work in China, 1899.Works in Lung Chii Chai, Shensi.In 1916 there were 4 foreign workers.(7).—GERMAN CHINA ALLIANCE MISSION.Headquarters :—Barmen, Germany.Entered China, 1890.Works in Kiangsi and Chekiang in 10 stations,with 35 foreign workers (1916).(8).—LIEBENZELL MISSION.Headquarters :—Liebenzell, Wurtemburg.The province of Hunan was allotted to thismission in 1906. It has there 11 stations and 61foreign workers (1916).(9).—GERMAN WOMEN'S MISSIONARYUNION.Headquarters :— Malche, Freienwalde a.O.Germany.Began ivork in 1908, in Ssuch'uan.It has 4 lady workers (1916).(10).—FRIEDENSHORT DEACONESS MISSION.Headquarters :—Miechowitz, Silesia.Began work in China, 1912.Works at Ta-ting fu in Kueichou.The foreign workers in 1916 numbered 4.(11).—FINNISH FREE CHURCH MISSION.Headquarters :—Abo, Finland.Began work in China, 1891.Works in Kiangsi. The foreign (lady) workersin 1916, were 7 in number.Statistics of China Inland Mission and itsAssociates, 1916.Foreign missionaries 1,077Paid Chinese Staff 1,295Chinese workers, voluntary or paidby Chinese Church 1,465Communicants 37,672Pupils in Day and Boarding-Schools 10,210CHINA MEDICAL BOARD, THE, a susidiary organization of the Rockefeller Foun^ation. It was established in November, 1914, with^thirteen members, in the U.S.A., and it immediatelyto suggest the re-organization of tli,Union Medical College, with the resuthat it assumed financial responsibility for tlieschool, and also reimbursed to the London MissionarySociety the cost of land, buildings and equip-It further arranged for lower classes ofto be sent to Tsinan fu, paying to theShantung Christian University §100,000 gold formaintenance and $50,000 gold for buildings andequipment. New buildings are to be put up inPeking, fourteen additional acres having been *bought for the purpose.Other plans are in course of development withrespect to Shanghai, Nanking, Changsha, Cantonand a great deal has been expended in grants thospitals not connected with Medical Schools.Other activities are described in the paperreferred to below.Greene : The Work of the China Medic'Board, China Medical Journal, May, 1917.CHINA MEDICAL MISSIONARY Association,founded in 1886, chiefly through the100

IThe!received;CommitteeIENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACH I t^fA* MERCHANTSinfluence of the late Dr. H. W. Boone, of theAmerican Protestant Episcopal Mission.A Journal was shortly afterwards started, (iathe first instance quarterly) the first issue appearingin March, 1887. The first President was Dr.J. G. Kerr of Canton. There were 29 active,9 honorary, and 17 corresponding members.The first general meeting of the Associationtook place at the General Conference of 1890, thechief result of which was the appointment of acommittee to unify medical terminology. In 1908,a Medical Lexicon was issued embodying the laboursof this committee.The second meeting of the Association was heldin Shanghai in 1905, Dr. Christie of the U. F.C!hurch of Scotland Mission, Mukden, presiding.Dr. CousLAND of Swatow was lent to the Associationto do translation work. Mr. H. S. Wellcome (ofBurroughs & Wellcome, the well known Englishdrug manufacturers) gave £1,000 for this object,and various Missionary Societies also contributed.The next meeting was in Shanghai at the GeneralConference of 1907 when the late Dr. G. A. Stuartof the M.E.M. was president, and a ResearchCommittee was appointed.The Association next met at Hankow in 1910,Dr. CousLAXD presiding, and received the reportof the Research Committee, whose investigationshad been expressly limited to the study ofintestinal parasites. The results obtained werefelt to be so valuable that a second Research Committee,enlarged in number and in scope wasipjDointed.The next meeting was held in Peking in 1913,Dr. Logan of Hunan presiding, and was receivedby H.E. Yuan Shih-k'ai who spoke most warmlyaf Medical Mission work especially in connectionwith the plague in Manchuria in 1911, and RedDross work during the Revolution. The chiefaoints discussed were the improvement in MissioniryMedical Education, as to standard, and as toinion work, and as to bringing it in line with the•equirements of the Ministry of Education. Co-)peration with the Chinese was also recommended,IS far as possible.The next Conference was held in Shanghai in.915; an interesting exhibit demonstrating themportance of public hygiene was shown, andit 1 1 acted lerge crowds. A permanent Council on'iililic Health was created, and as an indirectesult of the Association's meetings, a similarOrganization on non-missionary lines, called theNational Medical Association of China {q.v.) wasti.iled in 1916.The 1917 Conference was held at Canton ini: lary, and was a Joint Conference of the CM.\..\., and the National Association, and separates ^vell as united meetings were held. Eighty-onemembers of the former were present and eightyeightof the latter. They were warmly receivedand greatly honoured by the enlightened anddemocratic Governor of Kuangtung, H.E. ChuCh'ing-lan, ^ ^ ;jg. The C.M.M.A. supportedtwo important memorials presented to the Governmentby the National Association.C.M.M.A. in addition to other activitiesfour important Reports from the Researchembodying the results of systematicand scientific enquiry into the physical and physiologicalconditions of the Chinese.The Association's influence has greatly increasedduring the last few years, and in addition to theformation of the N.M.A. two other importantdevelopments have taken place.1. Largely as the result of representationsmade by the C.M.M.A. to the Edinburgh ContinuationCommittee (Medical Missions section) aBritish Advisory Board on Medical Missions hasbeen established, which will have a great effect onallmedical missionary work in China.2. The Kiangsu Educational Association, nonmissionaryand purely Chinese, called on theC.M.M.A. to help in fixing anatomical, chemicaland other terms for use throughout all China. Thefirst sessions were held at the K.E.A. headquartersin Shanghai in January, 1917.The membership of the C.M.M.A. in January,1917 was 550.CHINA MENNONITE MISSIONARY SOCiety.The.Headquarters :—Hillsboro, Kansas, U.S.A.Works in Shantung and Honan.The first missionaries were the Rev. and Mrs.H. C. Bartel, who arrived in China in 1901,representing a community of German Mennonitesin the U.S.A. Ts'ao hsien ^ )^ and Shan hsien,^ g| in Shantung were opened in 1905, and theformer is still the principal station. Ts'ao-chou fuW W Ifi^was opened in 1908 ; and Honan was enteredin 1914, when Yu-ch'eng ^^ was occupied. In thesame province, Liu-hogp jSf, (1915), artd Sui-choug^ ^, are also worked. Ning-ling hsien ^ ^ |Sisto be a foreign-manned station in the near future.At Ts'ao hsien there is orphanage and industrialwork ; a school for the blind, and a boardingschoolfor girls, with 270 pupils in all.In 1917, the Mission reports :Foreign missionaries 29Chinese staff 51Church members 127Outstations 15CHINA MERCHANTS STEAM NAVIGA-TION COMPANY. This Company was, in 1874,developed out of a former Company ( See Aden ).Its object was to trade with ports not open to101

CHINA MONUM^EhfrSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAforeign commerce, a monopoly which it did not CHINA SUNDAY SCHOOL UNION, THE,obtain, and ultimately to kill all the foreign {Headquarters, Shanghai), an interdenominationalcoasting trade. It was practically created by Li branch of Protestant missionary enterprise. TheHtiNG-CHANG and was well backed up by Chinese 1907 Centenary Missionary Conference appointedMerchants, especially in Hongkong. It was officiallyrecognized and had the privilege of carrying vention of the World's Sunday School Associationa Sunday School Committee. In 1910, at the Con-north over one-third of the annual tribute rice. at Washington, D.C., the Rev. E. G. Tewksbury,In 1877 it bought up the Shanghai Union Steam formerly of the American Board of Missions, wasNavigation Company; and on October 20, 1879 it chosen as National Secretary. The China Sundaysent the steamer Hochung to Honolulu with a School Union was organized a few months later.large number of emigrants. The Company was, The " China Sunday School Journal," a monthlyafter a time, quite successful, but it does not seem in English for teachers first appeared in January,to have done much damage to the foreign shippinginterests.for scholars. Various Chinese Lesson Helps are1913. Two. monthlies in Chinese are also issuedEiTEL : Europe, in China.issued, and a Teacher-Training series in bothChinese and English.CHINA MONUMENTS SOCIETY, THE.In addition to the production of suitableA Society formed in Peking in 1908 by foreignersliterature, the Union aims at promoting the bestwith the object of securing " complete suppressionmethods in Religious Pedagogy. Books of itsof Vandalism in China by foreigners, or due toTeacher-Training Course are used in Schools andforeign influence or agencies, and the protectionInstitutes of Method and in Theological Seminaries.of China's antiquities, monuments and all culturalA Teacher-Training Certificate has been issued toobjects, for the benefit of mankind, and especiallysome BOO Chinese leaders who have been examinedwith reference to the welfare of Chinese society."in courses of Religious Pedagogy.See Royal Asiatic Soc. N. C. Branch, Journal,The following statistics will indicate something1912, and various publications of the Society.of the e-xtent of Sunday School work ii? China :CHINA REVIEW, THE, or Notes cfc Queries Number of Sunday Schools 3,025on the Far East : begun in July, 1872 by N. B.„ Scholars 165,282Dennts in Hongkong, and issued every two„ Teachers 7,375months, coming to an end with vol. xxv. No. 6, Weekly issue of Lesson Note literature,June-July, 1901. The second editor was Dr. Eitel.180,000 copies.CHINA-ROOT,Number of copies of Teacher -Trainingfu ling f^^ ; Pachymti cocos.series sold,A5,000 each of six books.fungus growth on the roots of fir trees, usedIboth as a food and drug. It is found in the form CHINA TRADE ACT, THE, properly 'Anof large tubers, which do not readily decay, and Act to regulate the Trade to India and China,'are said to occur unchanged after lying in the (3 and 4 Will. IV, c. 93). It fixed the date,ground for thirty years. The substance probably April 22, 1834, v?hen the East India Companyconsists largely of pectine, and is free from smell should cease to exist; it created the office ofor taste ; the hardest and whitest is the best. It is Superintendent of Trade in China ; and providedground up, mixed with rice flour, and made into that the Superintendents might be empowered bysmall square cakes for consumption. It is used Orders in Council, to create a court of law foras a nerve tonic and sedative.trying offences committed by British subjects inHavket. (Province *de Nganhoei) gives the Chinese .territory.following account of the preparation of fuling : Eames : The English in China.Squared pieces of fir are placed in the soil and acutting of fulingCHINis applied andAWARE is distinguished in the Customscovered with sand,when, after a fewexport list from "pottery and earthenware."months, new tubers form, growinginto the wood.Dr. BusHELL in Chinese Art, includes underUnfortunately the district of Lu-anhas been deforestedpottery, in itsbywidest sense, every production oithis culture.Smilax pseudo-chinathe fictile art, comprising all kinds of earthenwareis the China-root of theSouth, where it takes theand stoneware, as well as porcelain, its highestplace of Pachyma. Thelatter is usually much achievement. As regards the trade iu these goods,larger. Smilax is exportedto India it isand Burma; either inter-provincial or for the use of Chineseits use par excellence is insyphilitic diseases.abroad. The value of " chinaware " exportedaverages nearly 3 million taels annually, and ofCHINA'S SORROW. The Yellow River; so pottery and earthenware nearly 2 million taels.called by the Emperor Chia Ch'ing in his will The former is almost all from Kiukiang or Swatow,1820 ?Sr ; :K ® t}» ,f.^ afe. See YcIIqw River. Kiukiang sending out rather more than Swatow.102

I ^I®^i $^?I?fW^Im^"^i #01;^iENCYCLOPAEDIA SINtCACH'IN DYNASTYThe second class is more evenly distributed amongthe ports, but the bulk comes from Shanghai andthe Kuangtung ports. The famous old Imperialpotteries at Chingtechen, which were almost ruinedby the T'ai P'ing rebels, now turn out a gooddeal of chinaware, (that sent from Kiukiang), butit is sadly inferior to the old wares. The Kuangtungchinaware is from three centres, 1, Pakwoh,on the northern border of the province, near Amoy2, from Yangchun, in Chaoching prefecture ; 3,from Yangchiang, also in the south of the province.This last is more ambitious than the former(which chiefly regard domestic use) ; and turnsout architectural ornaments, cisterns, fish bowlsand flower pots, etc. These wares are namedKuang-yao (Kuangtung pottery). The other leadingcentre, from which Shanghai is supplied, is I-hsing,on the western shores of the Taihu. The factoriesat Liling, in N.E. Hunan, have been revived ofrecent years.At one time it was feared, in the trade inS. China, that Japanese articles would drive outthe heavier Chinese ware ; but the former wentout of favour owing to its sameness and fragility,and the latter gained on account of its strength.The reproduction of antique shapes also stimulatedthe demand.The materials used are two sorts of earth, one,petuntse {^%,^) a hard, white, fusible quartz;secondly, kaolin (jg ^), decomposed felspar ofgranite, which are imported to Chingtechen fromother places in Kiangsi, and from Anhui.The export in 1916 amounted to Hk.Tls. 1,787,399.Kiukiang Customs Decenkial Report, 1901.[N.S.]CHINA YEAR BOOK, THE, an annualwhich first appeared in 1913 under the editorshipof H. T. Montague Bell and H. G. W. Woodhead.The Great War prevented its publication for theye-cT 1915, but it was issued in 1916. It containsI large and valuable amount of information,BSf ecially with regard to the year's commerce,[in;mce,etc.CHIN DYNASTY, LATER ^§.Dynasties.CHIN or TSIN DYNASTY W IE,See Fivealso calledthe Western Tsin, was established in a.d. 265, asihe outcome of the strife betwen the Three'viiigdoms ' {q.v.) It was founded by Ssu-ma Yeniti>iT the Shu-Han kingdom had been conquered,and he soon proceeded to the conquest of Wei.rh(s capital was at Lo-yang. The Hsiung-nu soonaid claim to the throne, took Lo-yang and carried)ff two Tsin Emperors in succession. The Tartarsveie then masters of the whole of North China,md the Tsin capital being removed to Nanking,the dynasty is frdm a.d. 317 known as the EasternChin or Tsin dynasty.Dyn. Title Accession Reign Title Adoptedi^^ Wu Ti 265 ^^ T'ai Shih 265J^^ Hsien Ning 275^^ T'ai K'ang 280^g.E T'ai Hsi 290W^ Hui Ti 290 7jcg£ Yung Hsi 2907jc2p Yung P'ing 2917C^ Yuan K'ang 2917jt^ Yung K'ang 3007K^ Yung Ning 301*S T'ai An 3027j4^ Yung Hsing7li.^ Yung An304^^ Chien Wu7jc3c Yung AnjM? Kuang Hsi 306^f> Huai Ti 307 7%M Yung Chia 307SJ-f^ Min Ti 313 M^ Chien Hsing 313TscHEPE : Histoire du Royaume de Tsin.CHIN or TSIN DYNASTY, EASTERN,^ 3^, a continuation of the Western Tsin, butwith its capital at Kiang-ning (Nanking). Theeleven Emperors of this dynasty were all weakand incompetent. It began in a.d. 317, and in420 it gave place to the Sung Dynasty.Dyn. Title Accession Reign Title Adopted7C ' f- Yiian Ti 317 ^^ Chien Wu 317:^^ T'ai Hsing 3187jc& Yung Ch'ang 32259 ^ Ming Ti 323 JkW T'ai Ning 323Wk ^ Ch'eng Ti 326 l^m Hsien Ho 326J^^ Hsien K'ang 335M ^ K'ang Ti 343 MtC Chien Yiian 343Q ^ Mu Ti 345 7jtfU Yung Ho 345fi-2p Sheng P'ing 357^ Ai Ti 362 ItJfll Lung Ho 362Hsing Ning 363i^ ^^ •xr 1^66 JkJga -^"^ T'ai Ho 366Hai Hsi Kung |Chien W^n Ti 371 H^^ Hsien An 371Hsiao Wu Ti 373 ^M Ning K'ang 373±7C T'ai Yiian 3763c ^ An Ti 397 It^ Lung An 3977C^ Yiian Hsing 4021^^ Lung An 402:^? Ta Hsiang 4027C^ Yiian Hsing 403i^g.^ I Hsi 405m fl? Kung Ti 419 TCiS Yuan Hsi 419TscHEPE : Histoire du Royaume de Tsin.CHMN DYNASTY, THE,^ |B (b.c. 255-206)though short-lived was a most important dynasty;it accomplished the destruction of the feudalsystem, and brought the whole of China under oneruler. Ch'in Shih Huang-ti the founder, (b.c. 246)103

ICHINESEjdeiithejP.i;Institutionfounded. The Pope promised his ap-when it should have been established, andprovided Ripa found the funds; the Propagandato its location at Naples; the EmperorVI encouraged it but with certain difficultiprovalIIobjected'CharlesjaccompaniedjCollegeIqualifyj'the;ecclesiasticsjCH'I, NORTNEDNENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAwas the first ruler to Uke the title of Huang Ti.He extended the empire, built the Great Wall tocheck the Tartars, and burnt the classical books.See Shih Huang Ti; Great Wall; Burning of Boohs.Dynastic TitleAccessionBg g S Chao Hsiang Wang 255# 3SC ^ Hsiao Wen Wang 250jEE $! £ Chuang Hsiang Wang 249jEfe H Cheng Wang 246jk& ^ ^ Shih Huang-ti 221Hift^^ Erh Shih Huang-ti 209CHI, NORTHERN DYNASTY ^b^^S a shortdynasty of the Epoch of Division between Northand South. In 550 it succeeded the Eastern Weiand twenty-eight years later it w-as swallowed upby the Northern Chou ; which was soon after conqueredby the Ch'en dynasty.Dyn. Title Accession Reign Title AdoptedA.D.A.D.*1C* Wen Hsiian Ti 650 5^1* T'ien Pao 550n ^ Fei Ti 560 l£^ Ch'ien Ming 560#Dsi- Hsiao Chao Ti 560 ^^ Huang Chien 5605^^^ Wu Ch'eng Ti 561 *^ T'ai Ning 5615Srjg Ho Ch'ing 562

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCACHINESE SOCIALCHINESE RACE, THE. The origin of theChinese people remains an unsolved problem. Theorieshave been put forward to connect them withEgypt and with North America.Some students claim that there is strongphilological evidence to show the early Chinese seatwas in the Mesopotamian valley. It is claimedthat they came into China from the west andthat they found an earlier people in possessionof the land. The earliest reliable history showsthem in the Yellow River valley, first higher in itscour.^e and afterwards lower, and ignorant of theYangtze basin. The inference is that they camefrom Eastern Turkestan, from Lobnor, along thenorth side of the Altyn Tagh and Nan Shan ranges,past the sites of the present Sining and Lanchowto the Wei valley, then down the Wei into theYellow River valley. It is supposed by some thatthese early immigrants were the ancestors of thehistorical Chuu ^ race ; that they had their homein tlie Tarim valley, then a pleasant land, now awaste howling wilderness, where Stein has uncoveredthe remains of a pro.

CHINGENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAmembers of the Association : the first number isdated April, 1916. The subscription for ordinaryMembers of the Association is six dollars perannum; for life-members one hundred; and forendowment members, two hundred dollars. In1916, the Members were about 150, rather morethan half being Chinese.CHING ^Uju7igle or brushwood. See Ch'u,State of.CH'ING DYNASTY, THE, ® IE. The Mingdynasty had at the same time to resist invasionsof the Manchus and to struggle against internalrebellion. The rebel Li Tzu-ch'kng (g.v.) enteredPeking in 1644 and the last Ming Emperor committedsuicide. The Ming general, Wu San-kuei,fighting against the Manchus, then joined forceswith them against Li. The rebel was destroyedand Shun Chih established the Ch'ing or Manchudynasty.At iirst the Southern provinces supportedvarious descendants of the Ming rulers, but theManchu army defeated them in succession, andcompelled the Chinese to shave the head and wearthe queue. A Grand Council, formed of two Chineseand two Manchus, was established in Peking.K'ang Hsi, warrior and scholar, completed theconquest of China, and subdued Koxinga and thelast supporters of the Ming dynasty in Formosa,who had driven out the Dutch. A rebellion brokeout in the South from 1674-8. Central Asia was annexedin 1696. Embassies arrived from Holland andRussia. In 1689 there was a conflict with Russianson the Amur, and in 1719 came an embassy fromPeter the Great. The Jesuits were in great favourat court, helping the Astronomical Board, but inthe reign of Yung Cheng mo^t other missionariesin the country were banished, and their churchesdestroyed". Ch'ien Lung was a great warrior,suppressed rebellions in S.W. China and Mongolia,subdued the aborigines, and exacted tribute fromDynastic Title.Accession«^M«^* Chao Tsu Yiian Huang Ti a.d.Hiie^'ftS" Hsing Tsu Chih „JMlfl^^ Ching Tsu YiJHIi!t^^ Hsien Tsu Hsiian „ „ 1583:kVL^M'$- T'ai Tsu Kao „ „ 1616A^^:^# T'ai Tsung Wen „ „ 1627jariB*^* Shih Tsu Chang „ „ 1644SJii.'fc^lfS' Sheng Tsu Jen „ „ 1662ffi:^.^^* Shih Tsung Hsien „ „ 1723it; a« s^'d ^ ^ Kao Tsung Shun „ „ 1736'fc^^^if?' Jen Tsung Jui „ „ 1796IC^^^liJ" Hsiian Tsung Ch'eng „ 1821it^a^^ Wen Tsung Hsien „ „ 1851S^U^^ Mu Tsung Yi „ „ 1862ai^*^# Te Tsung Ching „ „'1875(Deposed 1912, title not yet conferred). 1908the Burmese and Gurkhas. Macartney arrived ona Mission in 1793, and Amherst in 1805. TheFirst War, the so-called Opium War, took placefrom 1840-1843, resulting in the Treaty of Nankingand the opening of ports to foreign trade ;by theSecond War, the "Arrow" War, 1856-60, the Frenchand British allies compelled the Chinese to receiveresident foreign Ministers, besides opening moreTreaty ports. The T'ai P'ing rebellion, (1850-1864),lasted during the reigns of Hsien Feng andT'UNG Chih, and a Mohammedan rising took placein 1857. Foreign Ministers were first received inImperial audience in Peking in 1873. More treatyports were opened by the Chefoo Convention in1875, and they increased in number till the end ofthe dynasty. There were disputes with -Russiaover Hi in 1881, and war with France in Tonkin in1884-5, while collisions with Japan over Korea in1885 resulted later in the China-Japan War of1894. The ooccupation of Kiaochow, Port Arthurand Weihaiwei by Germany, Russia and Englandrespectively in 1898 were factors that brought aboutthe Boxer outbreak against foreigners in 1900.The Empress-Dowager and Emperor fled from theAllied foreign forces marching on Peking, andestablished their Court at Hsi-an fu for two years.After the almost simultaneous deaths of the EmperorKuANG. Hsu and the Empress-Dowager Tz'u Hsiin 1908, the succession fell upon the infant HsiiANT'UNG. Dissatisfaction with the Manchu ruleresulted in the rebellion of 1911 organised bySun Yat sen, and the establishment of a ChineseRepublic in 1912, with YiiAN Shih-k'ai as President.The earlier Manchu emperors were greatpatrons of literature, large dictionaries and encyclopediasbeing published. The Sacred Edict wasbegun by K'ang Hsi and expanded by YungCheng. See ManrJms; K'amj Hsi; Boxerism; etc.[As this page is going to press HsiiAN T'ung106has been again put on the throne (July 1, 1917).]Title of Reign. Personal name.^ ^ Tse Wang^2Ch'ing WangWang^ i C^h'angjp^ i ^^ WangX ^ T'ien Ming5? 01 T'ien Ts'ung^ @ Ch'ung Te called himself Emp. from 1635mm Shun Chih ' jpggfr Fu LinM ^^ K'ang Hsi ^ j^ Hsuan Yeh^ iE Yung Cheng gL M.Yiin (or In) Cheng^ It Ch'ien Lung % Hung LiM Chia Ch'ing M M Yung Yen^ ^ Tao Kuang S Min NingJ^ m Hsien Feng m ^ Yi Chu1^ f6 T'ung Chih ® m Tsai Shun^ ^ Kuang Hsii De M Tsai T'ieng m Hsuan T'ung W- ^ Pu I

SeeENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACHINNERY•CH'INGHAI. See Koho Nor.CH INCH IS KHAN. See Chenghis.CH'ING MING ^^, the great festival withwhich, towards the end of the second moon, theChinese greet the spring. Formerly it was thetime of re-kindling the fires which had been extinguishedfor three days, (See Han Shih). Thefeast is universally observed, and while it is a timeof pleasure-making, pic-nics, etc., it is especiallythe time when honour is j^aid to the departed spirits.Every family presents offerings before the tabletsand graves of their dead ; and the graves are'swept,' tidied up and repaired. There are indicationsthat these practices were observed 700 B.C.,and they may be compared with similar customsamong other peoples as well as with the ChristianEaster.DooLiTTLE : Social Life of the Chinese; DeGeoot : Les Fetes annuelles a Emoui.CH'ING, PRINCE, or CH'ING I KUANG,M. ^ E^J ,grandson of the Emperor Ch'ien Lung's17th son, and therefore of the same generationas HsiEN Feng. On the dismissal of Prince Kungin 1884, Prince Ch'ing succeeded him at the headof the Tsung-li Yamen. He was then a princeof the third order; he was promoted to thesecond order on the Empress-dowagea-'s fiftiethbirthday and to the first order in February, 1894.He joined the Admiralty Board in 1885, andsucceeded Prince Ch'un as President in 1891.He died in February, 1917.CHING T'AI LAN ^M^ the common namein Peking for cloisonne work {q.v.). The namecomes from the reign-title of the seventh MingEmperor.CHING-T^ CHI^N ^l^t^, the place celebratedfor the manufacture of porcelain, both for imperialuse and for private sale. It is in Kiangsi, on theleft bank of the Ch'ang river, ^Jjl. It derives itsname from the third emperor of the Sung dynasty,whose reign-title from 1004 to 1008 was Ching Tk.Porcelain was made there, however, before theplace was so named.Pere d'Entrecolles describedthe factories in two letters dated 1712 and 1722,and the letters remain correct to the present as faras the general methods of manufacture are concerned.The place suffered severely in the T'ail^'ing rebellion and has never recovered. In fact,in the Customs Decennial Jieports for 1911 it wasstated that the factories were practically doing nowork. Attempts have been made of late years torevive the old glories of the place, but a taste hasalready been formed for foreign porcelain, and thedemand at Ching-te chen is rather for coarser kinds.From Ching-te chen the porcelain is sent down theriver Ch'ang to the Po-yang lake and across thelake to Kiukiang ; it is thence distributed throughoutChina under the name Kiukiang porcelain, todistinguish it from the Imperial porcelain sent to'Peking by the Grand Canal. Porcelain;Chinaware.JuLiEN : Histoire et Fabrication de la Porcelainechinoise, 1856, Cleinnell : Report on a Journey inthe Interior of Kiangsi, China No. 2, (1905).CHING T'U TSUNG. See Pure LandSchool.CHINHAI or CHINHAE m Bchen hai, ahsien city of Chekiang, at the mouth of the Yungchiang ^ JX on which, about fifteen miles up, isNingpo. The population is about 35,000. Theplace figures a good deal in the First War, as it ison the mainland thirty miles or so from the ChusanIslands, then occupied by the British. It wastaken on October 10, 1841, after desperate resistance.CHINKIANG ^achen chiang, a Treaty Porton the south bank of the Yangtze, 40 miles fromNanking and 160 from Shanghai, opened to foreigntrade by the Treaty of Tientsin, 1858.The meaning of the name is 'guard the river',and its position where the ascent of the Yangtzecan best be forbidden and at the point where theGrand Canal crosses the river has made it animportant place since very early days.Marco Polo's account of Christianity in theplace is confirmed by local records. (See NestorianChristians),The British captured it in 1842 and thus cutoffsupplies by the Canal, and the T'ai P'ing rebelsheld it from 1853 to 1857, leaving it in ruins. In1889 a mob destroyed half the foreign buildings.The population is 128,000. A very glowing futurewas at one time prophesied for Chinkiang, owingto its favourable position, but these hopes have notbeen realised. The foreign trade is dwindlingaway, especially since the Shanghai-Nanking andthe Tientsin-Pukow railways have been working.The chief export trade is in bean-cake, sesamumseed and groundnuts. There are no local industries.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 7,563,085 8,698,122Net Chinese „ 6,085,658 6,268,667Exports ... 5,503,842 4,977,282Total Hk.TIs. ... 19,152,585 19,944,071CH'IN LING^^, a range of mountainsrising to 16,500 feet, on the boundary of Shensiand Ssuch'uan. One of the Five Sacred Mountains,the Hua shan ^ll|, is in this range.CHINNERY, GEORGE, an Irish artist wholived for many years in Macao and died therein 1852. His best-known work is the portrait ofDr. Morrison, painted in 1829, and now in theHongkong City Hall Library. A good deal ofJo;

CHIN SHIHENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAgossiping information about him may be foundin HrNTER's Bits of Old China.CHIN SHIH ^-^ advancing scholar,one whopassed the third examination for what foreignersusually designated the degree of Doctor. Theexamination was held every three years in Peking,and only chii jen (q.v.) who had not taken officemight compete. See Chvang yiian.CH'IN SHIH HUANG Tl. See ShihHuang 2'i.CH'IN, STATE OF^, (often written TS'IN).This famous feudal State, which ultimately unitedall China under one rule, occupied the territory. now called Shensi and part of Kansu. This wasthe original home of the Chou house. It was afrontier State, having the Hsi-Jung Tartars tonorth and west. Though Ssu-ma Ch'ien tracesthe family history back through the previousdynasties, the earliest reliable fact is that theChou Emperor Hao employed Fei-tzu ^J- to lookafter his herds of horses, and invested him withthe small territory of Ch'in as an 'attached' State{fu-yung), in B.C. 908. It is the same district asis called Yung chou ^j^H i" the Yii Kung, and wasin the present Kung-ch'ang fu in Kansu. A laterruler was made Margrave, and when the EmperorYu was killed by the Tartars and his successormoved the capital from near the present Hsi-an futo Lo-yang in 781, the Ch'in ruler was made anearl, the State became a direct fief of the Emperorand the original territory of the Chou family washanded over to it. All this was on condition ofpunishing the Tartars and permanently recoveringthe territory from them, a task not easy, the firstearl losing his life in battle in the attempt.This removal of the imperial capital and riseof the Ch'in power on Chou's old patrimony isone of the most important points in early Chinesehistory, as well as being the beginning of trustworthychronology. The central power had ownedits weakness and from this date counted for lessand less, while the greater feudal states for fivecenturies fought among themselves till Ch'in wonthe Empire.Although the Ch'in rulers, (whose family namewas YrNG Jgj^,drew their descent from Huang Tihimself, it must not be forgotten that in the eighthcentury b.c. both rulers and people were halfTartar both in blood and civilization. All thestates in contact with barbarians became morevirile by the intermixture of blood and by constantwarfare, not to mention their larger outlook on life,while the purely Chinese 'orthodox' middle kingdom,strong in ritual and ceremony only, becameof less importance except as a prey.The Ch'in State, though regarded by theorthodox as semi-barbarous and though it borrowedits literary statesmen from other States, was withouta rival in military genius. Its most importantruler was Duke Mu ^, B.C. 658, who had a Chineseadviser and also a very able Tartar adviser of Chin^ descent. He became Protector [q.v.], that is,leader of all the feudal States, though this neverhad formal recognition. He conducted bloodywars against his neighbour Chin, but his chiefglory is his enormous extension among the Tartarswestwards. The question whether it was this DukeMu or the Emperor Mu who made great journeysas far as the Tarim river will be noticed under thearticle Mu. According to the Shih Chi he addedtwelve small States to his principality during hisreign of thirty-seven years, and increased histerritory by a thousand U. At his death in b.c. 621one hundred and seventy-seven people were buriedalive in his tomb. (See Sacrifices).During the next two centuries Ch'in made nofurther conquests in China, but conquered the(now formingkingdoms of Pa ^ and Shu ^Ssuch'uan). It was in the period B.C. 360—340that Ch'in made its most important progress.Under the guidance of a 'princely adventurer' fromanother State, called Wei Yang, {q.v.) a code oflaws was issued, the civil and military administrationwas reformed, the capital (which had hadmany removals) finally fixed at Hsien-yang )^^.and many other important reforms introducedCh'in resources were so well organized that acentury later it ruled all China. At the date ofthese reforms it is estimated that the populationof Ch'in was about three millions, in forty-one hsien.In the fourth century B.C. the States had beenpractically reduced to the six (or seven) called theSix (or Seven) Martial States (q.v.) -fcS^. Of theseonly Ch'in and Ch'u, each already possessing athird part of modern China, could hope to possessthe whole. Each sought for alliances with otherStates, one in an east and west, the other in anorth and south direction, causing the period to beknown as the Perpendicidar and Horizontal Period(q.v.). In the year 364 Ch'in cut off 60,000 Weiheads ; 80,000 more in 331 ; three years later 82,000Tartar heads ; in 314 Han lost 10,000 ; in 312 Ch'ulost 80,000 ; in 307 Han lost 60,000 and in 304 Ch'ulost 20,000 heads. Pai Ch'i Q|a, the celebratedCh'in gerteral killed 240,000 Han people in a singlebattle ; in 275 cut off 40,000 Wei heads, and 50,000Han heads in 264. In the year 260 he accfepted thesurrender of 400,000 Chao troops, guaranteed theirsafety and then proceeded to massacre them to aman. In 267 Chin lost 26,000; in 256 Han lost40,000 and in 247 her last 30,000, while Chao in 256also lost her last 90,000. The Chinese commentatorsreckon one million four hundred thousandlives as the price paid to unify the Empire ; andthere is no reason for doubting the figures. The108

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACHMU CH'ANG CH'UNImperial territory was taken by Ch'in in B.C. 255and with the death of the Emperor Nan in thesame year the Ch'in dynasty really began ; but itwas not till b.c. 221 that Chung, Earl of Ch'in,having overthrown Ch'u and Ch'i took the Empireas Shih Huang Ti or First Emperor.Ch'in still remains the literary name of Shensi.Parker : Ancient China Simplified; Tschepe :Histoire du Royaume de Ts'in; Ssu-ma Ch'ien :Shih Chi, (Chavannes).CH'IN WANG fii.CHINWANGTAO ^ig,See Imperial Nobility.king of Ch'in'sisland, on the Liao-tung Gulf, about ten miles westof Shan-hai kuan, in lat. 39° 55' 15' N. and long.IIG^-SS' E. The port is never closed by ice, andthe pier and breakwater are so constructed thatvessels can load or unload in any weather or stateof tide, straight into or from railway trucks. It ison the main line from Mukden and Newchwang toTientsin. Its advantages as a port. were discoveredby the Chinese Engineering and Mining Co., (nowthe Kailan Mining Administration). From December.1897, the Post Office landed mails there duringthe season of ice in the Pei-ho ; and in December,1901 the port was definitely opened to trade.The port was selected as one of those for theembarkation of coolies for South Africa in 1904.At present the chief and almost sole article ofexport is coal, and this trade is increasing.The name is due to the fa

CHIU HUA SHAN ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAmen gg^p^ was built to receive his remains. Hisbirthday is celebrated there every year on the 19thof the first moon.The novel named Hsi yu chi, translated in partby Dr. T. Richard under the title A Mission toHeaven and ascribed to Ch'iu Ch'ang-ch'un isa later anonymous work.BRETSCHNEiDEa : Mediaeval Researches ; Giles :Biographical Dictionary; Richard : A Mission toHeaven.CHIU HUA SHAN A^lU, one of the FourSacred Hills of Chinese Buddhism, is about 20miles south of the Yangtze in Anhui province. Itspatron divinity is Ti Tsang Pusai|jgj, who open'sthe gates of purgatory and rescues suffering souls.The first Buddhist hermit to live there was Pei Tu,an Indian pilgrim who arrived in a.d. 401. Theold name of the mountain was Chiu Tzii shan%J-\ii, because of nine outstanding peaks, but itwas given the name of Chiu-hua Shan ;^5pilj NineFlowers Hill by the great T'ang poet Li Po. Notlong after his visit, there came a holy man. ChinCu'iAO-CHio, from a foreign land, either Siam orKorea, whose sanctity gave the hill its faxne, forhe was supposed to be an incarnation of Ti TsangPu&a. The oldest buildings were destroyed by theT'ai P'ing rebels, who also burnt a scholars' retreatbuilt on the site of a cottage where once Li Poresided. The chief monastery is Hua-ch'eng Ssu,founded in the 8th century. A pavilion behind it,which fortunately escaped destruction by the rebels,contains the set of Buddhist Scriptures presentedby the Ming Emperor Wan Li. Another of thesights of Chiu-hua Shan is the gilded mummy ofa revered abbot who died at the beginning of the19th century.KuPFER : Kiu Hua Shan (East of Asia, vol. iv,p. 45) ; Johnston i Buddhist China.CHI YiJN. See Dictionaries.CHOP, SI or ^^ tzu hao, a mark or brandor name put on goods, corresponding to some extentwith the Western trade-mark. Thus a particular"chop" of tea means tea with a certainbrand on the chest, showing it comes from a certainfirm. The term is used cf course of foreign goodsalso. The word may be derived from the Cantonesepronunciation, (chap), of ^ chu, to puncture, orfrom the Hindustani chapna to stamp or print. TheGrand Chop, ^^ hung tan or ^^| hung pei, isthe port clearance given by the Customs. Thename is literally red chop, becau.se of the big redseal stamped on it.CHOPCHOP, from Cantonese pronunciationof ^:^ {l^^^P ^^"lA meaning ' quick, quick ' or'make haste.' A 'pidgin'-English expression.CHOPSTICKS. The bamboo, wood or ivorypair of sticks with which the Chinese take up food.It is recorded that ivory chopsticks were first usedby Chou Hsin of the Shang dynasty. The word'chop ' is the Cantonese pronunciation of ^ chi,quick, (see Chop chop), the Chinese name of theimplements being k'uai tzii ^-J-, hastener'i.CHORTEN. The Tibetan name for stupa(g.v.J.CHOSEN pill, The Japanese transliterationof the two Chinese characters forming the officialname for Korea. In Mandarin they are chao hsien'dawn-freshness," and formerly the name belongedto a district in the north-west of the peninsula.CHOTSCHO. See Turfan.CHOU DYNASTY ^|E (b.c. 1122-255), thelongest, and in many respects the most interestingand important of the dynasties. China's threegreatest Sages belong to the latter half of theChou period, Lao Tzu, Confucius and MenciusThe dynasty was founded by W^u Wang, ofthe Chou State, on the destruction of the Shangdynasty. Fiefs were then granted to membersof the royal house, to other supporters, and torepresentatives of preceding dynasties, that thenecessary sacrifices might be continued. Thesystem thus developed was successful as long asthere was gratitude, personal or hereditary, tothe ruling house; but this became graduallyweaker ; and especially after the central powerhad confessed its impotence by removing its seatto Lo-yang and giving over its original patrimonyto Ch'in, the Emperors became of less and lessaccount, while the" greater States fought andintrigued for centuries for leadership, till all wereswallowed up in the new dynasty of Ch'in.The Chou rulers never used the discreditedtitle of Emperor, Ti ^, but used the new titleof King, Wang fE instead. In vassal States ako,as the central authority grew more weak, this titlewas sometimes usurped. Leading States oneafter another to the number of seven in reality,became Protectors, though only five were officiallyrecognised ; this period was called that of thefive Leaders or Protectors, 3lfQ Wu Po and lastedfrom B.C. 685 to b.c. 591, though the last Protectorwas really appointed in b.c. 492. Meanwhilethe Imperial Domain shrank to the territorybetween the Yang-tze and the river Lo.The Chou rule was largely based on ritual,ceremony and red-tape : the Chou Li is an extraordinaryproof of the minute regulations by whichthe empire was governed. The more orthodcjChinese States clave to this and were conservativ(Lu in the days of Confucius being a markedexample ; while the great frontier States with aconsiderable admixture of barbarian blood wouldlay more stress on military strength ; the outcomebeing seen in the burning of the books by the110

AppellationfcgENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACHOU TZUcoiKjueriiig Ch'iii ruler. See Prolccturs; FeudalStates.Legge : Shu Chiiig, Ch'uii Ch'iu, etc.;HiRTH : Ancient History of China; Parker :Ancient China SiinpJified; Faber : Rise of theChou Dynasty (Chinese Recorder, vol. xxxiii).Dynastic Accession Dynastic AccessionAppellation B.C.|B.C.5^3^ Wu Wang 1122 3£. Cli'ing Wang 618||i);i Ch'eng „ 1115 g 3E; K'uang „ 612fliiE K'ang „ 1078 S 3! Ting 606BSi Chao „ 1052 ^ £E Chien 585!Si Mu „ 1001 S 3i Ling 571^ta: Kung 946 ^ Ching 544m.^ I 934 ^k. i Ching 519#i Hsiao 909 7CS ^ Yiian 475^^ I „ 894 1.^^3E Cheng Ting ,468JSH L. „ 878 # 2 K'ao 440mS. Hsiian „ 827 ^E'JdE W^eiLieh , 425mBi Yu „ 781 © £E An 401^3: P'iii-g „ 770 ?.'! 3: Lieh 375^3: Huan 719 M i Hsien , 368Iff^T Chuang 695 mS?£ Shen Ching . ,320fg?. Hsi „ 681 m. 3£ Nan ,314^,S- Hui „ 676 m^W Tung Choum^ Hsiang „ 651 Chun 255CHOU DYNASTY, LATER. See FiveIPDjiKistics.CHOU KUAN. S ee Chuu Li.CHOU LI J?JlJ@ or Chou Kuan ^>^ , The Chouh'llr.-:, or The Offices of Chou. An ancient work,supposed by some to have been written by (JhouKung, brother of the founder of the Chou dynasty(B.C. 1122) ; by others taken as a forgery of athousand years later. Chu Hsi and Ma Koang-^IN however consider it a work of the early Chouperiod. It gives the official services of all officersat the Chou court. It was translated into FrenchE. BioT in 1851.BiOT : Le Tcheou-li.CHOU, NORTHERN, DYNASTY .Ifc ^ IEa short dynasty of the Epoch of Division betweenNorth and South. It succeeded Western Wei in557. l..ater it absorbed N. Ch'i, but was soon itselfovercome by Ch'en.Dyn. Title Accession ReigiiTTitle AdoptedA.I).A.D.#^if?- Hsiao Min Ti 557'^5g Ming Ti 557 g^JS, Wu Ch'eng 558^ ^ Wu Ti 561 f*S Pao Ting 5615^^ T'ien Ho 566Chien Te 572H^g ^ Hsiian Ti 578 giEJc Hsuan Cheng 578:k)^ Ta Ch'eng 579m ^ Ching Ti 580 :ktk Ta Hsiang 580:k'Z Ta Ting 581CHOU, STATE OF ^, a principality of theShang dynasty, which took the Empire fromShang in B.C. 1122. The first ancestor claimedis Ch'i ^, Minister of Agriculture to Yao,B.C. 2286, now worshipped as the god of Agriculture.Shun gave him a small fief, T'ai, on theriver Wei. Of a descendant, Duke Liu, it issaid by Ssu-ma Ch'ien that .he became a WesternTartar and had his city in Pin ^ (presentPin-chou ^ >)\\ near San-shui ^ 7^ in Shensi).A later descendant. Tan Fu ^^ {

CHOULTREYENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAthe Four Books as rej)resentiiig what is most West China Conference.—In 1894, two C. andfundamental in Confucianism, to be studied along M.A. missionaries went to Kansu, choosing thewith the Five Classics. He wrote a great deal, southern part for their field, as the China Inlandbut only two works now exist ; the ^'^^

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACHRISTIANS' MISSIONShansi were transferred to the C.I.M. and itsAssociates.A start was made in Peking in 1891, through^liss Douw, a wealthy associate of the Mission,who chose her own workers and financed the work.In 1900 all the buildings were destroyed, and MissDouw herself was so broken by her terrible experiencesthat she died not long after in the U.S.A.and the work lapsed.Tientsin was occupied in 1895, when Rev. andMrs. J. WooDBEREY arrived to attend to thebusiness of the N. China Mission. They alsobegan evangelistic work in English among thestudents of the Government Medical and NavalColleges, which was exceedingly successful. Theclass graduating from the Medical College in 1900all received baptism. On the break-up of the N.China work, Mr. and Mrs. Woodberry removedto Shanghai, and opened school work there. In1917, there are altogether 150 students in the Boys'Academy, Girls' Seminary (each with primarydepartment), and the kindergarten. Co-educationis used in the upper classes. A church to seat 500will be completed during 1917, when a Chinesepastor will be secured, and evangelistic workextended.Statistics for C. and M. Alliance, 1916 :Foreign missionaries 93Chinese assistants 194Communicants 2,294CHRISTIAN LITERATURE SOCIETY FORCHINA.Headquarttrs :—Shanghai.Founded, 1887.The object of the Society is stated to be, "Thepublication and circulation of literature based on("hristian principles, throughout China, her colonies,dependencies, and wherever Chinese are fouod,especially periodical literature adapted for allclasses."The China Missionary Conference of 1877 hadurged "the extension of the work of preparing anddistributing of Christian literature," and had !appointed a School and Text-book Committee.\One result of this action was that in 1884, theRev. Alexander Williamson, LL.D. of the U.P.Mission of Scotland, formed in Glasgow theChinese Book and Tract Society, which was afterwardschanged into the Society for the Diffusionof Christian and General Knowledge among theChinese. In 1906, the present name was formallyadopted.Dr. Williamson died in 1890, and the Societyseemed in danger of extinction ; but in 1891, Dr.W. MuiRHEAD of the L.M.S. took temporarycharge, and in 1892, the Rev. Timothy Richardof the E.B.M. was made secretary, a position whichhe held till his retirement in 1915. He wassucceeded by the Rev. J. Hopkyn Rees, D.D. ofthe L.M.S. A Depot for the sale of C.L.S. literaturewas opened in Honan Road in 1897. A site fornew bookstore premises was purchased in 1907, butin 1917 is still being let for other purposes, theprofits accruing to the Society.In 1909 the work was much aided by theerection of fine new offices, Sir Thomas Hanburyhaving bequeathed Tls. 20,000 for that purpose.Owing to the nature of the Society's work,results are difficult to give; but the disseminationof its books and periodicals among the civil andmilitary officials of all ranks, both in and out ofoffice, the heads of schools and colleges and theliterati in general, contributed very greatly inawakening China to the advantages of Westernlearning and civilization, as well as in removingmany of the deep-seated prejudices entertained byChinese of the old style against Christianity.In later years, especially since the Revolution of1911, the sales have been almost stationary, owingto the great activity displayed by the Chinesethemselves in the translation and preparation oftext-books, etc. ; but as these are generally non-Christian, if not anti-Christian in tendency, thereis still a large sphere of usefulness open to theC.L.S.The periodicals which have been issued bythe C.L.S. are, 1. Ta T'ung Pao A^ il. a generalmagazine first issued in 1904; 2. Chiao Hui RungPao ©."^^^.a magazine for Christians, first issuedin 1891; 3. Nu To Pao i(^%, for women andgirls, dating from 1912.The well-known Wan Kuo Kung Pao H^fi-^was issued for fifteen years by the C.L.S. (SeeAllen, Y. /.).In addition to periodicals, the Society hasissued over 500 works and its catalogue for 1916gives 433 books and pamphlets for sale. All publicationsare in the Chinese language.The Society has always aimed at indirectlyassisting all missions, and is therefore interdenominational,different missions at different timesreleasing such members as were deemed speciallysuitable for literary work, while supporting themas before. The present (1917) editorial and distributingstaff (not including Dr. Richard, SecretaryEmeritus) contains the names of three Baptists,one Congregationalist, one Canadian Presbyterian,one English Friend, and one Anglican; whilemembers of several other Societies give part oftheir time.CHRISTIANS' MISSION, NINGPO. A smallcompany of English ladies, working on undenominationaland "faith" lines. The work was startedby two sisters, the Misses E.A. and L.M. Hopwood.15118

;After;severaljoniteacher,1^st.!retributionI1180jhimselfIjtoIIIIiclassics.I includejLi\canonizedjKishenIKishen)iterms!wouldInothingi debtsjII!ElliotjiCHUIworkI13th! Chujexpositionjwhom1 centuries! latter: Heteachings; e.g., though on the one hand he re-the Mencian doctrine that man is byjaffirmedInatureIperfection,Iagnostic!hisCHRONICLEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAIn 1917 there are seven foreign workers and aChinese pastor, who supervises the church work.There are a number of outstations ; educationalwork is carried on for both boys and girls, but themain emphasis is laid on evangelistic effort.CHRONICLE AND DIRECTORY FORCHINA. JAPAN, (etc., etc.) THE, publishedannually from 1863 at the Daily Press Office, Hongkong.In 1876 the China Directory was incorporatedwith it. It is now entitled Directory andChronicle, etc.CH'UAN CHOWj^^, often called Chin chew,in Fukien, generally regarded as the Zayton ofMarco Polo, though Phillips made out a verystrong case for Chang chou ;j|[^ being Zayton.Hence Khubilai Khan sent his expeditions toJava and Japan, and here the Arabs traded. Itsuperseded Kanpu, and itself in turn gave placeto Amoy.YtTLE : Marco Polo; Phillips : Two MedicevalFukien Trading Ports, T'oung Pao, 1895-96.CHUANGTZU ^^, whose name was ChuangChoxj|^^. was born about B.C. 330 in the state ofLiang, in modern Anhui, and was a contemporaryof Mencitjs. He was entirely devoted to the Taoistphilosophy and wrote the work which from a.d. 742has been called 2'he Holy Canon of Nan Hua,Nan Hua, in Ts'ao-chou fu, Shantung, being hisplace of retirement. Many legendary anecdotesare preserved illustrating his cynical wit. He spentall his energy in glorifying Lao Tzu, and attackedthe Confucian philosophy with great skill. Histeachings were not much valued until later ages,but rose to fame in the eighth century under thepatronage of the T'ang Emperor, HsiiAN Tsung.See A'^QTi Hua Ching; Taoism; Philosophy.Suzuki : History of Chinese PhilosophyGiles : Chuang Tzu, Mystic, Moralist and SocialReformer; Legge : l^exts of Taoism, (Sacred Booksof the East).CHUANG YUANJl^TC. The successfulcandidates in the Chin-shih (q.v.) examination werefurther tested in an examination held within thepalace and therefore called tien shih Jg ^. Thestudent who came out at the head of the list wascalled chuang yiian.CH'UAN HSUEH P'lEN >Wl^-^ » ^ork oneducation.See Chang Chih-tung.CHUENPI CONVENTION, an agreementmade between Captain Charles Elliot and Kishenin January, 1841, after the forts at Chuenpi andTaikoktow, outside and on each side of the Bogue,had been taken. It gave Hongkong to the BritishCrown, an indemnity of six million dollars to theBritish Government, allowed direct official intercourseon equal terms, and re opened Canton totrade.It was not acknowledged by either Government.was degraded and sentenced to death (See; Elliot was severely blamed because thewere quite inadequate. Six million dollarshardly pay for the confiscated opium and leftfor the expenses of the expedition, or forowing by the bankrupt Hong Merchants ; thecession of Hongkong was accompanied by someconditions about payment of duties; and Chusanwas evacuated. The convention was disavowed,was soon after recalled, hostilities werebegun again and resulted in the Treaty of Nanking.FAN CHIH It S iS. Chao Ju-kua'son Chinese and Arab Trade in the 12th andcenturies. See Chao Ju-kua.CHU HSI ^^ , the^ famous commentator andexpounder of the Confucian classics, generallyknown as Chu Tzu. He was born in 1130 inFukien where his father (an Anhui man) washolding office.. He was a precocious child, and hebecame a chin shih at 19. After obtaining office,he studied Buddhist and Taoist teachings for someyears, and some say he was actually once a Buddhistpriest; but later, under a jirofound philosophicalLi T'ung, he became an ardent Confucian-He encouraged, however, a belief in futureas beneficial for governmental purposes.holdJBg various provincial offices, and beingtimes summoned to Court to offer adviceliterary and governmental matters, he was inmade Governor of Kiangsi, where he applieddiligently to carrying his theories intopractice. He was accustomed to retire from timetime to the White Deer Grotto ^ ^ }^ nearKuling, where he rexiyed the so-called University.With the assistance of his pupils, he^revised andbrought up to date Ssu-MA Kuang's great History,adding notes and comments. His greatest work,however, was done in connection with the ConfucianHis writings are very numerous, andan epitome of the teachings of his master,T'UNG. He died in 1200, and in 1241 his tabletwas placed in the Confucian Temple. He wasas ^ fg WiN Li.Hsi's commentaries on the classics, andof the views of the Sung scholars, ofhe was the chief, have been for subsequentthe standard of orthodoxy, though in thepart of the Ch'ing dynasty a number ofscholars arose who threw doubt upon his doctrines.considerably modified the older Confucianupright and that he can unaided attainon the other hand he pressed theside of Confucianism unduly, perhaps ineffort to get a consistent system out of disjointed114

iB.C.\translationIjin[ignores,IIIChineseENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACHUNGKINGand fragmentary utterances.His philosophy, whilebased on the / Ching, was that of a thoroughlymaterialistic evolution, recalling the views ofHaeckel. His identification of ^ Heaven with gifII struck a blow at the old Confucian idea of apersonal God, from which it has never recovered.But if ijf can be interpreted as that Eternalprinciple of Right which all intelligent Theistsconceive as being the Essence of God's being, andwhich His will freely expresses, the chasm betweenChu Hsi and those who believe in Divine Personalitymay not be so great as it appears.The influence of his study of Buddhism maybe seen in the systematic nature of his philosophy,and in his attempt to solve the mystery of thesource and power of evil, which the ancient sageshad not attempted. See Confucianism; Philosophy.Giles : Confucianism and its Rivals; BiographicalDictionary; Le Gall : Le Philosophe TchouHi (Var. Sin.). [C.E.C.]C H U I '^^ red coat, a god of literature, thehelper of backward students in their examinations.He and K'uEi Hsing are the inseparable companionsof Wen Ch'ang and have secondary altars in histemples.DoRE : Bechcrches sur les Superstitions, vol. vi,p. 50.CHU JEN^Aupraised man; the term usedfor a scholar who passed the second examination,generally called in English Master of Arts. SeeChin shih; Hsiu ts'ai.CHU KIANG i^XL, Pearl River, isthe northernmouth of the Si kiang West River (q.v.). Itbranches off at San-shui hsien, passes Fat

CH'UNG-MiNGENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAChina, is important as a distributing centre, havinggreat banking facilities. It is on the Yangtze,some 1,400 miles from its mouth, in lat. 29° 33' 56"N. and long. 106° 38' E., and stands on a highrocky bluff which makes a peninsula at the junctionof the Chia-ling with the Yangtze. It has a goodwall round it, some five miles in length, with ninegates ; the city is lighted by electricity.It was opened to foreign trade by an AdditionalArticle (1890) to the Chefoo Agreement of 1876.The first steamer to get up to Chungking wasMr. Archibald Little's 9-ton launch the Leechuan,which arrived in the low-water season of 1898.The British gunboats, Woodcock and Woodlark,arrived on May 6, 1899, and the first merchantsteamer, the Pioneer, on June 20 of the same year.Revolutions, rebellions and riots have interferedmuch with the development of trade. Theordinary rise of the river there is 75 feet, but ithas been as much as 108 feet. The chief articlesof export are silk (yellow), goatskin, hides, bristles,and, sent through from the Tibetan border, musk,rhubarb and other medicines^ and wool. Thepopulation is 517,000.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 8,697,530 6,310,330Net Chinese „ 9,771,546 8,756,030Exports 16,537,260 17,803,414Total Hk.Tls. ... 35,006,336 32,869,774CH'UNG-MING ^ gg {Tsung ming and,Tseng ming) ; an alluvial island in the Yangtzeestuary.It has about one million inhabitants, andhas many Roman Catholic village communities,originated by Hsii Kuang-ch'i (q.v.) in thebeginning of the 17th century. There are now(1917) fifty-eight R.C. Christian comnjunities onthe island with 13,461 Christians.Havret : L'lle de Tsong-ming (Var. Sin. I).CHUNG T'ANG ^ ^central hall; the titleof address for a Grand Secretary {q.v.). ThusLi Hxjng-chang is often called Li Chung fang, tothe confusion of foreigners who do not knowChinese. (Cf. Kung pao).CHUNG WANG J&i/oyaZ prince, the mostfamous of the princes made by the Heavenly Prince,leader of the T'ai P'ing Rebellion. He rose fromthe ranks to be created prince in 1859. From 1860to 1864 he was the mainstay of the movement. Helived up to his title and was only prevented byloyalty from escaping at the last. Before beingexecuted he wrote an account of the rebellion whichhas been translated by W. T. Lay, but it is outof print; a typewritten copy is in the librairy ofN.C. Branch, Royal Asiatic Society, Shanghai.See T'ai P'ing Rebellion.CHUNG YU ft ft (literary name Tzii-LTJ•f* ^ )• For some time an intimate disciple ofConfucius, he afterwards entered the public servicein Wei. His parents were poor and he had beenaccustomed when young to fetch rice for themfrom a distance. In his wealthier years he grievedfor old days of poverty and filial service, and hehas accordingly been included in the twenty-fourexamples of filial piety. He was killed by conspiratorsagainst his chief the Duke of Wei. Hewas bold, and Confucius complained of his rashness.Legge : Chinese Classics, vol. i, prolegomena,p. 87.CHUNG YUNG. See Doctririe of the Mean.CH'UN, PRINCE g| H ^. The firstto bearthis title was I Huan ^^, the seventh son of theEmperor Tag Kuang, younger brother of HsienFkng and of Prince Kung (the sixth son), and fatherof TsAi T'lEN the Emperor Kuang Hsii. He hadmarried the sister of Tz'u Hsi, and Tz'u Hsi putthe son of her sister on the throne in defiance oflaw and precedent. T'ung Chih having left noson and Kuang Hsii being incapable of acting ashis heir because he was of the same generation,there was much fear lest Prince Ch'un shouldbecome the founder of a new line of Emperors, andthousands of Memorials were sent in against theselection of his son, and one Censor committedsuicide in formal protest.The Prince, as the Emperor's father, sought toresign all the offices he held, but he was retainedin an informal v^'ay as adviser to the Empressesdowagerwhen they wanted advice. His first-classprincedom was made hereditary for ever, insteadof its sinking one grade in each generation as isthe rule.Later on the Empress-dowager ordered thatin all important matters the Grand Council beforeadvising the throne should consult Prince Ch'un,thus making him really head of the executive.This increased the fear and suspicion lest, T'ungCbih being left without an heir. Prince Ch'unshould be the head of a new line, and a storm ofopposition arose. The Empress-dowager explained.On January 1, 1891, Prince Ch'un died. Hewas an able though dissolute man, and he hadalways been a favourite with the Empress-dowager.His offices included Chamberlain of the Palace,Head of the Navy, and Commander of the ManchuField Faroe.The second Prince Ch'un was Tsai Feng, sonof the first, and brother of Kuang Hsii. Hemarried, by the Empress-dowager's orders, thedaughter of Jung Lu, and their son was put onthe throne with the title HsiiAN T'ung, thus makingstill more possible the new line from PrinceCh'un and the cutting orf of the elder line withthe childless T'ung Chih,116

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACHURCH OF ENGLANDants were absolutely without any Christian workers.In the Peace Protocol of 1901 this Prince wasprefecture of Kuei-te |f ^, , whose 300,000 inhabit- and Ho-chien fuj^^/{Jwere opened in 1880; and indesignated to go to Berlin and express the Government'sMedical work was no part of the originalregrecs for the murder of Baron von scheme for K'ai-feng fu, but the need appeared soKetteler.great that a hospital and medical school were soonOn his son being made heir to T'ung Chih at started. Another hospital at present (1917), inthe death of Kuang Hsii Prince Ch'un was appointednative quarters, is run at Kuei-te city, but isRegent, and held this position till the Revolu-expected soon to have a modern plant.tion and establishment of the Republic in 1911.In September, 1916, the Mission reported :CHUN WANG m^- See I?7i2Je-riul Nobility.Foreign workers in holy orders ... 6Physician 1CHURCH OF THE BRETHREN MISSION.LadyHeadquarters :—Elgin, workers 8111., U.S.A.Chinese helpers, ordained 1Works in Shansi in the 2 centres of Liao chowlay 17^^1 and P'ing-ting chow 2p>^^^, with 17 foreignCommunicants 89workers in 1916.Non-communicant members 61CHURCH OF ENGLAND IN CANADA,Total number of scholars 337MISSIONARY SOCIETY OF THE.CHURCH OF ENGLAND MISSION,Headquarters :—Toronto.NORTH CHINA.Entered China, 1909.Headquarters : London.Works in Honan.The Anglican Conference held at Shanghai inEntered China, 1863.Works in Chihli, Shantung and Manchuria.1907 appealed to the Anglicans of Canada to undertakeThis work is sometimes called a mission of thework of their own in China ; and the latter in "Society for the Propagation of the Gospel inresponse decided in 1908 to "send out a bishop and Foreign Parts " (S.P.G.), but as a matter of fact,clergy to establish a mission in some province as though largely helped by this Society, it is alsoyet untouched by the communion." The province supported by special funds.selected by the Canadians and sanctioned by theDiocese of North China.Anglican Conference in China was Honan ; and The first S.P.G. worker for the Chinese, Dr.the bishop chosen was the Rev. William C. White, J. A. Stewart, reached Peking in 1863. He foundwho had worked in Fukien under the C.M.S. since there the Rev. J. S. (afterwards Bishop) Burdon.1897.In 1864, however, it became necessary for theBishop White went to Honan in 1910, taking S.P.G. to cease working in Peking, and its operationswith him four well-qualified Chinese assistants lentthere were suspended for ten years.by the C.M.S. in Fukien, as well as two from the In 1872, an anonymous offer was made of £500American Church Mission in Hankow.a year for five years for the founding of a newHaving regard to the general conditions in mission in China, which resulted in the Rev. C. P.China at the time, i;s well as to the requirements (later Bishop) ScoiT and the Rev. M. Greenwoodof Honan in particular, the Mission adopted the being sent out. These two missionaries reachedpolicy of "evangelization through education "with Chefoo in 1874, and began their work among thethe aim of building up a self-supporting, selfgoverningChinese in the next year, making tours in theand self -extending church."interior from time to time.K'ai-feng fu, the capital of the province, was During the famine of 1878-9, Mr. Scott andselected as headquarters, and work was begun in others of the Mission helped in famine relief,native houses until land • could be purchased f,pd mainly in Shansi.buildings erected ; and educational work was begun, An anonymous gift of £10,000 having beenlooking towards a Christian University for the made in England for the endowment of a newprovince in the future. As the result of the bishopric in North China, Mr. ScotT- (who hadevangelistic work already done by the Canadian been made Canon of the Shanghai Cathedral inPresbj'terians north of the Yellow River, the China 1877), was consecrated in London in 1880, andInland Mission, south of it, and other missions, a became the first Bishop of North China, i.e., ofconsiderable church was already in existence, for Chihli, Shansi, Shensi, Kansu, and Honan.which well-trained native helpers and pastors were On his return to China in 1881, he made hisrequired ; these missions therefore welcomed the headquarters at Peking, and the work of thenew-comers, and engaged to use, rather than C.M.S. with its 26 Christians—the result of 17duplicate, .such educational advantages as they years' toil—was handed over to him, the onemight offer. The Canadian Anglicans also made remaining C.M.S. agent joining him.themselves responsible for the evangelization of the Yung-ching hsien ^j^^^^ 40 miles S. of Pekingir

CHURCH MISSIONARYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA1893, work was begun in Ch'i ChouHp^, 40 milesS. of Pao-ting fu.On June 1st, 1900, Rev. H. V. Norman andRev. C. Robinson were murdered by the Boxers,at. Yung-ching, together with several of the nativeChristians : a new church in the district was alsodestroyed by fire. In 1903, the diocese was divided,Shantung, with the exception of the Germanterritory, being constituted a second bishopric,and Rev. Geoffrey D. Iliff was consecrated as itsbishop, while Manchuria, which was formerly underthe Bishop of Korea, was transferred to the NorthChina diocese.Ch'i Chou became a resident station in 1904 :and the Rev. Frederick Day was killed there in1912 by disbanded soldiers on his remonstratingbecause they had taken one oi" the carts with whichhe was travelling.Bishop Scott, after 40 years' work in China,resigned in 1913, and was followed by the Rev.Frank L. Norris. In this year also, the firstnative priests were ordained in the North Chinadiocese, namely, two Chinese who had been madedeacons in 1905. The Cathedral at Peking wasbuilt and consecrated in 1907 ; a hospital (St. Luke's)and dispensary in 1906 ; the Boys' School (with onehundred and twenty pupils in 1915), was startedin 1910 ; the Girls' School (St. Faith's) in 1903.St. Faith's Home for women's work had beenopened in 1897, the P'ei Hua j^*3^ School forupper class girls began in 1912; a school forcatechists in 1913 ; and a hostel for two hundredstudents in Government Colleges in 1914.The first Diocesan Synod was formed in 1916.The Mission sends its students for their highereducation to Boone University, Wuchang, toSt. John's University, Shanghai, and to HongkongUniversity.Diocese of Shantung.In the year 1878, when Mr. Scott and Mr.Greenwood were making one of their many toursiijto the interior from Chefoo they visited T'ai-an fuSE3Ef&> which was then unoccupied by any Society,and decided to make it one of the stations of theirmission. There was a good deal of opposition tobe encountered, but property was bought in 1889,when missionaries entered into residence. Workwas begun at 2p|^ P'ing-yin 50 miles from T'ai-an,in 1879 but the city was not occupied by foreignerstill 1893. Yen-chou fu ^ ^ j}^: was opened in 1909,and 1^ ^ T'ung-ch'ang in 1915.On December 31st 1899, the Rev. SydneyM. W. Brooks was murdered by the Boxers unhis way from T'ai-an to P'ing-yin. Mr. Brooks'body was recovered and buried in P'ing-yin, wherethe memorial church of St. Stephen perpetuateshis memory.There are Boys' Schools at T'ai-an (opened1887) at P'ing-yin (1895) and at Yen-chou fu (1913)and a Girls' School at T'ai-an (opened 1897). Girls'Schools were opened at P'ing-yin and Yen-chou atthe same time as those for boys.The first advancement to the native priesthoodin Shantung took place in 1913 at T'ai-an ; twoChinese deacons who had been ordained in 1910becoming priests.The first baptisms at Yen-chou fu took placein 1914, although as a consequence of anti-Britishfeeling stirred up by some German residents becauseof the great European War, the work was adverselyaffected. For a time all the girls and some of theboys were withdrawn by their parents from theMission Schools.The mission has succeeded in gaining a footingin Chii-Fu fllj^, the native city of Confucius, andin 1915, a fine property was offered to them ofwhich war-time economies precluded the acceptance.*In 1915 the first portion of the T'ai-an fuCathedral was finished and consecrated ; it willseat 400 worshippers.Since 1906, the Mission has co-operated in theShantung Protestant University's Arts College atWeihsien, and their first contingent graduated in1913, three of whom at once began to teach forthe mission.Besides work for the Chinese, the Missionministers to foreign Anglican communities atChefoo, Peking (British Legation Chapel), Tientsin,Weihaiwei, Dairen, Mukden, and Newchwang.Statistics for year ending December 31, 1916 :North China ShantungDiocese Diocese TotalForeign clergy 15 10 25Chinese „ 2 6 8„ Helpers unordained 17 39 56Communicants 726 882 1,608Non-communicant members 745 558 1,303CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY FORAFRICA AND THE EAST.Headqvarters :—London, England.Works in Fulien, Kuangsi, Hunan, Chekiang,KuaJigtung , SsucJi'uan and Yunnan Provinces andHongkong; with five dioceses.Diocese of CEfeKiANC. The first Missionariesof the Society to reach China were the Rev. GeorgeSmith (afterwards Bishop of Victoria) and Rev.T. McClatchie, who reached Shanghai in 1844.Work was begun in Ningpo in 1848, by Rev. R. H.CoBBOLD, M.A. and Rev. W. A. Russell. Thework was hindered by the T'ai P'ings for morethan a year, but after they had been -put down,the Rev. G. E. (afterwards Bishop) Moule openedHangchow (in 1864) and thus established the firstProtestant mission station in inland China.118

jdistrictIand,iENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA CHURCH MISSIONARYWork was begun at >H"i^, Chuki, as early as1877, through the influence of a native of theplace who had learned Christianity at Ningpo, andin spite of great persecution, it was very successful.The city was opened as a foreign-mannedstation in 1894 but the premises were burnt downin 1900 by a mob. Shao-hsing was opened in 1870and ^^H T'ai-chou in 1892, though work had beencarried on without foreign residence for some years.In 1872, China north of lat. 28° was constituteda separate diocese and Dr. Russell became thefirst bishop. In 1879 he died, and the bishopricwas divided into two, viz., Mid-China and North(Jhina ; and the Rev. G. E. Motjle was consecratedthe first bishop of the former diocese. He retiredin 1907 and was succeeded in 1908 by Dr. H. J.MoLONY. Since 1912, what used to be the Mid-ChinaMission, has been called the Chekiang Mission, thediocese including that province only. The Shanghaiwork of the C.M.S. is under the episcopal over.^ight of the American bishop, and is self-supporting.There is an Institute for the Blind in the nativecity.'The chief educational work of the ChekiangMission is carried on at Trinity College, Ningpo,founded by the Rev. J. C. Hoare, afterwardsBishop of Victoria; at the Anglo-Chinese College,Shanghai : at the Mary Vaughan High School forgirls at Hangchow ; and there are boys' and girls'boarding schools at four other stations, the pupilsbeing mainly from Christian families.Medical work is carried on at Hangchow whorean opium rei^uge and hospital was opened in 1871.In 1886 the present large hospital was built underDr. D. Main, who also has under his care one of thelargest Leper Homes in China, a fine Sahatoriumand a Medical School. Medical work in Ningpobegan in 1886, when the settlement doctor gave fouryears of voluntary work. The hospital was afterwardsenlarged, and a woman's hospital added. TheMedical work began early at T'ai chow, and a finehospital was built there in 1905. In 1916 two ofthe three hospitals were closed through the absenceof the doctors at the Great War.Diocese of Fukien. "Work began in Foochowin 1850, when the Rev. W. Wilton, M.D. and theRev. H. 0. Jackson arrived. The difficulties weregreat ; the staff was small ; and it was eleven yearsbefore the first converts were received, when theLondon committee had nearly decided to abandonFoochow in favour of Ningpo.In 1864 all the mission property was destroyedby a mob, but was rebuilt in the next year.Rev. J. R. (afterwards Archdeacon) Wolfearrived in 1862. He died in 1915 at Foochow,after more than fifty years' work.The Dublin University Mission began workin connection with C.M.S. in 1886, taking over theof |g^ Funing, near the Chekiang border,since 1911, this auxiliary has taken charge ofTrinity College, Foochow, which includes St. Mark'sCollege, an Anglo-Chinese College, and Middle andjunior boys' schools.In 1893, the Rev. and Mrs. R. W. Stewart,with two of their children and seven ladies, weremassacred by Vegetarians at Whasang. See KucJiengmassacre.In 1906, the Fukien mission, which had beenunder the Bishop of Victoria, was constituted aseparate diocese and the Rev. H. McE. Price ofJapan was consecrated as the first bishop.The chief educational institutions are at Foochow,including Union Medical and TheologicalColleges, Trinity College, the Stewart MemorialSchool for Women, boarding-schools for boys andgirls, and Schools for the blind; boys' and girls'boarding-schools are also established at moststations.There are seven hospitals in the diocese, andAsylums for Lepers at five centres.Diocese of Victoria. This is a missionary, aswell as a colonial diocese.Mission work was begunin 1862 by the arrival of the Rev. J. Stringer.The first Bishop (Dr. G. Smith), the third (Dr.Burdon) and the fourth (Dr. Hoare) were allC.M.S. missionaries. Bishop Hoare was drownedin a typhoon in 1906, and was succeeded by BishopLander. In Hongkong, the Chinese Church isself-supporting with Chinese clergy. The Mission,besides supporting day schools, is responsible forfour institutions, which are now in connection withHongkong University, viz., St. Stephen's College,founded 1903, which is almost self-supporting : St.Paul's College (1850) for the training of clergy andcatechists : St. Stephen's Girls' College, and St.John's Hostel.Work is also carried on on the mainland, fourcentres being open in Kuangtung Province, namelyCanton (1898), Kowloon, where there is a Girls'orphanage, Lim-chou fu^^;j$(1902), and Pakhoi(1886).At Canton the mission has an interest in theUnion Theological College, opened in 1914; andmaintains both boys' and girls' schools. At Pakhoi,there are mens' and womens' hospitals, twoasylums for lepers, and boys' and girls' schools.Diocese of West China. In 1891 the Rev.J. H. HoRSBURGH with a party of fifteen, arrivedin Ssuch'uan to open work on lines similar to thoseof the China Inland Mission. Great difficulty wasexperienced in getting a footing, but in 1894Chung pa ^J^ was occupied, and other townsshortly after. Until 1895, the West China Missionwas part of the Mid-China Diocese, the Bishop119

|||jjCHURCH OF SCOTLANDENCYCLOPAEDIA SINlCAbeing resident in Hangchow nearly two thousandmiles away; but, in that year, the Rev. W. W.Cassels, who had been working in the C.I.M., wasconsecrated the first bishop of the diocese of WestChina. As in the case of other Ssuch'uan missions,work has been often hindered by disturbances,such as the riots of 1895 and 1398 : and in 1900,under consular orders, all the staff withdrew to thecoast. Other disturbances took place in 1909, 1911,and 1913.Bishop CASSEts has episcopal jurisdiction overboth C.M.S. and C.I.M. missionaries in Ssuch'uan.In 1916, the mission reported 13 foreign-manned:stations, including Chengtu and Chungking. Thework is mainly evangelistic. There is a DiocesanTraining College at Pao ningf*^, and a hospitalat Mien chou ^^ (1911) as well as boys' and girls'schools, and the Mission co-operates in a Hostelin Chengtu, as also in the West China University.Diocese of Ktjangsi-Hunan. This was formedin 1909 out of the diocese of Victoria and embracesHunan, south of lat. 28° and Kuangsi north of theWest River. Archdeacon W. Banister was consecratedits first bishop.In 1899 the Rev. L. Byrde and his wife weresent to Kueilin, and the first convert there wasreceived in 1902.In 1903 Yung chou fu ;'KMJfifi" Hunan wasoccupied ; Heng-chou fu '^>H//J in 1910 ;and in 1911Hsiang tan jffi#was taken over from the AmericanChurch (Protestant Episcopal).In 1910, serious riots broke out at Ch'angshathe capital, and all mission buildings were burnt;and under consular orders the workers at Yungchou fu retired for a time to Hankow.The work is chiefly evangelistic, but at Kueilinmedical work is done, and elementary schools havebeen opened in several places.The C. E. Zenana Missionary Society beganwork in Fukien in 1884, when Miss Gough arrived,who afterwards married the Rev. J. C. Hoare. TheC.E.Z.M.S. ladies now (1917) number forty, andof these three are qualified medical practitioners andeight are trained nurses. Two of the latter work inthe Native Hospital at Foochow, which is supportedlocally. The Womens' Hospitals are at Foochow,Dong Kai, and Lo Yuan; and more or le$sdispensary work is done at all the stations (elevenin number) where the C.E.Z.M.S. works, inaddition to evangelistic work among the womenand schools.The Kuangsi-Hunan diocese also has 2 agentsof the Society. The statistics of the C.E.Z.M.S.are included in those of the C.M.S.Statistics forDioceses of (a) S.(d) Chekiang; (e) W. China.;Foreign clergyForeign unordainedworkersand womenChinese clergyChinese unordainedAssistants& womenyear ending June 1, 1916.China ; (b) Kuangsi ; (c) Fukien ;(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Totals14 9 22 18 17 8036 12 81 65 41 2357 20 24 51Statistic s to December 31, 1915.150 30 694 175 64 1,113,292 214 5,167 2,556 551 9,780Communicants 1Non-communicantmembers 1 ,408 125 5,850 3,245 319 10,947CHURCH OF SCOTLAND MISSION.Headquarter^ :—Edinburgh.Works in Ichang and neighbourhood.The first missionaries of this Society to Chinawere the Rev. Geo. Cockburn, M.A. and threecolporteurs, the latter being partly supported bythe National Bible Society of Scotland. The partyarrived at Ichang in 1878. In 1890 Dr. W. PiRiE,the first medical missionary, arrived, but died in1893.It was not till 1890 that the Mission was ableto put up its own buildings including a dispensaryand hospital. In 1891 a riot occurred whichcompelled the missionaries to retire for a time.In 1897 the first workers of the Women's Associationfor Foreign Missions arrived, and in 1917 there arefive of its representatives in the field, superintending,in addition to evangelistic work, girls' day andboarding schools, industrial work, an orphanageand a Women's Bible School. In 1915, thisAuxiliary built the Buchanan Memorial Hospitalfor Women and Children.Owing to the many changes in the small staff,it was not till 1898 that settled out-stations wereoccupied. In 1917, there are fifteen of these, thechief being I-tu 'it |1!, about 30 miles from Ichang.In 1901, a fine new hospital and church, withresidences, were erected outside the city. Shortlyafter this a Theological Institution and HighSchool was begun, and there are primary schoolsin 1917 with about 200 pupils.Statistics for 1915-6.Foreign missionaries 15Chinese staff 28Communicants 524Non-communicant members ... 368CHUSAN :^jUchou shan, ship hills, a groupof about one hundred islands, all hilly and fertile.The chief island is Chusan itself; it is about20 miles long and .6 at its greatest width. On it120

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINlCACLAIRVOYANTSstands Tinghai, the governmental capital of thearchipelago. East of the main island lies thefamous P'u t'o (q.v.).In 1700 the East India Company had a factoryat Ting-hai, and in 1703 a special mission was sentthere with a view to opening up trade with Chekiang,and establishing a factory at Ting-hai orNingpo. Flint (q.v.) was the head of the mission,which was vigorously opposed by the authoritiesin Canton. It is possible however that afterKlint's visit to Tientsin -trade with Ningpo mighthave been permitted, if Flint had not venturedthere a second time without permission.One of the objects of Macartney's Missionwas to obtain permission to trade at Chusan.Chusan has several times been in possessionof the British. It was first taken in 1840, andagain in 1842, when it was held till the paymentof the indemnity agreed on in the Nanking treaty.It was taken again in 1860.In the forties, when Great Britain might haveclaimed either Chusan or Hongkong or both forher own, there were many who held strongly that("husan would be the better possession. There areprobably some who think so still, in spite of thesplendid success of Hongkong.By the Convention of Bocca Tigris, made byDavis in 1846, China was bound never to cede theislands to any other power.CH'U, STATE OF,^, also written TS'U, oneof the largest and most powerful of the Choufeudal States. The fief was granted by the secondif the Chou rulers with the title Viscount if-,r.c. 1077. The family name was Mi ^. The title"f King was sometimes usui'ped, and Ch'u must belogarded, like Ch'in, as both feudal State and independentEmpire; it was subject to Chou onlywhen it suited to be so.The position of Ch'u was south of the orthodoxStates, a buffer-state between China and all thebarbarian South. It must be always borne in mind,however, that as far as its administration andcapitals were concerned it was never south of theYangtze. Its first capital was above the I-changgorges ; a later one was Ching-chou fu in the presentHupei ; the country extended eastward to the sea.All this territory was named The Jungle,67imj7 ^,a name which is still seen in Ching-chou fu and isused as the literary name of Hupei. It was intothis Jungle that the two princes went who foundedthe State of Wu (q.v.), which later lay betweenCh'u and the sea. The administrative part in thenorth was Chinese, but the mass of populationsouthward would be barbarian. The people ofCh'u are spoken of as bearded ; no Odes from Ch'uare included by Confucius in the Shih Ching; theCh'u laws were very severe and the rule wastyrannical and absolute. In later times Ch'uproduced a certain amount of high-class literature,but this may be put down to her policy of annexingminor Chinese States. (See Elegies of Ch'u; andLi Sno).It became the Protector State in B.C. 638.Towards the end of the Feudal period it wagedbloody wars with Wu, which it extinguished in 438,with Ch'i and finally with Ch'in, between whomand itself lay the last fight for the Empire. Ch'infinally conquered in B.C. 222.Parkeii : Ancient China Siin-plified.CHU TP^fe*.. See Yung Lo.C H ' U TZ ' See Elegies of Ch'u.U .CH'iJ also called YUAN giia CH'U P'ING,Ifi of the Ch'u State. ^ , a loyal minister He wasa great favourite till displaced by a rival. Hethen wrote, a poem Li Sao (q-v.), still famous,to warn his sovereign, but the warning wasdisregarded, with the result that the Prince, warringagainst Ch'in, was captured. Cii'ii YiiAN foundhimself no moa-e in favour with the succeeding ruler,and he drowned himself in ohe Mi lo ^^ river,B.C. 295. The Dragon-Boat Festival is in hishonour, when rice is thrown on the water to propitiatehis spirit. See Dragon Boat.. Giles : Biographical Dictionary; etc.CHU YUAN-CHANG ^-fcit- See Hung Wu.CINCLINAE, the Dippers, a Sub-family ofTurdidaCi The following are known in China.Cinclus jjallasii, Pallas' Dipper, Manchuria,Chihli. C. .^ouliei, South China to Yangtze. C.marilu, Formosa. C. asiaticu-^, Ssuch'uan. C.Ssuch'uan, Kansu.CINCALAN, a name in the Catalan Atlasca.

CLASSICSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAto by incantation seems to be the spirit of thePleiades. A fairly full description of the mode ofprocedure is given by Eitel in Xotes and Queries,vol. 2, p. 19, and in Donr, liecherches i^ur les,Super.*titinns en OTiine, vol. 1, p. 139.CLASSICS. The present arrangement of theclassical books of China is supposed to haveoriginated in the Sung dynasty. It includes nineworks, five being called ^ ching and four beingcalled Hf ghu. Ching signifies first the warpthreads of a web ; then, what is regular and assuresregularity. In regard to books it indicates theyare authoritative on their subjects. The five Chingare canonical works, to be received as law. Shumerely means writings or books.The five Ching are 1, / Chiiig ^i^^or Book ofChanges. 2, Shu Ching g;;^ or Book of Hi>^tory.3, Shih Ching |$||5 or Book of Odes. 4, Li Chijg lE'o'^ Record of llites. 5, Ch'un Ch'iu $ ^Spring and Autumn.Of these only the Ch'un Ch'iu can properly beconsidered as the work of Confucius. The / Chinghas appendices by him.The expression the Four Books J/g^ is anabbreviation for the Books of the Four Philosophers,H-f"JiS- They are, 1, Lun Yii |^ sg or Confucian.inahcti' ; it is occupied with the sayings of Confucius.2, Ta Hsiieh ^l^ The Great Learning,.supposed to be the work of Tskng, a disciple ofConfucius. 3, Chung Yung tp j^ Doctrine of theMean, ascribed to K'ung Chi grandson of Confucius.4, Meng-tzfi, ^^ The tvorks of Mencius.This arrangement is defective, inasmuch as theTa Hsiieh and Chung Yung are found In the Zt Chi,being respectively Book 42 and Book 31 in thatwork.The oldest enumeration gives only the fiveChing, sometimes made six Ching by the additionof the Yo Chi ^ gg Secord of Music, now one ofthe Books in Li Chi.Another enumeration gave nine Ching, and inthe famous compilation of the Classics by thesecond emperor of the T'ang there are thirteenChing; viz., /; Shih; Shu; three editions ofCh'un Ch'iu with annotations by Tso-ch'iu Ming;£t5BW, KUNG-YANG KaO ^i ^^ and KU-LIANGCH'iH Wimf^>Li Chi; Chou Li ^ I® ; / it-« SiLun Yil Uim-> Erh Ya^^, a dictionary; HsiaoChing .^JJ Classic of Filial Piety ; and Meng-tzu:Of these Mencius, Lun Yii, Ta Hsiieh, ChungYung and Hsiao Ching, were spoken of as HsiaoChing, /J> IJJ Smaller classics.The only complete translation of the FourBooks and Five Chi7tg is the English translation byLecge, a 'monument of Anglo-Chinese scholarship.'Sec separate articles on each.CLEPSYDRA, Hji ie«j/ lou, the water-clock,an apparatus for marking time by the leakage ofwater from an arrangement of jars. There wasformerly one called T'ung lou hu in the DrumTower at Peking ; and there is one still in use atCanton, said to be eight centuries old. It consistsof four copper jars placed on steps, and the watertrickles down to the lowest, where a floatingindicator marks the hour. It is arranged to runfor twelve hours.CLIPPERS, vessels built for speed and usedin the opium and tea trade in the thirties andonward of last century. The earliest wereAmerican, for while the British trade was amonopoly of the East India Company, there wasno need in it for haste, and the East Indiamenwere known'as tea waggons.'After the E. I. Co. charter ceased in 1834competition began in the building and sailing offast ships; betting encouraged racing; in 1856began the custom of paying each season a premiumof £1 per ton of freight to the tea-ship firstreaching London.In the sixties, British designers and buildershad beaten the American from the field, andcompetition then became keen between the Clydeand Aberdeen.The opening of the Suez Canal and the use ofsteam brought the clipper trade to an end.Lubbock : The China Clippers; Glasgow, 1914.CLOISONNE, from French cloison, a partition,enamel-work made by soldering to a metal grounda narrow ribbon of copper, silver, or gold, followingah intricate design or pattern, so as to divide thesurface into cells. The workman fills in the cellswith moistened enamel colours, and then fires thepiece, several firings being required to completelyfill the cells and correct any pitting of thesurface. He then polishes with pumice and cleanswith charcoal. The art was probably introducedby Arabs in the Yiian dynasty and was calledFo lang ch'ien 'CT BP? or Byzantine incrusted work(see fa Ian). During the Ming dynasty there wasan important revival in the art, which was calledChing t'ai Ian j|; ^ ^ cloisonne. K'ang Hsicloisonne resembles it. The work of the Ch'ienLung period is more finished and more harmoniousincolouring.BusHELL :chinois.Chinese Art; Paleolocue i L'ArtCLOVES ^y ^ ting hsiarig, nail incense; socalled because the shape resembles a Chinese nail,J*- Chad Ju-kua says that officials at Court hadto have them in the mouth when speaking to theEmperor. They are chiefly produced in theMoluccas.122

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACO-HONGlieCOAL. The first mention of coal in Chineseliterature is by Liu An gij fjj (Hum Nan-tzu) whodied B.C. 122. He calls it ping 'fan ^K ^ icecharcoal,it has also been termed t'u ±. t'an earthcharccal,shih 1^ t'an, stone-charcoal and wk'j ^.See Mine rah.COAL HILL i? lU mei shan, also calledH^ lU' ^ hill in the grounds north of the palace inI't'king; it is said to be a mass of coal stored there( hing shan ^ jlj I'ro.yject Hill and Wan sui shanfor use in case of siege. Its height is about 150feet; there are five or six pavilioils, etc., on it,built in the Ming period : the hill itself dates fromthe Yiian dynasty. It was on this hill that thelast Ming emperor hanged himself.Faviek : Peking.COCCYGES, an Order which contains the'iickoos. Zanclostonius tristis, met with in Hainan.Ctntropua sinensis, the Common Coucal or Crow-Pheasant, resident in Hainan and in the southernprovinces as far as Chekiang. C. bengalensis,rcxsident in Hainan and Formosa and the southernprovinces. Kudynamis honorata, the Indian Koel,is a common bird in Hainan and S. China, andtiavels to N. Anhui. Coccystes coromandus, thered-winged Crested Cuckoo, is found in S. China,to tlie valley of the Yangtze, and probably goesfurther north. Surniculns lugubris, the Drongo("uckoo, passes the summer in central China.(.'acomantis mcrulinus, the Rufous-bellied Cuckoo,is found in S. China during part of the year, fromSsuch'uan to Fukien, and in Hainan. Chrysococcyxmaculatus, the Emerald Cuckoo, a very small bird,is found in Ssuch'uan and in Hainan. Hierococcyx'Ijarverioide.^, S. China to the Yangtze; H. hyperythru

"COLAOENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAhave been common for Merchants to fail formillions which would then be repaid in instalmentswithout interest.The Nanking Treaty abolished the systemand repaid to British subjects three million dollarsowing by insolvent Hong Merchants.Eames : The EnrjUsh in China; Morse : Interiuftionalrelations of the Chinese Empire;'Ettel : Europe in China.COLAO (or Ko lao). See Grand Secretary.COLLEDGE, THOMAS R., a surgeon of theEast India Company, who, in 1827 opened at hisown expense an Ophthalmic Hospital in Macao.After the first year the expense was met by theforeign community. It was the first institution forthe relief of indigent natives which was supportedby voluntary contributions of foreigners, thoughsome medical work among Chinese had been donein 1805 by Mr. Alexander Pearson and in 1820by Mr. Livingstone, both surgeons of the EastIndia Company. In 1838 he became with Drs.Parker and Bridgman the founder of the MedicalMissionary Society in China, the first such Societyto be formed. He was President of it for fortyyears.Chinnery painted a picture representing himengaged in his good work. He died in Englandin 1879. See Parker, Peter.COLLIE, DAVID, of the London MissionarySociety, sailed from Portsmouth on November 8,1821, and reached Malacca on June 26, 1822, havingdelayed two months in Madras where Mrs.Collie died. In 1827 he became Principal of theAnglo-Chinese College. The next year his healthgave way as the result of heavy work, and he wassent to Singapore, but died on the way, when onlyone day at sea, February 27, 1828. His works inEnglish are (1) An Abridgement of Sacred History,Malacca, 1826, written for the use of the studentsin the College, (2) The Chinese Classical works,commonly called the four Books, tran-^lated andillustrated with notes, Malacca, 1828 ; this workwas published after his death.(Wylie) : Memorials of Protestant Missionariesto the Chinese.COLLINSON, SAM. Sec Sfrnj-ko-lin-h.^in.COLQUHOUN, ARCHIBALD ROSS, wasborn in March, 1848, off the Cape of Good Hope.In 1871 he entered the Indian Public WorksDepartment. In 1881-82 he travelled from Cantonto Bhamo, seeking the best route for a railway,and wrote the account of the journey in .icrossChryi>e. He has been Times correspondent in theFar East and elsewhere, and has travelled much inall parts of the world. His published works arenumerous; those connected with China are AcrossChryse, 1883; Amongst the Shans, 1885; Report onJlaihvay Communications between India and China(joint author), 1885; China in Transformation,1898; The " Overland " to China, 1900.He died December 18, 1914.COLUMBAE, The Order of birds whichincludes the Pigeons and Doves. The followingare the species known in China. Treron nipalemis,in Hainan. T. formosae, in S. Formosa. Sphenocercu-sororius, in Formosa, and at Shaweishan.Osmotreron bicincta, in Hainan. Carpoj^haga aenea,the Green Imperial Pigeon, and C. griseicapilla,both in Hainan. De.ndrotreron hodgsonii, theSpeckled Wood-Pigeon, in W. Ssuch'uan in themountains. Alsocomus pulchricollis, the AshyWood-Pigeon, in the interior of Formosa. Columbuintermedia, the Indian Blue Rock-Pigeon, in thenorthern half of China. C. rupestris, the BlueHill-Pigeon, the commonest species in the northand west of China. C. p^inicea, Hainan. Macropygiatitsalia, the Bar-tailed Cuckoo-Dove, inMu-p'in and N.W. Fukien, and M. minor in Hainan.Chalco'phaps indica, the Bronze-winged Dove, inHainan, Formosa, Yiinnan and W. Ssuch'uan.Turtur orientalis, the Eastern Turtle-Dove, Formosa,all China and Mongolia. T. 'chinensis. Central andSouth China, Formosa, JIainan. T. risorius, theIndian Ring-Dove, N. (-'hina, occasionally on Yangtzeand in Fukien. the borders of Mongolia, andS. Shensi. T. hini,lli

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACONFUCIANISMent. The Fronde, however, and the war withSpain had made money scarce,the necessary capitalwas not to be got, and the Society 's'tnanotiitfaute de capitaux.'After the return of the Amq^hifritc (q.v.) fromher first voyage to China, a second 'Company ofChina' was established and registered on November9, 1700, and in October 1705, letters-patentwere obtained. After a short existence, embitteredby many disputes and a great lack of profits,the king took from the Society its monopolyin 1711.In 1712 a new Company was formed, named,like the second one, the Compagnie Royale de laChine, and the next year letters-patent were issuede.-'tablishing the Society's monopoly for fifty years.The Company was, however, killed the very nextyear by the protectionist policy of the government,for its ships returned loaded with silk to findthat in their absence a decree had been issued toforbid the import of silk. The Company waslater amalgamated with the Compagnie de Tlnde.Madrolle : Les Premiers Voyages fran^aisa la Chhw ; Belevitch-Stankevitch : l.e GoufL'/ii/iois en France.COMPOUND, the term generally used for thewalled enclosure within which foreigner.s live. Thederivation of the word is uncertain, but it mayciiiiie fiojii the Portuguese ciim/jrrnfifi.COMPRADOR E, ^gj^^ mni pan,negotiator ofpLircliases ; from Portuguese coiiiprar, to buy. Theterm for the Chinese agents used by foreignmerchants to do their buying and selling.CONCESSION, a piece of ground leased bythe Chinese to a foreign government and sub-letto western merchants; while a Settlement is anarea within which western merchants may leaseland directly from the Chinese owners—which isgenerally done by perpetual lease. In either caseit is understood that the police control shall be inthe hands of the foreign power : a right which thepower delegates to a Municipal Council.Bourne : Report of the Mission to China of theBlarkhurn Chamber of Commerce, p. 15.CONCUBINE ^ cJi'ieh. Concubinage isrecognised by Chinese law, the issue taking rankafter that of the wife ^ ch'i. The concubines'children treat the wife as mother, mourning at herdeath for the full period of 27 months ; while thereal mother if she dies before the wife, may onlybe mourned for 12 months. Imperial concubineswere termed Huang hu

CONFUCIANISMENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAbut that of picked men, and even these were to beeducated in the first place as officials.His ideas finally prevailed, but not withoutencountering grave opposition, both in the "Burningof the Books" and from rival theorists.Taoistteachers, and such vigorous thinkers as Mo Tzu,HsiiN Tzu and Yang Tzu disputed with theorthodox Confucianists ; Buddhism, Mohammedanism,and in later years, Christianity, set up rivalsystems, and all had considerable success. Yet allput together had but little effect on China comparedwith the cult of Confucius, which is a wonderfulreflex of the typical Chinese mind, with its dislikeof metaphysics and its common-sense view ofmoi'ality. This, with the moral eminence of theSage himself, accounts for its becoming supreme.Confucius left no exact or ordered statementof his doctrines, his one original work being theCh'vn c/i'iu, the Annals of his native State. Hisfollowers collected his teachings in an unsystematicway, and also handed down the classics he hadedited. As against occultism, and magical arts,Confucius emphasized the near and the every dayduties ; but apjjarently accepted without questionthe cosmogonical ideas of the ancients, their systemof divination and their sacrificial customs, from thesacrifice to Heaven or Shang Ti performed by theEmperor, down to the ancestral rites of thehumblest peasant. It was left for later generationsto systematize the cult, and considerable changesexpound the ancient doctrine.(.'onfucianism as we have it is a noble and selfjconsistent body of ethical doctrine based on thefollowing principles :i. The Universe is regulated by an Orderwhich is moral in its essence, ii. Man is the crownof things, the universe i/i little, and as such ismorally good by nature, with Heaven-conferredpower to remain good, free-will being taken forgranted. This docti-ine is implicit in pre-Confucianteachings, was re-stated by Mencius, and is a chiefcorner-stone of Chinese thought, in spite ofHsiin Tzu who maintained that human nature isevil, and Yano Hsiung, who held that it has bothgood and evil elements. Mencius (like BishopButler) believed that man has egoistic and altruisticelements, both ijood. iii. Men do wrong (1)through lack of knowledge and (2) from the forceof bad example, iv. The remedies are thereforeeducation and good example. The former isdifficult to acquire, and only the few can haye it,but if these few are the officials, they will, besidesgoverning well, also furnish the examples necessaryfor the common people, v. The education necessaryfor officials is both inward and outward ; theindividual must rectify himself before he canrectify others. The outward means of developmentare (1) the all-sufficient teachings of the ancients,learnt by heart and exhaustively studied, and (C)a close attention to all the sacrificial ceremoniesand rules of decorum for social intercourse, extendingto the most meticulous care about small things,even in solitude. (See Analects, Book X, for theMaster's punctiliousness). With this may be comparedPascal's dictum that a strict observance ofall the Church rituals is finally conducive to Christianfaith and piety, vi. The inward means to beemployed is a constant reverence for one's ownnature as a moral being, with special emphasis onwatchfulness over self in solitude when ordinaryinhibitions are absent. This acting in secret asthough there were witnesses is " Sincerity " astaught in the Doctrine of the Mean. vii. As tothe contents of goodness, (a) the fundamental virtueis Jen iz , for which our terms kindness, benevolence,sympathy, fellow-feeling, etc., give fartoo poor a connotation. It is rather tRe " Lovewhich worketh no ill to his neighbour." Suchwords are hard to define, and have many u.ses,and so we find that Jen is sometimes used for thefoundation virtue and sometimes for its variousmanifestations in conduct. As elaborated byMencius, it is the altruistic side of human natureworking spontaneously, (b) The second great virtue^s -^^> justice or righteousness, which is thechecking of the egoistic impulses when required inthe interests of altruism, (c) The third is Li i^.very inadequately translated by "propriety" ; theproper performance of ceremonies and rules ofdecorum which have both subjective and objectivevalue, (d) The fourth is C'/iih ,^ intelligence, powerof sound judgment and discrimination. These fourare Mencius' elaboration of the fl of Confucius.(e) A fifth, Hsin fg, fidelity to one's word, faithfulness,has been added, and the five together makethe five virtues, whichup the Wu ch'ang %^,comprise the whole duty of man, and are the moralcounterpart of the five elements, i fj The.Confucian claim is that when a man educatedin the above way takes office he will be able to" renovate the people," while if the times are outof joint and office becomes intolerable he has afountain of strength in himself and can " go hisway alone."The contparison of such a moral system withthat of Stoicism has often been made. Its limitationsare also obvious. Confucius did not diagnosecorrectly the moral situation of man. The problemof evil is not faced ; it is scarcely evaded so muchas ignored. Confucianism has also failed to satisfythe deepest instincts of the human heart, andBuddhism and Taoism have had to supply thedenciency. On the other hand, the morality taughtis high and noble ; the doctrine of the uprightnessof human nature has made for democracy ; the126

,wasENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCACONFUCIUSevils of a priesthood have been avoided, the officialsfrom the Emperor downward being the priests.No divination is practised in Confucian temples;idolatry is discountenanced, even the multiplicationof images of Confucius being discouraged ; whilethe insistence on filial piety is the greatest moralasset of the race. The cult has held together theChinoj^e social fabric for ages, and will be one ofthe greatest factors in shaping its future.See Confuc'mi* ; Menchis; Philosophy, etc.Legge : Chinese Classics; Faber : SystematicDi'jcst of the Doctrines of Confucius, Hongkong,1875; Mind of Menciiis; Giles: C07ifucianism(ind its Rivals ; Parker : China and Religion;Studies in Chinese Religion; Suzuki : History ofChinese Philosophy.[C.E.C.]CONFUCIAN TEMPLE, X M ^^en mice.Every town in China must have a temple to theSage—a prefectural city (/«) which is also the chiefcity of the chou or hsicn thus possessing two orthree such buildings.The plan is always the same, three courts ina south to north direction, except that the thirdcourt in some cases may be placed east of the second.The main building, the temple proper, is on thenorth side of the second court. The wholeenclosure was left without a south gate until somestudent of the district had gained the high placeof chuang yiian (q.v.) ; this gate when made (andsome other parts of the temple) were only used bythe Emperor or -a chuang yikin. The temple wallsare red ; this, and many other things and namesabout the place, recall the Chou dynasty, in whichConfucius lived. A careful and clear descriptionwill be found in Watters' book.Two Confucian temples deserve special mentiun,—thatat Peking where the chief building isover 80 ft. long with pillars 40 ft. high. In thecourt are the famous stone drums (q.v.). The othertemple is that at Ch'ii-fou, the Sage's home. Themain building is 70 ft. high and 134 ft. long, andit has fine pillars of carved marble. There is animage of Confucius.Watters : A Guide to the Tablets in a TemjAeof Confucius; Favier : Peking ; Edkins : Visit tothe Home of Confucius, Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S.,'-nl.viii.CONFUCIUS, the Latinized form of K'ungFu Tzu, the " p.iilosopher K'ung," the name ofChina's greatest sage, "who has been revered forages as the fountain of wisdom and virtue. Hisancestry has been traced by certain of his followersto the semi-mythical Yellow Emperor, b.c. 2700;and, after the spread of Buddhism, a number oflegends were invented as to the circum.stances ofhis birth, evidently in imitation of those concerningIdha.These^ however, are gerjerally discredited127even by the Confucianists themselves. Apart fromthese fantasies, it seems that he was of goodpedigree ; for he was descended from a half-brotherof the last Shang Emperor, who had ruled thefeudal state of SungSjc, with its capital at Kuei-tefu, in Honan. About two and a half centuriesbefore Confucius the reigning duke abdicated infavour of his younger brother ; this compelled the5th generation to follow the custom of founding anew clan, and taking a new name. The namechosen was that of K'ung JL- The great-grandfatherof the sage moved northward from Sung into Lu,in modern Shantung, to escape from an hereditaryfeud, and Confucius' father was a military officialof Lu, brave in nature and commanding in person.This official had had nine daughters by his wife,and a crippled son by a concubine, and greatlydesiring another son, when over seventy years ofage he married quite a young girl, who bore himConfucius in the y^ar 551 b.c. at a village called^ 2ip in the modern district of JH 7^ , Ssu Shui.The father died when the son was only three yearsold, and the widow removed to Ch'ii-fou g^ ^in the modern Yen-chou fu. The boy had someof the characteristics of old men's sons, being verysober-sided, and finding his chief amusement ingrave imitation of ceremonies, while his favouritetoys were the paraphernalia of the sacrifices. Hemarried at 18, and a son was born to him thenext year. He also had at least one daughter, forwe hear of his giving one in marriage. He is saidto have divorced his" wife, but this is not certain.The son was apparently not very 'sympatheticwith his father, whom he predeceased ; he neverbecame famous, and we know very little abouthim ; but his son, K'ung Chi ^l ik >betterknown as Tzu Ssu (q.v.) was a well-knownteacher and expander of his grandfather'sdoctrines. On his marriage, Confucius was givena small post as keeper of granaries in his nativestate, and afterwards became superintendent ofparks and herds. He .seems to have then collectedround him a number of pupils, after the manner ofthe teachers of Greece. He was an ardent studentof History, and visited the Imperial city (then Loyang,the modern Honan fu) to study the archives,with the declared intention of deducing sound ideason the principles and practice of good government.During this visit an interview is said to have takenplace between Confucius and Lao Tzu, who waskeeper of the archives. The latter deliveredhimself of some severe criticism while the formerwas nonplussed by the transcendental ideasLao Tzu expressed. The whole story of theinterview is discredited, because it rests on theauthority of Chuang Tzu, who is supposed to haveinvented it to glorify Lao Tzu, and belittleConfucius.

j;theIididIunable;stitutes,CONGEEENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNICAThe latter, on his return from Lo-yang,followed his master, the Duke of Lu, into theexile which civil war had forced upon him ; butthe next Duke promoted the sage on his return,time after time, till he became Minister of Justiceand marvellous accounts are given of the speedyimprovement in the people's condition and moralswhen he held the office. The ruler of the neighbouringstate of Ch'i was much alarmed at thisimprovement, and sent the Duke of Lu a numberof beautiful girls and fine horses to divert his mindfrom his reforms. This proved successful ; so thatat 57 years of age CoNFUcrus left in disgust, andem])loyed the remainder of his life in what themodern missionary would call " evangelistic andliterary work." In the former, he met withill-success; for though he and his followers visitedmany of the feudal courts, to preach his doctrinesand exhort the rulers to virtue, none would listen,and at least on one occasion, the sage narrowlyescaped with his I'fe. After 12 years of wanderinghe returned to Lu to edit the classics of thej)revious ages, and the Five Canons of to-day are.substantially as he left them. With the exceptionof some of the Appendices to the / Ching, his oneoriginal work was the ^1^ Spring and Autumn.hinal-', a record of Lu, said to have been writtento show the necessity of a strong central governn.ent-.The rest of his time was spent in teachingliip disciples, who are said to have membered 3000ill all, 76 of whom became his life-long adherents.The chief of those was Yen Hcri, who predeceasedthe Master.- Neither the rulers nor the commonpeople appreciated Confucius, and he died in479 B.C., under a sense of failure as regarded hismission, and of foreboding as to the future of hiscountry. His death, which was mourned at histomb by his disciples for three years, was takenvery quietly by those for whom he had agonized,though the Duke of Lu built a temple for him,and instituted sacrifices in his honour which werecontinued until the accession of the First Emperor.The Imperial Government gave no recognition of hismemory until nearly 300 years after his death.Yet had . he not been widely renowned as a sage,the First Emperor would not have had to "burnthe books." It was the re-discovery of these textsunder the Han dynasty, which gave his doctrinesthe place they have ever since held in China.Since that time every new line has paid respectto the memory of Confucius, the Emperor sometimessacrificing in person at Ch'ii-fou where lieis buried, and bestowing new titles on him ; ofwhich ^ ^ or Most Perfect Sage, given by theSung emperor Ckkn Tsung, in a.d. 1012, has beenconfirmed by all later rulers.The sage's personal name must not be pronounced,but "mou" a certain person, substituted;nor must it be written in full, one stroke beingalways omitted. Not only has Confucius himselfbeen honoured in every conceivable way short ofabsolute deification, but in accordance with Chinesecustom his ancestors have been ennobled, and manyhonours and titles have been given to his desrciidants.For example, T'ai Tsung in a.d. 979bestowed posthumous honours on the forty-fourgenerations of the descendants of Confucius, andexempted descendants in the future from alltaxation.In 1233 the direct male representative ofthe family was given the title of ^"^St WidelyHoly Duke; and in 1294, Khubilai Khan grantedtwo estates near the Grand Canal, where it crossesthe borders of Kiang.su and Shantung provinces,foi- sacrificial purposes. The place of the hereditaryDuke CoNFurius at the Imperial Court was equalto that of a Grand Secretary, i.e. he " rankedimmediately below the Imperial princes."At the present time, every city in China, largeor small, has a Confucian temple, at which twicein the j'ear ceremonies by local officials are performed.It is true that, at the Revolution of 1911this worship was for a short time discontinued,and the study of the Confucian classics was di»couraged in the schools. But in June, 1913.President YiiAN Shih-k'ai issued a mandate urgingthe study of the classics ; in the next September,CoxFUCiLTs' birthday was celebrated with universalenthusiasm. In February, 1914, the Presidentissued another mandate urging the nation to paycustomary honours to the sage, announced thathe would personally do so, and encouraged, buEnot command, the homage customary in schoolsto the tablet of Confucius. Officials unwilling orto conduct the ceremonies were to find sub-while, as against the Confucian Revivalistsand others, he declared that the ancient rite ofworshipping Confucius had nothing to do withreligion (tsung chiao). See Confucianism.Legge : Chinese Classics, vol. i; Giles : Cv/ifiicidnismand its Bivals; Biographical Dictionary ;Pabker : Studies in Chinese Religion; Life, Laboursand Doctrine of Confucius, Woking, 1897. [C.E.C.]CONGEE, a word derived from the Tamilkanji, and in use all over India for water in whichrice has been boiled.It is met with in early booksabout China. The proper Chinese would beJiii chou ^J^.Yule : Hob

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACONSERVANCYChina ; (3) The Scandinavian Alliance Mission ofNorth America, working in Mongolia; (4) TheMethodist Protestiint Mission, affiliated with (2).6'ee under each title.CONGREGATIONS, MISSIONARY, (RomanCatholic). The R. C. Missions in China are incharge of eleven different Congregations, besidesthe Macao bishopric which is not directed by aCongregation.The following is the complete list, withstatistics for 1916.Macao bishopric, founded in 1576 as suffraganof Goa and having China, Japan and Tonkin asdiocese. Its jurisdiction to-day only extends to theColony of Macao, Chao-ching fu, part of Timor,and the Portuguese Missions of Malacca andSingapore.There is one Bishop, 57 European and 8 Chinesepriests, and about 40,000 Christians.Vicars- Priests ChristapostolicEur. Chin. iansForeign Missions of Paris 12 376 226 318,973Franciscans 10 288 141 241,595Lazarists 10 189 232 529,956Foreign Missions of Milan 4 105 56 59,160Scheut Congregation 5 168 46 101,247Dominicans 2 21 10 59,481Jesuits 2 178 88 329,363Seminary of S.Paul of Rome 1 10 6 14,625Steyl Congregation 1 66 17 86,150Augustinians 1 31 2 7,529Cong, of S. Francis-Xavierof Parma 1 12 6,427Totals, including a Prefecture-ap.& a Mission 52 1,494 834 1,827,172There are other Congregations working inChina but not in charge of defined territory, andthere are many Congregations of women. Seeseparate titles, Lazarists, Scheut, etc,De Moidrey : Ze Hierarchie Catholique;CALENDRiER-ANNUAiitE, Zikawei, 1917; Les MissionsDE Chine.CONON, BISHOP OF. See Maigrot.CONQUEST ISLAND, a name given to theisland of Chiang Hsin Ssii Jt»t^# in the Ou riveropposite Wenchow.CONSERVANCY WORKS IN CHINA canbe divided into two distinct groups, viz :(a) Works carried out under foreign supervision,either the result of treaties betweenChina and the Foreign Powers or theinitiative of the foreign communities intreaty ports.(b) Works carried out entirely without pressurefrom without, or in other words purelyChineseworks.To the first group belong the Whang-poo Conservancy,the Hai Ho Conservancy, the LiaoRiver Conservancy and the Chefoo Harbourworks.To the second group belong a number of works,all very important but so extensive that it wouldbe impossible here to mention them all. Moreover,with exception of a few they can, according to ourWestern conception of river conservancy alongscientific lines, hardly be called conservancy works.The exceptions are, the Hwai River problem,the Si-kiang conservancy and the Grand Canalimprovement scheme; but the remainder, of whichthe most important are the Yellow River problem,the Yangtze, the rivers in Chihli Province, theSiang River with the Tungting Lake in Hunan,the greater part of the -Grand Canal, are all problemsdealt with in the Chinese way or in otherwords entirely void of any rules by which hydraulicproblems are governed. It is a sta'ange fact thatin a country like this with a civilization aboutfour thousand years old, where more than in anyother part of the world the very existence of agreat part of the population depends on the stateof the waterways, so little about the real scienceof river improvement is known. I do not meanto say that in the old days there was nobody whohad a fair knowledge of elementary hydraulic rules,for many old works still in existence would provethe contrary, but hydraulics was never taken up asa science and was consequently never taught. Thereason is that those woa-ks which can be consideredto have been more or less scientifically carried outwere merely the fruit of one man's brain andwith the death of that man his knowledge died withhim and therefore did not serve as a foundationfor future work ; so that later hydraulic engineerscould not profit by the experiences of their predecessors.Thus the knowledge of river engineeringremained largely individual and never rose tothe status of a science born from the experienceof others. Hence also the fact that to the presentday the same methods are adopted as were in usea few thousands of years ago, and the further factthat although much energy and money have beenspent conditions have not only remained as theywere but are in most cases even worse. Undoubtedlythe firm belief that water, instead of beingruled by natural laws, is subject to the influenceof numerous gods who, in the form of frogs,snakes, turtles, etc., sometimes show themselvesto us mortals as the Chinese pretend, has made itmore difficult still for river engineering to becomea science. Even one of the first rules of river conservancy,namely, " that the improvement of ariver is a pa'oblem which cannot be solved efficientlyby taking one section of the river in handonly," has never been understood and we seetherefore invariably that if something is done to17129

CONSERVANCYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAa river it is only of a local nature and neverforms a pswt of one scheme for the entire river.The sum contributed by the Central Governmentduring the year 1915 to those local worksor River improvement Bureaux as they are called,amounted to far over three million dollars ; and aswe may safely assume that more than twice thatamount is spent by the local authorities, eitheaofficialsor gentry, in addition to what the CentralGovernment pays, we arrive at a total of at leastten million dollars for ordinary works only, withouttaking into consideration the special grants madeby the Government in case of casualties. Asmoreover those works consist exclusively in repairsto dykes but never in training the stream,in other words, works that do not prevent futuredisasters, all the money spent this way is butdead capital bearing no interest whatsoever. Butif we add to the sum thus spent per annum— practicallyuselessly—the millions and millions lostevery year by the ever returning inundations, wearrive at such an appalling figure of total loss thatit is to the Western trained mind incomprehensiblewhy other methods than those existing have notlong ago been adopted.It is fortunate, however, that more enlightenedChinese have felt the necessity of anotherpolicy; and so we see, first in Kiangsu the Hwaifliver Conservancy Bureau arise on the initiativeof Chang Chien, and then in Shantung the GrandCanal Improvement Bureau of which Pan Ftj is theoriginator. In both Bureaux, the work is carriedon according to the rules which scientific river improvementdemands. A third instance of modernmethods being adopted is the West River impaovementdue to the initiative of the gentry inKuangtung under the Directorship of Tan Hsia-HENG.Moreover the Government, at last aware of thesupreme importance of a uniform central conservancypolicy, established in January, 1914, followingin this the advice of Chang Chien, then Ministerof Agriculture and Commerce but also China'sauthority on rivers, -a National Conservancy Bureau,of which he was appointed Director-General. Thisis the first step the Chinese Government took towardsan efficient and systematic solution of perhapsthe most important problem in China. But althoughthe feeling which brought about theexistence of the Bureau was undoubtedly genuine,the result thus far obtained is not very great.Not only were the actions of the Bureau curtailedby lack of funds but what is more serious theGovernment has failed to give the Bureau theassistance which it should have had, so that atpresent most of the Conservancy Bureaux in thedifferent parts of the country still work entirelyindependently of the Bureau and go on followingthe old methods by which not only millions arespent in vain but bitter fruits will be harvestedas well. Possibly the Government was and still is inmany instances unable to give- assistance becausethe very fact that the people at large do 'iotunderstand the necessity of expert advice, thatthey do not see the necessity for an improvementaccording to scientific rules, combined with thegreat personal interest which they have in a matterwhich is to their limited view of such a particular,private and local nature, bo-ings it about that anyinterference is looked upon as an infringement ontheir rights and is therefore in most cases bitterlyresented. Only a strong government is able tocope with that evil.The lack of sufficient support was one of thereasons that Chang Chien resigned his office, whichwas a severe loss. Fortunately, however, theBureau found in Pan Fu, appointed in September,1915, a successor whose energy and keen sense ofthe necessity of modern methods of river engineeringand of central supervision promise much fora final success.The work of the National Conservancy Bureauconsists in furthering conservancy schemes in thedifferent pa/i'ts of the country, in giving advice,in seeing to it that if works are taken in hand thisis done according to the rules laid down forscientific river improvement, in short, that nohaphazard methods are followed but that all workdone is subordinate to one general scheme ofimprovement. Moreover, the Bureau is collectingdata on the various rivers so as to have, whenthe time for an improvement arrives, as muchinformation as possible on hand, without whichno proper scheme can be made. Apart from thisthe Bureau is doing actual work in connectionwith the Hwai River Scheme and the Grand Canalin Kiangsu, for which already extensive surveyshave been made and data collected. Furthermorethe Bureau is connected with the South GrandCanal Conservancy Scheme in Shantung. The thirdwork that was mentioned as being based on modernmethods, viz., the Sikiang Improvement Works,although subject to the Central Government, fallswithout the Bureau's influence. As this is in directopposition to the main principle, i.e. that in theinterests of an effective conservancy policy allworks should be under one head,—the State, bymeans of an organ specially founded for that purpose,—theNational Conservancy, this fact is tobe regretted very much, notwithstanding the happyfact that the work has fallen into competent hands.Other works carried out according to modernmethods do not exist ; but the Bureau has alreadyin many instances been able to introduce, be itas yet to a small degree, many improvements, andthere is no doubt, for the signs are already there,130

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACONSERVANCYthat all over the country the old system is makingplace, though reluctantly, for mare advancedideas.The, Hwai Ho Conservancy.The Hwai Riverrises in Honan, drains through various tributariesan area of about 50,000 square miles west ofthe Tientsin-Pukow Railway, then flows eastwardand traversing the Provinces Anhui and Kiangsuwith a very gentle slope reaches finally the YellowSea through the Yangtze. Before 1324 the Hwaihad its own outlet to the sea, but since the YellowRiver usurped its bed, abandoning the same againin 1853 after having raised it to such an extentthat it is useless as a river bed, the Hwai Riverhas during those six centuries as well as possibleemptied its waters into the Yangtze. As theconnections with that stream were however veryimperfect the whole Hwai area has during thatperiod been subject to many serious inundations,which by their frequency brought the inhabitants tosuch a state of destitution that famine belongs inthat region to the common occurrences. The floodof 1914 devastated an area of 21 hsien and thetotal estimated loss of the crops on the landalone represented a value of over twenty milliondollars ($20,000,000.00). How much more seriousthe floods must have been before 1853, whenoccasionally the Yellow River added its water tothose of the Hwai, is evident, and the deplorablestate of affairs can therefore cause no wonder.Much has been done to bring relief and the Governmentalso spent much money, but never was theproblem properly studied until 1910 when ChangChien, who had always been very interested inthe Hwai River problem, with the aid of the gentryin the affected area took the first step to aneffective and systematic scheme of improvement.Fully aware of the necessity of adopting modernmethods, he established in Kiangsu and Anhuia Surveying Bureau with a view to surveying theHwai River area and to collecting such data asare necessary for a proper project.It is on this survey that in the summer of1914 the Board of Engineers nominated by theAmerican National Red Cross Society, which foryears past had already done much for relief work,based their report on the Hwai River ConservancyProject, in which they recommended theimprovement of the present outlets towards theYangtze River.The region to be benefited is the area southwestof the old Yellow River bed, bounded onthe west by the Tientsin-Pukow Line, and thenecessary works will be only carried out in thatdistrict. The upper Hwai River and its tributarieswill not be touched, but they will neverthepssprofit by the proposed ^ipsworks.The total area benefited will cover roughly7,385,000 acres or 44,316,000 mou.The revenues which will be received annuallyaccruing from the improvements will amount to :from taxes on land • $2,136,000.00from revenues on the Grand Canaland other canals $ 225,000.00Total $2,361,000.00The cost of the works is estimated at $60,000,000.00 not counting discount and interest,which, if bonds are issued at 90% bearing 5%interest, would after a six-year construction periodbring the total cost of the project up to $90,000000.00.Owing to the European War the agreementwhich was in January 1914 entered into by theChinese Government with the American RedCross Society, empowering the latter to raise aloan necessary to carry out the works, and of whichone of the issues was the sending out of the Boardof Engineers above referred to, was in January1915 extended for a further period of one year,and in 1916, as the war still lasted, it was extendedagain. Up to now no definite settlement has beenarrived at.The South Grand Canal Improvement in Shantung.Since the "iellow River, having brokenthrough its north dyke not far from Kai-feng Fu,flooded the lowlying country in the southwest ofShantung, and crossing the Grand Canal found anoutlet to the sea by usurping the bed of the Ta-Ch'ing Ho, the entire drainage system of this lowcountry became upset. Not only the Ta Ch'ing Hoa branch of the Wen Ho—lost its free outlet to thesea, like the Hwai in the south six centuries earlier,but the Grand Canal and the connections of thevarious rivers with the lakes which served in timeof freshets as storage basins got silted up. Theconsequence is that at present every year seriousinundations occur, which ruin the crops and evenrender la/rge areas of land permanently unfit forcultivation.Here, as in the Hwai River district, theGovernment did much for relief, but no steps fora radical improvement were taken until Pan Fu inthe end of 1914 started a Surveying Bureau atTsining chou, in order to study conditions in theway that modern river-engineering demands. Basedon that survey and the data collected it was possibleat the end of 1915 to draw up a general scheme ofimprovement, so that early in 1916 negotiationscould be opened with an American contracting firmfor the construction of the necessary works andthe financing of the scheme. The result was thatthe firm undertook to float a loan of 3,000,000.dollars Gold, being the amount necessary for the131

CONSOO FUNDENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAworks.The bonds were to be issued at 90% bearingan interest of 7%. When however the contractwas finally signed, with the sanction of theCentral Government, in September 1916, Japanintervened, basing her oijections on the Kiauchow Treaty. At present it seems likely againthat a solution will be found, so that the works,which will not only benefit Shantung but alsoKiangsu, because they will have a good effect )nthe part of the Giand Canal in that Province,will probably be commenced in the near future.The funds necessary to cover the loan will bederived from taxes on the reclaimed lands and theproperties benefited by the improvement. As,according- to a conservative estimate, six hundredthousand (600,000) mou of land can be reclaimedthere will be ample funds to pay off the debt andinterest accumulated.The Si Kiung or the West River Conservancy.This conservancy was also started at the end of1914. It comprises the West River in Kuangtungand its tributaries with a view to prevent theserious floods which repeatedly take place in thatregion. The initiation was by the gentry, leadingmerchants and charity institutions who, after theextraordinary serious flood in 1914 made representationsto the Central Government with the effectthat Admiral Tan Hsia-hkng was appointedDirector-General of the Board of ConservancyW^orks of Kuangtung. The Board, aware of thenecessity of abandoning the old system of riverconservancy, asked the assistance of a foreignexpert, with the result that early in 1915 a surveywas commenced entirely in accordance with whatscientific engineering demands. This survey, comprisingthe valley of the West River in KuangtungProvince, its tributary the Kwei Kiang and someparts of the main river in Kuangsi, was completedin June, 1916.The entire river has a catchment area of339,000 square kilometers, its sources are in Yiinnan,whence it runs first along the border of Kueichow,then traverses Kuangsi and Kuangtungwhere it debouches into the sea.Based on this survey and the various datacollected the conclusion arrived at was that alowering of the high water level in order toprevent floods is not justified either from aneconomical or technical point of view, but thatthe object of flood prevention can be obtained bya dyke system if this is properly consta^ucted andmaintained to a sufficient elevation. The totaloutlay necessary for this project is estimated toamount to 34,000,000.00 Hongkong doUa/rs. Aboutone third of the work, requiring an expenditure of11,396,000.00 Hongkong dollars and comprisingthe re-construction of the dyke system of the Riverbetween Kilometer 160 to 304, is proposed to bedone first, divided over a period of six years.The necessary funds are to be raised in theProvince by way of taxation. A decision has notat present been taken.See Huang p'u Conservancy; Chefoo HarbourWorhs.[H. v.D. v.]CONSOO FUND, THE, was instituted in 1779to be a reserve fqr the payment of any HongMerchant's liabilities who became bankrupt. Toform it J, tax of three per cent., sometimes raisedto six per cent., was imposed on almost all goods.While the foreigner, however, had to bear the fullburden of this tax, the greater part was neveractually paid into the Fund, but used by the HongMerchants ; while such part as passed to the Fundwas appropriated by the imperial authorities forall kinds of expenses. When a crisis arose fiftyyears later, through the insolvency of the HongMerchants, there was nothing left of the Fund.This was one cause of the first war, and in theTreaty of Nanking the Chinese Government agreedto pay three million dollars in settlement of theHong Merchants' debts and the Co-hong wasabolished. Fames : The English in China.CONSOO HOUSE, Wfi'^^ V^ng hang huiI'unn, a fine building in Canton, in Chinese style,owned by the Hong Merchants [q.v.) collectively,and regarded as one of the 'sights' of the place inold days. It was the Council Chamber for theFactories up to 1839, and this has misled somepeople to suppose that Consoo is the Chinese pronunciationof Council; whereas it no doubt is theforeign pronunciation of kung so i>/jf> or Guild.The house is still standing, at the top of OldChina Street; but no early plans of the districtare extant and its reconstruction is thereforedifficult.CONSTANTINE OF CHINA. See Helen,Empress.CONSTITUTION, THE. Immediately afterthe establishment of the Republic the NationalCouncil at Nanking adopted a Provisional Constitution(March 10, 1912). By Art. 53 a NationalAssembly was to be convened within ten months,which should adopt a Constitution. Till that Constitutionwas promulgated the Provisional Constitutionwas to have full force.The National Assembly was elected in December,1912. A year later the President dissolved theKuo-min tang, and thus destroyed parliamentarygovernment by making a quorum unobtainable.The President then created the Political Council^'^ie«;7 chih hui i appointing the members^ Y^ # lihimself. This recommended the establishment ofan elected assembly, the Constitutional Council^ ^ # li Yo fa hui i. This was stated by thePresident to be the organ for the amendment of the132

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACORMORANT FISHINGProvisional Constitution. In six weeks, on May 1,1914, it produced the Constitutional Compact, orAmended Provisional Constitution.On the death of YiiAN Shih-k'ai in 1916, thecountry fell back on the Provisional Constitution ofthe 1st year ; wJiile Parliament has been makingthe new Constitution ever since.In criticising these Constitutions, or othersstill to be made, it should be borne in mind, notonly that the masses have never been educated toappreciate constitutional government, but that theConstitution-makers themselves have mostly hadno great experience of such government even inforeign lands. The results must be largelyacademic, experimental and unsatisfactory. SeeGovernment.China Year, Book ; China Mission YearBook ; National Review, July 1, 1916.CONSULATES GENERAL. There are sevenBritish Consulates-general in China—Canton,Cheng-tu, Hankow, Mukden, Shanghai, Tientsinand Yiinnanfu. Under each of these names willbe found the chronological list of those who haveheldthe post.CONTENDING STATES. See FightingStates Period.CONVENTION CURRENCY, the propername for the Shanghai tael, the convention beingthat at Shanghai 98 taels by weight on the scalessettle a liability of 100 taels in money of account.See Tael.CONVENTION OF CHUENPI.See ChuenpiConvention.COOLIE. The origin of this word is variouslygiven, i, Hindi, Kali, a race in India ; ii, Tamil,Kuli, wages; iii, Turkish, KuU, a slave. Thename given by foreigners to Chinese labourers,navvies, menials, etc.COOLIE TRADE. Macao was the headquarters of this infamous trade, though Hongkongfor a time had a share in spite of various regulationsagainst it. The Hongkong traffic was finally stoppedin 1855 by the Chinese Passengers Act, (18 & 19Vic. cap. civ). Coolies were at first easily hired forCuba, Peru and elsewhere at four dollars a month,bnt in time the demand was far greater than thesupply. Kidnapping was then resorted to, and aCommission which reported after careful enquiry,'found that the majority of the coolies in Cuba hadbeen 'decoyed abroad and not legitimately inducedto emigrate.' The Portuguese rulers of Macaowere very unwilling for investigations to be made,but as the result of urging by the British governmentafter the Commission in 1873, they finallyI closed the 'barracoons' where the coolies had been1875. During the 25 years it had continued abouthalf a million coolies were taken away. Thoughcalled 'contract emigration' it was pure slavery andreproduced all the horrors of the slave trade,especially with respect to the treatment of thecoolies on board ship, their sufferings and high rateof mortality.EiTEL : Europe in China; Williams : MiddleKingdom 25-26.COOPER, THOMAS THORNVILLE, aBriton, born in 1839, who in 1868 travelledto the eastern border of Tibet and heard ofa road which, however, he was not able totraverse, running from Batang to a town onthe head waters of the Brahmaputra. Returningto Shanghai he attempted in 1870 to cross fromCalcutta. In 1878 he was murdered at Bhamo byhis escort.He published Journal of Overland Journeyfrom China towards India, Calcutta, 1869; Travelsof a Pioneer of Commerce in Pigtail and Petticoats.COPPER. See Minerals.COPPERAS. See Minerals.CORDIER, HENRI, was born at NewOrleans, U.S.A., on August 8, 1849, and waseducated in Paris. After some time in London hereached China in 1869 and stayed there till 1876.On his return he was attached to Giqtjel's specialmission. In 1881 he received his appointment tothe Paris School of Oriental Living Languages{Ecole des langues orientales Vivantes) where he hasremained ever since. He has been President of theSociete de Geographic, Member of the Societe Asiatique.Member of the Institut de France, etc., etc.He has written so much on Chinese subjectsthat it is impossible to attempt any list of hisworks. Students will always be grateful to himfor his Bibliotheca Sinica (q.v.) and for the T'oungPao, a review which he created and which he stilledits. His Histoire des Relations de la Chine avecles Puissances occidentales is a valuable work ; it isfrequently referred to in these pages.CORMORANT FISHING is carried on inmany parts of China, from Canton to Shantung.The practice was mentioned by Odoric at thebeginning of the fourteenth century. The birdsare all reared in captivity, the eggs being hatchedunder a hen. The price of a bird before beingtJ'ained is, or was, from three to ten shillings ; thevalue is perhaps trebled after training. They aretaught by being driven into water, with a stringattached to a leg, live fish being then thrown infor them tio pursue, and they learn to go andcome at different calls. A string is always fixedround the throat while they fish, to prevent theprey being swallowed. Their fishing days last forabout five years, after which they become old andJ33

CORMORANTSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAsulky. The fisherman sits in his boat or raft withperhaps a dozen birds perched on the edge of thecraft or diving at his signal. Descriptions maybe found in scores of books of travel, such asFortune's, Gordon Cumming's, etc.CORMORANTS.CORNELIAN 351 ig.See Steganopodes.There are mines, now notworked, in East Manchuria and elsewhere; butmost is imported from India, etc.It is made into beads, buckles, ear ornaments,etc., and exported from Canton. The best areflawless and bright-red, others reddish-yellow.The stones themselves are amber, red, and white.CORUNDUM STONE.Found near Tengyiieh(Yunnan), and used in the cutting of the localjadestone, which is polished by means of copperdiscs sprinkled with corundum powder and revolvedvertically by a treadle.CORVINAE. This subfamily includes theCrows, Magpies, Jays, Nutcrackers and Choughs.Those found in China are all resident species, withthe exception of the Eastern Carrion Crow, thedaurian and black Jackdaws and the Nutcrackers.CoTVus corax is found all the year round inMongolia, and in winter it comes down into Chihliprovince. David says that in Peking' this bird isknown as Ta-tzu kuan-ts'ai ^=r^M or Tartars'coffin, because it helps to devour the corpses whichthe Mongols expose instead of burying. C. levaillantiis found all over China, generally in inhabitedregions ; in Peking, where it is abundant, it doesgood work as a scavenger. C. orientalis, is thefar-eastern race of the Carrion Crow of Europe;it differs from C. hvaillanti in having a much lesspowerful beak ETnd in the metallic reflections ofits plumage being purple instead of green. It isfound on migration on the China coast and wasseen by Swinhoe in the Nan chao Islands southof China. C. torquatus is one of the most characteristicof Chinese birds, most abundant in thesouthern provinces but found all over China exceptin the mountains.Frugilegus pastinator, the East Asian RookLycos dauricus, the Eastern Jackdaw ; L. neglectus,closely allied to the European Jackdaw ; Fregilusgraculus : F. brachypus Swinhoe, a short-footedvariety of the common Chough; Nucifraga leptorrhy7ichmBl. and iV. hemispila with the Magpie, theAzure-winged Magpie, three Jays, two Tree Pies,three Urocissae are other species of this sub-familyfound in China, with Nucifraga owstoni in Formosa.David et Oustalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine.COSMAS, the first Greek or Roman writerwho speaks of China in a matter-of-fact way. Hewrote between 530 and 550 a.d., and appears tohave been an Alexandrine Greek. In his earlierlife he had been a merchant, and had visited thePersian Gulf and Ceylon, and was therefore calledIndicoplexjstes. He became a monk later, andwrote a Universal Christian Topography. Inthe book are some references to China, under thename Tsinista.p. 25.Yule : Cathay and the Way Thither, vol. i,COTTON ;|^ :(£ mien hua, from Gossyjnumherhaceum. Cotton and cotton fabrics appear tohave firstreached China from Central Asia, as thepo orearliest Chinese name for them /ft or Q ^pai tieh is certainly from one of the Turki languages.A later terra was ku pei "j^ ^ or chi pei ^ ^which is the Malay word kapas. Other terms cameinto use later, and the present names of the cottonshrub, mien, and of cotton, mien hua seem to havebeen coined after the introduction of cotton cultivationand spinning into China in the fourteenthcentury. Until then most cotton, both raw andmanufactured, was imported from Hainan andIndo-China, though some cotton fabrics came fromJava, Borneo, India, Persia and even Asia Minor.Cotton is grown chiefly in the Yangtze andYellow River basins and in Chekiang province.Cultivation is increasing in Shansi, which is apromising area. The amount produced was roughlyestimated at 400,000 tons in 1908, but since thenthere has been a considerable increase, and thecrop in 1916 is estimated at nearly 500,000 tons.Although shorter in staple than Indian cotton, theChinese product is whiter and better prepared.The Shensi cotton is the best in China, being, derivedfrom American seed. Shantung cotton is prized formedicated cotton on account of its whiteness. Inthe Yangtze belt the plant is sown in the springand harvested in autumn, but in Chihli it is sownin November and picked in September. Theaverage yield is said to be forty pounds per mou.The people of China dress in cotton from head tofoot, even their shoes being made of many layersof cotton. Other uses are for bed curtains andcoverlets, mattresses, portieres, awnings for stalls,sails and boat-awnings. Attempts to introduceAmerican seed have not met with success, as thecotton deteriorates in a few years. There is muchroom for improvement in the selection of seed aadmethods of cultivation.The principal centre of cotton manufacturingis Shanghai, where there are (1916) 23 mills; inthe cotton district of Kiangsu there are 15 more(at Haichow, Wusieh, etc.), and in Chekiangseveral others. The Hankow-Wuchang mills arealso important. There are now upwards of 70modern mills in China ; the production of yarn andcloth is rapidly increasing ; and in 1916 the Indianand Japanese yarn imports were sensibly affected134

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINlCAcovidby this increase. It is interesting to record thatthe first cotton mill project was started in 1878 bythe Shanghai Cotton Manufacturing Company :building was begun, but, owing to official oppositionand intrigue, the project hung fire until 1889,when work commenced; in the following yearChang Chih-tung opened a factory at Wuchang,and following the Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895),which gave to foreigners the right to engage inmanufacturing industries in China and to importmachinery, development was rapid. Cotton, whichat that time cost Hk.Tls. 12 per picul, has nowalmost doubled in price ; unfortunately adulterationby watering was for years the bane of the tradebut in 1911 a Cotton Testing House was set up inShanghai, which rejects all cotton containing morethan 15% of water. The export, which was726,000 piculs in 1915, rose to 851,000 piculs in 1916.Chinese cotton is only f inch to | inch in staple,and, used alone, is only suitable for spinning lowcounts. Import-ed cotton has therefore to be mixedwith it, and this increased from 364,000 piculs in1915 to 407,000 piculs in 1916.It is estimated that there are now in China,1,250,000 spindles, turning out nearly three hundredmillion pounds of yarn, and about 5,000 looms,producing over fifty million yards of cloth perannum. The export of raw cotton in 1916 waspels. 851,037, value Hk.Tls. 17,091,973; and theimport of cotton goods Tls. 136,679,386.HmxH and Rockhill : Chao Ju-hua. [N.S.]COUNCIL OF STATE. See Grand Council.COUNTRY SHIPS were those English shipswhich sailed between India and China, not belongingto the East India Company, but sailing underitslicence and general control.COUPLET, PHILIPPE, ft ISi 3S Po YingII., a Jesuit missionary, one of an interesting groupthat sailed together, Verbiest, de Rougemont andDE DoRviLLE being the others. He was born in1623 at Malines. He reached China in 1658. In1680 he was sent by his superiors to Europe, partlyto get recruits for the mission, and partly to enlightenthe Pope in the matter of the Chinese rites.While in Europe he published the large work entitledConfucius Siiiarum Philosophus, containingtranslations of the Ta Hsiieh, Chung Yung and LunYii. Couplet was only editor of the volume, thenames of PP. Intorcetta, Herdtricht and deRougemont appearing with his own on the titlepage. He also issued a most useful list, first inChinese and then in Latin, of the members of theSociety of Jesus working in China. This Catalogus,after passing through many editions, becamethe valuable but now unobtainable Catalogus Patrumissued by P. Pfister in 1873. See Jesuits.He started back to China in 1692, but duringa storm was crushed and killed by a falling box.CoRDiER : Nouveaux Melanges Orientaux 1886p. 411 ; BosMANS : Verbiest; Louvain, 1912.COURT DIALECT. The dialect of Peking,also called Mandarin and kuan hua.dialect.See MandarinCOURTEENES, WILLIAM, Sir, obtainedfrom King Charles I a licence to fit out a commercialexpedition to China, in spite of the theoreticalmonopoly of the East India Company. Tohim belongs the credit of initiating English tradewith China. The expedition was commanded byJohn Weddell {q.v.).Courteenes' Association was amalgamatedwith the Company in 1649.Eames : The English in China.COURT GAZETTE. See Gazette, Peking.COURT OF FOREIGN CONSULS, THE,was established in 1869 in Shanghai by a Memorandumsigned by the Ministers of Great Britain,Prussia, France, Russia and the United States,and published with the revised Land Regulationswhich came into force that year. The Memorandumsays the Court is to be "established at the beginningof each year by the whole body of TreatyConsuls," its function being to enable individualsto sue the Municipal Council.It consists of three Treaty Consuls chosen annuallyby the Consular body.Maclellan : The Story of Shanghai.COUVADE, the extraordinary but widespreadcustom of the husband taking to bed when the wifegives birth to a child. It is found amongstaborigines in Kueichou, and Marco Polo Bk. ii,Ch. 50 records it of people on the borders of Tibet.COUVREUR, SERAPHIN, a French Jesuitin the S.E. Chihli Mission. He was born on January14, 1835, entered the Society on September 23,1853, and arrived in China on April 30, 1870.He has prepared many valuable works, includingDictionaire classique de la langue chinoise (inorder of radicals) ; the same under the phoneticsPetit Dictionnaire Chinois-fran

COWRIESENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAworks of the early part of the last century.It wasused for various lengths in different districts ; inone place it is defined as thirteen inches. Gilesgives it as equal to 14.1 inches English.YtJLE : Hobson-Jobson; Giles : Glossary ofReference.COWRIES, shells found (amongst many places)in the Pescadores and, according to Fauvel, onthe Shantung coast. They have been used in manyparts of the world as the medium of exchange, butperhaps in China earlier than elsewhere. Theywere so used by prehistoric aborigines, and werecontinued as currency among the Chinese tillinterdicted in Ch'in ^ 338 B.C.The peculiar Chinese coins called Ant's nosemoney and Ghost's head money (see Numismatics)are also called Huo pei ch'ien ^^^, and nameand shape indicate that these metal coins weremeant to be instead of the cowry money. The dateof the coinage according to Lacouperie is about600 B.C. and the place the kingdom of Ch'u.Cowries are worn as ornaments by Li-ssu womenon the Tibetan border, which suggests to KingdonWard a connection between these people and a seafaringfolk; but it is perhaps only a survival ofa custom common when cowries were the currency.Lacouperie : Metallic Cowries of AncientChina, Journal, R. A. Soc., vol. xx, part 3;Ward : The Land of the Blue Poppy, p. 142.CRANES. See Grallae.CRATER OPOD I NAE, a large subfamily of theCrateropodidae. (Gates, Fauna of hxdia. Birds,vol. I). It includes the Laughing-Thrushes,Scimitar Babblers, and many of the Babblers. Inthe genus Pomatorhinus the bill is much compressed,is slender and much curved downwardsthe birds are called Scimitar Babblers. P.erythrocnemis lives in the interior of Formosa.P. gravivox is found in the mountains of S. Shensiand N. Ssuch'uan, and on the Hupei—Hunanborder. It is said to be kept in the house in somedistricts to destroy parasitic insects. P. swinhoeilives in the wooded hills from Fukien to SouthAnhui. P. muMcus is a Formosan species, describedby SvviNHOE in Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., (1860). P.nigrostellatus is found in Hainan. P. stridulusSwiNH. is found in Fukien, and P. styani Seebohmon the Lower Yangtze. Pterorhinus davidi wasdiscovered by David in Chihli, and is very commonin the Western Hills near Peking ; it is also foundin Manchuria and in S. Shensi. Bahax lanceolatusis common on the highest wooded hills of Mu-p'in,Ssuch'uan, and is rare in southern Shensi. Ithas been taken once near Foochow. Trochnlopterontaivanum is only found in Formosa,where it is very wide-spread, in mountainsand plains alike. Dryonastes chinensis, the BlackthroatedLaughing-Thrush, seems to be confinedto the borders of Tonkin and China. D. perspicillatusis a large species found in S. China and S.Shensi, mostly in cultivated land near humanhabitations. D. poecilorhyncha belongs to Formosa.D. sannio, the White-browed Laughing-Thrush,is widely spread in the southern provinces, especiallyto the west. D. castonotis, Garrulax monachus,G. semitorquata, and G. schmackeri are only foundin Hainan, where they are resident. G. albigularis,the White-throated Laughing-Thrush, occurs inthe wooded mountains which separate Ssuch'uanfrom Tibet and Kokonor. G.ruficeps is a varietyof the last-named species, found in Formosa. G.picticollis was discovered by Swinhoe in Chekiangand is found from Fukien to South Anhui.Cinclosoma lunulatum was discovered by Davidin W. 'Ssuch'uan ; it has since been found in Mup'in,W. Kokonor and even S. Shensi. C. maximumis a large bird, found only within narrowlimits, in the highest forests of Mu-p'in at10,000 feet altitude. C. arthemisiae is similarto the last in habitat and habits. A fourthbird of this genus from Yiinnan is lanthocinclabieti. I. cinereiceps occurs from Fukien to S.Anhui. Dryonastes berthemyi is found in thewooded hills of W. Fukien. Trochalopteronformosum lives in the highest forests of W.Ssuch'uan, only descending when obliged to bythe snow. T. canorum is very abundant in thesouthern provinces, but its northern limit is SouthShensi. It is a favourite cagebird among theChinese, not only for its song, which they considerbetter than that of any other native bird, but alsobecause it is combative and can be used as a fightingbird. T. milni is found in the mountains ofW. Fukien, and T. blythii on the western frontiersof Ssuch'uan ; it is fairly common at Mu-p'in andin western Kokonor. T. ellioti also belongs to thesame district, but is found also in N. Ssuch'uan, inShensi and in Kansu. T. morrisonianum ispeculiar to Formosa.David et Oustalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine.CREEK POINT, a name found on earliercharts for what is now called Chinwangtao Bluff.CREEPERS (birds). See Certhiidae.CREMATION is the most general method ofdisposing of the corpses of Buddhist monks inChina. At one time even Buddhist laity werecremated, but in 1370 an Imperial decree was issuedforbidding it. The corpse is arranged in a sittingposture, clothed in an outer garment of crimson,and placed in a square chest. Nearly every largemonastery possesses a crematorium, a circular ormany-sided chamber about seven feet high. Sandalwoodis the fuel supposed to be used. Cremationtakes from six to twelve hours. The ashes are136

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACYCLE OF ANIMALSthen stored for a time in a red bag or in an urn,but are eventually thrown into a pit beneath an"All-mingling Pagoda" # jq) t*. Cremation isalso practised by the Mantzu aborigines ofSsuch'uan.The practice is essentially Buddhist in originand was frequent in the Yiian dynasty ; indeed, thecx})ression 'they burn their dead' is very commonin Marco Polo's account of his travels. It maynever have been accepted among the masses, butthe practice has been much more common inChekiang, Kiangsu and Fukien than is generallyadmitted.Yetts : Notes on the Disposal of Buddhist Deadill China, Journal, R.A.S., vol. xliii ; De Guoot :Th^ Iirli,iii,us System of China, vol. iii, p. 1391.CRICKET FIGHTING. Two well selectedcrickets are put into a pan and teased with strawstill they fall to furious fighting, which lasts till oneis dead or disabled. It is an occasion for bettingand is chieflv seen in the south.CROSSOPTILON, the EaredI'hi'ottuntg.CROWS. See Corvinae.Pheasant.SeeCUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIAN MIS-SION, (American). This Mi-ssion had its homeheadquarters in St. J.rOuis, Mo. and entered Chinaill 1897 in the persons of Rev. T. J. Preston andDr. and Mrs. O. T. Logan, who opened work inCh'angte ^^, in Hunan, in 1899. In 1902, thelirst convert.s were received, and in 1903 a hospitaland a girls' day-school were opened. In 1906. theIhe home church united with the PresbyterianChurch (North), and thenceforward the C.P.Mission became part of the sister society, theworkers, converts, and plant being transferred to it.CUMQUATS. See Oramjes.CUMSHAW, a present, sometimes used for'bucksheesh.' It is derived from ^'% gratefulthanks,' pronounced Kd)ii sia in the Amoy dialectand Kuni sau in Cantonese.CURLEWS. See Limicolae.CUSTOMS. See Maritime Customs.CUTTLE FISH, ^^, ch'dn yu, etc.. SepiaoffirinaIi:

TheOAIRENENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAThe use of this cycle may be traced in Chineseliterature as far back as the first century of ourera. According to Chavannes' researches theinvention is due to Turkic tribes and was introducedinto China by the Hsiung nu who occupied N.E.Shansi ; further, the system was carried into Egyptand modified when the country became a Romanprovince. Halevy contends that the cycle has anEgyptian origin ; that by the Christians the namesof the twelve sacred animals wore then used assymbols of the twelve apostles ; and that the systemwas carried to Turkic tribes by Coptic missionaries.This hypothesis seems destroyed by the existenceof the cycle in China in the first century.There is a mass of writing on the subject, a list ofthe most important references being given inChavannes' paper named below.Chavannes : Le Cycle Turc des douzc Animaux,in T'oung-pao, 1905; Halevy : Nouvelles ConsiderafioHxKur le Cycle Turc des Animaux, ibid.DOAIREN, the Japanese form of the ChineseTa-lien ;^ j^ and the same as the Russian Dalnya port in the south of the Liao-tung peninsula, iniat. 38° 55' 44" N. and long. 121° 37' 7" E. Butthe Chinese village of Ta-lien is 7 miles away ontheopposite side of the bay.The place was only a small village when theRussians leased it from China in 1898, but in afew years it was converted into a fine town. TheJapanese took possession at the beginning of thewar of 1904, and have contirmed to improve theplace. The harbour works are on an extensivescale and include some thirteen thousand feet ofbreakwaters. The town is lighted by electricityand has an electric tramway system ; there arelarge railway works and an important cementfactory near the town ; many bean mills with andwithout modern machinery, a government laboratoryand agricultural experiment station, a dock,and other establishments. The trade is increasingrapidly, and great hopes are entertained for thefuture of the port. It is the terminus of the SouthManchurian Railway connected with the Trans-Siberian line. The population is 40,860.It was made a free port in 1906, and has aChinese Customs House for goods crossing theboundary of the leased territory.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 27,615,276 35,954,742Net Chinese „ 7,333,246 9,113,801Exports 48,885,640 54,708,247Total Hk.Tls. 83,834,162 99,776,790DALAI LAMA, termed in Chinese ^WlAfifSchin hang ta shih, The Diamond Great Teacher, thechief lama of Tibetan Buddhism and the temporalruler of Tibet. Dalai or Tale, is Mongolian for 'theocean,' and is sometimes translated 'the All-embracing.'The title was first given in 1576 by AltanKhan, Prince of Tumed, to the chief lama of Lhasa,who came to him in the Ordos. It was also appliedretrospectively to the four preceding Grand Lamasof the Gelupta sect (the Yellow clergy) ; and it isthus said sometimes that it originated with thefounder of the sect, Tsongk'apa, about 1400. Thepresent Dalai Lama is the 13th. The re-incarnationof lamas is an early belief, mentioned in the 13thcentury by Rubruck. Each Dalai Lama is supposedto be a re-incarnation of Avalokita. The visit ofthe Dalai Lama to Peking in 1908 is fully describedby ROCKHILL.RocKHiLL : Dalai Lamas of Lhasa, T'oung Pao,vol. xi, 1910; Wabdell : Bvddhixm of Tibet;Grenaud : Thibet.DALAI NOR, a lake in Mongolia, near theborder of Manchuria, one hundred miles north ofDolon nor. Its circumference is about forty miles,and it lies at 4,200 feet above sea-level. Prjeval-SKY gives a list of the numerous birds he foundon the lake. Prjevalsky : Mongolia.DALNY.See Duiren.DANES' ISLAND (and French Island), in theChu Chiang Delta, some ten miles below Canton.According to Hunter, the names were givenbecause Danes and French had in early times theprivilege of occupying storehouses there while theyoverhauled their ships after their long voyages.He speaks of tombstones to be seen on the islandsin his day.Another account is that they were so calledbecause the one was the burial place for the Danesand the other for the French, English, Swedes andDutch.After the killing of an English sailor by Frenchsailors about 1754, the two islands were appointedas places of recreation for foreigners, in order tolessen the number of quarrels and disturbances.Finally, according to Bretschneider, the nameDane'."^ Island properly belongs to the island calledbv foreigners Whampoa ;while the real Whampoa188

TheIgoingIhealthENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICADAVIDis an island on the opposite side of the river.Thus Danes' Island was the anchorage for foreignships for 150 years, but under a wrong name !Hunter : The Fan Kwne in Canton ; Chinese'DATES (fruit). Red dates ' hung tmo areJujubes (q.v.); Black dates ' ' hei tmo are Persimmons{q.v.). The export of black and red datesin 1916 was Tls. 284,145.Kei'ositohy : vol. i, p. 222; Bretschneidek :JJi--t >ii/ of I'jKrapcan Jiotniiinil Discoveries inC/iina. p. 633.DANISH LUTHERAN MISSION.Hcnctquarters :—Copenhagen.Works in Manchuria :—(a) in Liaotung Peninsula,ceded in 1895 by the Scotch and IrishPresbyterians, (b) in the western half of Hei-lungchiangProvince, and (c) in Harbin.The first missionaries of the Society arrived inChina in 1893, and Manchuria was chosen as theirfield. Port Arthur and Ta-ku .shan :^M\h wereopened in 1896, Siu-Yen )Ilft J^ in 1898, and Fenghuangch'eng ®.®|J)^ in 1899. During the Boxertrouble.^ missionary work was prohibited at PortArthur, and the three other stations were wrecked.After 18 months these latter were re-opened andRusso-in 1902 Antung $ ^ was added.'Japanese war again checked the work, but in 1996,normal conditions returned, the prohibition atPort Arthur was removed with the departure ofthe Russians, and K'uan-tien '

DAVID'S DEERENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAA good account of his life and labours is to befound in a series of articles which he contributedto the periodical Lcs Missions Catholiqucs, and afirst-rate resume of his journeys and their resultsespecially botanical—is given by Buetschneider.CoRDiER : T'oung-'pao, 1901 ; Les MissionsCatholiques, 1888 : De guelques services rendus,etc. ; Bretschneilmer : History of European BotanicalDiscoveries in China, vol. ii.DAVID'S DEER. See Elaphure.DAVIS, JOHN FRANCIS, was born inLondon in 1795 and died on November 14, 1890.In his youth he had served on the staff of LordAmherst's Mission to China. He spent the bestpart of his life in the service of the East IndiaCompany, was a member of its Select Committee atMacao and Hongkong, and retired in 1835 as aChief Superintendent of Trade. On Sir HenryPoTTiNGER leaving China Davis was appointedSuperintendent of Trade under the Foreign Office,and Governor and Commander-in-Chief at Hongkongunder the Colonial Office. He was a scholarand a philanthropist, but he does not seem tohave given much satisfaction to Hongkong asa diplomatist and governor, and when he leftHongkong in March, 1848 there was no publicfarewell or banquet ; the leading paper of theColony stated that he was 'unpopular from hisofficial acts and unfit for a Colonial Governmentby his personal demeanour and disposition.' Hehad been made a baronet in 1845.His chief works are Poeseos Sinensis Commentarii,On the Poetry of the Chinese, London, 1829Han Koong tsew, or the Sorrows of Han, London1829 ; San-yu-low, or the three Dedicated Rooms. . . Canton, 1815; Chinese Novels, translatedfrom the. originals. . . . London, 1822; TheFortunate Union, a Romance translated from theChinese original, London, 1829; Hien-Wun-Shoo,Chinest Moral Maxims, . . . London, 1828;The Chinese, a general Description of the Empireof China and its Inhabitants. . . . London,1836. The last-named work has been often reprinted,and has been translated into French, German,Dutch and Italian.Eitel : Europe in Chiria; T'oung Pad, vol. iii,1892, p. 535.DEAF, SCHOOLS FOR CHINESE. It isestimated that there are 400,000 deaf-mutes inChina. Three schools have been opened by ProtestantMissionaries. 1. The earliest of these, fordea,f boys, was started privately at Teng-chou fuin Shantung in 1887 by Mrs. C. R. Mills of theA.P.M., who had been engaged in .similar work inthe U.S.A. The school was removed to Chefooin 1898 after Dr. Mills' death, and was given thename of The Charles Roger Mills MemorialSchool. A department for girls was added in 1907.In 1910, the work, till then entirely supported byvoluntary gifts, became a part of the regular workof the Presbyterian Mission (North).One of the special aims of the school is to trainteachers who, under Chinese control and support,can extend the woi'k.In 1917, there were twenty -two boys andtwenty-two girls in attendance, with si.\ teachers,three men and three women. Two foreign ladyworkers, one of them being Mrs. Mills, areprovided by the Mission.2. A small school was opened in Hangchow inFebruary, 1914, by a Chinese Christian who hadstudied the methods in the Chefoo school, beingdrawn to do so through an elder brother, a deaflad, having been taught there.3. A class for deaf girls, in connection withthe Girls' School of the Methodist EpiscopalMission at Kut'ien near Foochow, is taught by aChinese lady trained in Chefoo.At Nan T'ung-chou (^ ifi, ^ j in Kiangsu,a school has been opened for the deaf by ChangChien, late Minister of Agriculture and Commerce,as part of a large philanthropic scheme for benefittinghis native district. The t-eacher is also fromthe Chefoo Normal Class.DE ANDRADE; two Portuguese brothers ofthis name opened the chapter of intercoursebetween China and Portugal. The one, FernaoPerez, reached Shangch'uan (St. .John's) in 1517,with four Portuguese and four Malay ships. Hehad on board Thome Pires, sent by the governorof Goa as envoy to the Chinese emperor. Behavingin a conciliatory manner he was permitted to taketwo ships up to Canton. The next year, however,his brother Simon arrived with one ship and threejunks, and behaved so badly that the Chinese wereforced to drive both the brothers froirt the coast,while Pires suffered imprisonment and perhapsdeath. See Portuguese Rdations ; Pires.DEATH-BLOW TO CORRUPT DOCTRINES.A vile Chinese book issued about 1860 and circulatedby magistrates in Shantung, charging all mannerof most repulsive obscenities on the teachers ofChristianity. It was translated into English underthe above title by Drs. Nevius, Mateer andHartwell, in order that foreign public opinionmight be .'tirred and the book suppressed.The author was said to be T'ang Tzu-SHkng,Fantai of Hupei, who distributed it gratis toofficials in 1862.DECORATIONS, ORDERS, etc., -g jcjj shangkung. Under the Empire the chief distinction formerit was what foreigners generally call The YellowRiding .Jacket, "^ H ^ huang ma hua, or ^ ^hsing kua. The Travelling Jacket, the most covetedreward for military service. It was given to Gordonand to GiQUEL. A similar high distinction was The140

Encyclopaedia sinicaDELEGATES' VERSIONJacket with Sable Tails ^W:tB^- (»i ^u tiao kua.There was also the privilege of using Purple reins^IS tzu chiang, or Yellow Reins ^|S huang chiamj..'Such reins were properly used by princes, but thelionour was bestowed on distinguished officials.Another distinction of practical value to agedo.lFicials in frequent attendance at Court was theprivilege of using a horse or a sedan-chair withinthe limits of the Imperial city.The decoration of the Feather or Plume ^ )j^lin'j chih, the principal distinction for publicservice, had two divisions, the Peacock Feather?L^^ A-'h«/7 ch'ueh ling—again divided into threeclasses, and the Blue Feather ^-g^ Ian ling, colloquiallyknown as the Crow Feather ^Sg^ laoLiiu ling.Another distinction was the bestowal of thetitle Pa-t'u-lu, representing the Manchu wordbat'uru (brave) ; this was only given for activeservice in war, was accompanied by a laudatoryepithet, and carried with it the right to the PeacockFeather. At least one European, General W.Mesny, has received this honour. As to orderssimilar to European, the Empire till its last yearonly had the Order of the Double Dragon ^fl^Mxhuang lung pao hsing, which was instituted in1881, for the decoration originally of Ministers ofForeign Powers at Peking. Later it was given toother foreigners also, and was then arranged infive divisions, and the divisions in classes. After1908 the Order was also given to Chinese officials.On March 20, 1911, the Imperial sanction wasgiven to an elaborate system of decorations gjj ^/i^iin chang, including red, blue, black, and yellowdragons, but the dynasty fell that year.According to the present Republican system, ofCivil orders there are now ten, the fir.st being the(Irand Cordon, which is reserved for rulers ofcountries. Then follow nine grades of the Chia Huo^ ^ which is awkwardly translated in English'Excellent Crop,' or more pleasantly in French as'I'Epi d'Or.' The insignia of the order is a grainear,as seen on the copper coinage ; it varies in sizewith the grade ; the colours attached also vary, asfollows :—1st class—Yellow with red border.2nd class—Yellow with white border.3rd class—Red with white border.4th class—Red with white border.5th class—Red with white border.6th class—Blue with red border.7th class—Blue with red border.8th class—White with red border.9th class—Black with white border.A sa.-^h also belongs to the higher grades.Military (or naval) honours are of the twokinds : the order of The White Eagle, and theOrder of Wen Hu % ^ The Striped Tiger, withnine grades ;the former carries an honorarium withit, the latter carries none.An additional honour, which is supposed tocorrespond with the British Victoria Cross, is theBadge for Meritorious Service.Brtjnnkrt and Hagelstrom : Present dagPolitical Organization of China, 1912; Mayers :T/ii' Chinesp Government.DEER (emblem). The word hi ^ deer, andthe word 1^ la good fortune, being pronouncedalike, the deer has become an emblem of happinessor emolument and may often be seen in pictureswith the god of longevity, etc.DoRE: Ih'vhcrrhe^ sur /r.^ Superstitions, p. 474.DEFENCECREEK. In 1853, when Shanghaiwas threatened by the T'ai-P'ing rebels, a massmeeting of foreign residents was held on April 12,with the British Consul, Mr. Rutherford ALCOfK.in the chair. On the suggestion of A. G. Dallas,it was decided to dig a trench and make a pavedroad to the west of the English Settlement, wherethere was already a ditch; with the Huang-pu enthe east, the Yang-king-pang to the south, andthe Soochow Creek to the north, the settlementwould then be defended on all four sides. Thetrench was dug, and for sixty years was knownas Defence Creek. It was culverted in 1915-16.Its position was on the western side of ThibetRoad, etc.Pnpem re»pecting the Ciril War in Chitin.presented to the Hou.>, 1853 ; pp. 9 — 15.Morse : 1 iiti-rnatio)i(d Ifelation.i of the VhinesrEmpire.DEHARLEZ, CHARLES-JOSEPH, (Mgr.)was born at Liege in 1832 and died in 1899. Hebecame a priest and after occupying other postswas made Professor of Oriental Languages inLouvain University, teaching Sanscrit, Zend.Chinese. Manchu, etc. In his last years he devotedhimself to Chinese and Manchu only. He was avoluminous writer. See Cordier's BibliofheraSiiiira for his works.DELEGATES' VERSION. A translation ofthe New Testament into Chinese book language,finished in 1859. The Delegates were Messrs.Medhurst, Milne, Stronach, Bridgman andBishop Boone, appointed by the several MissionarySocieties. The delegates also proceeded to translatethe Old Testament, but a division soon took placeamong them. The more active members of theformer committee continued their work in the samestyle and completed the translation in 1853 ; butit is not strictly correct to call this the Delegates'version.See Bible.Chinese Recorder I, p. 148; III, p. 19.141

IiPi'l-ing,Ij: in'dejMendozaI!Society,iCatholiqueIDESGODINS,IMissionstinIall:Pao,IDESDE MAILLA ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICADE MAILLA, JOSEPH ANNE MARIE DEMOYRIAC, a French Jesuit missionary, born inIsere, December 15, 1669, arrived in China 1700,and died at Peking on June 28, 1748. He had adeep knowledge of the Chinese and Manchulanguages and translated the main substance ofthe T'ung Chien Kamj Mu into French, probablyusing both the original and the Manchu version.Hi.s translation was published by Abbe Grosiehin 1777 in thirteen quarto volumes under the titleUUtoire Gcnerolf de hi Chi/nf.DEMONIFUGES igSpi hsieh. These arevery numerous : cash from the mouth of the dead ;the impress of a mandarin's seal ; willow branchesthe imperial calendar, are all supposed to ward offevil if carried on the person or kept in a room, etc.Doiir : Rechcrchcs svr Ips Superstitions, p. 348.DENGUE, an Indian name for a particularkind of fever, called by foreign physicians in ChinaDENNYS, NICHOLAS BELFIELD, occupiedvarious positions in the Far East—in the Navy,the Consular Service, etc. He was proprietor andeditor of the GImia Mail and first editor of TheChina Review. He wrote Folklore of China and(with W. F. Mayeiis and C. King) The TreatyPorts of China and Japan. His Handbook of theCanton Vernacular was widely used ; and whenliving in Malaya he produced some works on tho.«elands.He arrived in China in 1863, and died inHongkong in 190o\b'ENTRECOLLES, FRANCIS XAVIER, aFrench Jesuit missionary, noted as the writer oftwo letters descriptive of the manufacture ofporcelain at Ching-te chen, or, as he writes it,Kim te tchim. The letters are dated 1712 and1722, and were printed in the Lettres Edifiante.< etCurieuses ; they may, however, be more easilyread elsewhere : they are given, for example, inBushell's De-^cription of Chine-^e Pottery andPorcelain.DE RADA, MARTIN, also called Martin deHerrada, an Augustinian missionary, a native ofPampeluna in Navarre. With several other missionarieshe was sent from Mexico with theexpedition for the conquest oi the Philippines, andarrived there in 1555. In 1574 Luzon was attackedby a Chinese pirate, but the Spaniards defeated him.This good deed led to a conference between theSpanish Governor and the Chinese commander whohad been in pursuit of the pirate, and it was agreedthat a mission should be sent into Fukien. De Radaand Friar Geronimo Marin were chosen. De Radahad already felt such an enthusiastic desire toevangelize China that he had proposed to someChinese merchants to be carried back by them asa slave. The mission landed at Kanhai on July 5,1575, went to Chin-chou and to Fuchow and re-embarked at their port of arrival on September 14,1575. They were thus less than three months inthe country, according to the account given byMajor in his introduction to the Hakluyt Society'sre-issue of Mendoza's History. In other works it isstaled that de Rada spent three years in China andwas then beaten and driven out. Favier in hisand the Bulletin Catholiqve de Pckin bothtell the story so, but give no authorities. Accofdingto Major the mission was wrecked on its wayback, and rescued by a Spanish ship. De Radadied at Manila in 1577.His narrative of the visit to China was carriedhome to Philip II by the Fj-iar Ma-^tn who hadbeen his companion, and the result wa^ the embassywhich Mendoza took part. The embassy, likeRada's mission^ was a failure; but it led toMbndoza's collecting de Rada's narrative andothers, and from them making up his History ofChina.: History of China; Major : Mendozas History of China, Introduction, Hakluyt1853 ; Favier : Peking, c. vi ; Le Bulletinde Pekin, 1915, p. 198.AUGUSTE, of the Society des('tranf/ires de Paris, was born in France1826 and died near Darjiling in 1913. Hestarted for Tibet in 1855, but got shut up in Agrain the Mutiny. Failing to enter Tibet from Indiahe settled in W. Ssuch'uan. His writings, nearlyon Tibetan subjects, include a Tibetan-FrenchDictionary. A list of them is given in the T'oung1913, p. 783.V(EUX, GEORGE WILLIAM, Sir, wasborn in 1834. After occupying various posts in theWest Indies and elsewhere, he was appointedGovernor of Hongkong in October, 1887. Heresigned and retired on May 7, 1891. and diedDecember 15, 1909. He became C.M.G. in 1877.K.C.M.G. in 1883 and G.C.M.G. in 1893. Hepublished My Colonial Service, etc., (1903).DEVA ^^, a general term for all the godsof Brahminism and all beings who dwell in theEi.\ Deva lokas : they are subject to metempsychosis.OEVERIA, GABRIEL, was born in 1844 inFranco. He went to China as student-interpreterin 1850, and after filling several posts returned toFrance in 1876. In 1882 he was made secretaryinterpreter in Chinese in Paris, and in 1889 becameProfessor in the Ecole des Langues OrientalesVivantes. He had been promoted Consul-Generalin 1888 and made officer of the Legion of Honourin 1896. He died in 1899. A list of his manywritings is given in the T'oung-pao, 1899.142

IandIj,toIcutioni heI: andixxiiDICAEUM,1 the;fromIDISTRICTIi DICRURIDAE,! China.iIDavidjseven'ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCADIVORCEDIAGRAMS, EIGHT.See Pa kua.DIALECTS. Mandarin or Kuan hua is thespoken language of about two-thirds of China.There are three forms of it, spoken typicallyill Peking. Nanking and Chengtu. The Pekingesethough considered by sinologues as a debased formof the language is the Court speech, used by allofFutials throughout China. It would seem absurdto call mandarin a dialect, since it is the tongue of253.000.000 people.South of the Yangtze basin there are eightwell-defined dialects. Of these the Canton speechis one of the mo.-t important. It is much nearer toearly Chinese speech than mandarin is. It is veryregular, and easily put into character. The Amoydialect, spoken by some ten millions of people,differs very widely from the book-language. TheFoochow dialect has a much narrower range ; thereading and spoken sounds approximate more closelythan in Amoy. At Ningpo the idioms are similarto the mandarin, but the proportion of unwrittensounds is so great that no attempt has been madeto write the colloquial in Chinese character. TheSliaiighai dialect has also marked affinities withmandarin, though quite unintelligible to a nativeofPeking.DIAMONDS ^ P^lj Sare found in Shantungand on the Yunnan-Burma frontier, but just on theBurma .«ide. They are not favourite gems of theChinese. They are used to cut glass and to drillholes in clamping and mending broken porcelain.DIAMOND SUTRA, THE, Chinhany chiiuj^M'J ^> called in the original Sanskrit Prajna-I'nniiiiita; one of the most metaphysical of theworks ascribed to Gautama, esteemed in Chinanhcive almost any other Sutra. It is known inTibetan, Mongol and Manchu translations. Thefirst Chine.

{SocietyIjtheDOCTRINE OF MEANENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAincurable disease. But any of these seven reasonsis not sufficient for divorce under three conditionsi. if the wife has mourned three years for herfather-in-law or mother-in-law; ii. if the husband,formerly poor, has became wealthy ; iii. if there areno relatives left in her father's family to receiveher. But these three conditions will not avail ifthe defect is adultery cr neglect of parents-in-law.If husband and wife cannot live in harmony,they may agree to separate, and the wife can returnto her father's family, but may not marry again.A divorced wife may not be sold by herhusband. A women who has been divorced maymarry again. Hoang : Le Mariage chinois.DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN, THE, tp ^,the third of the Four Books. The English nameis Legge's ; the title has also been translated TheMiddle Way, I'Invariable Milieu, The UniversalOrder, etc.It is Book 31 in the Li Chi, but it was alsostudied as a separate work at least as early as thebeginning of the fifth century, a.d. It is generallyaccepted as the work of K'ung Chi commonlycalled Tzu Ssu ^,S, grandson of Confucius. SeeClaif

I.ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA D. & F. MISSIONARYIn the meantime, great trials fell upon thepersonnel; there were a number of deaths, andsome retired through broken health, while inChefoo, where the Bishop had tried to plant astation, one worker suffered martyrdom at thehands of a mob in 1861. In consequence of thesereverses, the educational and medical work had tobe suspended, and the evangelistic staff dwindledto two, Mr. (afterwards Archdeacon) Thomson,and Wong, the first convert, who was ordainedpriest in 1863. The American Civil War alsoaffected finances, and on the field the T'ai P'ingrebellion was a great hindrance. To complete thedisappointments, the Bishop himself died in 1864.For two years the Mission was without a head,and then from 1866 to 1877 Bishop Williamshad the oversight both in China and Japa'n—animpossible task.Bishop Williams' successor in the China Fieldwas the Rev. S. I. J. Schereschewsky (q.v.), whohad arrived in 1859, and who was consecratedBishop of Mid-China in 1877. Next year heestablished St. John's College at Jessfield, Shanghai,with the two existing boys' schools as a nucleus.Bishop ScHERESCHEWSKY met with a sunstrokein August, 1881, which caused paralysis, and madehim a cripple for the rest of his life ; and whenrecovery was seen to be impossible, he resigned hisjurisdiction in 1883, and spent his remaining yearsin translation work. He was succeeded by BishopBoone's son, the Rev. William Jones Boone, bornand brought up in China. During this episcopate,the work of the Mission was greatly extended.Hankow had been opened in Bishop W^illiams'time, (see below), and the six hundred miles whichseparated it from the earlier sphere at Shanghai,was . bridged by work at Chinkiang, (afterwardsgiven up), Wuhu and Anking ; and 300 miles beyondHankow, Shasi was opened, as well as Ichang,hundred miles further.% Bishop Boone died at Hankow in 1891, andIras succeeded by the Rev. F. R. Graves, who hadIpneIrrived ten years before,f While all these developments were taking placeIn the upper Yangtze, the work at Shanghai waspxtending in every direction. St. John's Collegehad added a department of English in the earlyeighties ; St. Mary's School for Girls was openedat Jessfield in 1881; permanent medical work wasbegun under Dr. H. W. Boone, son of the firstbishop, and St. Luke's Hospital built ; and theresre other activities too numerous to mention.In 1902, St. Elizabeth's Hospital for Womenand Girls was opened ; a new building in connectionwith St. Luke's was put up in 1903; and in 1906,John's was incorporated as a University.In 1916, the Mission reports itself as planningremove St. Luke's to a better site, and to againextend the medical work; also to remove St.Mary's Hall from Jessfield, that it and St. John'smay both expand.The work in the Shanghai diocese is highlycentralized, fifty-five of the ninety-two workersgiven in the Missionary Directory for 1916 beingstationed in Shanghai ; while the remaining thirtysevenare divided among seven stations. Of these,Wusih ^ ^, was opened in 1900. This centre hasa hospital, and a fine church was consecrated therein 1915, which was destroyed by fire in 1916.Soochow was occupied in 1902 ; Yangchow in 1907and Nanking in 1908, specially with the view ofworking among the higher classes.Diocese of Hankow.—In 1868 work was begunat Wuchang. A boys' school was opened in 1871,the nucleus of the present University, and somewhatlater a school for girls, now St. Hilda's.Medical work was begun in 1874 under Dr.BuNN, who was obliged to retire five years later,through the ill-health of Mrs. Bunn. About thistime other workers also were compelled by sickness,or by the needs of the Shanghai district, to leaveWuchang, and for some months one man, the Rev.S. R. J. HoYT, was alone, and with the help oftwo partially-trained Chinese, kept going the boys'and girls' boarding-schools, the three chapels, thehospital and the dispensary.Hankow, where the work had been superintendedfrom Wuchang, was made a central stationin 1885, and in the same year the Divinity Schoolof the Mission was transferred from Shanghai toWuchang.In 1889. a Catechists' Training School wasopened in Hankow, which was to have a greatshare in the development of the mission ; ana verypossibly the evangelistic work of these trained menwas one cause of the anti-foreign outbreak in 1890-1.The whole of the Yangtze Valley was disturbed,and at Shasi (opened 1886) the Mission propertywas burned.The result of the evangelistic campaign mentionedabove was that 379 were baptized in elevenmonths—a phenomenal figure for those days. In1892, a new church was opened in Hankowit was the largest in Central China, and couldaccommodate fourteen hundred. An English departmentwas opened in Boone School in 1892. Acollege course was added in 1902, and in 1909 thecollege became Boone University.The Medical work in Wuchang is reported in1916 as undergoing long-needed expansion,—thework deserving better hospitals than are at presentin use.A long-required division of jurisdiction tookplace in 1901, and the field was divided into twodioceses, the Province of Kiangsu, with Shanghai19145

D. & F. MISSIONARY ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAas .-ee city being one, and the Hankow diocesetaking the remainder. The first Bishop of thenew diocese was Rev. J. A. Ingle, who had beenin China 10 years. He died two years later at theearly age of thirty -eight, and was succeeded by theRev. L. H. Roots of Hankow.Tn 1909, the American Lutheran Mission inHankow was handed over to the American Church,as the Lutherans wished to concentrate on thenewly-opened province of Hnnan. This provincehad already been occupied by the American Churchalso, Chang.sha becoming a permanent station 'n1902, under a native clergyman, the Rev. S. C.HT7ANG. In the " rice riots " of 1910, the moblooted the Mission property, but the missionarieswere not injured.After the Boxer rising, Boone College was reopened with 100 students. "Boone Library" wasbuilt in 1910,begun in Hankow in 19l2.and a Normal School for Women wasIn 1911, when Hankow was the centre of theRcNolution and the native city was burned bythe Northern army, many of the Christians sufferedgrievously. All the institutions in Wuchang wereclosed for several months, and other work wastaken up. Dr. Mac Willie of St.* Peter'.s Hospitalwas President of the Red C'ross work, and evenSt. Pafl's Cathedral was turned into an auxiliaryhospital. The missionaries cared for the sick, thewounded, and the homeless, and buried the dead,preaching the Gospel as they worked.Diocese- of Anlimj.—Anking was opened as astation with foreigners in charge in 1895, whenDr. and Mrs. Mebrins went there to begin medicalwork. Ten years later, St. James' Hospital, wa?built, the finest at the time in Central China. By1910 the work centering round Wuhu (opened 1885),Anking, and Kiukiang (1901), had developed to.such an extent, that it was decided to divide theHankow district into two dioceses. The newdiocese was to comprise Anhui, and Kiangsi northof 20°- N. Lat. Anking was chosen as see city,and the Rev. D. T. Huntington o£ Ichang, wasconsecrated as first Bishop. The Cathedral, thelargest church in the C-hina Mission, was completedin 1912. and very strangely, " The great citytemple was dismantled almost at the same time.The building was white-washed, and made into amarket and mos-t of the idols were thrown into theriver," — part of the great movement againstidolatry which was set going by the Declaration oflleligious Liberty proclaimed at the establishmentof the Republic. On the whole this is one of tnemost successful and encouraging Missions in Chinaand its educational work is rapidly rivalling thatof the two older dioceses.ForeignStatistics, January 1st, 1917.Shanghai Hankow AnkingDioceseDiocese Diocese Totalordainedworkers 15 22 8 43,. unordained|^g 33 24 155workers & women jChinese staff ordained 21 16 10 47,,unordained \and women including \ 216 264 135 615Teachers fCommunicants 1,640 1,725 910 4,276Baptized noncommunicants1,733 1,971 850 4,554DOMINICANS, a mendicant Order of FriarPreachers founded in 1217. They first came toChina in the 14th century and probably providedArchbLshops to Khanbalig (Peking) early in the15th century.Gaspard de la Croix reached China in 1556but stayed only one month. A PortugueseDominican, Jean de la Pieik, was Bishop ofMacao in 1605. Several fruitless attempts toevangelize China were made by- Dominicans fromthe Philippines,—in 1587, 1590, 1596. 1598 and 1611.At last, in 1625, a mission was founded in Formosa ;it was destroyed by the Dutch in 1642, but the timehad been sufficient to give the Dominicans a footingin the Fukien province, where they remained.Being Spanish this was their way into Chinainstead of through the Portuguese Macao. Since1716 all the Vicars-Apostolic of the Dominicanshave been of the Province of the Very Holy Rosary(Philippines). In the question of the Rites theDominicans were against Ricci's practices.They have the two Vicariats of Fukien andAmoy, and the Prefecture-Apostolic of Formosa.There are 58 European and 31 native priests, withabout 61,000 Christians. The agency (Procure) isat Hongkong.DOOLITTLE, JUSTUS, a missionary underthe American Board, born in 1824. who arrived inChina in 1850 and .'^pent most of his missionary lifein Foochow. He was the author of a very popularbook. The Sncinl life of the Chinese, and of adictionary or miscellaneous handbook of greatservice in its time. His health obliged him toreturn to America in 1873 and he died there in 1880.DOOR OF HOPE, THE, a philanthropic workstarted in Shanghai in 1900 by a Committee offive missionary ladies, to rescue such of the manyChinese prostitutes in the Foreign Settlement asdesired to leave a life of shame. The first Homewas opened in a Chinese house in November, 1901.the first worker being Miss Cornelia L. Bonnell(died 1916).U6

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICADRAGONIn 1904, a number of philanthropic Chineseoffered to assist in the work, and the offer wasaccepted. They opened a Receiving Home in themost notorious quarter of the settlement, and alsosecured by their influence the enactment of newmunicipal regulations favourable to public morality,especially one limiting to 15 years the age at whichgirls might enter the brothels. One result of thiswas that a large number of kidnapped childrenwere freed, and given into the charge of theMission, which in 1906 opened a Children's Homein the country at Kiangwan, near Shanghai. In thesame year, an Industrial Home was opened, wherethe girl.-^ could be taught to work towards self-.-upport.In 1912 the Municipal Council pressed theMission to undertake the care of the strayed, stolenand abandoned children found in the streets ofShanghai by the police, and guaranteed thenecessary finances from time to time. The requestwas acceded to, and a Home for Waifs and Strayswas begun.In January, 1917, the Mission reported 8foreign lady workers, 36 Chinese assistants, and420 women and girls in their care.DOUBLE DRAGON. See Decoration,.DOUGLAS, ROBERT KENNAWAY, wasborn in Devon, 1838, and died in England in 1913.He entered the (Consular Service of China in 1858,and left it in 1865 to take a post in the BritishMuseum, where he was Keeper of Oriental Booksand MSS. at the time of his retirement in 1907.He was Proiessor of Chinese in King's College,London University, and was several times Vice-President of the Royal Asiatic Society. He wasknighted in 1903.His published works are T/ic La/if/uat/as andLiterature of China, (1875) ; Confucianism andTaoism, (1877); China, (1882); A Chi7iese Manual,(1889) ; Chinese Stories, (1893) ; Society in China,(1894) ; The Life of Li Humj-chang, (1895) ; China,(1899), in Story of the Nations Series; Europe andthe Far Ka.-

jj|DRAGON KINGSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAagination has embellished the creature till it hasbecome a most artistic beast, worthy of its highposition in the ornamental world. For art's sakeit must be hoped the Republic will spare it.De Groot : Les Fetes annuelles a Emoui;jPen ts'ao rang mu ; Huai Nan Tzu ; Dennys : TheFolklore of China.DRAGON KINGS m,lung wang. Chinesemythology honours a number of men with this title,and the Indian origin of their names shows thesuperstition to be Buddhist. The lists of themdiffer in different authors. Doee gives names,pictures and stories concerning them.DoRE : Becherches sur les Superstitions, tomevii, p. 234.DRAMA. The drama is not indigenous toChina, but was introduced together with the novel,by the Mongols in the Yiian dynasty. Prior tothat, solemn dances or posturing, accompanied bychanting, had been performed on ceremonialoccasions. It has been assumed that because actorsstill call themselves "Students of the Pear-Garden"—the Pear-Garden being the name of a Conservatoireestablished in 720 a.d. by the EmperorHsuAN TsuNG of the T'ang dynasty, for the trainingof young musicians, that the actors' professionexisted at that time. But the training at thiscollege was limited to the teaching of instrumentalmusic and the singing of dramatic poetry. In 735a troupe of barbarian musicians performed plays ofa -^ort called Yo-j/u *{| S at the Imperial court.But it was not till the Mongol dynasty that thedrama came to China to remain.The majority of plays acted in China are thosecomposed in the Yiian and the early Mingdynasties, and the airs to which the recitatives aresung are chiefly melodies of the Yiian period.There were 85 dramatists of the Yiian dynasty, ofwhom 4 were courtesans and 11 were anonymouswriters. They composed 564 plays. The bestknowncollection of Mongol plays is the Yiian ch'uhsiian tsa chi 76 ffl tl 5^ flj containing 100 playsin 8 volumes. The most famous of these is "TheOrphan of the Chao Family," which was translatedinto French by the Jesuit missionary Premare in1731. The most interesting of the Yiian plays, isHsi Hsiang Chi or " The Story of the WesternPavilion " by Wang Shih-ftj. Of the Ming plays,by far the most celebrated is P'/ Pa Chi, (q.v.) or" Story of the Guitar," by Kao Tzu-ch'eng,first performed in 1404. It is regarded by Chinesecritics as the masterpiece of Chinese drama.K'ang Hsi was a great patron of the drama,gorgeous representations being given in his theatres.Ch'ien Lung also encouraged the drama, but owingto the fact that his mother had been an actress,he forbade any women taking a part on the stage,a rule which has obtained to the present day.A well-known dramatist of this reign was HungSsu-fang. The most famous play-wright of the19th century was Li-Yii, some of whose plays arebased on Buddhist legends.The Chinese play resembles the European inits division into acts and scenes. The dialogue isinterspersed with poetry which is sung, and whichresembles the recitative of European opera. Thereare two kinds of plays, the " military," orhistorical play, and the " civil " play, which isoften a farce. The majority are short, from halfan hour to an hour in length, though there arelong ones found in books, from which short extractsand given on the stage. Actors are engaged bytrade-guilds, magistrates and wealthy persons toperform on special occasions, a play by a largetroupe costing from $3.00 to $10.00. There arealso theatres in all large cities where plays areacted all the year except at the New Yearfestivities. The Chinese theatres at the treatyports show the influence of foreign drama byintroducing curtains, wings and scenery. In sometheatres in Shanghai a modern style of actinghas been adopted, which abandons the old stageconventions, and the orchestra, but shows adeplorable tendency to borrow from the detectivestories of the foreign cinematograph. A popularactor in Shanghai is sometimes paid $1000 a month,while famous actors in Peking receive even largerpay. Plays are usually performed in the Pekingesedialect of Mandarin.Actors are of a low social caste. The descendantsof an actor for three generations were forbiddento compete in examinations. One reason for thiscontempt for the profession was that the childrenof slaves were brought up to be actors. Trainingbegins between the ages of nine and fourteen.The boy must undergo strenuous physical exercisesto become a skilful contortionist, and practisevocal exercises to become a good singer, for longsustained passages of recitative must often berendered in a single breath. He mu.st have aperfect repertoire of between 100 and 200 plays, asthere is no prompter on the Chinese stage. Theparts of women are taken by boys and men, sometimesby eunuchs.Chinese plays are moral in character, exaltingvirtue, exposing vice, and exhibiting the comic andthe pathetic sides of life. Great liberty is takenwith the text, however, and many objectionablegags are introduced by the actors. The plot isusually of a simple character. One striking featureof the Chinese stage is the absence of properties.Actors, musicians and theatre attendants occupythe stage together. Emperors, generals, magistrates,doctors, coolies, courtezans, gods and demonsare all represented, and the costumes are often148

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICADU HALDEmagnificent. There are five classes of charactersin a play :—1, the hero, shiing IE, who wears ablack beard, 2, tan B[ the female characters,3, ching \^ , secondary characters, 4, mo'^, and5, cJi'ou 3L different minor parts.Chinese Plays translated by foreigners :Le Jeune Orphelin de la Famille de Tchao PremareAn Heir in Old AgeDavisThe Sorrows of HanDavisL'Histoire du Cercle de Craie Stanislas JulienLes Intrigues d'une Soubrette Bazin AindLa Tunique Confrontee (Joining theShirt) by Chang Kuo-pin, a courtesan ,, ,,La Chanteuse ,, ,,Le Res?entiment de Teou-Ngo byKuan Han-king ,, ,,L'Histoire du Luth (P'i Pa Chi)Bazin : Theatre Chinok; Macgowan :HistrionicNotes, Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xxiChinese Theatricals, Ibid., vol. xx ; Giles:Chinese Literature.DREAM OF THE RED CHAMBER U^^hunij Ion ini'mj. One of the best known, andprobably the best of Chinese works uf fictioa. Theproper title of the book i.sif ;fp M B S" M IE i^^'^Op'ina pu t'u shih t'uu chi, but it is generally knownby the shorter name. The English title is a mistranslationof this name, but it would be too latenow to correct it. The book is in Mandarin, and,like most such works in Chinese, is of great length,filling about four thousand octavo pages. Aboutfour hundred characters appear in the story, andtheir drawing is most skilful. It abounds in humourand pathos, and is invaluable for anyone who wouldstudy the social life of the Chinese.It is supposed to belong to the latter part ofthe 17th century ; but the author is not known ; ith&i^ been attributed to Ts'ao HsiiEH-CH'iN, W ^l^-A very good rt'sume of the story by ProfessorCJiLES will be found in the Journal of theN.C.B.R.A.S., for 1885, (vol. xx), transferred with)me additions to Giles' Chinese Literature.A translation of the first part of the work waspublished by H. JcfLY.DRONGOS.DRUMS.See Dicruridae.See Musical Instruments.DRUM, SACRIFICE TO THE. It was avery ancient custom to sacrifice to the regimentaldrum before a fight. YiiAN Shih-k'ai is said tohave performed this rite even in 1900 when marchingagainstthe Boxers.Parkeu : Ancient China Simplified, p. 32.DRUMS, STONE, important relicsinscribedwith the character used in the early part of theChou dynasty. They are ten large water-wornboulders, roughly chiselled into the shape of shortpillars 1^ to 3 feet high and averaging 7 feet horizontalcircumference. They are much weathered, sothat on one stone no characters remain, and onlyone has the inscription nearly complete.They were discovered early in the T'angdynasty, half buried in some waste land in Fenghsiangfu JMMM^" Shensi, which was the ancestralterritory of the founder of the Chou dynasty.The inscriptions are in the great seal script ;^^ta chiian, a separate ode on each stone, eachapparently commemorating some hunting or fishingexcursion or excursions. Most authorities assignthem to the period of HsiiAN Wang, b.c. 827-782their authenticity has been doubted, but not bymany. The original number of characters was about700 ; an author of the Sung dynasty speaks of 465one in the Yiian dynasty mentions 386; in theCh'ien Lung period there were only 310.Happily a rubbing was taken in the Sungdynasty and facsimiles preserved and engraved onstone in the period Chia Ch'ing ; it contains 462characters.At the beginning of the ninth century thestones were placed in the Confucian temple atFeng-hsiang fu ; but in the troublous times of theFive Dynasties they were dispersed and lost sightof. They were got together again in the Sungdynasty, and when the court fled before the LiaoTartars it took the drums and set them up inthe new capital, Pien Ching "71^;^, in 1108. Whenthe capital was taken by the Chin^ Tartars in1126, the conquerors carried the drums to Peking,where they were more or less neglected till theYiian dynasty. But in 1307 they were placed inthe gate-way of the Confucian temple, and haveremained there ever since.The Chinese literature on the subject isvoluminous. In tlie N.C.B.R.A.S. Journal thefirst reproductions of the inscriptions are given,with the text in modern form and a translation,the whole having been prepared by Dr. Bushell.Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. viii.DRUSES or DRUZES. A mysterious peoplewho have been known in the Lebanon mountainssince the twelfth century, but whose origin is unknown.They themselves state that they camefrom China ; they expect at the end of all thingsto be re-established in their ancestral home, andmeanwhile all good Druzes, at their death, aresupposed to go to China.Graham :— Journal of the Geographical Society1858, p. 262.DUCKS. See Anseres.DU HALDE, JEAN BAPTISTE, a Jesuitpriest whose fame rests on his 'Descriptiongeographique, historique, chronologique, politiquede I'Empire de la Chine'. This work wasU9

DUKEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAthey began to fortify it, and were then driven off.Extension Telegraph Co. is given here|published in Paris by Lemerciee in four folioseventeenth century for trading j)urposes, but that they established a factory at Canton.volumes in 1735. There are two English translations, The Chinese proceeded to build a fort there, andthe earlier being in four octavo volumes, dated J736 : called it Pearl of the Sea Fort M^%M. hai chuthe translator was R. Brookes, and the edition is f'ao Vai.incomplete and unsatisfactory. The next waspublished by E. Cave in two folio volumes, one inDUTCH RELATIONS WITH CHINA. The1738, one in 1741.relations of Holland and Spain at the end of theDu Halde was born in Paris, February 1, 1674,sixteenth century in Europe are to be borne inentered the Society in 1692 and died on August 18,mind. Portugal was supremely influential in the1743. On the death of Le Gobien, Du Halde wasFar East; and Portugal and her dependencies werechosen to continue the series of Lettres Edifiantes,administered by Philip II of Spain, the arch-enemyand the volumes ix-xxvi were edited by him. Itof the Netherlands.was the large amount of surplus material that gave The Dutch being unable to get Chinese producehim the idea of preparing his Description, in which through Lisbon, in 1595 sent a great trading expeditionhe used the manuscripts of twenty-seven of theround the Cape to Java. In 1598 a secondJesuit missionaries. He was never in China.. one was sent, and as a result the Dutch East IndiaCordier : DuHalde et d'Anville, in Recueil de Company was formed in 1602. It not only had aMemoires! Orientaux, 1905.trade monopoly but exercised sovereign powers inthe settlements it made, which included Cape ColonyDUKE. See Nobility.and Ceylon. It massacred ten or twelve EnglishDUNN, JOHN GEORGE, a Shanghai mer at Amboyna ('y.r.) in 1623. Having failed in anchant, afterwards special agentHis nameof The Eastern attack on the Portuguese at Macao, the Dutch tookthe Panghu island in the Pescadores in 1624, andbecause he was chosen by Li Hung-chang as a thence made a successful expedition to the mainland.A-nessenger to the Superior of the Lazarist MissionThereupon the Emperor gave them permissionin Paris with a view to settling the difficulty about to settle in Formosa and trade there if they wouldthe Pei T'ang by the appointment of a nuncio or give up the Panghu island ; or according to anotherlegate from Rome. The mission was nearly a account they left being defeated by the Chinese.success : Mgr. Agliardi accepted the nomination They settled at Taiwan fu, Formosa being in realityand Dunn announced the date of departure fora No-man's land, built a fort named Fort Zealandia,China ; France, however, interposed and the legateexpelled the Spanish from Kehuig in 1642 andwas never sent. See Afjliardi; Protectorate of became masters of the island. In 1662 KoxingaMissions.took Fort Zealandia after a nine-months' siege andCordier : Histoire des Relations de la Chine. the Dutch retired to Java. Their forts at TaiwanDUNYN-SZPOT, THOMAS IGNATIUS, a fu and Tamsui are now parts of the BritishJesuit Father born in Podlachia in 1643. Very Consulates.little is known of him, but the Society of Jesus Attempts to trade at Canton being again frustratedpreserves in its archives three manuscripts by him,by the Portuguese an embassy was sent toon the Missions in China and on Chinese history. Peking in 1655 under Peter de Goyer and JacobHavret : La Stele Vhretienne de Si-ngan-fou, DE Keyser, merchants of Batavia. The envoys tookrich gifts which they themselves termed tribute,ii, p. 71.DURAND-FAREL, CHARLES LOUIS they knelt thrice and 'knocked heads' nine times,MAX I ME, sent on a mission to China by thethe complete kotow {q.v.); but -all they obtainedFrench Minister of Public Instruction, has written was permission to send an embassy accompaniedsome medical works in that connection. He was by four trading ships once every eight years.Associate Member of the Academy of Medicine. They do not seem to have taken advantage ofBorn in. Paris in 1815, he died there in 1899. For this generous permission, but after the retreat fromhis writings see T'onng Pno, 1899.Formosa a splendid embassy was sent in 1668under Lord Peter van Hoorn. a Privy CouncillorDURGAN or DORGUN, ^^^ To erh kun. and chief Treasurer of India. It was received inThe name of the Manchu Regent who established very friendly style by the Emperor K'ang Hsi, butthe Ch'ing dynasty by putting his nephew on the the Dutch got no particular benefit through it. Onthrone with the title Shun Chih.the contrary they were enrolled among vassal states,DUTCH FOLLY, a small island in the river were summoned to send naval aid in an attack onnear the south-west corner of Canton, " French Formosa, and obeyed. They carried on a cei"tavnFolly " being another at the south-east corner. It amount of clandestine trade in Fukien ports, buyingis sail that it was granted to the Dutch in the permission each time, and it was not till 1762 that150

joff,IThejdye: but;dry;a;1916!Red{saflflower,iiTheISsuch'uan,Iwhich!''"^!alumiin;usedIjch'ien;usediLitho.^permumENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNICADYE-STUFFSIn 1798, after Macartney's Embassy, anotherDutch embassy was sent under Isaac TitSingh andA. E. VAN Braam. These were more humble thantheir predecessors even, and their self-abasementhas been described in scorching terms in Williams'Middle Kingdom; De Guignes, who was presentas a guest, also describes their reception. The onlyresult of the embassy was to increase the selfcomplacencyof the Chinese : the Dutch got nothing.During the next century there has been nointercourse which requires special notice.The following is the complete list of all theMinisters and Charges d'affaires who have representedthe Netherlands in Peking.Ian Helenus Ferguson^ Minister-Resident andConsul-General from 1870 till 1895.¥. M. Knobel, Minister-Resident and Consul-General : nominated January 22, 1895 ; credentialspresented November 11, 1895; departedNovember 27, 1901.JoNKHEER John Loudon, Charge d'affaires ad int.,November 27, 1901—January 31, 1903.W. J. OuDENDYK, Charge d'affaires ad int., January31. 1903—October 30, 1903.JoNKHEER Adolf Jacobus van Citters, EnvoyExtraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary;nominated June 10, 1903 ; credentials presentedNovember 20, 1903; departed October 1, 1908.W. J. OuDENDYK, Charge d'affaires ad int., October1, 1908—April 19, 1909.JoNKHEER Frans Beelarrts VAN Blokland, EnvoyExtraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary;nominated March 13, 1909; credentials presentedApril 22, 1909.DYER, SAMUEL, a missionary of the LondonMissionary Society, born at Greenwich, January20, 1804. He reached Penang on August 8, 1827,and, being in feeble health, remained there insteadof proceeding to Malacca. He devoted a good dealof his time to the cutting and perfecting of Chinesemetal type.In 1835 he removed to Malacca, devotinghimself there to the printing office and totype-founding. In 1843rhe went to a Conference ofmissionaries at Hongkong, then just open, but fellill on the return journey, was put ashore at Macaoand died there on October 21, 1843. He was buriedby the side of Dr. Morrison.Da vies : Memoir of the Iter:. SnmiM Dyer.London, 1846.DYE-STUFFS. The following are the chiefdyes produced in China :Blue; from so-called "indigo" plant, tien [g^vhich name is given to (1) Strobilanthes flaccidifoliwi,central and western China, (2) Indigoferafinctoria, a leguminous shrub of South Chinalargely grown also in India, (3) Isatis tinctoria,(4) Polygonum tinctorium, the Dyers' Knotweed,grown in Manchuria, Hupei, and other districtsin N. China. Indigofera is the most widespreadof these.The chief indigo-growing districts,—and cultivation,which had been dying out under thecompetition of aniline dyes, has since the war beenresumed on a considerable scale,—are the Sungaribasin in Manchuria, the di.stricts of Anhui on theYangtze, parts of Kiangsi and Hupei, centralChekiang, and, in the south, the hinterland ofPakhoi and the West River in Kuangsi. Threecrops of leaves are gathered annually in the bestdistricts and one viow of land yields 700 cattiesin a good season. The shoots are steeped inconcrete pits in cold water for several days, whenthey are removed, leaving a greeni.sh-coloured waterwhich, after being well stirred and exposed to theair, becomes darker. Slaked lime is placed in thewater to precipitate the indigo, the water is drainedand the dye is left.inter-provincial trade in indigo, used tothe "blue gown", was at one time enormous,export abroad was never very great, as thearticle required in Europe is not produced.At the beginning of this century foreign artificialindigo and aniline dyes began to oust the nativeindigo, and in 1914 the trade had died down tosmall figure. The export of liquid indigo forwas Pels. 90,059, value Tls. 765,613.; the best known red dye in China isCarthamus tinctorius or hung hua ^ ^jg,the seed of which is said to have been originallybrought to China by Chang Ch'ien from Turkestan.chief centre of production is, or was, for thereis now little demand for this beautiful dye, centralthough it is also cultivated near Ichangand in N.W. Anhui. The red worsted cord, forWuhu was famous all over the Empire, wasdyed with Ssuch'uan safflower.The balsam, Im.patie.7is hahaminn, or ftng h-neniB( lUl ^2 ' ^^ VLS.edi in combination withas a finger-nail dye, called hai-na, apparentlyimitation of the Arabic henna. Other plantsfor the same purpose are Anchusia tinctoriain the north and Lawsonia in the south ; the latterproduces the familiar rouge employed by Chineseladies. Madder, Bubia cordifolia, the ' Chinesetx'uo is a creeper whose stems and roots areto dye a deep red, whence its name jan-fei^^•'r^o^i^;5• -^ purple dye is got from the bark oferythrorhizon, t'zu ts'ao^"^,, nowused chiefly as a drug in the northern and centralprovinces. The colouring matter is brightest ifthe plant is dug up in ' spring. Formerly 4,000piculs of this *dye were exported from Chefooyearly and sent to the south. Sappan-wood dyeft'om Malaysia and the Phillippines is an importantarticle of import.151

DYE-STUFFSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINlCAYellow ; Turmeric ^^ chiang huang is the produceof Curcuma longa, yil clnii^'^, found in Ssuch'uanand Tibet and also on the West River deltaand in Folrmosa, whence it is imported to China.The powdered roots are used for dyeing cotton cloth,especially women's clothes. The export of thisdye from Chungking reached the extraordinarilyhigh figure of 60,000 piculs in 1912, apparentlyowing to the failure of the Indian crop. The plantis still extensively cultivated on the Lower Minin Ssuch'uan. The export for 1916 was Pels. 26,669;Tls. 110,365.> A yellow dye for silks and cottons is obtainedfrom the buds of Sophora jriponica the huai shu^ ig{, a familiar tree widely scattered over China.The Koclrcuteria, also named ?iuni, is used for thesame purpose. The Gardenia florida produces ayellow dye used for staining woods.Green ;green dyes are obtained from the leavesof lihainmt.^ fhictorius and other siDCcies of buckthorn.The bark of two varieties is boiled togetherin Chekiang to produce the dye, which is veryexpensive, and therefore sparingly used, mo.stlyfor grasscloth. It is a very permanent colour, andconstitutes the sap-green of water-colour painters.The pigment is named lii-chiao ^ j^. It has beenalmost totally displaced by aniline dyes, and thesame fate has overtaken the dye obtained from aspecies of Polygonum in Ssuch'uan.Black; the "nutgalls" produced by an insecton the Bhm javanicu, the fu-yang tree ^ ^ ,areextensively employed for dyeing fabrics, especiallysilk, black. The cloth must first be dyed blue.This process has been elaborately described byHosiE in his report on Ssuch'uan. Mixed withcochineal and other colouring substances the powderfrom the galls (Chinese wxi pei tzu 5.f§^), producesgrey, brown and fawn tints. See Nutgulh.As a dye for silk the cupules of two verycommon oaks, the hua-li ^^Sk, and hou-l'o-Vt jj^l^.are employed. Used with sulphate of iron a dyeis produced very similar to that extracted fromthe Vallonea oak of Asia Minor. In dyeing silkwith this dye the fabric does not require to bedyed blue first. This dye is used in Manchuria,Hupei, and the West generally. In the countrydistricts of Ssuch'uan local use is made of theleaves of the walnut, alder, tallow-tree, etc., forthe same purpose, and soot from pine-wood, mixedwith millet spirit, is also used.Brown; the dye yam, shu Jiang ^ i^, or falsegambler yields a dark brown dye and tanning agent,commonly used in Y'iinnan and exported thence toTonkin. It is also widely grown in Kuangsi, andshipped to Knangtung from Wuchow. It is usedfor native and foreign cottons, grasscloth and silk,and furnishes the lustrous dark-brown waterprooflookingcolour so much affected by the Chine.sein summer. If a darker colour is required, alumand nutgalls are added, and in Canton the juice ofgreen or unripe persimmons is frequently appliedas a varnish to the* outside of the cloth. It iswaterproof, and perspiration does not show uponit ; to remove dirt only superficial washing isnecessary. [N. S.]DYNASTIC HISTORIES. See Histories ofChina.DYNASTIES are divided into JE cheng and|g p'ien, or principal and partial ; the former havingpo.'sessed the whole of the contemporary China,the latter only a portion. Of the former there aretwenty-four from the Chou ^ to the Ch'ingdynasty. The others include some of importance,such as N. Wei, Chin, ^, etc., but most of themwere of short duration and little interest. All willbe found under their respective headings.Giles : Dictionary, Table III ; Hoang : Concordancedes Chronologies Neominiques, Appendix I.EChina.EAGLES. Several species are found in NorthThe golden eagle {Aquila chrysactus) is socalled because of the colour of its long neck-feathers.It is as big as a good-sized turkey and its spreadof wing is about six feet. It is found all overKansu, Shensi and Shansi, and is very common inMongolia.The spotted eagle (^1. rlnnga) is a much smallerbird, found in both North and South fJhina.The white tailed sea-eagle [Halifjetus albicilla)belongs to N. China. Though a sea-eagle it goesup river courses far inland. It is about as big asthe golden eagle, but is lighter in colour, has a whitetail and a heavier bill.A related species is the so-called bald-headedeagle (//. leucocephalus) which is found even awayfrom river courses and in mountainous districts.Pere Uavid once saw in China an eagle of themuch larger species //. pelagicu.^, which is said to152

IIOmittingI1 find!ofIjfeudalIthatENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNICAEDUCATIONbreed in great numbers in the Sea of Okhotsk. Itis remarkable for its enormous yellow bill. SeeAccipitres.SowERBY : Fur and Feather in North China.EAGRE, a name formerly used for thephenomenon on the Ch'ien t'ang river, now generallyspoken of as the Hangchow Bore. The name wasused, of course, for bores anywhere.Macgowan : The Eagre of the Tnen-tang River;Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., 1853-4.EARL. See Nobility.EARTHQUAKES, have been common enoughin China, and history records again and again thattaxes were remitted in certain districts because ofloss by an eai'thquake. One is mentioned asdestroying 6,000 lives in Honan in B.C. 70, butgenerally the loss of life is slight because of thestyle of building.The important works on this subject are BioT,Catalogue general des Tremblements de Terre . . .observes en Chine depuis les temps anciens jusqu'dnos jours, (1841) ; F. Omoei, Tremblements deTerre en Chine, (1899); E. H. Pakker, A list ofChinese Earthquakes, (1909) ; and P. PierreHoAN-G, S.J., Catalogue des 2^reinbhiiients de Terresignales en Chine, 2 vols., (1909 and 1913). Thelast-named work is the latest. It was the last workof Pere Hoang ; he finished the first volume at thea;,^e of 80 after three years' work on it and died theliext day.It is a list of earthquakes recorded in Chineseannals from B.C. 1767 to a.d. 1895, arranged accordingto provinces, with latitudes and longitudesand dates; the total number is 5793, This workwas issued as No. 28 of the Variites Sinologiquesand a second volume, prepared by P. Tobar, hasbeen numbered 28 bis.In spite of keen research the data still seeminsufficient for decided conclusions as to periodicity,etc. Giles : Adversaria Sinica, No. 9.EAST OF ASIA, THE, a magazine pvfblisljed.quarterly in Shanghai from January, 1902 toOctober, 1906.It was illustrated and non-political.It was also issued, with slight differences, inGerman as Der Feme Osten. Both were edited byC. Fink.EBENEZER MISSION.Headquarters :—Toronto, Ontario Canada. Anoffshoot of the South Chihli Mission (q.v.) workingin ^ Bg jg Piyang hsien, Honan, with 5 foreignworkers in 1916.ECHO DE CHINE, L', a French daily newspaperin Shanghai, founded in 1895.ECLIPSE. The earliest eclipse of the sunrecorded in Chinese history is that which tookplace in the reign of Yu ® (b.c. 781-770), recorded20158in the Sfiih Ching Pt. II, Bk. 4, Ode 9. Naturewas supposed to show thereby its disapproval of theEmperor 'fi conduct with regard to Pag Ssu (q.v.).The date (28th cyclic day in the beginning of10th moon) was August 29, 776 B.C. and Chavannesclaims it is accurate to the day. Reliable chronologybegins with this date.In the Ch'un Ch'iu Confucitts records 37eclipses of the sun between B.C. 720 and B.C. 481.Of these according to E. H. Parker twelve arefairly correct and the rest remain to be examined.The common idea of an eclipse is that amonster is swallowing sun or moon ;gongs anddrums are used vigorously to drive the monster offand save the luminary. The Chinese terms Q Ujih shih, ^ gj yiieh shih, mean the eating up ofthe sun and moon respectively,EDKINS, JOSEPH, B.A., D.D., was bornin Gloucestershire in 1823, graduated at LondonUniversity, and arrived in Shanghai in 1848 as anagent of the London Missionary Society. In 1861he opened Tientsin. to the Society and in 1863 wentto Peking. He received the honorary D.D. fromEdinburgh in 1875. In 1880 he became translatorto the Imperial Customs of China, first in Peking,-then for the last fifteen years of his life inShanghai. He was a noted philologist and had awide knowledge of Chinese literature. His Chineseworks are numerous and his Chinese Buddhism,Religion in China, Chinas Place in Philology andThe Religious Condition of the Chinese are wellknown. He died in Shanghai, 1905.For a list of his works see Chinese Recorder,vol. xxxvi, p. 282.EDRISI, a geographer who wrote under thepatronage of Roger II of Sicily. His account ofChina, written about 1153, is meagre and confused,and contains many names which it is impossible toidentify. Yule : Cathay and the Way Thither,Parker : Ancient China Simplified.•EDUCATION. A recent work on this subjectby a Chinese begins with the obvious statement that"the beginnings of education in China can be tracedas far back as the beginning of her civilization."This may be said of any people, but it is typical ofthe Chinese desire to attribute everything they haveto the days of Yao and Shun. Because it is saidthat "Yao examined his officers every three years"he is regarded as originating the modern competitiveexamination.reference, however, to education asmentioned in the earlier part of the Shu Ching, wethat in the Chou dynasty there were two kindsschool, one kind in the capital and one kind inthe country, in the imperial domain and in thestates alike. We are expected to believeeach hamlet ^ lii (twenty-five families) "had

AsEDUCATIONENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAits hall of study called Shu ^;called hsiamj ^ or A^rt^;each village a schooleach district a schoolcalled h.iii ^, and each department of a State acollege called hnang ^." Every day "all theinhabitants of each village, men and women, ingoing out to the fields in the morning and in returninghome in the evening, received instruction in thehalls of study." The instruction was given by"men of strong moral character," officials retiredfrom public service at 70 years old. Truly a GoldenAge ! an enthusiatic New-China student says,the Chou ideal represented "a combination ofSpartan and Athenian ideals of education."This wonderful system however began itsdecadence in the eighth century B.C. ; and thoughschools existed in the days of Confucius andMencius, they were private ventures, withoutgovernment supervision or aid. These philosophershad not only to exhort the state to do its duty,they also provided the chief material and text booksfor all Chinese education down to last generation.The Han dynasty was marked by a greatrevival of learning, and educational work wasreorganized under Wu Ti (140-86 B.C.). Chinabecame filled with schools. It must be notedhowever that public offices were not, as in earliertimes, filled with successful students alone; therewere also other ways to civil employment. Further,by education being henceforth confined to one systemof philosophy, it became conservative and formal.During the three centuries after the Handynasty, education, like all institutions, had anirregular and troubled time. Not to mentionordinary schools, the T'ai Hsiieh >fc ^ and theKuo Tzu Hsiieh (later Kuo Tzii Chien q.v.)^-J"^Were opened and closed again several times. Confucianismhad to contend with Buddhist and Taoistinfluences during this period. The practice ofselecting officials by examination fell into abeyanceand offices became more or less hereditary.fC^ With the coming of the T'ang dynasty educationO^oHegCs established .in the capital, the K«o-T«u^>jas once more reorganized. There were sixcolleges established in the capital, the Kuo TzuChien being the chief and controlling the others.In the country every village had its school. TheFive Classics were the chief part of all educationand officers were selected by a literary examination.In 740, the Han-lin Yiian was established, a kind ofImperial Academy attached to the court and largelydevoted to the study of difficulties in literature.After the first century of T'ang rule, Taoistsreturned to favour and colleges to study Taoismwere instituted, of equal rank with the Confucian.Changes also took place with regard to the selectionof officials.The Sung dynasty restored the Kuo Tzfi Chienand ulhcr colleges extinguished during the FiveDynasties Period, and organized provincial schools.Law, Medicine, Mathematics, etc., also had sjjecialschools which, however, did not last long. Thesystem of examination was laid down, and rules madewhich have lasted almost till the present. Selectionof officers by competitive examination was the rule,especially towards the close of the period. TwoSung philosophers who had a great influence oneducation were Chxj Hsi and Wang An-shih.The Kuo Tzu Chien was once more opened byKhubilai Khan, schools were encouraged and theexamination system re-established, but with Mongolianfor the Mongols added. In the iniddle ofthe dynasty, there were 24,000 schools in thecountry, but it is said that many had only a nominalexistence and the imperial decrees were not fullycarried out. Probably the same is true in alldynasties.The famous Three-Character Classic 3. ^ j|5San tzu ching was produced in this period, byWang Ying-lin.During the Ming dynasty there were manydecrees for the re-organization of colleges andschools, and once again every village was providedfor, on paper at least. The competitive examinationswere also modified. The philosopher andeducationist Wang Yang-ming lived during thisperiod.Of the Manchu dynasty we have the usualannouncement that it restored the Kuo Tzu Chien.The great literary monarchs, K'ang Hsi and hissuccessors, promoted education both Chinese andManchu, and once again a very complete systemseems to have been decreed, with monthly, quarterlyand annual examinations in all schools and colleges !It is stated that this last perfection ruined theprovincial schools, because students soon found thatpromotion depended on attendance at the examinations,not at the school.Competitive examinations reached their fullestdevelopment. Education was not sought for itsown sake but for office ; and the State cared for theeducation of the people only so far as it might thussupply itself with servants.The educational system which thus lasted forcenturies until the end of the nineteenth may bebriefly described as follows :When about seven years old a boy began schoollife. His first book was the Three Character Classic(q-v.). The characters were learned by sound andshape, but the meaning was not explained at first.The learning was done by chanting or shouting,a few words at time, till the whole had at last beengot by heart. As each pupil shouted a differentpart of the book in his own key and according tothe strength of his lungs, the din and discord werestriking. The master heard each boy repeat whathe had learned, the pupil turning his back that he154

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAEDUCATIONALmight not glance at the open book. He thuslearned some 400 characters.He then attacked in the same way the ThousandCharacter Classic (q.v.), thus adding a large numberof new characters, after which he began on theserious work of his scholastic life, the Four Books.These were all committed to memory by shouting,and after a time explanations were given of theparts already learned. At the same time the studentlearned to write,—a long and difficult labour.When some way on in his course, he also learned tocompose an essay or wen chang {q.v.) according tovery artificial rules of composition. Then poetrywas attempted.The youth next sat for two test, examinationswhich would qualify him to enter the contest for thedegree of bachelor hsiu ts'ai (q.v.). This last examinationwas held twice every three years in eachprefectural city, and lasted one day. If successful,he became nominally a servant of the State, mightwear official dress and could purchase from anofficial, or get by influence, some subordinate civil2)ost from which he might work his way upward.Or the bachelor might proceed with his studiesof the Fire Classics (q.v.), then sit for the master'sdegree, chii jen (q.v.). This examination was heldtriennially at the provincial caj^itals and lasted nine(lays. Accurate knowledge of the Four Books andFive Classics with considerable skill in composinges.say and poems wei'e required.There might be thousands of competitors, whileonly a few tens of passes were permitted.The successful candidates might then pass tothe triennial examination at Peking, for theDoctorate, chin shih, j[g j; advancing scholar.There might be some eight or nine thousandcandidates. A first examination was a repetition ofthe chii jen examination; it lasted three days, (notconsecutive), and was simply to select the three orfour hundred best scholars who might proceed tothe examination for the doctorate. But even thisnumber was reduced by a further preliminary examinationwhich lated only one day. Then camethe real examination for the degree. Successfulcandidates then sat for the examination calledtten shih, as being held within the palace; it lastedone day. The ten successful candidates at thehead of the list had special honour, being presentedto the Emperor, etc. ; the first three could leavethe palace by the central portal, while others mustuse the side doors ; they were entertained by the'Mayor of the capital ' 05^ shun t'ien, etc. ; thefirst of the three, and therefore the first scholar in.the empire in that examination was termedchuang yiian and became First-class compiler in theHan-lin Yiian.After this a further examination of the newdoctors was held, the best of them becomingMembers of the Han-lin, others secretaries, subprefects,etc., etc.With the opening of ports in 1842 a certainamount of western education was introduced by tbeProtestant missionaries, and increased in quantityand influence year by year. After the Tientsintreaty (1860) the need was evident for translatorsand interpreters, in order to carry out diplomaticintercourse with the various Treaty Powers, and in1862, the T'ung Wen Kuan ^ ^ ft was establishedin the capital for the training of official interpreters.In 1866 it was first called a College, science wasadded to the language curriculum, and in 1869,Dr. W. A. P. Martin was made President. Twoauxiliary schools were opened in Canton and Shanghai.After this various schools were opened, formechanical engineering at the Kiangnan Arsenal,for naval students at Foochow, etc., etc.Apart from these special foundations, the introductionof some mathematics into the public examinationswas a striking change, though it was amerely nominal improvement at first, in the absenceof capable teachers or examiners. The publicationof Chang Chth-tung's fJiPj^ Ch'iian hsiieh p'ienhad a very powerful effect on education. Seriousreforms began after the Boxer Outbreak. In 1903a Committee of Educational Affairs, ffk^& HsiiehWu Ch'u, was established, and developed in 1905into the Ministry of Education ^ ^ Hsiieh Pu.Detailed and far-reaching schemes were prepared,and some progress was being made when the Revolutionthrew all things into disorder. The Republichas been too much occupied and impoverishedto deal very effectively with education so far, Dutat least it is certain that the antiquated systemwhich had lasted too long is now swept away forever.P'iNG Wkn-kuo : Th-e Chinese System of PublicEducation ; Lkwis : 2^he Educational Conquest ofthe Far East; Etienne Zi, s.j.. Pratique des Examenslitteraires (Var. Sin., No. 5).EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF CHINA,The, was founded in May, 1890, by some teacherspresent at the General Missionary Conference heldthat year in Shanghai. The Conference had at itsdisposal the books, blocks, etc., of the School andText-book Series {q.v.) which had dissolved, and ithanded all over to the new Association. Thirty-fivemembers were enrolled. Seven triennial meetingswere held in Shanghai, the last taking place in 1912.During these 22 years, the Association publisheda considerable number of text-books, and did agood deal of terminological work, while the triennialmeetings were stimulating and helpful to. missionaryeducators. In 1912, the membership was over 500,but it was felt that a radical change in organization155

EGG BOATSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASociety, i.e., arranged in sMng, a comipoq name for China proper. Thewas necessary to meet th6 changed conditions in a circle, plus the centre. A secret sect said to haveChina. The sales had greatly declined, owing to been founded towards the close of the Ming dynastythe Chinese themselves having begun the publication by one Li Hsien-t'ien $^5^, or about the beginningof text-books, and foreign firms also coming in asof the Ch'ing dynasty by one Han Ku-TZiicompetitors ; while the great impetus given to ^t?-^. They may be one and the same, for EdkinsWestern education by the establishment of the considers the first name is an assumed one, LrRepublic, demanded that a more aggressive work representing Lao-Tzu (whose surname it was), andshould be done than was possible on the old lines. Hsien-t'ien the "former heaven," referring to theIn 1915, therefore, the Christian Educational AssociationFt; Hsi form of the Eight Diagrams as opposed toof China (q-v.) was formed, on the that of Wen Wang. The founder was a poorfoundation of the earlier Association.labourer to whom one of the Taoist genii in theThe Educational Association published (1) a guise of a mendicant monk gave a revelation of the"Monthly Bulletin," which (2) became in January, Great First Cause as f^^ or %^^^^, "the Unbegotten,"1908 the Monthly Educational Review and (3) thisor the "Unbegotten Venerable Mother" ;was made a quarterly in January, 1912.no thought of sex is included, guardianship orEGG BOATS. See Tanka.providence being the leading thought. The epithetsAll-Merciful, Most Holy, Highest, IncomparableEGGS. The export of eggs has become very etc., are used in speaking of the "Unbegotten,"important in China of late years, and in 1915 the and in various ways the idea approximates to thattotal exports exceeded Hk.Tls. 8,000,000. In 1914 of God as conceived by Christianity.a million and a quarter Taels worth of frozen eggs Li is supposed to have thus become an incarnationwere sent to Great Britain alone, and over doubleof the "Unbegotten," and he proceeded tothis value of fresh and preserved eggs were sent to develop his doctrine on the basis of the EightAsiatic ports. But the chief trade is in aFbumen Diagrams, choosing eight followers, one for eachand yolk, the value amounting to nearly five diagram, secretly to spread his religion.millions (half to Britain). This trade is confined The sect allied itself with political movementsto Tientsin, Kiaochow, and the Yangtze ports, at the time of the great Mohammedan rebellion inHankow having about a dozen albumen factories. Kashgaria, assisting the Emperor (K'ang Hsi) inThe preparation of albumen is merely an evaporatingcrushing the rebels. Li declined both office andprocess, requiring no chemicals or preserving money, seeking only toleration for his followers,materials—only cheap eggs and labour, which, which is said to have been informally given. Forespecially the former, are abundant. Dried albumen some reason, the meetings of the sect began to takeis used in cotton printing, also in the manufacture place at night, which was always a reproach in theof biscuits. The preserved yolk is chiefly used in eyes of others, as men and women joined in them.the preparation of glove leather (Wuhu Trade It seems certain that the Society . altered its aimsReport, 1899). Other uses of yolk are for leather and became anti-dynastic, though this was unknownbelting, and of albumen in photography. One picul not only to acolytes, but to the majority of members,of eggs makes 6^ catties of albumen and 35 catties who only regarded it as a religious organization.of yolk. 1,000 duck's eggs or 1,300 to 1,600 hens' The Society is one of the largest of secret sects,eggs are counted to one picul in weight.and is widely spread. The organization is simple.The albumen is churned and put into large The eight branches are again divided into fourhogsheads, where it ferments 'for a period ranging Military and four Civil, with different methods offrom five days to two weeks, according to the arriving at the desired results. There are threetemperature. The volatile constituents rise to the grades of officers who alone can receive newtop and the usable portion is drawn oE from the members. The meetings are held at the equinoxes,bottom, mixed with a little ammonia and evaporated solstices, and other fixed times ; contributions arein a special room in shallow pans by heating compulsory at the chief meetings. Religious exercises,through worm flues. The result is clear, transparent,of which^ deep breathing and the recitingamber sheets, which are cooled and ventilated,of charms are an important part, are followed byand placed in air-tight tins ready for export. a feast, and by a clairvoyant seance. Th« mediumPreserved eggs are an important item in the is known as gq flg, or the Clear-eyed One, and isfeast of the Chinese epicure.often a woman or girl, whose chief duty seems toIn 1916 the export was as follows. Egg be to scrutinize the life and heart of the membersalbumen and yolk, Pels. 288,346, Tls. 7,702,403; to detect insincerity or other unworthiness. A shorfcFresh and preserved. Pels. 535,134, Tls. 4,629,074. list of some of the literature of the Society is givenin the Chinese Becorder, 1886, p. 4.EIGHT DIAGRAMS. See Pa Kua.Chinese Recorder, 1886, pp. 1, 64, 245.EIGHT DIAGRAMS SOCIETY, A # or Nine EIGHTEEN PROVINCES -Y A^ shih paPalaces ;^^ the diagrams15()

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAELAPHUREprovinces tp « ^ Pei Chihli and Nan Chihli (or|Kiangnan), containing the northern and southernjthirteen t|« ^ fj S" or 'ambulatory' departments. 1As far as the territory (not the official rule) wasconcerned the Ming dynasty made no change, andthe names were the same as to-day, with theexception that it remained for the Ch'ing dynastyto constitute Kansu from part of Shensi, to makeKiangnan into Anhui and Kiangsu, and Hukuanginto Hupei and Hunan. This brought the numberto eighteen.Secret Societies often used the expressionTAe Thirteen Provinces for China because theysought to restore by revolution the old state ofthings.At one time (1905) a nineteenth was made bythe division of Kiangsu.To the eighteen provinces of China Propermust be added the three Manchurian provincesH^#, Shengking, Kirin and Hei-lung chiang.Besides the ordinary name each province hasanother, derived from ancient territorial nomenandused for literary purposes. Lists areIclature given in Giles' Dictionary, Mayers' Reader's^anunl and Richard's Geography. {See separatearticles).EIGHT IMMORTALS, THE, ^\^ pahsienare a group of eight who are venerated by theTaoist sect as having drunk the Elixir of Life orotherwise obtained immortality. Their names areChung-li Ch'uan, Chang Kuo, Lii Tung-pin, Ts'aoKuo-ch'iu, Li T'ieh-kuai, Han Hsiang-tzu, LanTs'ai-ho and Ho Hsien-ku, but the lists vary. Thelegends told of them may be found under theirnames in Mayers' Chinese Reader's Manual orin Giles' liiographical Dictionary or in Dore,Hexherches sur les Superstitions, tome IX. As agroup they are not mentioned before the Yuandynasty, though the individual legends are foundearlier.EIGHT-LEGGED ESSAY. See Wen chang.EITEL, ERNST JOHANN, Ph.D., studied inTubingen and, after a brief pastorate in a LutheranChurch, was sent to China by the Basel Mission in1862. In 1865 he joined the London Missionaryprovinces have varied in number, and have notalways been called sheiuj. Not to go back to moreancient times the empire in 629 a.d. (T'ang dynasty),had ten tao if, Kuan-nei gS ft,Ho-tung fBf -^,Ho-nanMl^. Ho-pei ?pI 4h, Shan-nan lU^, Lungyu1^ ;g-, Huai-nan ^H ]% Kiang-nan ^ ]g, Chieh-become Inspector of Schools iinder the HongkongSociety, and in 1879, he left missionary work tonan gij [^|,and Ling-nan ^ Government and private secretary to the Governor[ffT'Ai TsuNG of the Sung dynasty (976-998) (Sir John Pope Hennessy). He wrote a great deal,made fifteen In ^, Ching-tu Tung J^^^^M^ ChingtuH.«i ]^:^ffi,in German, Chinese and English, including HistoryHo-pei, Ho-tung, Shensi, Huainan^tifl',of the Hahhas, Three Lectures on Buddhism, Handbookfor the Student of Chinese Buddhism, ChineseHunan, Hu-pei, Fukien, Kiangnan,S«uch'uan, Kuangtung, Kuangsi and two Che-kiangs. Dictionary in the Canton Dialect, Feng shui, andThe present arrangement into sheng dates from Europe in China, the History of Hongkong; besidesthe Yvian dynasty, when, with the two metropolitan many articles in Reviews and Magazines. He was|also for many years editor of the China Review.He ended his life as a Lutheran pastor in Adelaide,Capitals Pei Ching (Peking) and Nan Ching S. Australia. He died in 1908. A complete list|(Nanking) respectively, there were instituted of his writings is given in the T'oung Pao.jT'ouNG Pao, vol. x ; Chinese Recorder, 1909.157ELAPHURE. Elaphuriis davidianus, a deerdiscovered by David and called by the ChineseSsu-pu-hsiang pg:^^, and often confused by themwith the rein-deer. Its habitat was the ImperialPark ^ ^, south of Peking. It is doubtfulwhether it was indigenous or brought by theManchus.It probably existed wild in the region southwestof Ko-ko nor, and perhaps also in EasternManchuria. A Manchu traveller, who wrote in 1777,records its existence in Tarbagat'ai 1^^ EL Dp la •The proper Chinese name for it is f|mi asproved by von Mollendorff in his paper citedbelow.David states that in 1865 he himself saw aherd of about 120 of these animals in the ImperialPark, but that it was extremely difficult to obtainone, because, as in England once, the penalty forkilling a deer was death. No doubt the Manchuguardians of the park killed and ate as they wished,but it was a different matter to sell any portionof the beast outside the grounds. Bushell statesthat he was accustomed to ride there among herdsof them, but that in 1894 the park wall was breachedby floods and the deer escaped, to be devoured bythe famished people. It is generally supposed tohave been killed out during the occupation byforeign troops in 1900.The colour is a reddish-grey, becoming moreor less brown in the male, and with blackish marblingin the summer. It drops its horns after thewinter solstice,and the young are born in May orJune. The animal has the feet of the reindeer,the horns of the deer, and the long tail of certainantelopes.No living specimens have been procurable inChina for some time, and the animal must be con-'sidered as extinct in a wild state; but the Duk*

ELDER BROTHER ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAof Bedford has about one hundred head in England.A female specimen may be seen in the Museum ofthe Koyal Asiatic Society (North China Branch)in Shanghai.Ssu-pu-hsiang means 'four dissimilarities' ; the(Chinese say it is not like the horse, not like theox, not like the deer and not like the goat. Butthere are other explanations of the name.David : Journal d'un Voyage en Mongolie,p. 44; VON MoLLENDORFF : Journal, N.C.B.B.A.S.,vol. xi, p. 72; Sowerby : ibid., vol. xlvii, p. 71;BusHELL : Notes and Queries on China and Japan,vol. iv, p. 29; Swinhoe : P.Z.S., 1870, p. 434;BusHELL : ibid., 1898, p. 588.ELDER BROTHER SOCIETY, ho lao huisecret brotherhood which had been"§ ^ "& • ^known for some time to exist, when three membershiptickets were found in 1886 on a man arrestedin Shanghai. The Yangtze valley riots in 1891 werebelieved to have been caused by Elder Brothers,the object being to embroil the Manchus with theforeign powers. An early origin is claimed for thecult in Ssuch'uan ; in its present form it datesfrom the beginning of the Manchu rule, but whileanti-dynastic it was pro-T'ang and not pro-Ming.The Society builds itself on three famousfriendships recorded in Chinese annals, and eachmember calls the others "Brother." There is anelaborate ritual, a system of secret signs with manygrades of membership, and there is said to be aconsiderable resemblance to Freemasonry. TheSociety, which consists of eight guilds, early dividedinto East and West, the latter being the stronger,especially in Ssuch'uan, Kansu and Shensi. In1900 they became mere bandits, and in 1911, gettingthe upper hand of the Revolutionaries, with whomthey had allied themselves, they were responsible forthe massacre of at least 10,000 Manchus in Hsi-anfu, as well as of some of the missionaries. SeeSecret Sects.ELEEPOO, another way of writing Ilipxt ;used by Davis and others. See Ilipu.ELEGIES OF CH'U, ^ |^ (7A'« tz'u, a collectionof the poetry of the Ch'u State, consistingchiefly of the poems of Ca'ii Yuan, including hisfamous Li Sao. The style of writing is unique,on account both of the time and the country. Manyeditions have been issued, including one by ChtjHsr. See Ch'ii Yiian; Li Sao.Wylie : Notes on Chinese Literature.ELEPHANTIASIS, a diseaseapparently connectedwith the presence of Filaria bancrofti. Asa rule the leg or legs become swollen, perhaps tomany times the natural size. See Jefferys andMaxwell, Diseases of China.ELEUTHS, also called Oliut Mongols or OlothMongols ; the meaning of the name probably being'separated.' They are western hordes, inhabitingthe country from the Selenga and Orkhon sourcesto the T'ien shan ^ \\i and Upper Irtish. Theyare divided into four branches, the best-known beingthe Turgut branch, which, two centuries ago,carried their conquests arid migrations to the Volga.The horde of which De Quincey wrote his famousdescription was the Turgut branch of Eleuths.Yule : note in Prjevalsly's Mongolia, vol. i,p. 231 ; RocKHiLL ; Diary of a Journey in Mongolia,etc. ; HowoRTH : History of the Mongols.ELGIN, LORD, Earl of Elgin and Kincardine,was appointed by the British Government as HighCommissioner and Plenipotentiary when the SecondWar {q.v.) began; he reached Hongkong on July 2,1857. His action was hindered, first by thenecessity of diverting soldiers to India, where theMutiny had broken out, then by the lateness ofthe arrival of Baron Gros and the French forces.It was too late to proceed north, so Canton wasstormed and the Commissioner Yeh seized and sentto Calcutta. The forces then went north and tookthe Taku forts, with the result that the Treaty ofTientsin was signed by Lord Elgin on June 26,1868. After a visit to Japan he left Shanghai onNovember 8 to select the three ports on the Yangtzewhich were to be opened to foreign trade. Hethen left Hongkong on March 4, 1859, met inCeylon his brother the Hon. F.W.A. Bruce, the newenvoy to China, bearing the ratification of thetreaty, and reached London on May 19. As wasnatural since most of the foreign trade was British,the lead in the negotiations had been given to LordElgin; his policy served British interests well,while he spoke truly in saying 'I have been China'sfriend in all this.'When Bruce, proceeding to Peking for theratification of the treaty, found the Pei-ho blockedand was repulsed in the attack on the Taku forts.Lord Elgin was sent out as Ambassador-extraordinary.He, with Baron Gros, the FrenchAmbassador, reached Hongkong on June 21, 1860,after being wrecked at Point de Galle and losingall their effects. They then joined their forces, theBritish being at Talien wan and the French atChefoo. In the advance to Peking, in the midstof negotiations, Paekes and others were treacherouslyseized and imprisoned, a number of the partydying of their ill-treatment. The Anting gate atPeking was opened to the Ambassadors after theyhad threatened force. Lord Elgin gave orders forthe destruction of the Yiian Ming Yiian, whichhad been already looted by the French troops,as a punishment for the treachery and brutalityused to the Parkes party. The Convention ofir)8

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAELLIOT, CHARLESProtectorate, (1905) ; Letters from the Far East,Peking was then signed on October 24, 1860, and the(1890) ; Turkey in Eurupr, (1900) The East Africa ; though the natives were willing to sell, till Elliotratifications of the Tientsin Treaty of 1858 were (1907) ; with many papers on Marine Zoology.exchanged.ELLIOT, CHARLES, not to be confoundedHe died as Governor General of India in 1863.with his cousin Admiral George Elliot, was a nephewof the first Earl of Minto, and was born in 1801.ELiAS, NEY, was born in Kent on February10, 1844. He became a Fellow of the Royal He entered the Royal Navy in 1815, and attainedGeographical Society in 1865, and studied under post rank in 1828, after which he was not on activethe Society's instructors. In 1866 he went to naval service but spent two years in British GuianaShanghai in connection with a mercantile house, as Protector of Slaves. In 1834 he was sent toand in 1868 volunteered to explore the old and China with Lord Napier {q.v.) as Master-attendantnew courses of the Yellow River j the account of' to the Commission. On the resignation of J. F.the expedition was published in the journals namedbelow.Davis he was made Third Superintendent in 1835,and in the same year, on the resignation of Astell,In 1872 he made a difficult and dangerous he became Second Superintendent. In June, 1836,journey across the Gobi Desert ; the results were he became Chief Superintendent, though nominallygiven in a paper to the Royal Geographical Society. this office was abolished. At first his troubles wereHe received the founder's Gold medal, and his in getting, into direct communication with theservices were retained by the Indian Government. Viceroy, but soon the question of the opium tradeHe was second in command of the overland became all-important. The trade was expandingmission to China which turned back because of and there was an enormous amount of smuggling,Margary's murder. He afterwards did a good and Elliot was regarded as responsible for all.deal of travel in Turkestan, Afghanistan, etc., and The situation began to be acute in 1837, and in 1839retired from the service in November, 1896. Hethe crisis came with the appointment of CommissionerLin. Immediately, foreigners were ordereddied in London, May 30, 1897. He was madeCLE. in 1888, but never accepted the honour.to surrender all opium and were meanwhile forbiddenMost of his writings are in the secret archivesto leave Canton. At great personal riskof the Indian Government; those published and Elliot at once went to Canton and demandedhaving reference to China are The New Bed of theliberty for the foreigners ; but in a few days, onYellow River, Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., 1869; Notes March 27, 1839, he found himself under theof a Journey to the New Covrse of the Yellow necessity of delivering up to the Chinese all theRiver, R. Geog. See. Journal, 1870; A Journey opium in the hands of British subjects. He refusedthrough. Western Montjolia, ibid., 1873; Visit to however to sign the bond promising that opiumthe Valley of the Shueli in Western Yunnan, should never again be brought, and he ordered allibid, xlvi ; Introductory Sketch of the History of the British to leave Canton ; he left with the lastthe Shans in Upper Burma and Western Yunnan, of them on May 24. The Chinese were then willingCalcutta, 1876.to resume trade, but Elliot gave orders that[Wheeler] : Dictionary of National Biography.ELIOT, CHARLES NORTON EDGECUMBE,Sir, was born in 1864, and educated at CheltenhamBritish ships should not proceed to Canton, pendinginstructions from England!Trouble was precipitated by a drunken riot atand at Balliol College, Oxford, where he took Kowloon by British and possibly American sailors,many honours. He was 3rd Secretary to the in which a Chinese, Lin Wei-hsi, was killed.Embassy at St. Petersburg from 1888 to 1892; Elliot tried and sentenced to fine and imprisonmentfive sailors who took part in the riot, butwas at Constantinople from 1893 to 1898; wasCharge d'affaires in Morocco in 1892 and 1893 ;was could not find the man or men to whom the deathin Bulgaria, 1895, and Servia, 1897 ; was Secretary was due. The Chinese were dissatisfied and soughtto the British Embassy at Washington in 1898, to cut off all supplies from British ships, besidesBritish High Commissioner at Samoa in 1899 ; Commissionerordering all compradores, servants, etc., to leaveand Commander-in-chief for the British British employ. The Governor of Macao wasEast Africa Protectorate, Agent and Consul-General called on to expel all English merchants and theirat Zanzibar from 1900 to 1904. He then resigned families, and they all departed in haste for Hongkongand became Vice-Chancellor of the Sheffieldin all sorts of vessels.University. In 1912, he became the first Principal In this time of anxiety the British were withoutof the Hongkong University. He was made C.B.any gun-boat for their protection; and theirin 1898, and K.C.M.G. in 1900. He is known as a fears were much increased by the Black Joke affairlinguist and as a student of Buddhism.(q.v.). War junks hindered the British on theirHis published works are A Finnish Grammar, ships from provisioning at Kowloon and Hongkong,I159

.MaillotELLIOT, GEORGEENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNICAlost his temper and opened fire on the junks fromH.M.S. Volage which had arrived on August 31.Insistent demands were made for the murdererof Lin Wei-hsi, a most peremptory one being senton October 25, with an order that the British shipsshould either enter the river or else sail away, underpenalty of complete destruction by fire. Elliot inreply sent the Volage (28 guns) and the Hyacinth(20 guns) for the protection of the merchant shipping.Twenty-nine war junks advanced, apparentlyto attack, but offering to withdraw if Lin Wei-hsi'smurderer were produced. In self-defence theEnglish opened fire, destroyed four junks anddamaged the rest : this was the beginning of theFirst War, wrongly called the Opium War.By June, 1840, war-vessels and transports arrived; and the blockade of the Canton river wasestablished. Admiral the Honourable GeorgeElliot, cousin of Charles, brought a commissionwhich appointed himself and Captain CharlesElliot respectively as first and second Commissioner,procurator and plenipotentiary.The two went north and reached Tinghai inChusan on July 6; it had been occupied byCommodore Bremer the day before. Theyestablished a blockade of Ningpo and the Yangtzemouth, and went to the Pei-ho. Two months were.spent in negotiations through Kishen; the plenipotentiariesreached Macao on November 20.Three days later Captain Charles Elliot becamesole plenipotentiary through the resignation of theAdmiral. Negotiations with Kishen at Cantonwere begun and were broken off on the question ofceding Hongkong. Elliot however, after the longexperience of merchants and their families livingon ships with no base for trade, was firm ; heproceeded to take the forts at Chuenpi andTaikoktow outside the Bogue on January 7, 1841 :next day negotiations were resumed.The Convention of Chuenpi (q.v.) resulted, bywhich Hongkong was ceded ; six millions of dollarsagreed on as indemnity to the British; and officialintercourse allowed on a footing of equality. Thiswas promptly disavowed by the British governmentas being altogether inadequate and contrary toinstructions given; Elliot was recalled and SirHenry Pottinger succeeded him.Morse : Inter?iational Relations of the ChineseEmpire; Eames : The English in China.ELLIOT, GEORGE, the Hon., Rear- Admiral.See Elliot, Charles.EMBASSIES. The following complete list ofembassies from European powers to China is byPere L. Pfister.1521.—First Portuguese embassy, Thomas Pmfes,sent by King Don Emmanttel. It was unsuccessfnland Fires was cast into prison.1655.—First Dutch embassy, Pierre de Goyer andJacques de Keyser, sent by the DutchIndia Company to Shun Chih. (They seemto have been received in the Throne Hall).1656.—First Russian embassy.1661.—Second Dutch embassy, I. V. Cami'EN andC. Nobel, sent to Shun Chih by the DutchIndia Company.1664.—Third Dutch embassy, Pierre van Hoorn,sent to Shun Chih by the Company.1670.—Second Portuguese embassy, Don MangelDE Saldagna, sent to K'ang Hsi byAlphonso VI.1676.—Second Russian embassy, sent to K'ang Hsi.It had been twice refused admittance.1689.—Third Ru.«sian embassy, Feodor A. Golowin,sent to K'ang Hsi by the Regent Sophia,for the delimitation of the frontier.1693.—Fourth Russian embassy, Isbrants-Ides,sent to K'ang Hsi by Peter the Great.1705.—First Papal embassy, the Patriarch Thomasde Tournon, sent by Pope ClementXI, to arrange the question of rites.1715.—-Fifth Russian embassy, Thomas Golwinand Laurent Lange, sent to K'ang Hsi byPeter the Great.1719.—Sixth Russian embassy, Leon WassiliowitchIsmailow, sent to K'ang Hsi by Peter theGreat. Lange remained in Peking as Agentof the Russian Mission, {v. sup., 1715).1720.—Second Papal embassy, the Patriarch Mez-.zabarba, sent to K'ang Hsi by Clement XI.1725.—Third Papal embassy. Fathers Carmes,GoTHARD and Ildephonse sent to YungCheng by Pope Benedict XIII.1726.—Third Portuguese embassy, Don AlexandreMetello de Souza y Meneses, sent by KingJohn V to Yung Cheng.1726.—Seventh Russian embassy. Count SawaWladislam^itch Ragousinski, sent to YungCheng by Catherine I.1753.—Fourth Portuguese embassy, Don FRAN901SXavier Assis Pacheco y Sampayo, sent toCh'ien Lung by Joseph I.1767.—^Eighth Russian embassy, Krapoytow, sentto Ch'ien Lung by Catherine II.1793.—^First British embassy. Lord Macartney,sent to Ch'ien Lung by George III.1794.—Fourth Dutch embassy, Titsingh, sent toCh'ien Lung by the Dutch Republic.1805.—Ninth Russian embassy. Counts Golowkinand PoTOCKi, sent to Chia Ch'ing byAlexander I.1808.—Tenth Russian embassy, sent to Chia Ch'ingby Alexander I.1816. —Second British embassy. Lord Amherst, .«eiitto Chu Ch'ing by George III160

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAEMBROIDERY1820.—Eleventh Russian embassy, Timowsky, sentby Alexander I.It will be seen from this list that France,Austria and Spain have sent no embassies to Peking.Havbet : La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fou,ii, p. 225, note; K., Audiences granted to WesternEnvoys, in China Review, vol. iii, p. 67; Jamieson :The TribtUary Nations of China, ibid., vol. xii,p. 94.EMBERIZINAE.a Sub -family of Frimjillidae,comprising the Buntings. The following speciesare known in China.Plectro-phenux nivalis, in Chihli occasionally inwinter. Calcarius lapponicus, common in theNorth to the valley of the Yangtze. Emberizapasserina, common in northern provinces. E.pyrrhidina and E. continental is, N. China to valleyof Yangtze. E. elegans, Chihli to Fukien and atMu-p'in. E. pusilla, the Little Bunting, throughoutChina in winter. E. rustica, found in winter tothe valley of the Yangtze, and even as far southas Fukien. E. fucata, the Grey-headed Bunting,throughout China. E. chrysophrys, common in thenorth in migration; E. tristrami, Chihli to Fukienin winter. E. godlewskii, the Eastern Mea

jJEMBROIDERYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAEmbroidery is essentially a personal art andrequires so little appafl-atus as to render it the|most accessible and commonly practised of all art\crafts. This fact alone, making for keen competition,tends toward a comparatively high degreeof excellence. Considered as an art of expression,apart from its decoorative value, embroidery:has its own particular virtue, cea-tain textiles|and surfaces in Chinese work, such as the plumageof a bird and the colour and surfaces of flowers,being rendered by the needle with a beauty and !ti'uth beyond the ordinary range of pictorial art.In the retinue of beauty, among her sister artsof design, embroidery holds a special place.DESIGN. So soon as, by the observation ofbeauty and incident, certain superior workersfound that art did not consist in the imitation ofnature, real designs would be evolved, and, asthese became repeated, they would be stored upin the memory and transmitted to the next generationto be finally recorded in books. Such bookshave been available in China certainly as early asthe Sung dynasty (960-1279 a.d.). Later therewere books for the special use of embroiderers, withwoodcuts of conventional designs and decorativeschemes. The Chinese are indebted to plants,flowers, and fruits for many of their best designs.That these are rarely a mere imitation of theoriginal shows the Chinese to be good designers,for natural forms are only of real value for designafter they have passed through the artist's brain.The peach, peony, pomegranate, narcissus andlotus are treated so as to be full of rhythmicvitality and in keeping with the best conventionaland aesthetic ornament. They appear Co have theright perception of what detail to suppress andwhat to retain. They appreciate the worth ofsimplicity in ornament and know the value ofan empty space. They practise restraint in decorativedesign. If one takes a good piece of handwovenwork or embroidery, it is seldom that anypart of the decoration can be removed withoutsacrificing the general effect.As a rule Chinese design in textile work isvery conventional and there is little growth, thepleasing effect being obtained by good arrangementand colour. Their figures are drawn with vigourbut the details, such as hands and feet, are usuallyincorrect. In some cases, especially wherethe elements of decoration are symbolic, they arescattered without apparent design, the pleasingresult being due to colour and the use of goldthread. In the matter of background the Chineseappear to have a passion for restless motives.While, in Europe, it is a generally recognisedprinciple of design that the background shouldserve to show up the subject to the greatest advantageand not detract from it by asserting itselfin any way, in China it is often necessary toscrutinize a piece of work to find out which isthe principal subject and which is secondarymatter. Thus, in the coat badges {p'u tzu) thebackground frequently consists of recurrent curvedcloud and wave forms suggesting continuousmotion : this would be considered wrong by aEuropean designer but, in China, by frequentacquaintance, especially with the virtues of theChinese fret, it produces a result giving completeartistic satisfaction.Recurrence in art expresses repose and is frequentlyused for border patterns, in which theChinese are past masters. A border is required togive a sense of completeness. The elements used forborder decoration are chiefly drawn from the keypattern and the svastika with its numerous modifications; from bats usually alternated with a writtencharacter such as shou ^ or hsi'^, floral scrolls,dragons and birds. A corner will nearly always befound treated in a satisfactory manner by theChinese as they are quite at home with geometricalpatterns—the Chinese appear to have used theGrecian fret before the Greeks.The Chinese make a quite special use of wingedcreatures in textile ornament. Birds, bats andbutterflies may be considered the particular decorationof Chinese embroidery and hand-woven work.Butterflies are worked with marvellous nicety andwonderful vitality. There is no slavish imitationof nature and these insect forms are idealised ina beautiful way. The bat is perhaps the mostfrequently used of all elements of decoration partlybecause of the beauty of the idealised animal andalso because it is the emblem of happiness. Birdsare drawn with admirable spirit and spontaneity.In the use of cloud and wave forms the Chineseapproach perfection, as may be seen in the fineCh'ien Lvru/ tapestries, in which also some amazinglygood work is got in on the dragon and phoenixm.otives. In dealing with designs used in Chinesetextile ornament an important point to note istheir antiquity. The embellishment of silk wasone of the earliest art crafts and the decorationinvented for this purpose has been repeated inother arts. The comparatively modern arts ofporcelain manufacture and enamelling on metalsfound in the old embroideries and brocades thechief inspiration for their patterns, most of whichwere copied with little modification from the oldertextile art. The examination of embroideries andwoven work will in a large pi'oportion of cases showhow beautiful a factor of ornament in Chinese artis the written character.COLOUR. Colour is the chief charm ofChinese art textile work. Even where the designis weak, the glorious massing of colour capturesthe eye and brings complete satisfaction. In the162

!theIandIIskilljtheIknotENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAEMBROIDERYsame manner the large use of gold thread bothin embroidery and woven work, much increasesthe richness of the effect. Many of these richlywrought fabrics sliow an oriental splendour, whichthe occidental appreciates more when they aretoned down by considerable fading. In the Eastthere is a craving for brilliant colour doubtlessdue to the intensification of the rainbow huesof life. When new, the colours are a trifle flamboyantsometimes ;but it is more than probablethat the Chinese, with their reverence for age,think beyond the present and purposely make theoriginal colours too bright in order that the finalresult after years of mellowing may be the moreperfect. They certainly have this in view inpainting pictures.In embroidery we look for colour in massrather than line work. In Chinese embroiderythe colour schemes are most brilliant, the bluesbeing especially good and satisfactory, the yellowsand oranges less so. The colours are usually highin tone and harmonize well in most cases. Theyhave the .effect of making our low-toned Westernwork appear very subdued by comparison.By the use of French knot far filling in formsthe Chinese obtain the fullest colour value, the tintbeing reflected from the depths of the projectingknots and producing a very deep and intenseeffect unattainable by other means. Satin stitchworked with floss silk gives very pure and livelyflat colour effect and shading. The colours in allthe best embroideries and woven work appear tobe vegetable in origin. The pure blue was derivedfrom indigo, the reds and yellows from safflower :the scarlets from madder.INIETHOD OF WORKING AND MATERI-ALS. The materials used in Chinese embroideryai-e floss silk, gold thread and a tightly twistedvariety of silk like English purse silk. The floss.silk is an untwisted glossy silk which is used forfilling spaces, producing a lively effect of lightand shade when the direction of the stitch ischanged. It is also used for shading, at whichthe Chinese are particularly clever, formalisingtheir work in a way which is ve

EMIGRATIONENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAEMIGRATION.In the Western sense of theterm emigration can hardly be said to exist for theChinese. Ancestral worship and the custom of theentire family assembling at stated times make itgenerally impossible for Chinese to go abroad withthe intention of settling there. Besides this, informer times the Chinese laws forbade a native toleave China : the offender was liable to death if hereturned and the crime might be visited on hisfamily left behind. Yet for centuries Chinese haveleft their country, especially coolies from the southernprovinces. The officials are, however, to-daygenerally opposed to any new exjieriments in contractedcoolie labour. An attempt was made toship coolies from Shanghai to Mexico, but at thelast moment the officials forbade it. At Ningpo asimilar experiment ended in the coolies being fetchedback from Singapore. Futile attempts have alsobeen made at sending coolie labour from Foochowto California.In 1902 the French made an unprofitableventure with coolies sent to Madagascar.On the other hand there is a constant stream ofthese so-called emigrants to districts they have longbeen in touch with. For many years a hundredthousand or more have gone annually from Swatowto Siam and the Straits, and though 75 per cent,return it is calculated there are three million abroad.Even larger numbers go frcm Canton. From Kongmoonlarge numbers go every year, even to Americaand Australia, some four million Mexican dollarsbeing the annual sum sent home or brought by them.Thousands go from Samshui to Australia each year,and from Kiungchow thirty thousand a year go toSingapore.Emigration of Chinese to the United States hasbeen the most difficult problem to arise between thetwo countries. In spite of the law large numberswent abroad in the nineteenth century as cooliesto Peru, Chile, Cuba and elsewhere. (SeeCoolie Trade). From these countries, where theirtreatment was shameful, large numbers found theirway to California, and many more came there directfrom China. In 1870 the census shewed there wereabout 55,000 Chinese in the States, nearly all westof the Rocky Mountains.By the Burlingame Treaty of 1868 the right ofvoluntary emigration was recognized. It was notlong however before American labour became angryand at Los Angeles in October, 1871, slew 15 of thesevoluntary immigrants. Other affairs of the samekind took place along the coast. In 1876 a committeewas appointed by both Houses of Congress tostudy the problem, and in 1879 Congress sought toviolate the Burlingame treaty by restricting, almostto the point of excluding, Chinese immigration.The President, Hayes, vetoed the bill, but he sentthree commissioners to Peking who were able tomake a new treaty (November 17. 1880), allowingthe States to limit or suspend to a reasonable extent'the immigration of Chinese labour but not to prohibitit.Chinese students and merchants were stillto be allowed free ingress. In 1882 Congresspassed an act supposed to be founded en this treaty,prohibiting all further entry of Chinese labour fortwenty years. President Arthur promptly vetoedthis ^s not being justifiable under the treaty.It seems somewhat amusing to find that the restrictionwas then reduced to a term of ten yearsonly, from 1882, and then, in 1892, continued forten years further : it is easier to sin by instalments.During the first ten years many difficulties arose.For example, labourers already in the States wereallowed to visit China and return to their work;but in spite of certificates it was often one cooliewho went and another who came. There was alsoextensive smuggling of Chinese labourers over theCanadian border.Stricter regulations were put in force in 1884,but the feeling against Chinese became such thatin 1885 there was an atrocious massacre of themin Wyoming, followed by others at various pointson the Pacific coast.The Geary Act, May 5, 1892, was entitledAn Act to prohibit the coming of Chinese personsinto the United States. Supplementary legislationrequired that duplicate photographs of all Chinesein the country should be filed with governmentofficers for the purpose of identification.Another effort was made in 1894, not to passlaws in accord with treaties but to make treatiessuit the laws. A new treaty in that year debarredall Chinese labourers from entering the States, exceptreturning coolies who had lawful wives and familiesin thft States, or $1,000; this prohibition being tolast for ten years with a possible prolongation.One of the objections against the Chinese isthat they do not become citizens of the UnitedStates ;yet at the same time the law forbids theirbeing naturalized.There have been similar difficulties connectedwith emigration to Canada and to Australia; butthe numbers have been smaller and there have beenno acute political ti'cubles arising from the question.There are only 35,000 Chinese in Australia, and thenumbers are kept down by a heavy poll-tax. Inthe United States there are 150,000 Chinese.EMMANUEL MEDICAL MISSION.Headquarters :—Glasgow, Scotland.Works at Nanning [^ ^ in Kuangsi, with threemissionaries in 1916.EMOUI, the French way of writing Amoy.See Amny.EMPEROR. The emperor was called Uua7igTi or Huang Shang ^ ^ or Jt J:. A title ofrespect was T'ien Tzu ^ -J" Son of Heaven, and a164

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAENGLISH BAPTIST MISSIONpopular title was 'The present-day Buddha' •^ 4-^ B{'I'c-n'j chin Fo yeh).The Empress was called Huang Hon ^ J^.and her title of respect was Mother of the Stateg -Q: Kuo mu. See Inijjerial Titles.EMPEROR'S MERCHANT, THE. See Cohong.ENAMEL, called by Chinese fa Ian ^ |||,IS a vitreous glaze fused to a metallic surface. Thename fa Ian is said by some to mean Frank orB'rance. The Chinese ascribe the introduction ofthe art to the Arabs, but some authorities believeit also came overland. The time appears to havebeen in the Yiian dynasty. There are three kindsof enamel-work—cloisonne enamels, (see Cloisonne),champleve, and painted enamels. In champleveenamels the cell walls inclosing the enamel coloursare actually imbedded in the metal foundation.Painted enamels on copper are usually known asyang tz'u J^i |^, foreign porcelain ; those on porcelainare called yang ts'ai # $^. (The first Chinesepainted enamels were copies of foreign enamels andof foreign porcelain). Painted Cantonese enamelwas made for the Persian, Siamese and Armenianmarket. No important copper painted enamelshave been made since the Ch'ien Lung period.BuSHELL : Chinese Art.ENCYCLOPAEDIAS. The Chinese have noworks corre.sponding to the Western encyclopaedias.They have, however, a very important class of bookscalled Lei -ihu^ ^, in which subjects are placedunder cat-egories (lei) and illustrated by extractsfrom various authors who have written on thesubjects. For these works see Lei shu.ENGLISH BAPTIST MISSION.IIcad«iuarters :—London.Entered China, 1845.Works in Shantung, Shansi and Shensi.Shortly after the opening of the five TreatyJ'orts, two English Baptist Missionaries were sentout to China, reaching Ningpo in 1845; but in afew years it was found necessary to hand over thework to others.In 1859, another start was made at Chefoo, andin the course of sixteen years, eight agents weresent out. The work was hard, the results weresmall, and in 1875, only one worker (the Rev.Timothy Richard) remained. In that year thework at Chefoo was handed over to the UnitedPresbyterian Mission of Scotland.Shantung Mission.—This mission, as at presentconstituted, dates from the year 1875, when Mr.Richard chose Ch'ing-chou ^ ^i, 250 miles W.of Chefoo, as his new station. He adopted as hispolicy,-, "the offering of the Gospel in the firstplace to the worthy," being led to do this bya sermon of the celebrated Edward Irving. Thisline of procedure brought him into touch with aconsiderable number of followers of the secret sects,numerous in Mid-Shantung, some of whom afterwardsproved to be very staunch and satisfactoryconverts.In 1876, Mr. Richard was joined by the Rev.A. G. Jones. These two devoted men were sooncalled- upon to distribute famine relief ; and withChinese assistance they ministered to 70,000 persons ;but before long, Mr. Richard went to Shansi toassist in distributing relief funds in that still morestricken province, while Mr. Jones was left alonewith the work in Ch'ing-chou fu. At one time hehad six hundred orphans on his hands.The popularity caused by famine relief wasbut short-lived; Mr. Jones met with grievousopposition and persecution, his water-supply beingpoisoned, and himself threatened with stoning, andfor some time he was virtually a prisoner. Reinforcementsarrived in the early eighties, and in1887, a Theological Training School was openedunder the Rev. J. S. Whitewright, and a Boys'High School under Rev. S. Couling.The Theological Training School was expandedinto the Gotch-Robinson College in 1893, and inthe same year a new Boys' High School was built.Both these institutions were merged in 1904 intothe Shantung Protestant University (q.v.)In connection with the Theological TrainingSchool, a small collection of interesting objects wasearly made for the enlightenment of the students,who also used them as a means of attracting outsiders.The result was so satisfactory that thecollection was developed into a Museum (built 1893),and this branch of the work broke down a greatdeal of opposition to Christianity, and becamewidely known through the province.In 1888 the county town of Tsou-p'ing ^ 2pwas opened, and from here evangelistic work wasbegun over fourteen counties; three-quarters ofthe district lies in a region subject to Yellow Riverfloods, and is veiy poor ; but in less than ten yearsthere was a membership of 2,000. Tsou-p'ing asa foreign-manned station was closed in 1915, thelarge mart of Chou-ts'un j^ ;fj, 8 miles distant,which had been opened in 1903, taking its place.In 1900, owing to the firmness of H.E. YuanShih-k'ai, then Acting-Governor of the province.Shantung came off lightly compared with someother provinces ; nevertheless 130 Christians suffereddeath in the Tsou-p'ing field, and many more Hadtheir homes destroyed. Since that date, developmentshave been many in all departments of thework.As a basis for work north of the Yellow River,Pei Chen ^b^ in fl^M Pu-t'ai, was opened in 1903.In 1904, in connection with the opening of theShantung Protestant University (q.v.), two mission-165

I1891-2,ENGLISH BAPTIST MISSIONENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAaries and their wives were sent to jjil H^ Wei hsien,40 miles east of Ch'ing-chou fu, to teach in theArts College 5 and in the same year, Tsi-nan fu,the capital of the province, was at length occupied,though intermittent attempts had been made tothis end from the earliest days of the Mission.Here was built shortly after, in connection with theUniversity, the Union Medical College (opened1910), with hospital (opened 1915). The Tsi-nanInstitute (q.v.) was built in 1906.In 1913 it was decided to move both the ArtsCollege at Wei hsien and the Theological Collegeat Ch'ing-chou to Tsi-nan, and building was begunin 1915, to be completed in 1917.The Shantung Mission in 1916 reports 4Associations, eighteen pastors all supported by thenative chtirch, and an evangelistic committee offoreigners and Chinese in equal numbers.Shansi Mission.—Dr. Richard, with relief funds,the capital of thereached T'ai-yiian fu ^Jg;^,province, in 1877, side by side with the C.I.M.,two of whose members, the Revs J. J. Turner andF. H. James, were afterwards transferred to theBaptist Mission. Opium-smoking was fearfullyprevalent, and success came more slowly than inShantung, for after 13 years' work, there were only30 converts.Dr. Richard was one of the first missionariesto aim at directly influencing the mandarinate, andfor 3 years he gave monthly limelight lanternlectures, then a great wonder, to the many expectantofficials and others, on all manner of subjects.Evangeli.stic work was also systematically carriedon in the neighbouring counties, and small dayschoolsopened. The Mission was reinforced in theeighties by 7 workers; Hsin Chou ^ff^ was openedin 1885, and Tai Chou f^ ^ in 1892. Just beforethe Boxer outbreak, the membership in Shansi was256, with 150 scholars in elementary schools.In 1900 every E.B.M. missionary on the fieldin Shansi suffered death by order of Governor YiiHsien. (See Dr. Edwards' Fire and Sword inShansi. Of converts 120 were killed, and all wereshockingly persecuted, and Mission property wasdestroyed. In reconstruction after 1900 Dr. MoiRDdncan took a leading part. The premises werepartly rebuilt by the Chinese Government, and theChinese Christians gave one-tenth of their indemnityto rebuild chapels.Dr. Richard, then working in Shanghai, alsomediated between the Government and the ProtestantMissions which had suffered loss, urging theestablishment of a University, with Chinese andWestern faculties, in lieu of indemnities. Thusarose Shansi University- (

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA ENGLISH PRESBYTERIANRed Cross work was done impartially for Imperialists,Revolutionaries, Ko-lao Hui men, and civilians,which won the gratitude of the Chinese governmentas well as of the local officials and people, andopened many new doors of usefulness.The Shensi Misssion has a remarkable problemto deal with, in that it works not only among thenatives of Shensi, but also among immigrants fromShantung, Hupei and Ssuch'uan, who, owing to theclannish ness of the Chinese, are very difficult tocombine in one organization. It is also remarkablefor the large measure of self-support attained, thestrong initiative of the native churches, and for thelarge number of foreign workers who have died, inthe midst of usefulness and honour.The liaptii^t Zenana Mission has been workingin ( 'hina in connection with the General Society since1893. It has agents in all three of the abovementionedprovinces ; but the statistics of thisauxiliary are included in those of the olderorganization.Statistics 1915-16.Foreign workers 129Native workers 201Organized Congregations 283Communicants 7,875ENGLISH PRESBYTERIAN MISSION.Headquarters :—London, England.Entered China, 1847.Works in Fukien, Kuangtung and in Formosa.Amoy Mission.—The Rev. W. C. Burns wasthe first missionary of the Society. He reachedChina in 1847, and with his colleague, Dr. JamesH. Young, worked in Hongkong and Canton forsome years, after which they removed to Amoy,where the Dutch Reformed Church of America,and the London Missionary Society were alreadyworking.In 1863, the first. Presbytery in China wasconstituted as a union of the converts of the DutchReformed and Engli.sh Presbyterian Missions, whichare of the same faith and order.In 1866 work was begun at Ch'uan-chou fu^MJff (Chin-chew fu), 60 miles from Amoy, wherelong and persistent opposition on the part ofofficials and gentry was experienced. This was thefirst inland station of the E.P.M. A Hospital wasopened in 1881.In 1914 "Westminster College School" wasestablished in place of the Boys' Middle School,which, with a Girls' School, had been begun earlyin the station's history.Evangelistic work was begun at Chang-pu i^\§in 1880, and a hospital was started in 1889. It hasBoys', Girls' and Women's Schools.Eng-chhun ^j^ ^ was opened in 1890, and ahospital was built about 1894, which Js the officialOpium Refuge.In 1881 the Amoy presbytery was divided intotwo and a Synod organized in 1894.A Theological College was opened in Amoy asearly as 1866, and a middle school was addeu alittle later. After a time the former was made aUnion Institution for the two Presbyterian Missions,the Dutch Reformed undertaking the Middle Schoolwork for both.The Middle School became known as theTai,mage College in 1914 and works for all threeMissions operating in Amoy.The Anglo-Chinese College is a union effort ofthe E.P.M. and L.M.S.The Swatow Mission works from three centres,Swatow, Chao-chou fu and Suabue.The work was begun in 1856 by Mr. Burnstaking up the threads of what had been done byPastor Lechler of the Basel Mission, who hadbeen compelled to leave in 1852.In addition to evangelistic work a hospital wasopened in 1863, a Girls' Boarding School in 1873,a Theological college in 1874, and Boys' BoardingSchool in 1876. At first all "instruction was givenin the vernacular, but in 1905-6 an Anglo-ChineseCollege was opened, teaching both in English andin Chinese. It was largely built by local subscriptionsand both Christian and non-Christian studentswere admitted.A small printing press was established in 1881,to work in the romanized colloquial.Swatow Presbytery was formed in 1881, andat first included the Churches in Hakkaland, butin 1900 it was divided into two, and a Synodestablished. Swatow Hospital has been repeatedlyrebuilt. In 1915 the accommodation was greatlyincreased by the building of a large new ward;to this a local merchant generously gave more than12,000, as a thank-offering for benefits received.Chao-chou fu ^)]'\M' after many stormy experiences,was settled in 1888, and a hospital wasshortly after opened.Suabue fili^ was opened in 1898 ; this stationis supported by the Young People of the PresbyterianChurch of England, and has a hospital anda Boys' Boarding School.The Halda Mission was opened from Swatowin 1870, and in 1882 Wu-king fu %m.^. waschosen as a centre. Owing to the difference oflanguage it was found convenient to disjoin theHakka from the Swatow work in 1880. Wu-king fuhas a Theological College, a- hospital. Girls' andBoys' boarding-schools, and a printing press, workingin romanized Hakka and also in character.Sam-ho pa BM^ was opened as the centre forthe North of Hakkaland in 1902, and has a HighSchool and Hospital.i6jr

'ENGLISH RELATIONS ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAShang-hang _h Wt ^^^ opened in 1914, with imedical work in native quarters. A hospital wasbuilt in 1916.Formosa Mistiion.—The E.P.M. began work inFormosa in 1865, led thereto by the fact that thegreat majority of Chinese there are emigrants fromAnioy. Medical and evangelistic work was begunin Taiwan, the capital, but the opposition en-;countered was so great that it was found necessaryjto remove to a place 30 miles south for a time.iiIn 1868, severe persecutions of Christians, bothRoman Catholic and Protestant, broke out.The occupation by Japan in 1895 changed thestarted in 1890 by Rev. W. Campbell was practicallysuperseded by the school established by the Government,which adopted Mr. Campbell's system ofjwriting devised for his pupils.When Taiwan (the name of which the Japanesealtered to Tainan) was about to be besieged bythem the E.P. missionaries were able to save thecity by the judicious suggestions and arrangementsthey made.In 1916, there were three foreign-mannedstations in Formosa, Tainan, Takow, and Shoka(or Chianghoa) ; the first with Theological Collegeand Middle Schools ; the third with Boys' school(opened 1913) ; and all three with hospitals.Since 1912, the E.P.M. has united with the!Canadian Presbyterians to form one Synod ; theItheological students are trained together; and aUnion College at Taihoku for the purpose isdecided upon but deferred because of war economies.There are 23 foreign missionaries, 6 ordainedChinese, and 4050 communicants in Formosa in 1917.Women's Worl-.—The Women's Board of theE.P.M. had in 1916 a total of 30 workers in theChina field, including 4 women doctors.(/lotStatistics for year ending December 31, 1915in-htding Formosa).Foreign Stai? 79Chinese „ 596Communicants ... 8,175Baptized non-Communicants 3,945ENGLISH RELATIONS WITH CHINA.See Great Britain and Chi tin.ENVOY, CHINESE. The fir.st envoy sentabroad in modern times was Ch'ung Hotj [q.v.)after the Tientsin Massacre. The first residentEnvoy sent abroad by China was Kuo Sung-taoIB ^ ^ sent in 1876 to the Court of St. James'.The- Chinese now have Ministers at allimportant foreign Courts.the moreEQUID/E ;there are probably three species ofthe horse Family in Chinese territory ; viz :Equiis hemionus, and E. caballus, in ChineseTurkestan ; E. prjevalskii, Chinese Turkestan andW. Mongolia.SowERBY : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii.ERH YA ^li nearing the standard, an ancientwork sometimes ascribed to the twelfth century B.C.and also to Tzu Hsia, the disciple of Confucius,born B.C. 507. It was once included in theConfucian Canon. Chu Hsi, however, says we arenot justified in accepting it as ancient. It wasfirst edited by Kuo P'o (a.d. 276-324) with aaspect of the mission's work in many ways,jcommentary. It is a dictionary of terms. SeeMedical work was 'not so urgently required, owingjLexicography.-to the fine hospitals established by the conquerorsIESMOK. See Szemao.all over the island, and a school for the blind IESPERANTIST MOVEMENT INCHINA.For a considerable number of years, individualChinese had been studying Esperanto (chieflythrough contact with Russians in whose country thelanguage originated), when in 1909 the first Groupwas formed in Shanghai, where a few score pupilsattended free evening classes.The first effective step in propaganda was takenin 1912, in the first year of the Republic, when the"China Esperanto Association" was formed, withMr. K. C. Shan as the first President, having itsheadquarters in Shanghai. Morning and eveningclasses are held, and tuition by correspondencecarried on—^the latter with at least 1,000 pupils.There are Grcups in Canton, Peking, Changsha,Tientsin, Hankow, Hongkong, Kirin, etc.Tne movement has been much retarded by theunsettled conditions in China, by the prior claimsof English for commercial purposes, and latterly, bythe European War. The organ of the Associationis La Hina Brileto, translated as "^ ^. or ChineseStar, which first appeared in January, 1916, and isissued monthly.ETIQUETTE, CHINESE. As in other Easternlands the rules of polite behaviour are exceedinglyelaborate. Innumerable formalities govern theintercourse of subjects with the ruler, subordinateswith superiors, children with parents, and thereare special ceremonies to be observed at visits,dinners, weddings, funerals, birthdays, and fe.stivals.Etiquette prescribes certain styles of dressand modes of travel, and regulates deportment instanding, sitting, meeting friends, etc.To give details on these regulations is manifestlyout of the question.It may be remarked, ho\^ever,that polite behaviour and observance of the rulesof etiquette are not neglected amongst the humblestand poorest classes. Coolies and peasants will,before eating, ask others to partake, will offer theright .seat to anyone entering a room, will use the1(58

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAEURASIANSproper salutations or modes of address, etc., asnaturally as the wealthy and cultivated. It iscertain that much misunderstanding has been createdthrough the foreigner, content with his own system,often scorning or at least ignoring the Chinese ideasof what is polite. While he himself is in a positionto understand that manners differ in different lands,the untravelled Chinese conceive either that lackof Chinese manners means lack of all politenesswhich produces contempt for the foreigner, or thatevery transgression is an intended insult,—whichproduces antagonism. Yet there are few foreignersso careful and instructed as not to do things everyday in their intercourse with Chinese that must beconstrued as either intentional rudeness or barbarianignorance.In these matters, as in many others, a greatchange is coming over Chinese society ; which issufficient reason for not giving here any of the rulesof etiquette ; they will be found in the worksreferred to below.Simon Kiong : La Politegse chinoise (Var.Sin.) ; Christie : Chinese Recorder, vol. xxvi ; Warren: ibid., vol. xxix ;Jones : ibid., vol. xxxvii.EUNUCHS ^^. They were employed inthe Imperial Palace, 3,000 for the service of theEmperor and smaller numbers for others of theImperial family. The de.scendants also of the eightManchu chiefs who helped to establish the Ch'ingdynasty had to use them. They were drawn mostlyfrom the province of Chihli, and were condemnedto this life while quite young, by their parents, forthe sake of gain, or were driven in later life to thevoluntary sacrifice through poverty. Their use inChina seems to date from the Chou dynasty(1100 B.C.), and so far as they appear in Chinesehistory they have always been, as might beexpected, a curse and 'open sore' in the State.They have two large cemeteries some miles west ofPeking. The whole of this revolting subject isvery fully discussed in Stent's paper.Stent: Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xiMatkjnon : Super^titio/i^, Crime et Misere enChine., 1899.^B EURASIANS. A name, of apparently modern^^igin. for children born of European parentage on{ one side, and of Asiatic (Asian) on the other. Thef -hinese characters ^"C 55 A proposed by some as an>equivalent for the English term, would not begenerally understood without explanation. But ifthe name is of modern origin, the race to which itapplies is not. The mingling of Europeans withAsiatics was as much a fact of ancient as it is ofmodern times. Before the Christian era, the Eastand the West met together both in Eastern Europeand in Western Asia, as also in parts of NorthAfrica. Jews and other oriental traders were foundin Rome and in all the principal cities of Greece,and Roman soldiers and Roman officials, as well asmen of Greek race, were resident in Asia Minor andin Palestine. Of these facts there is abundantevidence in the New Testament, and especially inthe book of Acts. There we read [Chap, xvi, 1]of Timothy, a chosen companion of St. Paul in hismissionary journeyings, that he was an Eurasian,his father being a Greek and his mother a Jewess.Of Felix, a Roman Governor of Judea, we are told[Acts xxiv, 24] - that his wife was a Jewess.Referring to such facts as these. Sir WilliamRamsay says "The Roman Emp'erors regarded theJews as faithful friends and subjects and grantedor confirmed many privileges in their favour.There can be no doubt that the Jews married intothe dominant families. The case of Timothy'smother may be safely regarded as typwiil ; it isan example of the flood of light which tHe rationalstudy of that great historical work [the Ac^s] throwson Roman social history in the Eastern provinces."The Eui-asians of modern times in India, Ceylonand the Far East are, many of them, descendantsof European adventurers who came out to Indiain the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Goa was thefirst territorial possession of the Portuguese inIndia. ALrHONSo d'Alberquerque desired, in 1510,to make it both a naval base and a colony. Heencouraged the men who accompanied his expeditionto marry native wives and to settle on the land asfarmers, artisans or retail traders. The descendantsof these men and of other Portuguese who ata later date settled in China, principally in Macaoand in the neighbourhood of Ningpo, retain for themost part the Portuguese name and nationality.They are more or less a community by themselvesand are recognized members of the Roman CatholicChurch. They are still probably more numerousin Macao than in any other part of China. Theirnumber in that place was returned in 1896 as being3,106 Portuguese of Macao birth, 177 born in otherPortuguese possessions, and 615 natives of Portugaltotal, 3,898. The Shanghai Census returns for theInternational Settlement in 1915, (exclusive ofresidents in the French Concession) gives thenumber of the Portuguese as 1,323 out" of a totalforeign population of 18,519. It seems impossibleto give any even approximately correct statistics asto the number of other Eurasians, either inShanghai or elsewhere in China. In the Shanghaicensus returns for 1890 a note was added to theeffect that among the entire foreign population inthe International Settlement were 41 Eurasianadults and 101 Eurasian children. In the censusfor 1915 no estimate of the Eurasian populationseems to have been attempted.22J69

iWorksI 1904,jIIjIEuropean! ofdiligence or conduct to their school fellows of whollyor American parentage. The same forc^good sense and right feeling is already workiingjEWO.i.Jardine,IEXHUMATION.jEurasians1EUROPEANjSeeIIEURASIANSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAIt reiHains to say something of the presentstatus and of the future prospects of Eurasiansin the Far East, although this is not the jjlace todeal with these matters in detail. This much,however, may be said : some well-meant attemptsto benefit Eurasians that have been made in thethe past, must be held to be quite inadequate tomeet the real and imperative needs of the situationto-day. The Thomas Hanbcry School in Shanghai"founded for the purpose of a Day and BoardingSchool, first for the education of Eurasian children,and secondly for the education of others thanEurasians" is a much-needed institution. It hasdone, and is doing, a good work for the destitute,or partly destitute, children who were present tothe thought of the benevolent founder whose namethe School bears. A full account of the institutionand of its work appears in the Shanghai MunicipalKeport for 1914.But no such institution as that can do anythingto meet the deepest need of the Eurasian communityin China as a whole. The average Eurasianin China is neither in a state of destitution noranxious to receive favours in lieu of rights. Manysuch persons, and their European or Americanfriends, are feeling keenly that a slur is being caston them and on their parents which in the case ofmany, at least, is wholly undeserved. Complaintsof this treatment have been sti-ongly voiced recentlyin the public Press in Shanghai, (see e.g. Northt'hinn Herald, 1916-17, Vol. cxix, Nos. 2540, 2542and 2549; and Vol. cxxii, Nos. 2582 and 2583),especially, but not exclusively, in connexion withthe rights of British Eurasians to receive their duein the British Army and as volunteers. During thepresent war a number of them have distinguishedthemselves alike by their patriotism and by theirbravery. Why then should they be refused theproper recognition of their British inheritance? Allmovements in history against class-privilege andcaste-distinctions have for a while been stoutlyresisted, but in spite of such resistance there isalways in Christian society, where it is not in astate of decadence, a steady influence at work inthe direction of giving liberty and social justice toall classes, however much some of the super-manrace may still favour that caste system which ischaracteristic of Indian paganism, but is entirelyopposed to the whole genius of New Testamentethics. There is here, however, no cause fordespair. On more than one occasion proposals madein Shanghai and elsewhere in China to excludeEurasians from the Public Schools have beensuccessfully resisted by the good sense and rightfeeling of a majority of the ratepayers. The resulthas justified the policy, children of Eurasian birthshowing constantly in the competition of school lifethat they were in no respect inferior either in ability,in other quarters and is bound gradually toameliorate the social injustice from which manyare now suffering. [A.F.]INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA.Fortifjn Intprcourse; Sj)

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAFACTORIESEast were subject to lex loci, though long beforethe signature of any treaty the British asserted andmaintained their right to privilege to the full extentof their power. But practically the rights to life,liberty, and the pursuit of happiness were onlyenjoyed in the small foreign settlements or" factories," and there are cases on record ofEnglish and Americans causing death and beingexecuted by the Chinese after arrest and trial, eventhough the death was the result of accident.The principle that in cases of litigation betweenforeigners and Chinese the case shall be tried bythe proper officer cf the defendant's nationality andthe law administered shall be the law of thenationality of that officer, has been secured by twowars and by treaties with seventeen Powers. Theprinciple was accepted in the earliest treaties ofland powers made with China, (Nerchinsk, 1689;Kiakhta, 1727), and even earlier, in the agreementwith KoxiNGA, 1620 ; but the English, American andother maritime powers at Canton early in the nineteenthcentury had no such privilege ; it was graduallyobtained by treaties from 1842 onwards, its fullexpression being found in the Chefoo Conventionof 1876. No foreigner in China is now subject toChinese law, as regards either his person or hisproperty. Piggott : Extraterritoriality.FFABER, ERNST, was born at Koberg in SouthGermany on April 25, 1839. He studied at Baseland Tiibingen, and then took special courses inNatural History at Berlin. He arj-ived at Hongkongas an agent of the Rhenish Mission on April25, 1865 and wo];l'Ced in the interior of Kuangtung.In 1880 he resigned his coiniectioa with the RhenishMission and worked independently, settling inHongkong in 1883. In 1885 he joined the GeneralEvangelical Protestant Missionary Society, or WeimarMission, and moved to Shanghai the nextyear. He received from the Jena University thedegree of Doctor Theologiae, in 1888. As soon asI'singtao became German he removed thither, but, Ensuresharmony.12 Dutch, Tseeh ee % ^ Chi i, As.sembled righteousness.13 Creek, ff wo ^ jftl/ ho, Ju.«tice and peace.171

i\FAFACTORIESENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA'J'he national names probably survived fromthe first tenants, but do not imply continuedoccupancy.Each factory consisted of rows of three-storeyedbuildings one behind the other, parallel with thefrontage and numbered fro"m front to back. Anarched passage pierced each row. The Danish hadseven rows, the Dutch eight; the others each hadfewer, the American fewest.A row is hong fr and hence the alternativename of Foreign Hongs given to the Factories.The terms 'factory' and 'hong' are often synonymous,but generally the factors used the word'factory' of the residence and hong rather for thewhole considered as a place of business.The space in front of the factories or the spacebetween Hog Lane and Old China Street, was pavedand walled in to the east and west. This made TheSquare, and it was to this and to Jackass Point,the landing stage, that the foreigners were re-.stricted. Even rowing on the river for pleasurewas forbidden. The younger ones might sometimesmake a bold excursion to a temple in the suburb,or to White Cloud Mountain, but this was contraryto the Chinese regulations and was always attendedwith danger.Behind the Factories ran the street calledThirteen Factories Street; it still exists, with thesame name. To the east lay the Hongs of theHong Merchants.The factories were owned by the HongMerchants individually,—chiefly by Howqua andPwANKEiQUA,—and were rented by the factors.It was within these limits that the merchantswere confined during the shipping season ; thatMorrison spent the earlier part of his time in('hina, and that the foreigners were practicallyimprisoned by LiN until all opium had been surrenderedto him.Very irksome rules were made for the residents,as that only eight Chinese employes might serve ineach factory ; that there must be no rowing on theriver for pleasure ; that no foreign women or armsshould ever be admitted, and so on. Through thegoodnature of the Hong Merchants frequent infringementsof these rules were winked at : exceptthe rule against women and weapons, which wasstrictly enforced. The factories were nearly alldestroyed by fire in 1822 and rebuilt, and again in1843. After Seymour's bombardment in 1856 theywere razed by the Chinese. They had served fora hundred years ; but the victorious foreignersreturned to occupy a better spot,—Shameen.Hunter (Bits of Old China), gives a plan ofthe Factories, but plan and text do not quite agree.A different plan may be seen in the Chinese Refiositnryand another in Lloyd's book {r. inf.).It mu.«t be borne in mind first, that no contemporaryplan of the early factories is extant,and next, that they were more than once rebuiltin whole or in part, in consequence of fires, and nodoubt with alterations.Hunter : The Fan Kwae at Canton, and Bitsof Old China; Morse : The Trade and Administrationof China, p. 282. Chinese Eepository,vol. XV, et passim ; Lloyd : From Hongkong toCanton.HSIEN ^Ml^'hereligious name of aBuddhist priest, a native cf Shansi, 4th and 5thcentury B.C. His family name was Rung ||. Hewent to Ch'ang-an (Hsi-an fu) to study Buddhism,but finding insufficient material there he started inA.D. 399 for India with several companions, hopingto obtain a complete set of the Buddhist Canon inits original language. He went by land, butreturned by sea, reaching home a.d. 414, havingvisited Ceylon and Sumatra on his way. He settledin Nanking and wrote, or dictated to an IndianBuddhist, the account of his travels. It is knownas Fo Icuo chi ivji^BG Records of Buddhist kingdoms.This has been translated into French byBfMUSAT. with notes by Klaproth, and into Englishby Beal, (1869, with a revision in 1884 in hisBuddhist Records of the Western World), by Giles,(c. 1875), and by Legge, (with text, 1886). SeeWatters : Fa Hsien and his English Translators,China Review, vol. viii ; also N.C.B.R.A.S.,Journal, vol. xxi, p. 314.Fa Hsien spent the rest of his days in translatingthe books he had brought from India, and diedat the age of eighty-eight.FAIRY FOXES. See Fo.xes.FALCONS. See Accipitres. ,FAMILY SAYINGS OF CONFUCIUS.Chia Yii.SeeFANS. The primitive fan developed graduallyfrom birds' wings and from leaves. A fan ofpheasants' feathers is recorded to have been madeby Kao Tsung of the Shang dynasty. Wu Wangis reputed by others to be the inventor (1122-1115).In 1106 B.C. fans were used to keep off the dustraised by chariot wheels. Ivory fans are mentionedas being invented in 991 b.c. The round fan consisted of a frame-work of bamboo, wood, or ivory,over which silk was stretched. We hear of a decreeissued by Hsiao Wu (373-397) forbidding the useof silk in fans ; a similar command was given byAn Ti in 405. Scon after the establishment of theYiian dynasty, an official of the South-East barbarians was laughed at for carrying a chu t'ou 4t 51fan. The folding fan was the invention of theJapanese, introduced into China through Korea inthe 11th centurv a.d,172i

TheTheENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAFAN WANG CHINGThe following kinds of fans are made in China :bambco and paper ; bone ; bone and feather ; bone,ivory and paper ; feather, ivory and bone ; featherand sandalwood ; feather and tortoise-shell ; ivoryand satin ; lacquered and paper ; lacquered andsilk ; mother-of-pearl ; bamboo with paper or silkpeacock's feathers : palm-leaf ; etc.The most expensive are those of mother-of-pearl.Ornamental fans are made in large quantities ir.Canton, and the fine fans made from eagle andother plumes also exported. Sunwui, in the WestRiver delta, is the seat of the palm-leaf fanindustry (see Palmn). Of these fans over 50 millionsare imported from the Straits, in addition to the(Chinese production. Hangchow is a great centreof foldable oiled-paper fan manufacture ; 3,000,000pieces are made there yearly ; at Nanking the paperfan industry employs nearly 70,000 people ; Ningpois another centre ; a great variety of paper fans ismade there, from the plainest kinds costing lessthan $3 per hundred to those which are decoratedand have carved handles and cost ten times as much.The manufacture of cheap paper fans, similarin size to those imported from Japan, is said to bedriving the foreign article out of the market. Thevalue of imported palm-leaf fans in 1916 wasHk.Tls. 442,292, and the export of fans amountedto Tls. 540,364.Customs Decennial Reports, etc. ; Giles :Historic China; Mrs. Little : Intimate China;Werner : Sociology (China).FANG SHENG fi S^, release life. It is ameritorious act, according to the Buddhists, to buyand release captive birds and animals, and societiesare "formed for this and similar purposes. Thepractice is said to have begun in the reign of LiangWu Ti, ^0^^ A.D. 502—550, who was himself aBuddhi.st monk.FANG TAN ^ Ip. square document; a termused in Shanghai to denote a title-deed to landissued in place of the original deed when lost, etc.There are various explanations of the meaning,—asthat the character flj tMe7i (land) is square ; that thedocument itself is square, and that the seal on itis square. Giles : Glossary of Beference.FAN-I-MING-I M^^B, ^ Sanskrit-ChineseGlossary, or Collection of names turned fromSanskrit into Chinese, made by Fa YiiN f£i?, aboutA.D. 1150. The preface has been translated inT'oumi Pao, 1910, p. 407.FAN QUI, ^ fi barbarian devil, the term ofrevilement used for foreigners in southern China.The equivalent in the north is Yam/ hiei tzu,W %,'i' foreign devil. These terms, once so excessivelycommon as to be often used withoutmalice, are less and less heard at present.The Fan-Qui in China in 1836-7 is the title ofa book descriptive of life in China, by C. ToogoouDowning. (London, 1838).FANTAN.^-JH fan fan, a method of gamblingwith cash, fan meaning number of times, and Vanmeaning to apportion.A heap of cash is covered by a bowl ; thequestion is what the remainder will be after thecoins have been divided by four.Stakes are placedon numbers 3, 2, 1, 0. Coins are then subtractedfour at a time till a remainder is left. A winnerreceives three times his stake less seven per cent,for the good of the bank, besides his original stakethus a dollar on a winning number brings a profitof two dollars and seventy-nine cents. Stakes maybe put midway between two numbers or nearer toone than to the other ; in case of one of the numbersbeing the correct number, payment is made accordingto rules, but less of course than when thestake is put right on the winning number.The game is famous or infamous in the South.In Hongkong it is illegal ; in Canton it is sometimespermitted, at other times not ; the changes of poli(;yrespecting it being due to the financial needs ofthe province and to the views of the local officials.It is a monopoly in Macao, and is the chiefsource of revenue there. In 1916 tenders werereceived for the purchase of the monopoly for fiveyears from July 1, 1917. Eleven tenders werereceived, the highest being Mex. $1,286,660 perannum, equal to about £120,000 sterling; the lowestbeing $610,000 per annum. . payment duringthe previou.'! period was $603,000 per annum.CuLiN : Gamhling Ganges of the ChineseinAmerica.FAN WANG ^ 3E, Brahma, who has beenmade by the Buddhists into an attendant or vassalof Buddha. He may be seen occupying thisposition in various temples in company with Yii-Ti3E ^ the supreme god of the Taoists.According to some Indra, Fan Wang and Yii-Tiare the same, god of heaven, in Chinese Ti-shih-S^ ^ or T'lEN-Ti shih Ji ^ 0. The Taoists seemto have borrowed him from Buddhism under thename Yii-Ti as their supreme god, and now theBuddhists in some of the temples represent Yii-Tiwith Fan Wang as vassals and attendants ofBuddha. He is sometimes represented as feminine.DoRE : Becherches sur les Superstitions, tomevii, p. 210; Wieger : Textes philosophiques, p. 327.FAN WANG CHING ^ .^ j^Brahma's NetClassic, the monastic Code in Chinese Buddhism,which has more or less taken the place of theprevious recensions of the Vinaya. De Groot saysthat it is "the centre of gravity of the Church, themarrow, the heart, the axis on which turns thewhole existence of the monks." It is said to have178

FAR EAST, THEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAbeen translated into Chinese by Kumarajiva in 406,being one chapter out of some Sanskrit work. Theoriginal is unknown ; but some of its contents aresuch as might have been produced in China at alater date.It expounds a late and even degeneratesystem of Buddhism, for example, branding oneselfas a religious practice; and there is no evidencethat, even if translated early, it had any greatauthority before the eighth century. The Hinayanais several times denounced in it as heretical, buton the whole the spirit of the book is a lofty one,urging to charity and all good works. The workseems to be known and honoured in all Buddhistmonasteries throughout China. It has been translatedand commented on by De Groot, who alsogives the text.De Groot : Zc Code, du Mahdydna en Chine.FAR EAST, THE, a monthly journal, illustratedby photographs, issued simultaneously inTokyo, Shanghai and Hongkong. The first number(New Series) appeared July, 1876, an earlier serieshaving been published in Japan. J. R. Black waspubli-sher and proprietor, and the Journal wasjn-inted at the Celestial Empire Office.FARGHANAH. See KhoTcand.FASTING ^ ^ chHh sv.The Buddhists havemany fast -days, when wine and all flesh and vegetablesof strong flavour must be avoided. A shortlist of such days is given in Doee's book Recherches.•?(/?• le.< Superstitioi^s, p. 314.FAUVEL, ALBERT AUGUSTE, was born atCherbourg, November 7, 1851. He came to Chinain the Customs Service in December, 1872, butwhen the war between China and France broke outhe joined the Messageries Maritimes as Inspector.While in the Customs he was stationed at Chefoofor about four years, and it was at that time thathe began to be interested in natural history. Hemade several journeys in the interior of Shantung.He is especially remembered as the discoverer dfthe Alligator in China. He died at Cherbourg,November 3, 1909. His works are as follows :Trip of a Naturalist to the- Chinese Far East,(China Review, vol. iv) ; The Wild Silk-worms ofthe Province of Shantung, (ibid. vol. vi) ; Alligatorsin China, (Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vcl. xiii)Promenades d'un Naturaliste, etc., (Mem. Soc. So,Nat. de Cherbourg, 1880) ; The Wood of the TeaBoxes, (China Review, vol. xii) ; La Provincechinoise du Chan-Towig, 1893-2.Cordieb : T'ovng Pao, 1909. p. 700 ; Bret-S5CHNEIDER : History of European Botanical Discoveriesin China.FAY, LYDIA MARY, was the fir.st Americansingle woman to come to China as a missionary.She was sent by the American Protestant EpiscopalChurch to Shanghai, where she started aBoys' School, which was the seed from whichSt. John's University gi'ew. She had a remarkableknowledge of the classics and of the Shanghaidialect, and was commended by Dr. S, WellsWilliams in the preface to his Dictionary'. Shedied in 1878.FEAST OF LANTERNS. See Lanterns,F^-astof.'FEATHERS. h\ 1913 over a million andthree-quarter taels-worth of duck and fowl featherswere sent out from the Treaty Ports, almost all ofwhich went abroad. This is one of the articlesin which every port has a share, but chiefly theYangtze towns, (especially W^uhu and Shanghai),Kowloon and Nanning. Luchow, Anhui, is theleading producer. Pedlars collect the feathers andsell them to the dealers. Large quantities were sentto the bedding factories at Berlin and Stuttgart.Duck and goose feathers are preferred, but fowlfeathers are mixed with these, washed in congeewater to prevent detection. The quills are splitand filled with sand or gypsum to add to theweight. But these malpractices are less frequentthan in the past. The Ssuch'uan feathers have agood reputation.Chicken feathers are used to make dustersor as manure,—for which nothing is rejected inChina.Wing feathers of the eagle are made into fans.The little egret, once common in Ssuch'uan,has been almost wiped out of existence. Kingfishers'feathers are used in ornamental work of thevarious kinds, especially of Canton.FEI YEN ?I^ ^, a celebrated beauty of theIwt century B.C. She was the concubine and afterwardsthe Empress of Ch'kng Ti.FELID/E. This Family of Carnivora is representedin North China by some nine species,distributed as follows.Felis tigris longipilis, Manchuria, Corea, Chihli,Shansi : F. pardus villosa, Chihli, Shansi, N. Shensi,Kansuj F. fontanieri, S. Shensi; F. catiis, Chihli.Shansi ; F. manul, N. Chihli, Mongolia ; F.euptihira, Chihli ; F. chinensis subsp. Shansi,ShensiF. microtis, S. Shensi ; F. i.tahellina, Tibet, Kansu,Manchuria.Swinhoe's list for South China gives F.tigris, F. pardus, F. macrocelis, F. viver'rina, F.chinensis. Some of these may be identical withthose named above. See Tiger; Leopard; Manul.SowERBY : Recent Researches, etc.. Journal,N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii: Swinhoe : Catalogue ofMammals.FEMALE EDUCATION IN THE EAST,Society for promoting, was formed in London -n174

I wealthyIiandENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAferreira1834. The first worker married Dr. Gutzlaff.The best-known early missionary was MissAldeusey, who, after working in Java andSingapore, arrived in Hongkong on the very daythe five treaty ports were opened. She went toXingpo, and there opened the first mission girls'school in China in 1844. She died in Australiain 1857.In 1899, the Society ceased to exist, its agentsjoining the C.M.S. in Foochow and Hongkong.FENG-HUANG. See PJwenix.FENG SHUI ®j,;Jc ivind and water. (Theoutward and visible signs of celestial Yang and Yin).The art of adapting the residence of the livingand the dead so as to co-operate and harmonizewith the local currents of the cosmic breath(Yin and Yang, q.v.) ; often incorrectly called" geomancy."It is believed that at every place there arespecial topographical features (natural or artificial)which indicate or modify the universal spiritualbreath {f^ Ch'i). The forms of hills and thedirections of watercourses, being the outcome ofthe moulding influences of wind and water, arethe most important, but in addition the heights andforms of buildings and the directions of roads andbridges are potent factors. From instant to instantthe force and direction of the spiritual currentsare modified by the motions of the sun and moon,(see Astrolojy), so that at any particular time thedirections of the celestial bodies from the pointconsidered are also of great importance.The professor of Feng Shui employs a Lo-fun(graduated astrolabe with compass) to observedirections and astrological harmonies, while at the.same time he notices the forms which the spiritualforces of nature have produced.By talismans (dragons and other symbolicfigures on roofs or walls, pagodas on hills, orl)ridges) and charms (pictures of spirits or "wordsof power" inscribed on paper scrolls or stonetablets), the unpropitious character of any particulartopography may be amended.Artificial alteration of natural forms has goodor bad effect according to the new forms produced.Tortuous paths are preferred by beneficent influences,so that straight works such as railwaysand tunnels favour the circulation of maleficentbreath.The dead are in particular affected by andable to use the. cosmic currents for the benefit ofthe living, so that it is to the interest of each familyto secure and -preserve the most auspicious environmentfor the grave, the ancestral temple and thehome.There is a copious native literature on thesubject with elaborate rules, plans and theoreticalinformation.EiTEL : Feng Shui; Dohe :Researches intoChinese Superstitions ; De Groot : The ReligiousSystem of China.[H.C.]FENG TAO tH 3^, a politician who servedunder ten Emperors of four different houses, butis famous - as the inventor of block-printing. Hewas born in a.d. 881 and died in 954, just beforethe close of the T'ang dynasty.FENG-T'IEN FU. See Mukden.FERGANA or FERGHANA. See Khokand.FERNANDEZ, JUAN, a Franciscan friar ofthe province of St. John the Baptist.He was born at Almanza in Spain in 1655 andairived in China in 1697. He was in Kiangsi in1705 and at Canton in 1717, as shown by his letters.A manuscrijot dictionary compiled by him and nowin the possession of Dr, G. E. Morrison states oi.the fly-leaf that it was finished at Chang-te fu(Honan) in 1724. This however may be an error,as this date is after tfie bani.shment of missionariesby Yung Cheng. In the same place he is calledJuan Fernandez Serrano, but the addition ofSerrano has not been explained.He left China in 1726, went to Mexico, returnedto Almanza and died there on February 3, 1735.See Lexicography.Civezza : Saggio di Bibliografia geograficastorica etnografica San francescana, 1879 ; Cordier :Bihliotheca Sinica, col. 1192.FERNANDEZ, SEBASTIEN, ^n^^ Chung•'Ming-jen, was born in Kuangtung in 1562 ofparents, and was the first Chinese to enterthe Society of Jesus. He was a companion to Eiccisuffered the cangue, the bamboo, prison andtorture in Peking, Hangchow and elsewhere. Hedied in 1622.Havret : La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fou,II, p. 11, note.FERNE OSTEN, DER, a German magazineissued in Shanghai in conjunction with The FarEast, having the same editor and printer. It endedwith its third volume, 1906.FERREIRA, GASPARD, ^tfM ^et Ch'ikuei, a Jesuit Father, born in Portugal in 1571.Having completed his theological studies at Macaohe was sent to Peking in 1604. Later he was sentto Chao chou '^ ^["fto the church founded by Eicci23 years before. Here he was accused, condemnedand driven out in 1612. Fleeing to Nan hsiangm £i he carried on successful work till obliged toflee again in consequence of the persecution atNanking. He went to Honan, then from 1630 to175

FESTIVALSENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCA1635 was at Chieii ch'aiig j^ ^ in Kiangsi. In 1646he retired to Canton and died there in 1649.Havret : La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fou,II, p. 23, note.FESTIVALS. The Chinese have many festivalswhich are not obtruded on the notice of theforeigner. Seme of the more important ones,however, are observed &o generally as to affect fweignintercourse. The chief are connected with theseasons and with the worship of ancestors, notwith the worship of Confucius, Buddha, or anydeitie.s, though of course these also have their turn.New Year (q.v.) is the greatest of the feasts; alldebts are paid, or supposed to be paid, before theold year dies, then all bu.siness is at a standstill andall the world devotes itself to pleasure, payingvi?its, dressing in fine clothes, making presents,feasting and idling. There are also, however,offerings to the gods, to parents and to deadancestors. The rejoicings last till the 15th day,but these days include other feasts and ceremonies,and must not be thought of as a fortnight of simpleidling.On the 15th is the Feast of Lanterns (seeLa/ifenif-, Feast of). This closes the New Yearfestivities and opens the shops again. The foreignersees the precessions and the mild illuminations, butknows little of the ceremonies, offerings andworship connected with the feast.Omitting smaller feasts the next imiversallykept of the Chinese festivals is Ch'ing Ming ^ g^.of the twenty-four solar periods into whichthe fifththe year is divided ; it falls on April 4-5. It issometimes named the Festival of Tombs, for it isat this time that special thought is given to thedead, to whom formal offerings are made, whiletheir graves are put in good order. It was ancientlythe day for the re-kindling of fires, which had been,extinguished three days before. (See Him Shih).It is also a time for picnics and excursions intothe country, and houses are decorated with foliage.Various things connected with this festival remindthe Western student of the Christian Easter.On the fifth day of the fifth moon comes thegreat summer festival, for which there is no specialname, though the foreigner calls it, from what hesees of it, the Dragon Boat Festival. The Dragonis much in evidence at this time. It is the symbolof fructifying rain, so important in such an agriculturalcountry. (See Dragonhoat Festival).The Midsummer fete is not very important;but with the coming of autumn with the seventhmoon there is another great festival, consecratedto the dead. On the first day of the moon the gatesof purgatory are opened, and the hungry ghoststroop forth to have a month of enjoyment of thegood things provided for them by the pious.It isespecially on the fifteenth of the moon that liberalofferings of food are set out, paper money is burntfor the enrichment of tJie dead, and masses aresaid for the release of the unhappy ghosts. Thefestival itself is a Buddhist introduction due toAMOGHAy though of course the worship of ancestorsand offerings to them did not originate in Chinawith the coming of Buddhism.By foreigners this feast is often called AllSouls' day; the Chinese name is Yii Ian p'en, (q.v.),which is the transliteration of a Sanskrit word.The 'hai'vest festival' takes place on thefifteenth day of the eighth moon, and is the greatfeast of autumn. Except that it is a time ofgeneral enjoyment and holiday-making there isnothing to attract the foreigner's notice. It ismuch the same with the festival of the wintersolstice in the eleventh moon, when again thereare special offerings to the dead.With the dose of the year, as at the begiiming,there are important ceremonies. The Kitchen godascends on high to give his report on the household'sconduct during the year, and he is well feted beforehis departure on the 24th of the twelfth moon, apaper chariot is burned to provide his conveyance,etc. Offerings are also made to other domestic gods,more or less house-cleaning takes place ; the talismanicpapers stuck over the doors, etc., are renewed ;debtors are sought for ; creditors are avoidedand on the New Year's Eve the whole people spendsthe night in eating and drinking and firing offcrackers,—a watch-night tservice but, with littJesolemnity init.De Groot has made an elaborate study of theseand other feasts as they are actually observed atthe present day in Amoy ; and in the mere importantof the festivals there can be little differencethroughout the whole country.His work is not merely descriptive ; but theorigin of every custom is sought for, and itsconnection with the ancient superstitions of otherraces. Many matters connected with the festivalsmay seem trivial or merely quaint and picturesque,but may acquire great significance when broughtinto comparison with usages that obtained in Egyptor ancient Greece or Rome.De Guoot : Les Fetea armueUes a EinouiDoRE : Becherches sur les Superstitions, etc. ;DooLiTTLE : Social TAfe of the Chinese.FEUDAL STATES ^ BH-The earliest legendsof Chinese history tell of a number of statesgoverned by hereditary princes owning other princes,or eventually one emperor, as overlord. Hence thetitle "feudal." The opefling words of king Wrin the documents of the Chou dynasty contained176

Iothers)! clan.Ij!calledjcenturyENCYCLOPAEDIA SINtCAFEUDAL STATESin the Shu Ching are paraphrased by Legge (inaccordance with the best Chinese exposition) :"Ah, ye hereditary princes." Although king Wumade great changes in the personnel of the princes,he only perpetuated an old institution, he did notinaugurate a new one.The central principle of the institution wasancestral worship. When the descendants of anygiven prince were prevented from sacrificing in theancestral temple, the state was said to be destroyed.As long as the clan worship was continued thestate continued. Hence, we find amongst the earliestarrangements made by king Wu were theappointments, or confirmation of existing appointments,to five fiefs where the five imperial familiesof the past might be honoured. It is interestingto note the position and insignificance of the fivecentres :Ancestor Fief Modern nameHuang Ti Chi Shunt'ien, Chihli.Yao Chu Tsinan, Shantung.Shun Ch'en Chenchow, Honan.Yii (Hsia) Ch'i Kaifeng, Honan.T'ang (Yin) Sung Kuei-te, Honan.(The last named is the only one that attained toany considerable rank in the Chou days).King Wu had a large number of brothers, andmany of these were made lords, but none of theirfiefs became famous. On the other hand, a nephewand a son gave rise to descendants of front rank.The son of the duke of Chou, Po Ch'ing, wasinvested with the state of Lu @, southern Shantung.Lu prided itself on being the foremost state asregards conformity to ritual. In military mattersit never passed the second rank. It was alwaysunder the orders of one or other of its neighbours.King Wu's son, Ch'kng, was playing with ayounger brother and in sport made him a feudallord. " Of what fief? " enquired the Grand Recorderwho, it would seem, had to be in attendance."I was only saying it in fun," replied the boy king.But the Recorder would have no light speech fromthe king, so a fief had to be found and the boy lordbecame ruler of T'ang, or as it after came to becalled. Chin (^), the immense tract of countrynorth of the bend of the Yellow River, the modernShan.'i. From the middle of the seventh centuryB.C. to the beginning of the fifth, Chin was by farthe most important of the Chinese states. Oneother member of the imperial family was alreadyruling when king Wu came to his throne, but itwas away in the wild, unknown south-east, beyondthe Yangtze. When the future king Wen was ababe it was announced that he would be a man ofimportance. His father was the third son of thegrandfather. The first and second sons, therefore,afraid that the inheritance would not pass to theiryoung nephew if they stopped at home, went forthto the savage lands afterwards named Wu ^.Their descendants are first heard of in the TsoVhuan in B.C. 583. Away on the north-east, theborder lands including the plain on which Pekingnow stands, were named Yen j]^, and given to Shihthe duke of Shao, whose military prowess hasalmost overshadowed the fact that he also was ahalf-brother of king Wu. In b.c. 805, the son ofking HsiiAN was given a new fief, Cheng %. Evento this day the novelty has not worn off the name,for the county is still called Hsincheng (i.e. "NewCheng"); it lies in Honan. All these (and many)were occupied by members of the Chi ( ^The Rites (rarely infringed) strictly forbad(intermarriage.Just south of Yen and north of Lu {i.e. inmodern north Shantung) a state was carved outfor Chiang T'ai kung, the most valiant and veryfaithful adherent of kings Wen and Wu. It wasCh'i 5^ and till the beginning of the fifthwas of first rank. The family name wasChiang %.Lastly, mention raua.t be made of two otherstates the rulers of which were untouched by kingWu—in all probability he knew nothing of one ofthem. The lands on and over the north-west boundsthat were known to the Chinese of the twelfthcentury B.C. were then occupied by the Ying (jgj^ )family. When Chou Hsin was being overthrown,the lord of Ch'in ^, as this state was called, wasaway preparing a marble sarcophagus for his overlord.When he came back, the overlord was defeated,dead and buried. The faithful follower atonce committed suicide. King Wu ordered thatthis lord should be buried in the sarcophagus he hadprepared for his king, and confirmed his son in thefief. This was the state that eventually overthrewthe Chou empire and its feudalism. To the southwest,reaching to the Yangtze, lay the lands of Ch'u^ , the rulers of which were called Mi (*^ ). Theycame to rival both Chin and Ch'in, and at onetime it seemed possible that they would succeedto the heritage of empire. Ch'u, Wu and the stillmore remote Yiieh were, however, really outsidethe pale of the feudal lords ,|^ ^ and Ch'u forlong boasted of this fact. On the other hand,Ch'in, which was suspect, made every effort toshow itself inside the pale. (Its efforts reallyshowed the contrary). No bar sinister ever attacheditself to Chin ; but its position ensured constantinflux of fresh Tartar blood, and kept the racemuch more vigorous than that of the intermarrying,petty lords of the centre, (who, though they had nointermarriage on the father's side, had little elseon the mother's side).We really know very little about the actualworking of the feudal system until we come to thedays from which we have contemporary records,23177

Icommerce,I known.jlesspifipes. TexTiieENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNICA.e. about the eighth century B.C. There are threelarge collections of tractates on the ritual to beobserved, viz. the Chou Li, the / Li and the Li Chi.But we do not know that at any time all theminutiae of form and ceremony were observed.Certainly when we come to the contemporaryrecords, there was but little of the ritual fulfilled.The emperor was a mere shadow of the augustmonarch that the rites picture to us.It is difficult to point to any thing good thatthe feudalism of earlier days did for China. Itmay have been a temporary necessity in the transitionfrom a period of tribal to national government.But its prolongation through the centuriesof the Chou dynasty was a twofold curse to thepeople. In the first place, it prevented China fromrealising its unity. In the second, it was thedirect cause of innumerable and incessant wars."There is not a single righteous war in the wholeof the Annals" was the common sense verdict ofMencius (vii, bk. 2, Legge, p. 354). When weremember that the Annals embrace the whole periodfrom B.C. 722 to 482, and that no year is without itsstory of war, we can picture somewhat what an evilit was to all classes of the population. Ch'.in ShihHuang Ti deserves more credit than he usuallygets for ridding China of feudalism. It attemptedto rise again with the new Han dynasty, but LiuKao Tsu was too wise and too strong. Whateverdivisions have since arisen in China, they havenever been a mere revivification of the feudalism cfthe olden days.FIBRES, TEXTILE.aBUTILON, ^ B{See under separate titles).[G.G.W.]ch'ing-ma, the fibre ofAbutilon avicennae, cultivated as a summer crop inWestern China up to 3,000 feet altitude. The fibreis of inferior quality, less valuable than that oftrue hemp. Most of the "hemp" which goes downriver from Ssuch'uan is, according to Hosie, thefibre of this plant.It is greyish white, tinged witha silvery, lustrous colour. The plant is also widelycultivated in Northern China, Mongolia, and Manchuria,where it is misnamed "jute." As it doesnot rot when wet, it is used for making fishingnets. Tientsin "jute" is largely used locally; when•Bent to Europe it is [Customs Report, 1899) usedfor adulterating purposes, coming into competitionwith a fibre grown in New Zealand.HEMP 'K JAi huo-via in South China, /> Mhsiao-ma in the North ; Cannabis sativa, or thecommon Russian hemp. It is found throughoutChina Proper and Manchuria, and produces a fibrewhich is of universal use. The stems grow to eightfeet in height; harvested in June, they are steepedin water, sun-dried and bleached by burning sulphur,after which the fibre is removed ; it is ingreat demand for textile and cordage purposes, thecoarse cloth making bags or mourning raiment forthe poor. The fibre of the autumn crop, which istougher, is worked into the bodies of paint brushesor even of Chinese pens. The woody stems areburnt and the ashes, mixed with gunpowder, enterinto the manufacture of firecrackei;s. Hemp oilis used as an illuminant in Ssiich'uan. The leadingexporting centres are Chungking, Changsha, Hangchow,and Wuchow. Exportation abroad, 1915,Pels. 75,000, value Tls. 850,000; 1916, Pels.143,799, Tls. 1,699,371. It goes chiefly to Germany,Belgium, and Japan.JUTE, ching-ma |gg j^, Corchorus capsularis issparingly cultivated in Eastern Ssuch'uan, but isnot exported from that province. A little jute maybe cultivated in Chihli and in Kuangtung. It isalso named Huang ma MM-Other fibres used by the Chinese are that fromthe bark of the Sterculia platanifolia, or wu-Vungtree, hence named t'ung-ma ^f^, used for makingcordage, but of no commercial importance; also"Pine-apple Hemp," (q.v.)The fibre of Musa textilis is also used for makingcordage. The export in 1916 was pels. 101,390,value Tls. 493,970.RAMIE, Chu-via ^Mf Boehmeria nivea, alsoknown as Hsien-ma (|^|ffli), the most importanttextile plant in China, is cultivated mostly in thecentral valleys of Kiangsi, in Hupei, and in Ssuch'uan,where it also grows wild. It is however,found in all the warmer parts of the country upto 4,000 feet altitude. It is the China-grass ofand is being exported in growingquantities, especially to Japan. In 1903 less than2,000 piculs were exported, in 1913 over 170,000piculs worth Hk.Tls. 2,500,000. The fibre is bleachedin hot rice-paste and sulphur and woven intograss-cloth (q-v.) or used as twine for makingfishing nets, which are exported to the Straitsand Siam.Ramie is one of the strongest and finest fibresIt is extremely durable, and is said to beaffected by moisture than any other fibre, butis somewhat lacking in elasticity. It has a brilliantsilky lustre, can be dyed readily, and is exceptionallylong, the ultimate fibres varying from 3 to 16inches in length. It is easy to cultivate and thrivesin almost any soil ; in China, however, it is usuallygrown in red clay containing sand. The fibre isprepared in China almost entirely by hand. Thestems are first stripped, and the cuticle removedby scraping and washing, a tedious and expensiveprocess. In the resulting product the fibres areembedded in a gummy substance ; the getting ridof this is not carried out in China, but is effectedsubsequently in Europe by chemical means.The production of ramie, so far as it can begauged from Customs statistics, is greatly on the178

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAFIRECRACKERSincrease, the quantity of original export from portshaving increased from 265,000 piciils in 1913 to318,000 in 1915. Of grasscloth, which is madefrom it, the exportation averages 30,000 Pels., worthHk.Tls. 100 each, of which quantity half is exportedabroad. Formerly it was erroneously entered inthe Customs Returns as hemp. The export in 1916was pels. 210,931, value Tls. 2,821,208.Impebial Institute Bulletin, vol. iii. No. 1,1905. [N.S.]FIGHTING STATES PERIOD Ig.g. Thelast two centuries of the Chou dynasty are knownby this expression. The Fighting States werethose contending for Empire, Ch'in, Wu, Ch'u, etc.See Seven martial States. The period begins atdifferent dates according to different authorities,from B.C. 480 to B.C. 403. Taking the earlier date,the history of the period of the Chan Kuo Ts'ewould follow immediately on the Tso Chuan. Thelater date is that at which Ssu-ma Kuang's greatHistory begins, and is the date when the Emperorshowed his impotence to help h'is vassals by recognisingthe States of Han, Wei and Chao,divisions of the great State of Chin ^.Politically it was one of the worst times inChinese history, yet some of China's great writers,philosophers, patriots, etc., Mencius, Yang Chu,Mi Tzu, Chuang Tzu and others, arose during thisperiod; and Parker calls it "the true period ofChinese chivalry".Parker : Ancient China Simplified; Hirth :The Ancient History of China.FIGS Ficzis carica, 4{| ?£ ^ wu hua Jcuo. InN. China the fig is only grown as an exotic, in potsand tubs. In milder regions a few large specimensmay sometimes be seen in the open, but the fruitdoes not seem to be much cared for by the Chinese,and it is not extensively cultivated.Meyer : Agricultural Explorations, etc.FILIAL PIETY ^ hsiao. This term, soimportant in Chinese social and political history,is much more comprehensive than the Englishtranslation of it would indicate. Hsiao is thebasis of the virtue we call humanity, and is alsoextended to rulers and made the basis of thepolitical structure. The word is found at the veryoutset of Chinese history, in the Canon of Yao^ ^ (Shu chimj I, 12), where it is said of Shunthat 'he kept harmony by filial piety' !^ |^ Jil #•FILIAL PIETY, CANON OF, #M Hsiaoching. A work said to have been written accordingto the teaching of Confucius, by his discipleTsKNG-TZu. There are however objections to thisview, and the author.ship remains uncertain. Thework wUs lost at the Burning of the Books andrecovered, like others, from a wall where it hadbeen hidden. There are two texts, not very differentbut much disputed over.It has been translated into English with notesby Faber in the Chinese Recorder, vol. x, and byBbidgman in Chinese Repository , vol. iv, and intoFrench by de Rosny and Cibot.FILLES DE LA CHARITE', a religiousSociety with temporary vows of a single year,founded by St. Vincent de Paul in 1633. It wasthe first society of women to come to do Christianwork in China. Its first work was begun in Macaoin 1843, but the Sisters removed later to Ningpoand in 1863 to Shanghai. In Shanghai theyfurnished the nursing staff at the General Hospitalfor nearly fifty years, withdrawing in 1913. Theywork in all the Vicariats which are in the care ofLazarists,—having the same Superior-General asthat Order. See Jaurias, Helene de.Planchet : Les Missions de Chine.FINCHES. See Fringillidae.FINGERNAILS. It is a custom to allow allor some fingernails to grow as long as possible, asan indication that the owner does not have to workwith his hands. While it holds chiefly amongwomen, the more wealthy, and the literary classes,it is also affected by some poorer people throughmere foppishness. But in the nature of things thecustom cannot be very wide-spread. In some casessilver sheaths are used to protect the nails.FINNISH FREE CHURCH MISSION.China Inland Mission.FINNISH NilSSIONARY SOCIETY.Headquarters :—Helsingfors, Finland.SeeEntered China, 1901.Works in N. Hunan. The first missionarieswere Rev. H. Sjoblom and wife.The head station of this Mission is at W^^Tsing shih, (opened 1901) and work is also carriedon at Tze-li ^ fij, and Yung-ting 7jtS, which wereboth occupied in 1907; and the Mission contributesone professor to the Union Lutheran TheologicalSeminary at She-kow, near Hankow. There areboys' and girls' high schools, and a number ofprimary schools.In 1916, the Mission reported 22 foreign workers.FIRECRACKERS mVi^*^>which are useddaily in China for all kinds of celebrations, aremanufactured in Hunan and Kiangsi, but are aspeciality of the district of Yimpu in Kuangtung,between Fatshan and Canton, and of Taileung.The cheapest kind is made of gunpowder rolledup in coarse bamboo paper, with a covering of redpaper, that being the colour of good omen. Romancandles, rockets, fuses, wheels, etc., are also made.Of late years alum has been used to neutralize thesmoke in them.179

FISHES AND FISHERIESENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATotal original exportation is about 200,000piculs yearly, that is, before the war, which hasnaturally reduced the manufacture. The amountexported abroad is not very great, though some goesto the United States. The export in 1916 was ofthe value Tls. 3,510,961.FISH (emblem). The fish is used to signifyabundance or wealth, which arises from the wordsyu ^ fish and yu ^; superfluity being pronouncedalike. Cf , lu i and lu j^ , or fu 4g and fu KJ.FISHERY PRODUCTS :which inchide, besides fish, agar-agar, bicho-de-mar, isinglass, seaweed,awabi, etc., have always occupied an importantplace' in the "sundries" item in the import list;in the sixties they comprised one-tenth of this item.In 1894 the import amounted to over five milliontaels, in 1904 to Tls. 8,657,000 and in 1913 to overTls. 15,000,000. Japan has an important share ofthis total.FISHES AND FISHERIES. In China theFish is abundant, the species are numerous, everybody,more or less, fishes, and everybody er.ts fish.So one would expect to find in Chinese books ofNatural History copious details on Ichthyology.Moreover, there would be obvious interest, bothscientific and sinological, in being able to determinethe species indicated by the ancient classics.As a matter of fact, to take two examples, the^Jl Erh ya gives a list of 18 or 20 fishes whichit is very difficult for us to identify from the meretext, and even with the help of actual pictures,as the latter do not always correspond with thetext. The ^"^f^^ Pen ts'ao hang mu gives about50 fishes; bat the illustrations are very rough andthe text inexact ; it is therefore of little value.More will be found, but nothing better, in generalChinese works (Dictionaries, Histories, etc.) ; consequently,the Lexicons, translations, and commentariespublished by Europeans have been ableto extract from the Chinese sources no more thanthe latter contain, that is to say, some vaguegeneralities, and .some errors.From the sight of drawings of fishes, executedby Chinese artists from nature, and sent to theMuseums of Europe, savants such as Block,Lacepede, Valenciennes, Richardson, and BasilewsKihave been tempted to make up descriptionsand names of species. It has been an almostfruitless labour. However, as present-day resourcesare more ample, there may be profit in taking upthe task again according to the plan indicatedby MoLLENDOUFF {The Ve.rtehruta of the Provinceof Chihli—Journal of N.C.B.R.A.S., 1877) : thatis, to scientifically determine the species on the onehand, and, on the other, to find the Chinese name(or rather, names) of each species, by consultingfishermen and Sinology, remembering that theancient classics have in mind the basin of theHoangho and the shores of the Yellow Sea.Altogether, Europeans did not begin to knowthe ichthyological Fauna of China till the 18thcentury, through the explorers Osbeck, Hout-TTJYN, and Thunberg, and, for sea-fi.shes, throughthe captains of the deep sea. In the 19th century,many collectors, even if they were specialists inother branches, sent to the Museums specimens ofFishes—J. Reeves, Swinhoe, Dabry de Thiersant,the Abbe A. David, to mention only the bestknown. The specimens sent by J. Reeves, Sen.,serve as basis for Richardson's work. Report onthe Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan,published in 1345. Bridgman in his Chrestomathy(1841) gives a list of 246 species of Fishes withtheir Chinese names, from a series of drawingswhich he had obtained through Beale and whichhad been executed under the eye of a "foreigner."This foreigner was Reeves, and the drawings werea copy of those which Richardson had used (Cf.Bretschneider, History of European BotanicalDiscoveries in China, I, 257). In 1843, Richardsonhad published several species, especially Cantonese,in the Zoology of the voyage of the Sulphur.John Russell Reeves continued his father's workand sent from Macao some ichthyological specimens.The ichthyological collections of Swinhoe havebeen published by GiiNTHER [Ann. and Mag. ofNut. Hist., Sept. 1873, pp. 240-250; Nov. 1873,pp. 377-380; Feb. 1874, pp. 154-160), to whom weowe other articles also on the Fishes of China {ibi4.1888, pp. 429-435; 1889, pp. 218-229; 1898, pp.257-263). Dabry de Thiersant himself publisheda volume, La Pisciculture et la Pcche fin Chine(Paris, 1872),^|vith descriptions of new species.Unfortunately Gunther could say of this publication:" the figures as well as the accompanyingnotes are the work of persons not conversantwith the rudiments of descriptive ichthyology."In his preface, Dabry announced the comingpublication of 850 species, which would have beenthe largest ever made on Chinese ichthyology. Itwas never produced ; no doubt some of these speciesappeared under the signature of Sauvage in 1873and 1874. The ichthyological harvest of the AbbeDavid amounts to almost nothing. Some Fishessent from Kiangsi arrived in bad condition ; somenew species were however described by Guichenot.The following also are entitled to a place amongcollectors : Simon, published by Guichenot andBleeker; Styan at Ningpo, published by G. A.BorLENGER; (P.Z.S., 1905, Part I, pp. 268 sqq.)Whitehead in Hainan, published by G. A.Boulenger (P.Z.S., 1899, Part IV, pp. 956 sqq.);M. DE LA ToucHE at Chinwangtao, published inthe Decennial Reports of the Chinese Customs180

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAFISHES AND FISHERIES(1902-1911), Chinwangtao pp. 176-179. Some otherpublications must not be omitted : Basilewski,Ichthyographia Chinae borealis, Peking 1852, inNouv. Mem. Soc. Nat., Moscow, X, 1855; JorfAN,in Mem. Soc. Nat. Sc de Cherbourg, 1866 and1868; Kner, in the lieise der OesterreichischenFrcgntte Novarra um die. Erde, ZoologischerTheil, I Bd. ; Faxjvel, Promenades d'ttn NaturaVistedaiifi VArchipel Chusan, Cherbourg, 1881; Mollen-DORFF, already cited, pp. 105-111, 1877; and particularlyBleeker, Memoire mr les cyprinoides deChine, Amsterdam, 1871. One may add, On theFish>'.-< of Yarkand, by Francis Day (P.Z.S., 1876,pp. 781-807) ; -4 Collection of Fresh-water Fishesfrom Corea, by Tate Regan (P.Z.S. 1908 pp. 59-63).Altogether, if to the species contained in theabove-named works are added those of the generalIchthyologies, and those which are to be met withmore or less s^cattered in the Reviews, we shallarrive with difficulty at a total of a few hundredspecies, both deep-sea and fresh-water ones. TheCatalogue of the Fishes of Japan by D. S. Jordan,S. Tanaka, and J. O. Snyder, Tokyo, 1913, totals1236 items. Chinese Ichthyology is still almostunknown.This is the table of the principal groups as atpresent established :MARSIPOBRANCHIATA.Lampreys certainly there are, but they havenot yet been catalogued.ELASMOBRANCHIATA (Sharks,Rays).Selacoidae : Proscyllium haberi Hilgendorf,Cltiloscyllium indicum Gm., Stegostoma tigrinumGm., Orectolobus japonicus Regan, Cynias Manazo^leeker, Sphyrna zygaena L., Trial-is scyllium& H., Carcharodon carcharias L.Batoidae : Discobatus sinensis, Bloch, Rajalenojei M, & H., Pterojdatea japonica T. & S.,Dasyatis ahajei and Zugei M. & H.»CTENOBRANCHIATA.Order of the Ganoidea, Sub-order of thejondrgstetdea.Acii'ENSeridae : (Sturgeons) : Acipenser MandschuricusBasil., A. dabryanus Dumeril.PoLYODONTiDAE : Psephurns gladius Martens.Order of the Teleostea, Sub-order of thePhysostoma.^^ Siluridae : Tachysurus sinensis Laceprde,^mj^rasilurus asotus L., Ithinohagrus, Liocassis,^^mdobagrus, etc.^K. Myctophidae : Aulopus elongatus T. & -S.^^K Salmonidae : Plecoglosstis altivtlis T. & S.^^Ke existence of the Trout is probable ; Osmerus^^Kentex Steind. ; Salanx chinensis Osbeck.^* EsociDAE (Pike); Albula vulpes L.Clupeidae :Anchovies : Engraulis japonica T. & S., E.chtluensis Gunther, etc. ; Coilia nasusT. & S., etc.Herrings : Clupea Kowal T. & S., Etrumeusmicropus T. & S.Shads : Ilisha elongata Bennet.Sardines : Sardinella zunasi Bleeker.ScoMBRESOCiDAE : Tylosurus anastomella C.&V.,Hyporawplius sajori T. & S., Cypselurus {Exocet)hirundo Steind., C. brachydactylus GiiNTHER.Cobitidae (Loaches) : Misgurnus anguillicaudatusGiiNTHER.Cyprinidae : Carp : Cyprinus carpio L. ; Goldfish: Carassius auratus Bleeker ; Barbels : Heniibarbusbarbus T. & S. ; Gudgeons : Gobio Saurogobio,Pseudogobio, Psendorashora parva T. & S.,Sarcochilirhthys sinensis Bleeker ; Breams : Elopichthysbarnbusa Bleeker, Luciobrama typusBleeker, Acanthobrama, Culter, Hemiculter,Teuxobrainis, Pseudolaubuca ; Bleaks : among whichare two of the four species of §^ ^ chia yii,Lewriscus idellus Val. and L. aethiops Basil., thetwo others being Hypophtalmichthys nobilis andH. molitrix Bleeker. There may also be mentionedthe Xenocypris and the Opsariichthys, of whichone species, 0. acanthogenys Boulenger, found atNingpo by Styan and in Chihli by M. de la Touche,rivals the Carnssius auratus in beauty.Sub-order of the Apoda.Symbranchidae : Monopterus javanicus Lac.^ ^ huang shan.Angdillidae : Anguilla bengalensis Gray, A.japonica T. & S., fl,|^ pai shan.Congeridae : Conger vulgaris Cuv.Murenidae : Gymnothorax reticularis Bloch.Sub-order of the Physoclista.Gadoidae : Ophiocephalus argus Cantor.Pleuronectidae : (Soles, Plaice,) : Zebriaszebrinus T. & S., CUdoderma asperrimum andvariegatum T. & S., some Pseudorhombus, Bhinoplagusia, Platojjhrys.Sphyraenidae : Sphyraena pinguis GiiNTHER.MuGiLiDAE : Mugil cephalus L.ScoMBRiDAE : (Mackerel) : Scomber diego Ayres,Scomberoniorus 'chinensis C. & V., Cybium gracileGiiNTHER, Echeneis naucrates L. (Remora).Stromatoidae : Stromateoides argenteus (Euphrasen).Carangidae : Caranx arviatus Forskal.Xiphiidae : Xiphias gladius L.Sciaenidae : Sciaena albifiora Rich., dussumieriC. & v., Corvina japonica T. & S., iina andsemiluctuosa C. & V.,Percidae : Diploprion bifasciatus, Kuhl,Labrax luyii Basil., Lateolab rax japonicus C. & V.,Petrometopon boenak Bloch, Perca fusca Tg. ;some Ejjinephelus, Lutianus, Niphon.Mullidae : Vpetieus tragula Rich., Upeneo'idessubvittatus T. & S.181

FISHES AND FISHERIESENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASebeanidae : Siniperca chuatsi and chuantsiBasil.Pristipomatidae : some Hapalogenys, Diagramma,Denttx.Sparidae : Sparus aries T. & S., swinhonisGiiNTHER, some Lethrinus, Pagrdsomus, Evynnis,Girella.Chaetodontidae : Chaetodon, Platax, Ahudefdufsordidus Forskal.Balistidae : Monacanthus chinensis Osbeck.Tetrodontidae : Spheroldes spadiceus (Rich.),ocellatus (Osbeck), rubripes T. & S. .Scorpaenidae : Sebastiscus marmoratus C. & V.,Sebastes nigromaculatus GiiNTHER, Pelor japonicumand sinense C. & V., Scorpcenopsis, Hemitripterus.CoTTiDAE (Miller's Thumb) : some Ceratocottiis,Trachidermichthys, Myoxocephalus, Megalocottus,PoTocottus, Vellitor, Psychrolutes, Platycephalus,Thysanophrys.Triglidae (Red Gurnets) : Cheilidonichthyskumu Less. & Garn., Lepidotrigla alata Hotjtt.microptera GiiNTHER.GASTROSTErD.\E ( Sticklebacks ) : Gastrosteussinensis Guichenot.Syngnathidae : Syngnathus acusimilis GiiNTH.,Hippocampus histrix Kaup.Trachinidae : Sillago japonica T. & S., Latilusauratus KiSHiNOtrYE.Lophiidae (Frog-fish) : Lophiosmus setigerusVahl.Gobiidae : Mogurnda obscura T. & S., Eleotrisoxycephala T. & S., sinensis Lac, pomatophila andswinhonis GiiNTHER, Apocryptes chinensis Osbeck,Periophthalmus cantonensis Osbeck, schlosseri andhoelreuteri Pall., Acanthogobius hasta and flavimanusT. & S., Chaeturichthys stigmatias Rich.,taeniatus GiiNTHER, Lophiogobius ocellicaudaGiiNTHER, Parapercis pulchella T. & S., Calliurichthysolidus GiiNTHER, japonicus Houtt.Cepolidae : Acanthocepola limbata C. & V.hrusensterni T. & S.Heterolepidotae : Agrammus agrammus T.&S.,Chirus hexagrammus Pall.Blenniidae : Ernogrammus hexagrammus T. & S.,Anarrhichas fasciatus Bleeker.Mastacembelidae : Mastacembelus sinensisBleeker.Trichiuridae : Trichiurus japonicus T. & S.Bibliography :—In addition to works alreadynamed, Notices sur les peintures chinoises desCyprinoldes depose.es an Museum de VUniversitede Groningue par M. J. Senn van Basel (Amst.Verslag. Acad. VI, 1872, pp. 117-121).—Perny :Appendice au Dictionnaire fran^ais-latin-chinois,Hisloire naturelle, 5e Part., Ichthyologie,pp. 67-74, (rather inaccurate). Cuvier etValenciennes : Histoire naturelle des Poissons.Mollendorff : Trouts in China (China Review,vol. vii, pp. 276-278). [There appears to be atrue species of Trout, with the Chinese namei&M% ^-^^ ^^" 2/"]- Temminck & ScHLEGEL : Faunaja^jsifnica, Pisces, Amsterdam 1850. On theCyprinus auratus L., commonly called the Goldfish,may be read Cuv. and Val., op. cit., vol. 16,pp. 101-121, W. F. Mayers, Goldfish Cultivation(Notes and Queries on C. & J., vol. ii, pp. 123-124),Leon Vaillant in Bull. Soc. Ace, 1893, pp. 488-498,etc. (Cf. Cordier, Bibliotheca Sinica, 2nd edition,cols. 387-528, 1536-1538 and 3078). [F.C.]FISHERIES andPISCICULTURE.It is inaccurate to say that Fishing is notregulated by law in China ; but as a matter of factit is ruled less by the code than by custom. Thesecustoms are as burdensome and as tyrannical asthe strictest law, but at the same time, they arefrequently excellent, as for instance the one whichprohibits fishing at the spawning period. Theyhardly affect any but professional fishermen, whilethe law is concerned only with fishing on a largescale—and little enough with that. Amateurs arepractically exempt from all restrictions. Ingeneral, one might say that the regime of theChinese fisherman is absolute liberty, tempered bycompetition and by the demands of the authorities.All the implements of fishing known in Europeare in use in China : floating lines, sinking lines,motionless lines—with and without bait, harpoonswith 3, 5, and 7 teeth, different small nets in alltheir varieties, square nets of all sizes, conicalweighted hand-nets, triangular sand-nets, triplemeshednets, wicker snares and wire-baskets, andvarious drag-nets. We may note as rather specialwhat have been called hammer-fishing, mirror-fishing,and cormorant-fishing, with some other ingeniousmethods and some intelligent industries.The world of fishermen is, as it were, a socialclass apart, curious to study, and fairly exclusiveas also is the fishing population of the coasts ofEurope, and perhaps also that of the small riverboats. The work makes severe, sometimes verysevere demands, but it also brings with it manyhours of rest, and altogether suits the characterof the Chjnese labourer fairly well. As for theprofits, they vary; they depend to a large extenton the man's professional skill ; they seem tosuffice for a livelihood, but, in general, no more.In spite of very active fishing operations, fishesdo not seem to diminish in the Chinese waters.One of the causes of this is the care which istaken from time to time to pour fry into depopulatedstreams and canals. As a private industry, thispractice has received the name of Pisciculture, or,from those who might consider that term ratherambitious, that of Aquiculture. Fish go up the182

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAFIVE ELEMENTSlarge rivers, often very high up, to spawn ; specialmen gather the eggs, surround them with specialprecautions, feed and tend the young fish whichhatch out, and, transporting these "water-chickens"by boat, send them at low price to the owners oflakes, ponds, and of any pieces of water. Theseowners, once they have put the fry into theirfishponds,have merely to wait for the development ofthe fish, which takes two years for the speciesthus cultivated. At the end of this time, individualfish of from 8 to 10 lbs. are caught. Authorsassert that with time they would^ reach the weightof from 25 to 50 lbs. ; but for more than onereason, this would be of no practical advantage.The species admitted into the fish-ponds, thedomestic fishes,^ ^ chia yil, are Leuciscus idellusVal., ch'ing yil^f^; L. aethiops Basil., ts'ao yii^^ hiian yUfl^f^; Hypophthalmichthys nohilisBleeker, yung yu fifj|^, j^ang {pan) t'ou yii 6gg|^(.3^ M,); ^- 'niolitrix Bleeker, lien tzu yii, pel lieritzH yii (Q) ^^pH. To the same distinction thecarp, Cyprinus carpio L., li yu Mfkj is oftenadmitted, and sometimes the Ophicephalus argusCantor, hei yil ||^.Among the best fish for the table may bementioned the Shad, Alausa che yii Dabry,shih yii ^^, some perches, or rather, some Bassesand some perch-pikes, Labrax luyil Basil, lu yilgg^ ; Lateolabrax japonicus, (C. & V.), lu yil,hi tzH yii ^J- "^'f some sea-perches, Sinipercachnatsi and chuantsi Basil, hoa tsi yii /{£^|?t andhuang tsi yil MMf^> ^^e Blue River sturgeon,Acipenser dabryanus Dumeril, huang yii Mfk'some Corbs, Corvina sina, shih cheou yil, ^ S ^the Belt-fish, Trichiurus jqponicius T. & S. tai yii^ m, etc. V *Bibliography : Dabry de Thiersant op. cit.IfFatjvel op. cit. ; Pol Korrigan, Cavserie sur laPeche flvviale en Chine, Shanghai, 1909 ; Morrison,Notes on the Physical Aspects and on the Foodfishesof the Liao Basin (in Ann. Nat. Hist. 1898,257-263) ; Cordier, Bibl. Sin., col. 3078/80.[F.C.]FIVE CLASSICS, THE, 3.(t?5 wu ching. Thefive canonical books which, with the Four Books(q.v.), constitute what are called the ChineseClassics. They are the I ^ ching, or Book ofChanges; the Shih ^ ching; or Book of Odes; theShu § chi7ig or Book of History; the Li Chi @ HEor Canon of Rites ; the Ch'un Ch'iu ^ 1^ (Springsand Autumns) ov Annals (of Confucius). Thisarrangement dates from the Han dynasty.See under each name.t. FIVE DYNASTIES, Epoch of the, S f^'lou tai. A period of 53 years with five ephemeraldynasties between the T'ang and Sung periods.The art of block-printing is said to have beeninvented in the Posterior T'ang. The five dynastieswith their rulers are as follows.Dyn. Title Accession Reign Title AdoptedThe Posterior Liang DynastyT'ai Tsu ;i!cifia 907 K'ai P'ing gg2p907Ch'ien.Hua |£2p911Mo Ti or^^orJ^^ Cheng Ming ^gg 915Chiin Wang 913 Lung Te t|^. 921The Posterior T'ang Dynasty ^ ^'|B-Chuang Tsung t^^ 923 T'ung Kuang |^^ 923 'Ming Tsung 5^,^ 926 T'ien Ch'eng ^)S. 926Ch'ang Hsing ^^ 930Min Ti ^^ 933 Ying Shun MM 934Fei Ti or||iS?o.S^^Lu Wang 934 Ch'ing T'ai ^^ 934The Posterior Chin Dynasty ^^Ig.Kao Tsu ^ IE 936 T'ien Fu %^ 936Ch'u Ti or ffl orShao Ti or ^i? ^ «•"Ch'i Wang ^ 3: 942 K'ai Yiin pgil 944The Posterior Han Dynasty =}^J9?|E-Kao Tsu ^ jia 947 T'ien Fu 5^jji| 936Ch'ien Yu ^^ 948Yin Ti H ^ 948 Ch'ien Yu m^ 948The Posterior Chou Dynasty ^ j^ |2T'ai Tsu ;J:il 950 Kuang Shun flJUg 951Shih Tsung "ttt;^ 954 HsienTe |i^.954(already in useunder T'ai Tsu).Kung Ti r^^ 959 Hsien Tg |g^. 960FIVE ELEMENTS, THE, 31 ^ ;the five constituentessences of manifested nature, viz :—Metal,Air, Fire, Water, Wood. They are specified in themost ancient philosophic document in China ("TheGreat Plan" ; see Astrology) and have ever sincebeen considered to be the fundamental forms ofmatter, just like the four elements of Greek philosophy(c/. Plato's Timaeus). In post-Confucian timesthey were associated with Yin and Yang {q.v.), andthe Sung school (particularly Chou Tun-i andChu Hsi) expounded :—a scheme of cosmogonicgenealogy as followsT'AI CHI (" Great Limit " or Ultimate)FIVE ELEMENTSITHE MANIFOLDAccording to Chu Hsi, the five elements arenot identical with the five objects whose namesthey bear but are subtle essences whose nature ishowever best manifested by those five objects.I183

BlackjEarthFIVE ELEMENTS ENCYCLOrAEDIA SINICAThe five elements are idcJitified with the five planots and a complete scheme of affinities or'correspondences" has heen developed as shown in the following table.NameT'ai YdiiijGreatPositiveT'ai Yin\Great!Negative 1Shag YinThe Lesser NegativeShao YungLesserPositiveStarJih T'ouSunYiichMoonShui UsingMercuryChin HsingVenusHuoHsingMarsMu Hsing 7"?/ HsingJupiter SaturnHsingFixed starsQuality Hot Cold Dark LightNumber Nine Six Eight SevenFeature Eyes Ears Mouth NoseZodiacalLunarAsterismsNos. 1 to28Fang ^HifU nMao 18Using 25Hsin 5Wi'i 12Pi 19Chang 26Chi 7Pi uShm 21Chfn 28K'ang 2Niu 9Lou 16Kuei 2SWei 6Shih 13Tsui 20Yi 27Chio 1Tou 8K'ur.i 15Ching 22Ti SNu 10Wei 17Liu 2JtOrganSpleen orKidneys1Lungs Heart Liver StomachTaste Salt Pungent Bitter Sour SweetColourjWhite Red Green YellowElementPositiveBreathNegativeBreathWater Metal Fire Wood EarthParentElementChildElementEnemyYin Yang Melal Earth Wood Water FireYin Yang Wood Water Earth Fire MetalFire Water Metal WoodFriend Fire Wood Metal Earth WaterEarthly c yrclic characters (or"stems" Nos. 1 to 10)Jen + 9Kuei- -JlONorthKeng + 7Hsin ~8WestPtng +STing -kSouthWu + 5Chi - 6EastChia +1Yi —2MiddleCelestial yclic characters (orc"brancht;s" Nos. 1 to 12)Hai 13Tzu 1Ch'oii 2Shen 9Yu 10Shu 11Hsu 6Wu 7Wei 8Yin SMao iCh'in 5IntheCentreEarthly an alogues (correspond-ing to tlle stems)BillowStreamWeaponCauldronTorchLampFirBambooMountainPlainCelestial or vital analogues (corngto the respondbranches)Musical NRankQualityotesBearRatOxLaThings! KnowledgeTigerHareDragonReMinisterSerpentHorseGoatSoAffairsWorshipMonkeyCockDogMiSubjectLoveDoPrinceRighteousnessFaithfulnessThe Chinese theories of meteorology, physics, alchemy, astrology, aesthetics and medicine are allbased on these correspondences combined with the "Pa Kua" (g.v.).184

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAFLOWER BOATSAn interesting analogy with the Sephiroth ofthe Jewish Kabbalah is provided by the Fiveelements each with dual polarities, making Tenemanations in all.The "Map of the (Yellow) Eiver" and "thewriting of the Lo (River)," which consist of certainarithmetical combinations of numbers, are universallyassociated with the Five Elements.Carus : Chinese Philosophy. [H.C.]FIVE GRAINS, THE, S |5millet, rice, corn, and beans.wu hu; hemp,FIVE REGIONS. China was divided byPope Leo XIII in 1876 into five ecclesiasticalregions or synodal regions. For the list ofVicariats belonging to each region see Planchet;for the decree see de Moidrey.Planchet : Le.s Missions de Chine; deMoidrey : La Hitrarchie Catholiquc en Chine.FIVE RELATIONS i1i^, wu lun, the fivecardinal relations among men, according to Confucianism,viz., those of husband and wife; fatherand son ; elder and younger brother ;prince andofficer ; friend and friend.FIVE RULERS, AGE OF, £^|B Wu Ti Chi(B.C. 2852-2205), is chiefly legendary. This periodwas governed by nine rulers, of whom the followingfive are famous and give the name to the period.Fu Hsi, who is said to have invented picturewriting,instituted laws of marriage, taught fishingand rearing of domestic animals, and the rudimentsof music; Shen-Nung, who taught husbandry andthe use of medicinal herbs ; Huang-Ti, who inventedthe cycle of sixty, built vessels and fixed weightsand measures, while his wife taught the people torear silk-worms and weave silk. The period ofYao and his two successors is regarded as theGolden Age in China. Shun, instituted religiousrites, sacrificed to Heaven and formulated rules ofdivination and a code of punishments.Dynastic Appellation Personal Appellation;*: ^ T'ai Hao f^^f^ Fu-hsi Shih 2953MW.^ P'ao-hsi Shihi^ ^ Yen Ti «*.^i5 Shen-nung Shih 2838Lieh-shan Shih^.'ililiS^ ^ Huang Ti TitlSi Yu-hsiung Shih 2698Shih%\Wc^ Hsien-yuan'p ^ Shao Hao ^^fk Chin-t'ien Shih 2598£K M Chuan Hsii rSliJ^ Kao-yang Shih 2514# § Ti K'u -^^Si Kao-hsin Shih 24364f?- ^ Ti Chih 2366'^M^ T'ang Ti Yao l^^Sz T'ao-t'ang Shih 2357BM'M- Yii Ti Shun ^^Sk Yu-yii Shih 2255FIVE SACRED MOUNTAINS % il wu yo.These are, the eastern, ^ \\x T'ai Shan in Shantungthe southern, ^ (Ij Heng Shan in Hunan ; the western,^ \\\ Hua Shan in Shensi ; the northern, 'H UlHeng Shan in Chihli ; and the central, t^ (If ChungShan in Honan.They are among the chief places of pilgrimagein China. They are connected chiefly with theTaoist religion, though their fame and sanctitydate further back than Taoism. They must not beconfounded with the Four Sacred mountains ofBuddhism. See T'ai Shan, etc.FLAGS Jj? cA'i, are of very ancient use inChina. The founder of the Chou dynasty (12thcentury B.C.) marched to the conquest of Chinawith a white flag in or at his right hand.There are many references to them in laterancient history ; they were carried in hunting aswell as in war.Parker : Ancient China Simplified, p. 31China Review^, vol. xv, pp. 52, 253.FLEUVE BLEU, LE, the Blue River, theFrench name for the lower course of the Yangtze.FLINT, Mr., an employe of the East IndiaCompany, whose Christian name seems to have disappearedfrom the earth; he was almost thefirst Englishman who qualified himself to act asinterpreter. He seems to have been known to theChinese as ^ffi^ Hung jen-hui. In 1755 he wassent to Ningpo and Chusan, with a view to openingup trade. Difficulties were made, of course, anda memorial was sent to the throne. Ch'ien Lungissued in reply the edict which strictly confined al!foreign trade (except Russian) to the one port ofCanton. The officials then ordered and forced theEnglish to leave Ningpo. Flint, however, wentnorth instead of south, and was the first Englishmanto set foot in Tientsin. He persuaded a localmandarin to present his petition to the Emperor,with the result that a high official was sent toCanton to investigate matters, and the Hoppo wasdegraded.Flint seems to have gone a second time toN ingpo after the Edict which closed it to tradeat any rate, on his return to Canton in December,1759, he was ordered into the Viceroy's presence,and was shown what was said to be an imperialedict, condemning him to three yeai's' imprisonmentat Macao, and to be then sent away to England.A protest was made by all nationalities in Canton,and full particulars were sent to the Court ofDirectors in London. A special mission was sentfrom the Directors to the Viceroy of Canton, butit was a failure in all respects : Flint remained inprison till the third year, and was then put onboard a homeward-bound vessel.Fames : The English in China; Davis : China.FLOWER BOATS, hua t'ing 10c. m,gailydecorated and painted barges, found especially atI24185

FLOWER PECKERSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACanton, and used as pleasure resorts, for suppers,wine-parties, etc. They are much frequented byprostitutes but are not used as brothels.ScHLEGEL : A Canton Floxcer-Boat, London, 1894.FLOWER.PECKERS. See Dicaeum.FLOWERY KINGDOM, THE, a name usedby foreigners for China, in consequence of theChinese using hua ^, which means flowers, as aname for the country : Chung hua t^ ^, 'centralhua' being the usual form.FLUTES. See Mu-iical Instruments.FLYCATCHERS. See Muscicapidae.FLY-WHISK, called "yak's tail" ^Mchu wei, is a whisk of horse-hair or vegetable fibreused by Buddhist and Taoist priests. In Buddhismit signifies obedience to the first commandment—notto kill. In Taoism it is regarded as an instrument3f magic. Its origin is Indian. Many Buddhistimages are represented holding it.Yetts : Disposal of Buddhist Dead in China,(R.A.S. Journal, 1911); De Geoot : Le Code duMahayana en Chine.FOGO, FUGUJ, FUGU, names found inCatalan Atlas for Foochow.FO KUO CHI ffg^lE- See Fa Hsien.FONTANEY, JEAN DE ^^M,theborn February14, 1643, in the diocese of Leon. He wasthe Superior of the five Jesuit priests sent to Chinaby Loms XIV.They left Brest on March 1685 and arrivedin Siam in September. After nine months therethey left for China, but on account of storms hadto return. Learning then that the Portuguese wereopposed to their landing at Macao, they tookship for Ningpo, and arrived there in July, 1687,more than two years after leaving France. Threemonths later the five missionaries were ordered bythe Emperor to go to Peking. After working inNanking for some time and making a journey toCanton to seek justice from the Portuguese whodid all in their power to hinder the work of theFrench, Fontaney again went to Peking. Hereturned twice to Europe on mission business, in 1699and 1703, and finally in 1720 according to Remtjsat ;but this must be an error ; see below. At his firstreturn he brought home some Chinese books whichwere deposited in the King's Library. He did noimportant literary work ; there are two letters fromhim in the Lettres Edifiantes, volumes vii and viiihe also contributed some memoranda to Du Halde'swork. He died at La Fleche on January 16, 1710.Remusat : Nouveavx Melanges Asiatiques.FOOCHOW IS^, the capital of Fukien, inlat. 25° .59' N. ; long. 119o.,27' E., on the Min river,34 miles from the sea; steamers anchor at PagodaIsland, nine miles below the city.Fcochow is a literary and administrative centre,but has also considerable industries and trade.The best known of the former is the celebratedlacquerware, the preparation of which is secret.The output has increased very much of late, owingto extended demand. Tobacco and fruit are otherproducts extensively cultivated ; and paper, fromthe bamboo groves which are a feature of Fukien,is a very important industry. The timber, camphorand tea trades have declined very largely, camphorespecially having been practically extinguished bywanton wastefulness. A match factory and twosaw-mills deal with timber products..The population is given as 624,000.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 5,527,777 6,583,194Net Chinese „ 4,638,961 4,002,382Exports 9,081,041 9,529,034Total Hk.TIs. 19,247,779 20,114,610FOOT BINDING. The Chinese have thecustom of compressing the feet of girl childrenwith tight linen bandages. Great pain is givenin the process, and the result is a completely deformedfoot and the gait of a cripple. The customdoes not obtain among Manchus, Hakkas, hill-tribesof China and Formosa, or the boat population ofCanton ; otherwise in most provinces it is practicallyuniversal.The origin of the custom is unknown, thoughit is attributed to one imperial concubine or anotherof 10 or 15 centuries back. Such various dates andpersons are named in this connection that it doesnot seem worth while to mention any of them.The practice was forbidden by K'ang Hsi in1664, but the prohibition was withdrawn fouryears later.The binding of a girl's feet begins between theages of five and eight. Bandages of strong whitecotton cloth, 3 inches wide and 6 feet long, arewound tightly round the foot, bending the fourlittle toes under the sole, so as to narrow the foot.These bandages are tightened every day, causinggreat pain to the child, who is compelled tokeep walking so as not to let the circulation cease.After the first year the foot is bandaged in adifferent manner, the heel being drawn tightly upto the ball of the great toe, so as to shorten the foot.The fashionable length is 3 Chinese inches. Thebandages are so placed that the foot does not forman angle with the leg, but seems a prolongation ofit. The bones of the instep are made to bulge andform an arch resembling the crescent moon. Thefoot and leg atrophy and the skin shrivels. AChinese writer has declared that one girl out of ten186

jENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAFOREIGN RELATIONSdies from the after-effects of foot-binding, suppurationand gangrene often occurring, causing thelimb to fall off. During the last decade or twothere has been a great change in the practice ofthis barbarous custom. See Anti-footbinding;(roldcn Lilies.Chinese Rei-ository : vol. iii, p. 537 ; Gray :China; Giles : Historic China; Far East : Feb.,1877 ; Report of Peking Hospital : 1868 ; Mrs.A. Little : Intimate China.FORBES, FRANCIS BLACKWELL, anAmerican, came ,to China with the diplomatic missionof W. B. Reed of the U.S.A. in 1857.He wasafterwards a merchant in Shanghai (Russell & Co.).He Was President of the N.C.B. Royal AsiaticSociety for some years, and helped to build theSociety's premises in Shanghai. Being an enthusiasticbotanist he began in 1886, in the LinnoeanSociety's Journal, An Enumeration of all the -plantsLnoivn from Vhina Proper, etc., now known asForbes and Hemsley's work. He died at Bostonin 1908.Bretschneider : History of Extropean Botani>/ilDiscoveries in China.FOREIGN CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY society.Headquarters :—Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.Entered China, 1886.Works in Kiangsu, Anhui and Ssuch'uan.This Society represents a denomination whosemembers wish to be known as 'Disciples of Christ,'>r more'simply still, Christians.'Kiangsu.—The first missionary to be sent toChina was W. E. Macklin, m.d., a Canadian. Hewas shortly after joined by several other workers,including Rev. A. F. H. Shaw, an Englishman,(who died afterwards of typhus fever, contractedwhile doing famine relief work), and Rev. F. E.Meigs (died 1915). Nanking was chosen as thesphere of work, and a hospital and dispensary werestarted near the Drum Tower, and another dispensaryon the further side of the city, near the SouthGate.A boys' boarding-school was also opened,which later became the Nanking Christian College,and afterwards developed (1) into the Union ChristianCollege, in confunction with the AmericanPresbyterians, and (2) in 1909 was merged with theMethodist University into the University of Nanking.The building up of a church and opening ofoutstations were begun at once, and a girls' school\v as started in 1892.In 1915, the Chinese Church of the Missionit Hsia-kwan, the Port of Nanking, erected a $1,000school building on their own land at their ownexpense.An extension of work in Kiangsu was begunat Shanghai by Rev. James Ware in 1890, especiallyin the mill district. The manager of the Chinesemills later presented the Mission with a schoolbuildingin appreciation of its work. A school andChristian Institute were worked for some years inHongkew, but, the Mission having decided to consolidateits work by confining it to Mandarinspeaking districts, the Shanghai workers weregradually transferred, and the work itself closedin 1917.Nan T'ung chou f^j Ji, >H , on the north bank ofthe Yangtze, 75 miles from the sea, was openedin 1895.Anhvi.—The original plan of the Mission wasto run a line of stations north from Nanking toKai-feng fu, and with that in view, work wasbegun al Chu chow j^ ijfl in Anhui on the northside of the Yangtze in 1887, and at Feng-yang fuin 1889, but the latter place had to be given up fora time, as the missionaries were stoned out andtheir landlord put in prison. Since then theAmerican Presbyterian Mission (North) has openedup the district, and it was therefore left to them.In 1903 Po chow was opened, but owing to thelack of missionaries, the work could not be continued.Wuhu was opened in 1889, and Wu-weichou 3^ ;^ jMi > at first an outstation from Wuhu,in 1915, and Lu-chou fu ^^}^, the ancestralhome of Li Hung-chang, in 1897. A church,capable of seating 800 people, was opened in thelast-named place in 1915.Ssuch'uan.—Batang £ |g was opened in 1903,where 8 workers, including two medical men, carryon with gratifying success their medical, evangelistic,and educational work.Statistics, 1917 :—Foreign missionaries 48Chinese Staff 148Communicants 1,440FOREIGN RELATIONS WITH CHINA.The intercourse of China with European nationswill be found under separate headings (see SpanishRelations, French Relations, etc.) ; but it is necessaryto give a brief sketch which shall include otherand earlier intercourse.The Sinim of Isaiah and the Sinae of Ptolemymay or may not refer to the Chinese : the questionseems still undecided. But there is no doubt thatboth Pliny and Ptolemy write of them under thename Seres (q.v.). It is also generally agreed thatthe Chinese Ta Ch'in ^ ^ means the RomanEmpire, or at least the . Syrian Province. Greekclassical writers also make undoubted reference toChina (see Cosmas; Taugas) and it is thus quitecertain that at the beginning of our era there weretrade routes across Central Asia open betweenEurope and the Far East. That conditions inI187

!withIbablyIi1596,i 1637Iwere.FOREIGN RELATIONSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATurkestan were very different in former days fromthose of to-day is proved by recent excavations,which show a high state of culture to have onceexisted in that region.In the second century traders began to comeby sea also ; and in the seventh factories in Cantonand elsewhere were opened by Arabs, duties beganto be exacted, and an overseer of foreign trade wasestablished at Canton.In the seventh century, Nestorian missionariescame to China, and have left proof of their presence,in the Hsi-an fu tablet.Two Arabs, Wahab and Abu Zaid, have leftrecords of their visits in the ninth century, and onthe other hand we have the narratives of travelto India by Buddhist pilgrims, beginning withFa Hsien in a.d. 400.During the T'ang dynasty (618-907) both Arabsand Persians had a large trade at Ningpo, Hangchow,Ch'iian chow (Zaitun) and Canfu (nearHangchow). Abit Zaid narrates that at thecapture of Canfu in 877, there were a hundred andtwenty thousand Mohammedans, Jews, Christians,Parsees, etc., all engaged in commerce. During theSung dynasty, according to the standard histories,there was a vast amount of trade, especially withthe Arabs, whose business centre was at Palembangin Sumatra, and there was also active sea trafficwith Shantung. Chinese vessels certainly went asfar as Zanzibar.The conquests of Chknghis Khan opened theway for many travellers; Rubrtjqxjis, Odoric,MoNTECORViNO, and Marco Polo being the bestknown.A change took place on the setting up of theMing dynasty, whose chief aim was to make allneighbouring countries tributary to the purelyChinese dynasty. Naval activity did not promotecommercial intercourse, and for the first hundredand fifty years of Ming rule there is hardly theslightest foreign intercourse recorded except outwardexpeditions and the coming of tribute bearers.The land routes were closed by the hostility of theMongols and the Yiinnanese.In 1511 the Portuguese took Malacca, and in1516 Albuqverqtje sent Perestrello to Canton.Next year Fernando Perez de Andrade with eightvessels was sent and was well received. But hisbrother Simon arrived in 1518, and proceeded tofortify Sanshan (q.v.) and to act the pirate. Hewas expelled. Other Portuguese settled in Ch'iianchow and Ningpo, but were slaughtered or drivenout in 1545 and 1549, because of their lawless andoutrageous conduct. Mendez Pinto's excursion torifle the tombs of the seventeen Chinese kings, maybe taken as a sample of Portuguese behaviour.They made their footing good again at Sanshan,T^ampacao, and finally at Macao, where they haveremained ever since. Their intercourse with Chinauntil recent times has been almost entirely commercial, not political.In 1582, Ruggiero, the Jesuit missionary, succeededin doing what Xavier wished to do, andentered China; Rica in 1601 reached Peking andopened the long chapter of modern Christian Missionsin China. Spaniards from the newly-seizedPhilippines made some slight attempt to enterChina, but most of their trade at first was withcertain Chinese who were in Manila before theSpaniards, and whose junks came from Foochowand Amoy. In 1603 and in 1662 there were immensemassacres of Chinese in the Philippines, due bothtimes to Spanish fear lest China should conquerthe islands.The Dutch came next, at enmity of courseSpain and hence with Portugal at that time.They attacked Macao, but were repulsed. Theythen occupied an island of the Pescadores. Thisthe Chinese made them exchange in 1634, for asettlement in Formosa, (which did not belong toChina). They were driven out by Koxinga in 1662,and had comparatively little to do with Chinaafterwards, though they sent one or two Missions,and, according to Chinese accounts, promised, in1655, to send tribute every eight years.Russian intercourse with China had begun earlierthan the Dutch, but it was, of course, overland.At first Russians were no doubt nothing more tothe Chinese than another barbarous tribe of thenorth from Western Asia. In the Yiian dynastyRussian mercenary guards were used at court ; butRussia is entirely absent from the records of theMing period. Russian history, however, relatesthat envoys were sent to Peking without result in1567, 1619, and 1653. Difficulties between the twonations on the Amur led to the Treaty ofNertchinsk in 1689, China's first treaty with aforeign power. A second treaty was made withRussia in 1727, when the Russian EcclesiasticalMission was established in Peking, though it pro-originated earlier.The English appeared in China somewhat laterthan the Dutch. Queen Elizabeth sent envoys inbut they perished at sea before arrival. InWeIddell's ships reached Macao, but theynaturally not recommended to the Chinese bythe Portuguese, and it was only by violence thathe could enter Canton and sell his cargoes. In 1664the East India Company sent ships, but again thePortuguese intrigued and no business was done.The Company made an agreement with Koxingato trade with Formosa and consequently with Amoy,but such an arrangement was, of course, obnoxiousto the Manchu rulers. In spite of Portuguese misrepresentations,the Company gained a foothold atCanton. Attempts were made to trade at NingpoJ 88

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAFOREION RELATIONSand elsewhere, but from 1684 to 1840 practicallyall foreign commerce was carried on at Canton.France has figured very little in China politicallyor commercially until recent times ; her workhas been almost entirely religious^ Rubruquis, theFranciscan friar, was sent by Loris IX in 1254, tothe i?[ongol court, but he never entered ChinaProper. In 1688, Louis XIV sent the first of theFrench Jesuits who have since done so much forthe country ; and there was a certain small amountof French trade at C^anton. In 1856 however,Chapdelaine's murder caused the FVench to joinwith the British in the Second War.The story of 'factory days' in Canton will befound under Factories, Hong Merchants, etc. Thehistory of the opium question will also be givenseparately. By the First War the British opened five|ports to international trade, and in the Second War!France and Great Britain opened Peking itself to Ijthe Ministers of all foreign powers, besides anumber of ports for the trade of all nations. Mis-sionary work throughout China has received protectionas the result of these wars, and GreatBritain moreover acquired the island of Hongkong.In more recent times, Japan has become animportant factor in Chinese history, and to her in1895 China lost Korea and the island of Formosa,and in 1905 leased away (to Japan in place ofRussia) the Liaotung peninsula.Germany was almost unknown to China tillquite lately, and is supposed to have been favourablyregarded for her comparative submissiveness.In 1897, however, she took forcible possession ofKiaochow, ostensibly because of the murder of two(ierman priests. This led to the occupation of PortArthur and Dalny by Russia, Weihaiwei by GreatBritain and Kwangchou wan by France. Atpresent, 1917, Kiaochow (Tsingtau) is German nomore, but neither is it returned to China, andl itsfuture is undecided.America first traded at Caiiton in 1785 andshared in the old factory life. By treaties in 1844,she obtained the advantages which Great Britainhad won by war, and in the Second War got hertreaty even before France and England. ByBurlingame's treaty of 1858, America disclaimedall wish to meddle in Chinese matters and agreedto admit Chinese immigrants. But later treatieshave much modified this benignant attitude.Belgium has been little heard of in Chinapxcept in connection with railway and other( nncessions.Portugal, the first of European comers, neverobtained any treaty with China, strange to say,till 1887. From 1582 till 1849, the Portuguese paidfiveTiundred taels a year to the Chinese governmentfor the rent of Macao. After the murder of theGovernor Amaral in 1849 the rent was paid nomore, but it was not till 1887 that Macao wasofficially recognised as a possession of Portugal.All the treaties made between foreign Powersand China will be named under Treaties.Lists of all the Ministers who have representedForeign Powers in Peking will be found underthe articles dealing with the relation of each Powerwith China : see American Relations, French Relations,etc. In some cases, however, there is nosuch article, the relations having been of smallhistorical importance. The lists in those cases aregivenbelow.Austria-Hungary.—List of I. and R. Austro-Hungarian Ministers and Charges d'Affaires inChina.1871, April 23rd to 1874, March 21st; HeinrichFreiherr von Calice.1874, March 21st to 1877, April 22nd; IgnazFreiherr von Schaeffer (Karl Ritter vonBoleslawski, Gerant frcm 1877, May 3rd to1879, September).1879, January 26th to 1883, March 4th ; MaximilianRitter Hoffer von Hoffenfels,1883, March 4th to 1888, January 18th ; Karl GrafZaluski.1888, June 20th to 1893, November 27th; RudigerFreiherr von Biegeleben (Heinrich GrafCoTJDENHOVE, Charge d'Affaires).1895, September 10th to 1896, December 26th;Christoph Graf Wydenbrtjck.{The above named all having resided at Tokyo).1896, December 26th to 1905, June 27th; MoritzFreiherr von Gzikann (Artur von Rosthorn,Councillor of Legation, Charge d'Affaires).1905, September 10th to 1911, March 25th; EugenRitter von Kxtczynski (Wilhelm Ritter vonStorck, Secretary of Legation, Charged'Affaires).1911, March 25th to ; Arthur von Rosthorn(Kuno Graf Des Fours, Secretary of Legation,and Rudolf Weinzetl, Councillor ofLegation, Charges d'Affaires).Belgium.—The Legation with all documentshaving been destroyed in the Boxer troubles it isimpossible to obtain more information than follows.Baron Carl de Vinck de Deux Orp, was appointedMinister in Peking about May, 1896. andleft on April 6, 1899.M. E. de Cartier de Marchienne, Charged'Affaires; April 10, 189&—May 15, 1900.M. Joostens, Minister; May 15, 1900—April 17,1904.Baron E. de Gaiffier d'Hestroy, Charge d'AffairesApril 17—May 30, 1904 ; the same, appointedMinister ; May 30, 1904—November 21, 1905.M. E. DE Prelle de la Nieppe, Charge d'AffairesNovember 21, 1905—June 8, 1906.I189

ihundred: li,I a1 inspectionIandIpricejOnI! classedjGovernmentI government-owned;reforestation'squareI;if,]culpableiyear,jsecurityitoiPunishmentsjIjThisjbyi RegulationsI\CHI,Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, presentjjstatingiArt.;CommerceiServicejServiceIwholejitsjjServiceIMinistryFOREST LAW .ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICABaron A. Grenier, Minister; June 8, 1906—June15, 1909.M. E. DE Prelle de la Nieppe, Charge d' AffairesJune 15, 1909—May 26, 1910.M. E. DE Cabtieb de Marchienne, Minister ; May26, 1910—March, 1917.Baron J. de Villenfagne de Sorinnes, Charged'Affaires; March 1917-^uly, 1917.M. Paul May, Minister; July, 1917—Ilahj.—In the following list some of the earlierdates may not be exactly correct and the list of(.'harges d'Affaires is not complete. The termCommander is a translation of Commendatore, andindicates an Order of knighthood, not a militaryrank.List of successive Italian Ministers in China,and dates of appointment.Count ViTTORio Sallier de la Tour, Mar. 31, 1867,, Alessandro Fe' d'Ostiani, Mar. 7, 1870,, Raffaele Ulisse Barbolani, Feb. 22, 1877Chevalier Ferdinando De Luca Dec. 12, 1878,,Alberto Pans a, Dec. 5, 1889Commander Alessandro Babdi, Feb. 8, 1894,,Renato De Martino, Mar. 6, 1898Marquis Giuseppe Salvago-Raggi, Mar. 23, 1899Count Giovanni Gallina, Dec. 19, 1901Commander Carlo Baroli, July 11, 1904Count GiuLio Cesare Vinci, Nov. 3, 1907Commander Federico Barilari, May 23, 1910Count Carlo Sforza. June 25, 1911Baron Carlo Aliotti. Nov. 18, 1916Charges d'Affaires.Don Livio Borghese, Charge d'Affaires fromMarch 13, 1907 to March 11, 1908.Chevalier Giuseppe Brambilla, Charge d'Affairesfrom March 11, 1911 to June 24, 1911.Chevalier Daniele Vare, Charge d'Affaires fromSeptember 29, 1915 to November 17, 1916.CoRDiER : Histoire des Relations de la Chineavec Its puissances occidcntales ; Morse : InternationalRelations of the Chinese Empire;Callahan : American Relations in the Far East;Si'EER : China and the U.S.A.FOREST LAW, THE. In August, 1912,the Republic instituted the Ministry of Agricultureand Forestry, including a Department of Forestry.A nursery was established in the grounds of theTemple of Heaven, and a Bureau of Forestry forKirin Province was instituted ; but there was nodefinite policy or correlation of efforts. In 1914,this Ministry was combined with that of Industryand Commerce, forming the present Ministry ofAgriculture and Commerce; at the same time theDepartment of Forestry was combined with theDepartment of Agriculture. This organization,merely nominal as far as Forestry was concerned,-lasted till January 15, 1916, when the Forest Servicewas inaugurated as an annex to the Ministry ofAgriculture and Commerce.This must be regardedas the real beginning of Forestry in China.A number of Forest Laws have been promulgatedunder the Republic, but little effect has yetbeen made to take advantage of their provisionsor comply with their restrictions. For example, inAugust, 1914, were issued "Regulations governingthe granting of Concessions in the National Forestsin Manchuria," containing eighteen articles. Itdoes not seem necessary to give these here in full.They provide for the concession to Chinese subjects,or Chinese Corporations, of the timber in nationalforests, the maximum area in each grant being twosquare li, and the maximum term twentyyears. The costs are $100 for every ten squareexpenses of investigation and survey; $50 forcertificate of concession ; $10 per annum for; $200 deposit for each ten square li,eight per cent, stumpage charges on the selling01 all logs sold from the forest.November 3, 1914, the Forest Law in 32articles was promulgated, by which the Governmentall forests not in private ownership asForests. Any forests might be madeReserved Forests by the Ministry of Agricultureand Commerce, indemnity being allowed. Idlehill-land might be granted forpurposes to Chinese subjects up to 100li at a time ; $20 to $100 cash security wasto be given for each lot, returnable with interestat the end of five years, it was found thatsatisfactory work had been done. In case ofneglect to improve the lot during the firstthe concession was to be cancelled and themoney forfeited. Land thus granted wasbe free from taxes for five to thirty years.were fixed for thefts in forests, forfiring forests, for injuring trees, removing boundarymarks, etc.Forest Law was followed in June, 1915Detailed Regulations for its enforcement andfor Encouraging Reforestation.It was on December 22, 1915, that Chou Tzu-ed a petition to YiiAN Shih-k'ai, then Emperor-elect,the intention of the Ministry to establish aNational Forestry Service and submitting sixteenRegulations, here given in full,1.—The Ministry of Agriculture andintends to organize a National Forestryas an annex to the said Ministry. The saidshall administer the forestry affairs of thecountry according to the Forest Law andDetailed Regulations.Art. 2.—The staff of the National Forestshall be composed of one Director-Generaland two Co-Directors. The Vice-Minister of theshall be ex-officio Director-General. Otherofficers shall be appointed by the Central Govern190

ENCYCLOPAEDIA StNlCAFORESTRY SERVICEment. The three Directors shall manage the affairsof the Service in accordance with instructions fromthe Minister. The Forest Service shall also maintaintechnical foresters, who are to be appointedfrom among those who have obtained the requiredknowledge and experience in forestry.Akt. 3.—The provincial administrative centresshall temporarily serve as forest stations. Whennicessary to meet the demands of the work theForest Service may, with the approval of theMinister, establish additional forest stations.Akt. 4.—A technical forester shall be appointedand assigned to every large forest station. It shallbe t'le duty of such an official to carry out theinstructions of the Ministry and of the CivilGovernor of the Province.AiiT. 5.—When no forest stations have beendesignated, the Forest Service may, after dueinvestigation of local conditions, and with theapproval of the Ministry, draw up a working planand put it into execution.Art. 6.—A candidate for the position of ProvincialForest Commissioner shall be one who hasknowledge of forestry and who is well versed in administrativework. The Ministry and the Governorof the Province shall jointly submit a petition (toHis Majesty) for appointment.Art. 7.—The Forest Service shall enumeratethe duties uf the Forest Commissioners and drawup regulations for their work, which shall be putinto execution after approval by the Ministry.Art. 8.—The expenses of the Provincial ForestCommissioners shall be included in the budgets ofthe respective provinces.Art. 9.—Each district (hsien) shall annuallyprovide a sum of more than 1200.00 to be expendedfor encouraging reforestation.Art. 10.—The Forest Service shall cooperatein and increase the collection of forest taxes, andshall recommend regulations poking to the improvementof the law governing forest taxation and theadministration thereof. 'Art. 11.—The Ministry shall decide upon thenumber of divisions to be created in the ForestService and shall fix the duties of each. Thenumber of officers shall be governed and limitedby the annual budget.Art. 12.—The Forest Service may increase thenumber of temporary employes whenever necessary.Art. 13.—The Ministry shall draw up rulesfor the guidance and government of the officers andemployes of the Forest Service.Art. 14.—The Forest Service shall formulaterules and regulations for the various divisions, forthe approval of the Ministry.Art. 15.—If it should be found that theseregulations are incomplete, the Ministry may rectifythem from time to time and memorialize forapproval.Art. 16.—The above regulations shall becomeeffective when sanctioned.On January 3, 1916, the Council of Statepromulgated a reply to this petition, approving ofthe creation of the National Forest Service. Theformal opening of the service took place on the16th of the same month. See Forestry Service.[F. S., abridged].FORESTRY SERVICE, THE. With theestablishment of the Republic there was an immediaterecognition of the importance of Forestry,of the loss China has suffered through the wholesaledestruction of forests in past centuries and of theneed for taking immediate steps to remedy thesituation. Chang Chien, when Minister of Agricultureand Commerce, got some progressive forestlaws promulgated, but the first real beginning ofForestry in China was in January, 1916, when theChinese Forest Service in the Ministry of Agricultureand Commerce was inaugurated. This waslargely due to the foresight and patriotism ofChou Tzu-chi the Minister of Agriculture andCommerce. The Minister is at the head of theService, and the Vice-Minister is ex -officio Director-General. The Adviser in Forestry and a Chineseact as co-Directors, and an English forest expert(Mr. W. Purdom) is attached to the Service.The general policy adopted is (i) to lessen thehigh price of timber and fuel arising from thepresent scarcity, by the judicious reforestation ofpublic lands now lying idle ; (ii) to regulate streamflowby the reforestation of important river-sheds(iii) to protect such public forest resources as stillexist ; (iv) to encourage and assist private activitiesin the same direction ; (v) to conduct a vigorouspro-forest propaganda throughout China ; (vi) totrain Chinese in the various lines of forestry work.It soon became evident that to secure efficiency,economy and harmony in these activities a morespecialized organization of the Service into Divisionswas necessary. Six Divisions were thereforecreated in February, 1916 : they are as follows.(1) The Division of Investigation. This is forthe provision of data, with regard to peculiar conditionsof soil, climate, sociological conditions, etc.,etc. Much information has already been collectedby scientists, travellers and missionaries, but itrequires to be all examined and correlated beforeit is of use in the new work.(2) The lieforestation Division. This is atpresent the executive of the Service and the branchwhich will be best known to the public. The workof this Division includes the establishment ofnurseries, the collection of seeds, transplanting topermanent locations, etc.(3) The Provincial Division. This Divisionlias supervision of all forestry work carried on inthe provinces, except projects such as forest191

j^FORESTRY SERVICEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAnurseries established and malintained by the ForestService itself. Provincial Forest Commissionerswill be appointed, and will be under the controlof the Chief of this Division.(4) The Propaganda Division. This will endeavourto make the forestry movement a p^opularone, instead of purely official. It will seek toenlighten all classes, from high officials to peasantfarmers, through newspapers and magazines, by. issuing circulars and pamphlets, by lectures andinformal talks, and by a text-book to be used inschools.(5) The Division of Education. The duty ofthis Division is to provide a corps of secondaryassistants or rangers, who can be educated in China.For the present it is necessary that such highlytrained foresters as are required be obtainedby sending students abroad.(6) The Clerical Division. This has charge ofall copying work, translating, etc., and of the nontechnicalpersonnel of all kinds.It is proposed to establish later two otherDivisions, the Division of Foreign Management andthe Division of Cooperation. The former wouldconcern itself with the administration, by conservativetechnical methods, of existing publictimber lands, that the present generation mayreceive the greatest benefit possible from forestresources without decreasing those resources to theinjury ox generations to come.The Division of Cooperation would give adviceas to important details of reforestation on a largescale to those possessing large areas of land nowmore or less unproductive. Railway Companies,Universities, Corporations, Institutions and privateowners may thus be expected to cooperate in awide extension of reforestation with little or nocost to the Central Government. Such privateenterprise, when once its financial success isdemonstrated, should far outstrip 'anything thatthe Government can do.Appropriations for the work of the ForestryService are at present made directly by the CentralGovernment through the Ministry of Agricultureand Commerce. Funds can, however, be expectedin addition from various sources ; some might beprovided by the system of cooperation mentionedabove ; the provinces should make appropriationsfor the maintenance of forest commissioners andstaffs ; and much might be obtained from the saleof young trees from government nurseries ; there isalready a demand for such trees, and by selling ata low price, so as to encourage the planters, itmight even be possible to cover the whole expenditureon the nurseries.Many minor works will also be undertaken bythe Service, such as the preparation of text andreference books ; an English-Chinese Glossary ofForestry terms; a Dictionary of Chinese ForestTrees, with botanical and local names, habitat, etc.a Forest Map of China, or at least the beginningof one; the collection of wood .specimens, of aforest Herbarium, of minor forest products, etc.,etc. All such work will go far to iielp in managingand increasing the forest resources of the countrv,thererby improving the comfort, prosperity andwell-being of the inhabitants, in the present andthe future.•>>,^,'f[F. S., abridged].ORMOSA. The Chinese name is T'ai wan^ aiUjat bay ; the name Formosa is Portugueseand means. The Beautiful; Ilka formosa, beautifulisle. It is between 21°.56'—26° 23' N. lat. andbetween 120° —122° E. long., separated from theChinese mainland by a channel about 100 mileswide, and nowhere more than 100 fathoms deep.The length of the island is about 210 miles, itsgreatest width about 70, its coastline some 450miles. A mountain ridge runs north and south, theliighest peak being Mfc. Sylvia (11,300 ft.). Thewestern slope is the more gradual, and on this sideChinese colonists live, the east of the range havingbeen left to the unconquered aborigines.Formosa appears first in Chinese history underthe name Liu chiu (Loochoo) ; two expeditions beingsent to the island in the Sui dynasty, 605—606 a.d.(Ma Tuan-lin). It is not mentioned again till1430 A.D., as it was barbarian, sending no tribute;but it cannot be doubted that during these centuriesChinese immigrants from Fukien would be graduallysettling there. In 1620 the Japanese tried to founda colony, and had some amount of trade there whenthe Dutch first arrived.European connection with the island arose outof the struggles between the Portuguese (Macao),the Spaniards (Philippines), and the Dutch (Java).The Dutch took possession of the Pescadores,and after much fighting and parleying agreed togive them up in exchange for Formosa,—over whichChina had then no rights. They went there in1624, and built at Tai-wan the Fort Zealandia.Two years later the Spaniards established themselvesat Kelung (Fort Santissima Trinidad), andin 1629 at Tamsui ; but they were driven out bythe Dutch in 1642. The overthrow of the Mingdynasty in China caused a large emigration toFormosa, and the Dutch were not wise enough toconciliate these settlers. Koxinga {q.v.), not beingable to resist the Manchu power, attacked the Dutchand drove them from Zealandia in 1662, thoughit is possible they held Kelung and Tamsui till1668. Koxinga, his son and grandson, ruled theisland till 1680, when it passed under MancHugovernment, and formed part of the Viceroyalty ofFukien and Chekiang. In consequence of themurder by aborigines of shipwrecked crews a futileexpedition by the Americans against the island was192

ThearrivedENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAFOUQUETmade in 1867, and another, more successful, inj1874 by the Japanese. In 1885 it was attacked byFrance. In 1887 Formosa became a separate provinceof China, and at the close of the Chino-Japanesewar it was ceded to Japan, 1895.Imbault-Hxjart : Ulh Formose, 1893 ; Mackay :From Far Formosa, 1896 ; Davidson : The Islandof Formosa, 1903; Campbell : Island ofFormosa, 1896.FORTUNATE UNION, THE, the name underwhich English readers know the novel Hao Ch'iu(Jhuan W^i'i;. The author is unknown, but he probablywrote at the end of the Ming dynasty,—aboutA.D. 1600. The first translation was given to theEnglish public as early as 1761, the translator beingunknown ; since which we have those by Sir JohnDavis and others, complete or partial, besidesFi'ench and German renderings, generally of theearly English translation." Ballek has also issuedthe Chinese text with English notes for the use of.studentsof the language.CoRDiER : Bibliothecu Sinica, col. 1755.FORTUNE, ROBERT, born in Scotland, September16, 1812 ; he was apprenticed to gardenersand then spent two or three years in the RoyalBotanic Gardens in Edinburgh. He was then appointedin 1842 as Superintendent of the hot-housedepartment of the Royal Horticultural Society at("hiswick. The next year that Society sent him toChina. He made four journeys to that country,and wrote four valuable books. Until his dayalmost nothing was known of the flora of China,except of that in the neighbourhood of Macao andCanton, and to a slighter extent, in the Pekingdistrict. Some small collections had been sent orbrought home, but they had been neglected or overlooked.But Fortune not only visited all the portsthen opened to foreign trade : he also explored someinteresting parts of Fukien, Chekiang and Anhui,and brought away very rich collections ; besideswhich he had had the advantage of a thorough,practical training.The account of his first voyage is given inhis Three Years Wanderings in the Northern Provinces: northern in those days not meaning whatit means now ; Kiangsu and Anhui were his furthestnorth. He was sent by the Horticultural Societyof London in February, 1843, and reached Englandagain in May, 1846, having explored the districtsof Hongkong, Canton, Macao, Amoy, Foochow,Xingpo, Shanghai, Soochow, Chusan Islands, etc.In 1848 the East India Company sent him toChina again, to get the finest varieties of the teaplant,with implements, etc., for the benefit of theC'ompany's plantations in India. He left Englandin June, 1848, and after visiting the important teadistricts and sending many plants to India hein Calcutta in March, 1851, with 2,000young tea plants and 17,000 germinated seeds. InSeptember of the same year he left for England.During this expedition he sent home sixteen letterswhich were published as Notes of a Traveller, inthe Gardeners' Chronicle : they contain many detailsnot included in the book published later.The same applies to letters written during histhird journey ; they appeared in the same magazine,under the title Leaves from my Chinese Note-book,and are fuller than in the book. Residence amongthe Chinese. This expedition was also for the EastIndia Company, to get more tea-plants, etc., andespecially to get some tea-makers. He left Englandprobably in the beginning of 1853. He again travelledfar and wide in the interior, visiting also Formosa,sent thousands of plants to the Himalayas,engaged tea manufacturers, and concluded his successfuljourney by a visit to the Punjab, reachingEngland in December, 1856.In the summer of 1860 Fortune started oncemore for the Far East, to collect natural historyspecimens and wo'rks of art. In this trip he wenttwice from China to Tokyo (Yedo), and also visitedPeking. He reached England again in Januarj',1862.Bretscmneider gives nearly a hundred pagesto the botanical results of Fortune's travels ; itappears that he introduced into England about onehundred and ninety species or varieties, all new toEngland except as herbarium specimens, and onehundred and twenty of these were entirely new toscience.Fortune spent the rest of his days farming inScotland ; he died on April 13, 1880. His writingsare Three Years Wanderings in the Northern Provincesin China, . . . 1847; .4 Journey to theTea Countries of China, . . . 1852 ; A Residenceamong the Chinese, . . . 1857 ; Yedo and Peking^. . . 1863 ;Azotes on the Botany of Ja2)an, (Gardener'sChronicle, 1861) ; Two Visits to the Tea Countriesof China, . . . 1855; Le,aves from my ChineseNote Booh, (Gardener's Chronicle, 1854, and reprintedin China Mail, 1854).Bretschneider : History of European BotanicalDiscoveries in China.FORTUNE TELLERS ;^ f^T ft^ are mentionedin Chinese history as early as the second centuryB.C. Modern fortune tellers use two methods,either requiring six characters for year, month andday of birth, or else eight characters, the extra twobeing for the hour of birth. From the eightcharacters, -pa tzu A 7^, the fortune teller knowsa person's future lot.FOUQUET, JEAN FRA.NCOIS if :)& If»»French Jesuit missionary, was born in 1663, andreached China in 1699. He, more than any other25198

FOUR BOOKS, THEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAof the missionaries, sought the Clirislian religionin the eai'ly Chinese writings, till the classicsbecame for him an allegory ; every hill was Calvary ;the ancient Emperors were the patriarchs, and inthe analysis of Chinese characters he found thecross and other instruments connected with thePassion.He returned to Europe in 1720, and publisheda Chronological Table in which, for the first timein Euro])e, a list of the Nien hao or reign-titles,so important in chronology, was given. An instructiveletter of his appears in the LettresI'jdifimites, vol. v. He brought home a large collectionof Chinese books which became scattered inmany libraries.The date of his death, which took place inFrance, is not known.Remusat : Novvenux Melanges Asiatiques.FOUR BOOKS, THE, m ^ ssu shu. Theseare the preliminary part of the Chinese students'course before passing on to the Five Classics. Theyare i. The Great Learninrj ^^ ; ii. Doctrine of theMean tfj j^ The : iii. Analects |^|g ; iv. The worksof Mend us ^g ^. See each title separately, andClassics.FOUR FAMOUS HILLS, THE, B^^Hlssu fa minrj shan. These are the hills of Chinamost important in Buddhist history and the chiefpilgrim resorts. They are, in the North, Wu-t'aishan in Shansi ; in the West, 0-mei shan in Ssuch'uan; in the South, Chiu-hua shan in Anhui ; in 'the East, P'u-t'o shan in the Chusan Islands.Wu-t'ai and 0-mei are connected with the beginnings of Buddhism in China; Chiu-hua and P'u-t'odid not come into prominence till Buddhism hadalready passed the zenith of its prosperity. Chiuhua,it must be not«d, was not in the South of theChina in which it became famous, but it is in theSouth of classical China.They are connected with the four elements ofHindu and Buddhist cosmogony, and they are alsoassociated in legend with four great Bodhisattvasor Pusas ^Wen-shu, P'u-hsien, Ti-tsang andKuAN-YiN. See Buddhism, Holy, Places of.FOUR GARRISONS, THE, B^ ssu chen,at first established by the T'ang dynasty under thename Hsi chen 'g§^, western garrisons. It wasthe Chinese organized power in the Tarim valley,the four garrisoned cities being Khotan, Kashgar,Kucha and Tolmak ; for the last-named place Kara-.shahr was afterwards substituted.Chavannes : Documents sur les Tou-Tciue occidentaux;Stein : Ancient Khotan.FOUR LEADERS H^, ssH hao, sometimestranslated Four Npbles, Four Princes, etc. ; fourmen of different States who in the third century B.C.delayed by their antagonism the final victory ofCh'in. They were Mkng Ch'ang CaiiN ^"^^of Ch'i; P'iNG YiiAN Chun 2p ^ g' of Chao;HsiN Ling Chiin iU^M of Wei; and HuangHsiEH ^ ^ of Ch'u ; the last alone not being ofprincely blood.FOURMONT, ETIENNE, was born at Herblay, near St. Denis, on June 23, 1683. He wasgreatly devoted to Latin and Semitic studies, buton the death of a Chinese, Huang, who had beguna Chinese Dictionary in Paris, Fourmont undertooknot only the preparation of six dictionaries (Chinese-I-atin, French-Chinese, etc.), but also to have thenecessary Chinese characters engraved. He hadalready been associated with Huang in the preparationof the dictionary and had been ordered hy theRegent to continue it. The story of his difficultiesin the matter shew him to have been a vain manwho did not understand his own inferiority to thosestudents of Chinese wh?) had spent a lifetime inChina. His treatment of the MS. of Pbemare'sNotitia Linguae Sinicae and of other such MSS.entrusted to him was very unworthy. His workson Chinese are Meditationes Sinicae, 1737; LinguaeSinarum Grammatica Duplex, 1742. He died onDecember 19, 1745. See Lexicogrujyhy ; Grammars.CoRDiER : Fragments d\me Histoire des EtudesChinoises, 1895.FOX 5&)S ''" ^'-j Vulpes tschiliensis, is .verycommon in Chihli and elsewhere in N. China.Canis hoole is from S. China, and is said bySwiNHOE (Amoy) to be identical with the EuropeanV. vulgaris. Under another Chinese term, -Jj) %,sha hu meaning sand fox), C. corsac, the Fox ofthe steppes, is common in Mongolia and N. Chihii.V. Uneiventer, the S. China Mountain Fox fromFukien, is described by Swinhoe in his CatalogueSowERBY : Recent Research, Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii; Swinhoe: Catalogue, etc.,P.Z.S., 1870.FOXES, FAIRY, or Fox Bewitchment JUSflhu li ching. The superstition about demons appearingin a form something like a fox is very widespread.The creature has a man's ears, gets onroofs and crawls along the beams of houses. Itonly appears after dark, and often not in its ownshape but as a man or a beautiful girl to tempt toruin. Numberless stories of the foxes as girls arefound in light literature. People live in greatfear of them, and immense sums of money areexpended to keep on good terms with them byofferings, incense, meats, tablets, etc. They ofte'i"possess" a man, who then commits all manner ofextravangances and claims to be able heal disease.Some wealthy people ascribe all their good fortuneto their careful worship of the fox.DoRE : Recherches sur les Superstitions, p. 461Giles : Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio;194

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAFRENCH RELATIONSWatters : 'Chinese Fox Myths,' Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol.viii.FRANCE AND CHINA.See French relationsvith China.FRANCISCAINES MISSIONNAIRES DEMarie, a Congregation of women which has shownremarkable vitality and vigour, opening newestablishments every year. Since September, 1913they have provided the nursing staff for the GeneralHospital in Shanghai. Seven of their number weremassacred at T'ai-yiian fu in the Boxer rising.FRANCISCANS. See Minor or FranciscanF liars.FREEMAN-MITFORD, ALGERNON BERtram, first Baron Eedesdale of Redesdale, G.C.V.O.,K.C.B., was born in 1837, and died August 17, 1916.'He spent about a year in Peking in 1865 as aSecretary of the British Legation. His best knownbooks are on Japan, Tales of Old Japan, etc., but in1900 he issued a volume of letters entitled TheAttache at Peking (sic).FRENCH ISLAND. See Danes' Island.FREEMASONRY. See Masonry in China.FRENCH RELATIONS WITH CHINA.The French East India Company, like the English,used to send out ships under supercargoes who wentand returne(J with the vessels; but in 1767 theysent some who were to reside in Canton. Theeadier interests of France in China were neithermercantile nor political but religious. In 1776,however, a consul named P. C. F. Vauquelin wassent by the king ; but it does not appear that anysuch official received any recognition before 1829,either from the local authorities in Canton or fromPeking.In 1780 one of those frequent cases of homicideoccurred and the Chinese demanded the doer of thedeed. He was French, and the French Consulgave him up to be strangled. This was the firsttime that the Chinese had been allowed to put todeath a ioreigner for killing a foreigner.The chief supercargo of the French factory,J. B. PiROTJ, was appointed agent for the Frenchgovernment in 1802.After the British had obtained the Treaty ofNanking Lagrene obtained a treaty for the Frenchwhich of course included all the general advantagesof the British treaty, but he added some articlesreferring to the missionary question. This is theWhampoa Treaty of 1844. In 1857 Baron Grosjoined in the expedition which we call The SecondWar, the casus belli for the French being theChinese denial of justice for the murder of PfereChai'delaine (q.v.) ; and oncj more, m their treatyof Tientsin the French secured new privileges forthe church.The British, by the Most-favoured-nation clause{q.v.) also gained these advantages for Britishmissionaries.In 1854 the French at Shanghai broke theirneutrality and joined with the imperialists to drivethe Triad Society from the city, which they hadoccupied for fifteen months. The French lost agcod many men, and as a reward they gained moreland between the city and the river, adding about700 yards of river frontage to what the concessionhad already.The Tonkin War broke out in 1882, first witlithe Black Flags in Tonkin, then with China, partof the Chinese fleet being destroyed at Foochowand an attack being made on Formosa. The treatyof peace was signed on June 9, 1885, giving toFrance ten million taels and the sovereignty ofTonkin.The Tientsin Massacre of 1871 and the leasingof Kuangchou wan are written on separately.As already mentioned the interests of Francein China have been mainly religious, or rath«r havebeen connected with the church, from the day whenLoi'is XIV, not without national and politicalmotives, sent the five Jesuit priests to Peking in1685. It was by the French treaties that allreligious Christian missions have gained rights inChina : by Art. xxii of Lagrene's treaty. Art. xiiiof the French Tientsin Treaty, 1858, Art. viof the French Peking Treaty, and the Berthemy{q.v.) Convention of 1865. France thus naturallyand actually became the protector of the RomanCatholic Church in China. All passports forRoman Catholic missionaries were issued by theFrench authorities as though to Frenchmen, nomention of the missionary's nationality being made.It is easy to see that this position of France was ofgreat political value. On the other hand it wasinevitable that as its value became more manifestand other powers sought for more advantages inChina, the protectorate of missions would beattacked. Such powers were at a disadvantage innot having enough strength in the East to protecttheir nationals ; the Chinese made difficulties if achange was proposed; often the missionaries ofother countries: preferred things to go on as theywere; and the Pope could hardly be expected towish that King Humbert, for example, shouldbecome the protector of the Italian missionaries.In 1882 Germany announced that she intendedto protect German Missions, and said that this wasa political necessity to her. In 1890 the Pope, notbeing in a condition to resist Berlin, permittedBishop Anzer, newly appointed in Shantung, tochoose between France and Germany, and he wasobliged to choose Germany. See Protectorate ofMissions.195

'FRIEDENSHORTENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAThe following is a complete list of the Ministerswho have represented France at Peking.M.M.De Lageenf., Charged with a mission and havingthe powers of Envoy extraordinary and Ministerplenipotentiary ; 9 August 1843.Fo3TH-RouEN (Alexandre), Envoy and Charged'Affaires ; 19 January 1847.De Botjrboulon, Minister ; 20 February 1851.BouBr-E, Minister plenipotentiary ; 15 April 1852.De Bourboulon, Minister plenipotentiary ; 19 October1852.Le Baron Gros, Commissioner extraordinary; 14May 1857.De Bourboulon, Envoy extraordinary and Ministerplenipotentiary ; 6 March 1859.Le Baron Gros, Ambassador extraordinary andHigh Commissioner; .7 March 1860.Berthemy, In charge of the Legation as Ministerplenipotentiary; 14 October 1862.Berthemy, Envoy extraordinary and Ministerplenipotentiary; 9 October 1863.Le Comte de Lallemand, Envoy extraordinary andMinister plenipotentiaay ; 28 November 1866.De Geofroy, Envoy extraordinary and Ministerplenipotentiary ; 3 June 1872.Le Vicomte Brenier de Montmorand, Envoy extraordinaryand Minister plenipotentiary ; 30 April1876.Bouree (Albert), Envoy extraordinary and Ministerplenipotentiary ; 23 January 1880.Tricou, temporarily representing the FrenchGovernment a.s Envoy extraordinary ; 15 May1883.Patenotre, Envoy extraordinary and Ministerplenipotentiary ; 12 September 1883.CoGORDAN, Charge d'Affaires ; 15 October 1885.CONSTANS, Envoy extraordinary ; 10 June 1886.Lemaire, Envoy extraordinary and Minister plenipotentiary; 10 July 1887.Gerard, Envoy extraordinary and Minister plenipotentiary; 3 October 1893.PiCHON, Envoy extraordinary and Minisler plenipotentiary; 29 December 1897.Beau, Envoy extraordinary and Minister plenipotentiary; 19 March 1901.Dubail, Envoy extraordinary and Minister plenipotentiary; 5 July 1902.Bapst, Envoy extraordinary and Minister plenipotentiary; 30 December 1905.Jacquin de Margerie, Envoy extraordinary andMinister plenipotentiary ; 10 April 1909.CoNTY, Alex. Robert, Envoy extraordinary andMinister plenipotentiary ; 31 May 1912.FRIEDENSHORT DEACONESS MISSION.See China Inland Mission.FRIEND OF CHINA, THE. The organ of•the Anglo-Oriental Society for the Suppression ofthe Opium Traffic. The first number was issuedApri'l, 1875.FRIEND OF CHINA, THE, a paper cfwhich the first number appeared in Hongkong,March 17, 1842 : a week later it was incorporatedwith the Hongkong Gazette, and was issued withthe double title up to vol. 17, (1858). J. RobertMorrison was the first editor, and ^the fifth wasWilliam Tarrant, (1850). Getting into troublewith the authorities after vol. 17, Tarrant, theneditor-proprit-tor. began a new series, vol. 19, inCanton. In 1861 publication ceased, but beganagain in Shanghai in 1864, (vol. 22), and continuedtill 1869. Except for a short interval in the lastyear Tarrant continued as editor till his own failinghealth caused the paper to die a natural death.During most of its long life it was issued twice aweek, but it began as a w'eekly and ended as adaily paper. The last volume was issued dailyunder the title 'The Friend of China and ShippingGazette.' Its editors were in succession, J. R.Morrison, (founder of The Hongkong Gazette),James White, Dr. Satchell, John Carr, WilliamTarrant, C. Treasure Jones and W. Tarrant.Tarrant died January 26, 1872. See OverlandFriend of China.Shanghai Budget, March 28, 1872 ; Cordier :Bibliothrca Sinica, col. 2411.FRIENDS' FOREIGN MISSIONARY ASsociation(of England).Headquarters :—London.Entered China, 1884.Works in Ssuch'uan province, especially northand west from Chungking.Miss H. Green, the first worker, was sent toHankow in 1884, to proceed later to Ssuch'uan ; intwo years, however, bad health made her leave theMission.In 1887 Mr. and Mrs. R. J. Davidson arrivedin China, going in the first instance to Shensi, tofill a temporary gap for the China Inland Missioh.In 1889 they went to Ssuch'uan, and rented premisesat T'ung-ch'uan fu, '^HIM but were obligedto consent to the cancelling of the lease, as thelandlord had been put in chains by the officials,only to be released if his tenants left the city.In 1890 the Mission was established at Chungking,and preaching, dispensary and educationalwork all begun, with tbe help o^ new arrivals fromEngland. The first converts were' received in 1891.two T'ung-ch'uan men, and three others, the firstfruits of Chungking, in 1893; in which year alsotwo large plots of property were purchased, whilea third was added two years later.In 1897 a station was opened in the district ofT'ung-ch'uan, at She-hung hsien, ^i^ though theprefectural city, from which Mr. and Mrs. Davjdsot^196

;mountainsjMountain-Finch,IandjIIcommonI Grosbeaks,jI!FRINGILLIDAE,Encyclopaedia sinicaFRINGILLIDAEhad been thrust in 1889, was not occupied till 1900,only to be evacuated immediately because of theBoxers.In the years 1895 and 1898, the work was muchimpeded by riots and rebellion, and in 1900 all theforeifi;n missionaries were obliged to leave, and wereabsent about 6 months at the coast. The nativeChristians kept up the services faithfully duringthis time.After the missionaries' return, mission work in'I'lmg-ch'uan city was re-opened in 1902, and.stations established at Ch'engtu, Sui-ning hsien,ii^ and T'ung-liang hsien ^J^in 1904.An Institute for reaching the merchant classesaf Chungking was opened in 1910, with a readingroomwell supplied with books, newspapers andgames, a small museum, and shor{ lectures enf)upular subjects. This proved so successful thatInstitutes on similar lines were soon after openedat the other four stations. The Chungking Institutewas rebuilt in 1913 with money contributed by thecity merchants and a few of the foreign communityand to it i.si attached an orphanage supported by themembers (who are mainly non-Christian) thoughChristian truth is regularly taught to the children.A training school for evangelists was opened atCh'engtu in 1910.Since the Revolution of 1911, no anti-foreignfeeling isi manifested, and "boundless opportunityfor Christian work" is reported.During the Second Revolution in 1913 the workof the Mission was much hindered by unrest andrebellion, Chungking being captured first by therebels and then by Yunnan loyalists, who proceededto fight with the Ssuch'uan loyalists.Since 1913 the Chinese have been given morepower in the management of affairs, being Associatedas Inspectors or Managers of the Primary.schools in Chungking, besides being members ofEducational Committee executive, etc.Medical work.—From the first the Mission hasii,iven much attention to this, and as soon asChungking was opened, a dispensary was startedbut as two other Missions afterwards began vigorousmedical work there, the Friends gave theirsi up, andmade T'ung-ch'uan their chief medical centre, witha Hospital for Women and a Dispensary for men.A Hospital was opened at Sui-ning in 1915.Educational xonrk.—This also dates from thebeginning of the Mission. The Chungking girls'day-school was opened in 1891, and a boarding-.schcol in 1902, since moved to T'ung-ch'uan. Theboys' day-school was opened in 1892, and the boarding.school in 1898. There are day-schocls at allstations, and most of the educational work isaffiliated to the West China Educational Union.A Union Middle School was opened at Ch'engtuill 1909, worked by the Friends', the CanadianMethodist, the American Methodist Episcopal andAmerican Northern Baptist Missions. A UnionUniversity is also worked by these four Missions,and a Union Normal School was opened in 1915.Statistics for 1916 :Foreign workers 40Employed Chinese 115Church Members 400FRIENDS' FOREIGN MISSIONARY Societyof Ohio.Headquarters :—Alliance, Ohio.Works at two stations in Kiangsu.The first American Friend Missionary to Chinawas Mi.ss Esther H. Butler, wlio arrived in Nankingin 1887, but first took a temporary post asnurse in the M.E.M. hospital. In 1890 land waispurchased and building begun. A hospital wasopened in 1895, in connection with which the UnionNurses' School is now run.Lu-ho ;;^; ,^ 25 miles from Nanking, was occupiedin 1898, and a hospital built in 1907.There is a girls' Boarding School at Nanking,and one at Lu-ho for Boys, each having 60 pupils.There are also five day-schools, with 116 pupils.In April 1917 the Mission reported :Foreign missionaries 9Chinese staff 20Church members 400a family comprising theFinches, Buntings, etc. David andOuSTALET give some forty species of the two formergroups as 'found in China. The more importantof these are as follows :Fringilta montifringiUa, the Brambling, veryin the cold season in central and southernprovinces. Fringillauda nemoricola, Hodgson'sin the wooded hills of W. Chinaon the Kokonor frontier. Leucosticte hrunneinuchais found during the coldest seasons in theof N. China and in E. Siberia.J-J(/i()thus canescens, is a bird of Greenland, butit regularly visits N. China every year. ^. linarivs,the Mealy Red poll, also comes to the northernprovinces in the winter and, is not uncommon.C/ilorospiza sinica, in great numbers in all theprovinces. Pyrgilauda davidiana is a rare birdfound on the highest plateaus of Mongolia. Pyrgitapetronia, the Rock Sparrow, is found in Mongoliaand in Chihli province. Passer montanus, theTree-Sparrow, is found abundantly all over Chinaand in Formosa; it builds chiefly in towns andvillages about the houses, and only sometimes intrees as it generally does in Europe. P. rutilans,the Ruddy Sparrow, inhabits Formosa and themountainous parts of central China from Fukiento Ssuch'uan. Myce.rohas melanoxanthus , theJ97

FROGSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASpotted-winged Grosbeak, comes in small numbersto pass the summer in the wooded mountains ofW. Ssuch'uan. Hesperiphona affinis, the AlliedGrosbeak, has been taken at Mu-p'in. Pycno-Thamj)hm carneipes, in W. China. Eophonamagnirostris, Haet., the Masked Grosbeak, is foundwidely in the wooded mountains of W. China, andoccasionally in Chihli. It is popular with theChinese because of the ease with which it is taughtlittle tricks. The Japanese bird (E. personata) hasbeen taken in Fukien. E. melanura is common atall seasons in central China. E. m. migratoriaHart, winte-i-s in S.E. China and in summerit advances to the northern provinces. Coccotfiraustesvulgaris japonicus, the common Hawfinch,is common in N. China. Pyrrhnlagriseiventris, the Grey-bellied Bullfinch, is foundin Manchuria and eastern Siberia and in verysmall numbers in N. China. P. erythacus, Beavan'sBullfinch, is fairly common in W. Ssuch'uan at allseasons. P. ricJcetti occurs in N.W. Fukien. P.arizanicn and P. owstoni, in Formosa. Erythrospizamongolica, the Mongolian Desert-Finch, is commonat all seasons in the bare hills of N.W. China andthe neighbouring parts of Mongolia. Carpodacuserythrinus, the Common Rose-Finch, is a commonbird of passage in China. Procarduelis nipalensisthe Dark Rose-Finch, has been taken at Mu-p'inand is probably resident in that region. Propasserroseus is very common in eastern Siberia and spendsthe winter in the northern provinces ; it has beentaken in Chihli and in the Ch'in-ling mountains.P. tiifasciatus has been seen in W. Ssuch'uan butis exceedingly rare. P. pulcherrimus (P. davidianusM.E.) is found in the high mountains of N.E.China, as far as Ch'in-ling mountains and Shensi.and in Mongolia. P. edwardsi, Milne-Edwarps'Rose-Finch, is quite the most common of theFinches in S.W. China. P. verreauxii has beentaken at Mu-p'in. P. vinaccus is found in thewooded mountains of W. Ssuch'uan, but is notcommon. P. formosanus is found in Formosa.P. thura, the White-browed Rose-Finch is met within the high mountains of W. China, but is exceedinglyrare. Uragus sibiricus is common in allseasons in E. Siberia, whence it spreads intoManchuria and N. China. V. sanguinolentus differslittle from the last and is resident in Manchuria.U. lepidus is resident in the Ch'in-ling mountainsand in S. Shensi. Loxia albiventris, the ChineseCrossbill, is seen in Chihli most years, but in smallnumbers. L. himalayana is found in the highmountains of western China, especially in thedistrict of Mu-p'in.For the Buntings see Emberizinae.David et Oustalet : Les Oispcnix de la Chine.FROGS. See Amjyhibia.FRONTIER, TREATY OF THE, alsoTreaty of Kiahta (q.v.).calledFRYER JOHN, LL.D., born in England in1839, came to Hongkong as a teacher in St. Paul'sCollege, in 1861. He afterwards removed toShanghai and took up translation work for theChinese Government and started the ChineseScientific Book Depot [q.v.).In 1894, he left China and was made Professorof Oriental Languages and Literature in the Universityof California, becoming Professor Emeritusin 1915.During his residence in Shanghai he foundedthe Polytechnic, now one of the Municipal CouncilSchools, and in 1911 he founded a School for theChinese Blind (see Chinese Blind).FU ^ happiness, a character seen very commonlyover the doors of dwelling-houses. It isgenerally written or printed on diamond-shaped redpaper. The time for pasting up such characters isat the New Year, and if a death has occurred in thehousehold during the past year the paper must notbe red but white, green or blue.Pere Dore states that the custom originated atthe beginning cf the Ming dynasty and was imposedon the people by the conquerors. He gives theChinese authority for this statement; but as a fewpages later he says that the 'Five happinesses'Fu, Lu, Shou, Hsi and Ts'ai were first stuck abovedoors in the Sung dynasty, one may conclude thatthe other story is a Chinese myth and that theusage is a mere superstition.Dore : Becherches sur les Svperstifions enChine, tome ii, pp. 301—3.FUGUYand FUJU, names for Foochow foundin Marco Polo.FU HSI tJtji B.C. 2953. The first of the FiveEmperors of the legendary period. Miraculouslyconceived, he was born after 12 years' gestation.The teachings attributed to him are hunting, fishing,the keeping of flocks and herds, cooking of food,the making of musical instruments, etc. He alsoconstructed the Eight Diagrams on which was afterwardsbased the Book of Changes (/ Ching) ; hemade some kind of calendar and regulated marriage.FUJU and FUGUY, names found in MarcoPolo for Foochow.FUKIEN CHRISTIAN UNI VERSITY, THE,is in process of formation by the six ProtestantMissions working in Fukien, viz, the A.B.C.F.M.,the C.M.S., the L.M.S., the Methodist EpiscopalForeign Board, the Presbyterian Church of England,and the Reformed Church of America. In March,1911, a committee was appointed which drafted aconstitution, according to which (1) the standardof matriculation was to correspond to that of London198

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA FU YUNGand of Yale Universities, (2) mandarin was graduallyto become the medium of instruction and (3) theUniversity was to be situated at Foochow. Thefinancial resjjonsibilities of the co-operating Missionswere also arranged.The first definite start was taken with the ArtsDepartment which was opened as the Fukien Union' Ollege in February, 1915, in hired quarters, with(Mghty-one students enrolled (seventy-two of whomwere Ghristians), and a faculty of nine, Chinese andforeigners. In July 1916 a second Committee wasformed to organize such schools as might be foundsuitable as departments of the University, and toobtain a charter so as to grant degrees.The educational system of which this Universityis the crown has eleven High Schools, and numerousLower Schools, with a total of about 25,000 pupilsin January, 1917.FULIN, i^ J? or a m> also Fu long j^ |p ; aname used in mediaeval times to replace the earliername of Ta Ts'in, and therefore standing for Romeor at least for the eastern part of the Roman empire.But there is much controversy over the term, and'the Mystery of Fu-Un' has come to be a well-knownexpression.It has been taken as derived from the(jireek ttoXivj and therefore standing for Constantinople,much of its description supporting thisview; it has again been asserted that it is etymolo-UMcally impossible it should be roXtv• It has beenstated that much connected \with the use of thename seeins to have an ecclesiastical stamp, andthat the term was/ introduced by the Nestoriansit is also said to have been in use in a slightlydifferent form long before the arrival of theNestorians. An extraordinary theory has been putforward that it stands for Bethlehem, since the])ronunciation of the characters at that time was])iobably But-lim or But-lam. Chavannes acceptedthisat one time but later rejected it.In the works named below various referencesto other books or articles where the matter has beendiscussed will be found.HiuTH : China and the Roman Orient; Yule :Cofhdji and the Wat/ Thither; Hirth : The Mysteryi

'GABELENTZENClTCLOPAEDtA SlNtCAGGABELENTZ. See Von der Gabeleutz.GALANGAL, Alpinia officinarum; %^ Hangv/iianff,:or "mild ginger" a medical root cultivatedespecially in Kaochow, S.W. Kuangtung, but grownelsewhere in the province. The root is about twoinches long by half an inch in diameter, has anaromatic odour, and tastes like mixed ginger andpepper. Used as a tonic, it is exported almostsolely froni Kiungchow, where it goes for shipmentfrom the Leichow peninsula on the mainland opposite,to Japan and to California, for the use of(•hinese emigrants there. The export for 1916 wasPels. 14,734, value Tls. 26,758.GALLINAE, theOrder which includes Pheasants,Partridges, Grouse, Peacocks, Turkeys,Fowls, etc., etc. The chief species in China areas follows.Ithagenes cruentus, Yerkalo. /• kuseri,Mekong River, N.W. Yunnan, Burma, Shan States./. geoffroyi, W. Ssuch'uan. /. sinensis, Shensi,Honan. Pavo muticus, the Burmese or JavanPeafowl, probably in Yiinnan. LophophorusIhuysii, Mu-p'in, W. Ssuch'uan, Yiinnan, Kueichou.\[Tetraophasis obscurus, in Mu-p'in. Crossoptilonmantchuricum, in Chihli and Shansi. C. auritum,N.W. Ssuch'uan, Koko nor and perhaps Kansu.C. tibetcnum, on the West Ssuch'uan frontier.Pucrasia xanthuspila, Chihli. P. xanthospilaruficollis, Shensi, Kansu. P. meyeri, Yiinnan, Tibet.P. joretiana, Anhui. P. darwini, Chekiang, Fukien.P styani, Ichang (Hupei), Fukien. Phasianustorquatus Gm. from Canton to the Yellow River./'.kiangsuensis, Yellow River northwards includingC'hihli, S. Manchuria and Korea. /'. pallasiiRoTHSCH., N. Manchuria, P. strauchi Przw.,Amdos plateau, S. Kansu. P. berezowskii Rothsch.,S. Kansu and N. Ssuch'uan. P. decoUatus Swinh.,S.E., S. and Central Ssuch'uan, E. Yiinnan andW. Kueichou. P. elegans Elliot, S.W. Ssuch'uan,W. Yunnan, N. Shan States. P. formosanus Swinh.,Formosa. Calophasis dlioti Swinh., Chekiang,Fukien. C. mikado 0. Grant, Formosa. Syrmaticusretvesii, in the mountains north and west of Peking,in those separating Shensi from Hunan and Hupeifrom Ssuch'uan. Thaumalea picta, the GoldenPheasant, in the southern and south-westernprovinces, as far as S. Shensi. T. amherstiae, thehigh mountains of W. Ssuch'uan, Yiinnan, Kueichouand E. Tibet. Gennaeus nycthemerus, the SilverPheasant, Fukien and Chekiang. C. whiteheadi,\Hainan. G. andersoni, S.W. Yiinnan. Euplocamvt !swinhoii, in Formosa. Ceriornis temminckii,Temminck's Tragopan, in West and S.W. China,including S. Shensi. C. caboti, Cabot's Tragopan,in the mountains of N.W. Fukien, probably alsocentral Fukien. Gallus ferrugineus, the RedJungle-fowl, Hainan, and perhaps the southernparts of Yiinnan and Kuangsi.David et Oustalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine,(Phasianides).GAM BIER ffP#Uncaria gambier Roxb.An astringent used in tanning, exported fromCanton.GANFU.See Kanp'u.G AN NETS. See Stega/wpudes.GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANCOIS,born at St. Etienne, July, 1839. From 1862 to 1866he was Inspector and Prefect of the district ofCholen (Saigon), and was promoted to Lieutenant'srank. He was then chosen to assist in the Expeditionto explore the Mekong valley. It was adangerous and difficult work, in which the leaderDE Lagree died ; Garnier brought the expeditionto Shanghai after two years of travel, during which4.200 miles were geographically determined for thefir.st time. In 1870 he received the Patron's GoldMedal of the Royal Geographical Society.He served in the army defending Paris, 1871then returned to China to prepare himself for travelin Tibet, but was called to Cochin-China to takecharge of an expedition into Tonkin. He fell intoan ambush and was killed, December 21, 1873.GARRISONS, FOUR.See Four Garrisons.GARRISONS, MANCHU. The Provincial^^U:g§, ko sheng chu fang) weregarrison towns (as follows; in Shansi, Sui-yiian, Kuei-hua, T'aiyiianfu ; in Shantung, Ch'ing-chou fu, Te-chouin Honan, K'ai-feng ; fu in Kiangsu, Nanking,King-k'ou (('hinkiang) ; in Chekiang, Hangchow-fu,Cha-p'u ; in Fukien, Foochow ; in Kuangtung,Canton ; in Ssiich'uan, Ch'engtu ; in Hupei, Chingchoi;fu ; in Shensi, Hsi-an fu ; in Kansu, Ning-hsia,Liang-chou, Chuang-liang- t'ing ; with Urumtsi,Barkul, Ku.ch'eng and Turfan, within the Kansujurisdiction.GASPARD DE LA CROIX orDA CRUZ,a Dominican priest who has the honour of beingthe first missionary to arrive in China in themodern' period of missions, and the first of anyto arrive by sea. He was a native of Evora. Hesailed for the East Indies in 1548 with twelve200

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAGEOLOGYcomj)anions ;after building a convent at Goa andanother at Malacca, he proceeded to Cambodja,and at last landed in China in 1555-6. It is statedthat his labours were not without success, that hepassed several years in China, having some narrowescapes from death, and that he was at last drivenout by the mandarins. He returned to Portugalin 1569, refused to be made Bishop of Malacca anddied in 1570 in attending to victims: of the plaguein Lisbon. He left an account of China, written inPortuguese, and published in black-letter at Evorain 1569-70 under the title Tractudo em que secontain viuito por estcnso as causas da China consuas jjarticnlari dades y assi do Begno dormuz.Mendoza : History of China, Introduction,Hakluyt Society, 1853 ; Andre-Marie : MissionsDoniinicaines.GAUBIL, ANTOINE, a Jesuit missionary,was born in Aveyron, S. France, on July 14, 1689,and reached China on June 28, 1722. He tookParennin's place and taught Latin to Manchustraining for Russian interpretei'ships. He translateda life of Chenghis Khan, (Histoire de Gentchiscan,Paris, 1739), some T'ang Annals (inMemoires concernant I'histoire, . . . des chinois,ch. xv-xvi), the Shu Ching, (edited by De Guignes,Paris, 1770), and published Traiti de la Chronologiechinoise, Paris, 1814. He also left many manuscripts,some of which have been published byCoRDiER in the T'oung Pao.He was scientific, sound and critical in all hewrote, and De Guignes considered him the cleverestand most learned of all the Jesuit missionariesin China. He died in Peking, July 24, 1759.GAUTAMA ^i:^. The priestly name ofthe S'akya family ; a name of S'akyamuni.GEARY ACT. Chinese immigration into thoUnited States was forbidden by the Treaty ofNovember 17, 1880, but for some time the law wasaot strictly enforced. In May, 1892, Congressvoted an Act in nine sections to prohibit the entryof Chinese and of persons of Chinese descent. ThisAct is known as the Geary Exclusion Act. TheTsung-li Yamen protested against a law which wasoppressive and not in accordance with existingtreaties.In 1893 the Supreme Court declared thatthe Act was a constitutional measure, but that itwould net be carried out 'through lack of funds.'See Emigration.GEESE. See Anseres.GENERAL EVANGELICAL PROTESTANTMissionary Society.Headquarters :—Berlin.Entered China, 1885.Works in Shantung.26201This Society, sometimes known as the WeimarMission, was formed on inter-denominational linesin Weimar in 1884. In 1885, it secured the wellknownmissionary and sinologue Dr. Ernst Faber{q.v.) formerly of the Rhenish Mission, as its firstworker in China, who at first devoted himself toliterary work in Shanghai, when he was joined byPastor P. Kranz in 1892. The latter resigned in1902. When the German government acquired theterritory of Kiao chou in 1898 Dr. Faber removedthere, but died in 1899, leaving Pastor R. Wilhelmthe sole representative of the Society. In 1901,a boys' school was opened, and a Faber MemorialHospital was built. A girls' school was opened in1905 under Miss H. Blumhardt.The programme of this Society differs fromthat of most missions, in that it does not seek toadd another church to the many now existing inChina. It specializes in educational, literary andphilanthropic work, and hands over to otherSocietiesi those Chinese who through its teachingbecome Christians.The list of Dr. Fader's books in English,Chinese, and German is a long and noble on«, andDr. Pastor Wilhelm, who in 1911 received thedegree of Doctor Theologiae from Jena University,has contributed a number of works, includingtranslaitions into German of the Lun Yii, Mencivs,the Tao Te Ching, Chuang Tzii, Lieh Tzu :andChinese Fairy Tales, which are all published, whilethe Chia Yii, Ta Hsileh and Chung Yung aretranslated but not yet published.In January, 1917, the Mission reports :— Theboys' school has now a higher primary school, amiddle school, and a normal school departmentwith a special higher course in Chinese literatureand philosophy. The number of students is 70(before the war, 200).The girls' school has a primary and a middleschool course. The number of pupils is 20 (beforethe war, 80).The work in Kao-mi city which wasi opened in1900, and where a hospital and dispensary wascarried en, has been temporarily given over to theAmerican Presbyterian Mission.Statistics :Foreign Missionaries 3Chinese Assistants' 8Schools 2Scholars 90Hospital 1GENGHIS KHAN. See Chenghis.GENTRY. See SMn Shih.GEOLOGY OF CHINA, THE.1. Introdtiction and historical review.Unlike astronomy, geology as a science wasquite unknown to the ancient Chinese. Good

IjphylliteI! beddedGEOLOGYE]^CYCLOPAEDIA SINICAdescriptions of many minerals and fossils are tobe, found in ancient Chinese literature, for example,the famous trilobite Drepanura was mentioned byConfucius y coal and most of the commoner metalswere produced ages ago by miners with remarkableknowledge of the underground conditions ; but theconstitution, structure and history of the earthwere as little understood in China as in Europe.The first qualified geologist to visit China wasPuMi'ELLY, an American, who made short trips inChina and in Mongolia; but tlie real foundationof the geology of China was made by vonRiCHTHOFEN and VON LoczY, whose great worksstand even to-day as classical storehouses ofgeological information. Among the more recentworkers, Bailey Willis and Blackwelder in thenorth, and Deprat and Mansuy in Yiinnan areparticularly important, as they collected muchdetailed and precise stratigraphical and palaeontologicaldata. We owe our knowledge of thenorth-west regions mainly to the Russian geologists,Obrutchov, Bogdanovitch, and Muschketov, andmore recently to Futterer. Finally, mention isdue to many Japanese publications which giveinteresting information on the mineral resources.The Chinese Geological Survey was formally organizedin January, 1916, though much field workhad been done before that date.2 General structure.China Proper and its dependencies may be convenientlydivided into seven geological divisions :the North-eastern, the Central, the Yangtze Valley,the South-east Coast, the South-west Borderland,the Tibeto-Turkestan and the Mongolian.The first of these divisions consists of Manchuria,Chihli, Shantung, Shansi and NorthernHonan. It may be divided into two approximatelyequal areas ; the one is the alluvial plain built upby the Liaoho, the Peiho and the Huangho ; theother half consists of mountainous country formedeither by Precambrian rocks, as in the Wu'tairegion, or by palaeozoic limestone of great thickness,as, for example, the Taihang range bordering thegreat plain of Chihli and Honan. In or nearthese mountains are extensive coal basins overlaidby the younger red sandstone and loess, whichcover very wide areas. In this division the effectof lateral compression is usually not very intenseexcept locally, but its chief features are due tonormal faulting and relatively gentle folding ofthestrata.Central China consists of Shensi, Kansu,Southern Honan, Northern Hupei, and Anhui.It is naturally divided by the Tsinling range intotwo distinct regions. North of that range andseparated from it by important normal faults,extends the shale and sandstone region of NorthernShensi where petroleum occurs in several horizonsto the south is a high massif chiefly composed ofpalaeozoic limestone and deeply cut by the tributariesof the Yangtze river. The Tsinling rangeitself is a continuation of the Middle Kunlun ; itis characterised by abundance of igneous intrusionswhich greatly metamorphosed all the intenselyfolded sedimentary beds, including perhaps partof the Jurassic formation. Great masses ofcrystalline and gneissic rocks extend far intoSouthern Honan and Northern Anhui.The Yangtze valley division, as the nameimplies, coincides more or less with the valley ofthe Yangtze river. Its western end includes theRed Basin of Szechwan, the boundaries of whichcorresponds roughly with the political province ofthat name. It is a vast basin surrounded at theperiphery by massive limestone, the age of whichranges from Ordovician to Permian. The interiorof the basin is filled up by sandstones of greatthickness, through which the Jurassic coal andthe older formations crop out along certain anticlinesand faults. To the south and the east wehave the provinces of Kueichow, Hunan, andKiangsi, and Southern Anhui and Kiangsu, situatedchiefly on the southern side of the Yangtze river.Here sedimentary rocks from Permian to Cambrianin age, are gently folded into anticlines andsynclines largely dissected by numerous and importantrivers. Considerable coalfields exist inthis region, extending from the north-west marginof Chekiang south-westward into Southern Anhui,Northern Kiangsi and Eastern Hunan ; betweenthe coalfields. Palaeozoic limestone and Precambrianor schist also occur over wide areas. InWestern Kueichow, marine Triassic with intercoalseries form great undulating plateaus.The South-east Coast includes Chekiang, Fukien,and Kuangtung. It is on the whole amountainous country with fjord-like valleys' runningright into the sea, indicating that sinking ofthe land has been taking place. Fringes of islandsof the same geological constitution as the mainlandpoint to the same conclusion. Except the Sikiangdelta, (which is made up of recent alluvium),granite, gneiss and younger porphyries are thecharacteristic rocks of this region, though palaeozoiccoal still occurs in isolated places.The South-west Borderland runs from WesternSzechwan into Yiinnan and Kuangsi. Except inthe last province, where the palaeozoic limestoneis only moderately folded, lateral compression leftvery important marks on the landscape.In Yiinnanthe sedimentary rocks varying from Triassi,c toCambrian are all intensely folded and sheered,whilst the Szechwan-Tibetan borderland is formedchiefly by palaeozoic and metamorphic rocks withnumerous granitic intrusions. Coal occurs inseveral horizons from Upper Permian to Middle202

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAGEOLOGYCarboniferous, but owing to the deep folding andfrequent overthrusts, good workable basins arecomparatively rare.The last two divisions both lie outside ChinaProper, but they differ widely in their character.The Mongolian Highland consists almost entirelyof nietamorphic and gneissic rocks, with only hereand there isolated patches of Palaeozoic formationand Jurassic coal basins. Its southern boundaryis formed by faults of enormous magnitude separatingit from North-eastern and Central China andTurkestan ; thus it forms a great block extendingfrom Dsungaria to Manchuria. The Tibeto-Turke.standivision, on the other hand, is charactei'izedby the great folded mountain ranges of CentralAsia ; the Tienshan, the Nanshan, the Kunlunand the Himalaya form parallel ranges cuttingacross the country in the East-west direction. Thesedimentary formations consist of Tertiary sandstone,Jurassic coal, and limestone and shale froml^ermian to Silurian in age, all of which are intenselyfolded, the lower Palaeozoic beds being muchmetamorijhosed by intrusive granites.3 StratujTcqjhy and geological history.In China, as in the other parts of the world,the Archean group underlying the whole sedimentarysequence consists of gneisses with abundantintrusions of igneous rocks. The famous mountainof Taishan in Shantung is the typical locality,hence the system is called the Taishan complex.Kocks of undoubted sedimentary origin occur firstin the Algonkian, which is composed of differentkinds of schists and phyllites interbedded with.quartzite and marble. In Northern China thisnietamorphic series was first described by vonRicHTHOFEN and after him by Bailey Willis,under the name of the Wutai system, from thetypical locality in Northern Shansi. Above itis the Huto system of Willis, consisting of twoseries : the lower one is composed of quartzite, butthe upper of a thick limestone containing numerousflint concretions. This, limestone is notmetamorphosed, but its Precambrian age is wellestablished by its stratigraphical relation and thecomplete absence of fossils.The presence of fossil remains begins with theCambrian. In the north-eastern provinces thetypical Cambrian formation is represented by twostages ; the Manto shale and sandstone and theKiulung limestone which is often oolitic andconglomeratic. In both, trilobites are extremelyabundant. Similar fossils have been found inEastern Yunnan in psamitic rocks of dominantlyyellowish red colour. Again, the Yunnan Cambriandiffers from the contemporaneous deposits ofNorth-eastern China in its smaller thickness,showing that the Cambrian seas in the south-westwere not so tranquil and constant as in the morenorthern part of China. From Cambrian toOrdovician the relation between land and sea wasnot much altered, as the deposits of the twoperiods are always conformable and closely similarin petrographical character. While in Yunnanthe Ordovician is represented by psamitic beds ofsmall thickness, it forms in the Yangtze Valley andin the north massive and pure limestone almost1,000 metres thick. Different names have beengiven to this important formation ; for instance,in the north it is known as the Tsinan limestone,but it is termed Kisinling limestone in the middleYangtze basin.After the Ordovician period conditions becamewidely different in the different parts of China.Whilst the north-eastern provinces were, at theend of Ordovician time, already uplifted byepirogenetic movement to form a low land on which'neither erosion nor sedimentation was very active,marine deposition continued uninterrupted in theYangtze Valley and in the south-west. That therewas no break in sedimentation between the Ordovicianand the Gotlandian, is well proved bysuch beds as the Szetien graptolite shale in westernYunnan, and the green shale of Northern Szechwanwhich contains Ortliis calligramma in the lowerpart and Or this bourchardii in the upper horizon.From Gotlandian to Devonian the strata stillcontinued conformably, with similar phases, thoughthe fossil fauna gradually changed. Indeed, theDevonian fossils from Eastern Yiinnan, WesternSzechwan, Northern Shensi and Kansu are amongthe best known palaeozoic fauna of China. Theyshow clearly the great extension of marine conditionsin this period. How far the Devoniansea extended in the south-east direction is aquestion which has not been settled ; the Nankingsandstone beds, underlying the Sihia limestonewith Lower Carboniferous corals, and overlyingthe Ordovician limestone with Asaphus ex2)ansiis,are completely barren of fossils.The north-eastern part of the continent, whichhad emerged from water at the end of the Ordovicianperiod, received no deposits until the UpperCarboniferous time, when plant life flourished onthe low land which was only occasionally invadedby the Carboniferous seas, in which thin limestonebeds were deposited in interstratification with coalbearingformations. In the other parts as a rulethe marine phases were much longer. Marinefossils of Lower Carboniferous age have been foundin widely separated localities, such as Kiangsu,Hupei, Szechwan, Yunnan and the north-easternprovinces. After a temporary regression givingplace to deposition of Middle Carboniferous coalseries, marine water came over again to develop athick limestone formation, with which may beidentified more or less correctly the W^ushan, the203

GEOLOGYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAKitau, and the Fusulina limestone of the differentauthors. Above it the Permo-carboniferous coalseries which is especially important in SouthernAnhui and Northern Kiangsi, attests anothermarine regression, to which quickly succeeded aPermian transgression forming another series oflimestone. The marine phase seems to be quitecontinuous from Upper Carboniferous to Permianin Yiinnan.Towards the end of the Palaeozoic era ageneral emergence took place throughout the wholeof China, though the way in which this was effectedwas different in the different provinces. Theelevation of the north-eastern part was definite inPermo-carboniferous time, and no later marinesediments have ever Veen deposited. In Kansu andKokonor the marine phase still quietly continuedfrom Permian into Triassic. In Yiinnan, Triassicbeds of marine origin containing Myophoria andTrachyceras overlie unconformably the Palaeozoicseries.At the beginning of the Jurassic period theChinese continent was definitely established.Marine water made no more incursions, butnumerous and large inland basins were formed,giving rise to extensive mesozoic coalfields whichare to be found in most of the provinces.Deposits younger than Jurassic consist ofconglomerate, shale and sandstone of continentalorigin, the last being predominant. The prevalentcolour is red, indicating perhajjs a dry climate.This red sandstone series is extremely extensiveit forms the Red Basin of Szechwan, the plateau ofNorthern Shensi, and the "Ueberkohlensandstein"of Central Shansi, as well as isolated hills in theYangtze Valley. It may probably be correlatedw^ith the so-called Gobi formation in Kansu, Turkestanand Mongolia, which is known to be Tertiary; but owing to the complete absence ofpalaeontological evidence such identification is stillvery uncertain. In northern Chihli the red seriesis overlaid by volcanic porphyritic rocks.As already suggested, the Post-jurassic seriesindicates a prevalent arid climate. This conditionseems to have continued well into recent times,for it is under such conditions that the characteristicformation of the loess has been deposited. Theloess is a yellowish loam with a peculiar verticalcleavage and usually without distinct beddingplanes. The origin of this deposit has been thesubject of some discussion, but now von Richthofen'sidea that it was mainly due to wind actionis generally accepted with some slight modifications.It is found both on mountains and in the valleys,covering up older rocks irrespective of their age.The deposition of loess probably began in Eocenetime, but as can be seen everywhere in NorthernChina, it is being taken up and redeposited by thewind even at the present time. Besides the loesBthere are many isolated deposits of conglomerate,sandstone or clay, mostly lacustrine in origin, theage of which cannot be older than late Tertiary.The most important Quaternary deposit is thedelta alluvium which forms a national economicfactor in enabling the very dense population toproduce rich cereal ciops. Scientifically the formationof deltas uas prevented the invasion of thesea on a sinking coast, for there are clear indications,such as the drowned valleys and the fringingislands, that the (,'hinese coast has been subsiding ;the growth of the mighty deltas has been able tokeep pace with, and, in places, to overtake, theslow movement of secular sinking.4 Literature.It is impossible to give a complete list of theliterature, but the more important works are thefollowing :PcMPELLY : Geological Researches in China,Mongolia and Jajmn, 1867 ; von Richthofen :China, 5 vols., 1877; Muschketov : Turhestan,(in Russian), 1886; Pogdanowitch : Einige Bemerhungenueher das eijxtem des Kuenlun, and severalother papers, mostly in Russian, 1892-1895 ; vonLoczY : Die wissenschaft^iche Ergehnisse der Reisedes Grafen Bela Szechenyi in Ostasien, 3 vols.,1893-1899; Obrutchov : Central Asia, Na7ishan andNorthern China, 2 vols., (in Russian), 1892-1894;FuTTERER : Dvrch Asien, 1902 ; Leclere : Etudegcologiqne et minierc des Provinces chinoisesvoisines du Tonkin, 1902; Bailey Willis andBlackwelder : Researches in- China, 3 vols., 1907;Lantenois : Restdtats de la Mission gcologiqne etminicre au Yiinnan meridional, 1907; Yokoyama :Plant Fossils from China, 1907; Deprat andMansuy : Etude geologique du Yunnan oriental,1912; Yabe : Fossil Corals from China, Korea andJuixm; CoGGiN Brovv'N : Contribution to theGeology of the Province of Yiinnan, 1912.[W.H.W.]GEOUGEN, the name found in Gibbon forJii-jfn or Juan-juan, (q.v.).GERBILLON, JEAN FRANCOIS, 3fi f*Chang Ch'eng, a Jesuit Father, born at Verdun.June 11, 1654, died at Peking, March 22. 1707. Hearrived in China in 1687 and in Peking in Februaryof the next year. He learned Manchu very quicklyand, with Pereyra, was employed by K'ang Hsias interpreter in the matter of the Nipchou(Nertchinsk) Treaty of 1689. He prepared Elementnlinguae Tartaricae.GERMAN CHINA ALLIANCE. See ChinaInland Mission.GERMAN MISSIONS (Roman Catholic).See Societe du Verhe Divin de Steyl.204

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAGILLGERMAN RELATIONS WITH CHINA areof course only recent. Germany's determinationto look after her own Roman Catholic missionariesis treated under Protectorate of Missions. In 1895she joined with France and Russia to prohibit thecession of Liao-tung to Japan. Three years latershe sent the 'mailed fist' and occupied Tsingtao(^.r.), and in 1900 made the other unhappy andmuch-quoted utterance about no Chinese daringagain 'to look askance at a German.' Because ofthe assassinaition of the German Minister it wasthe German von Waldersee who commanded allthe Allies' forces during the Boxer troubles.A few months after the outbreak of theGreat War, Tsingtau and all that pertained to itwas clean lost to Germany ; and in the spring of1917 China broke off diplomatic relations with her,and declared war on August 14.In spite of the overbearing attitude of Germanyit must be recognized that China has had usefullessons in the rise and prosperity of Tsingtao ; inthe road-making and afforestajtion round that placein the railway taken through the province and theworking of coal-mines ; and in the German promotionof education. With all drawbacks, thesethings have been a distinct gain to the Chinese.The following is a complete list of the Ministerswho have represented Germany at Peking.Graf EuLENBURG, 1861 (special Mission).Herr von Rehfuss, 30th November 1872—9th April1873.Herr von Brandt, 21st March 1875—28th March1893.Freiherr Schenk zu Schweinsberg, 13th July 1893—23rd June 1896.Herr von Heyking, 15th August 1896—1st June1899.Freiherr von Ketteler. 29th June 1899—20th June1900.Freiherr Mumm von Schwarzenstein, 19th July1900-24th April 1906.Graf VON Rex, 25th December 1906—25th March1911.Herr von Haxthausen, 15th August 1911—3rdJune 1914.Herr von Hintze, 18th January 1915.GERMAN WOMEN'S MISSIONARY UNION.See C-hma Inland Mission.GHISLAIN, JEAN JOSEPH, a priest of theCongregation of the Mission, that is, a Lazarisfr,sent with Pere Raux and the Frere Charles Paristo take the place of the Jesuits at Peking when theSociety of Jesus was suppressed in 1773. He wasborn at Salles, diocese of Cambrai, on May 5, 1751,and died on August 12, 1812.GHOS, a peculiar variant of 'joss' {q.v.) usedin The Fanqui in China by C. T. Downing, 1838it occurs as ghos-paper, ghos-pidgeon, ghcs-house,etc.GILD, an alternative spelling for GuUd, (q.v.).GILES, HERBERT ALLEN, one of the foremostof sinologues, was born on December 8, 1845,and became student-interpreter in H.B.M. ConsularService in China in February, 1867. After occupyingvarious posts he retired as Consul at Ningpoin April 1891. He was appointed Professor ofChinese at Cambridge University in 1897, in successionto Sir Thomas Wade. He has the honcraiwdegrees of M.A. (Cantab.) and LL.D. (Aberdeen).He has always been a keen controversialist, andhas dealt ruthlessly with all that he consideredfalse scholarship in Chinese studies. Much amusementas well as instruction may be got from theperusal of his 'sparring' with Parker and othersinologues in the pages of the China Review andelsewhere.Two of his sons, Bertram and Lancelot, areH.B.M. Consuls in China, while another, Lionel,keeper of Oriental Books and MSS. in the BritishisMuseum.The following list of his works is completeexcept for articles in reviews, etc., not republished.Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio; Gemsof Chinese Literature; Historic China; ChuangTzii,— Mystic, Moralist and Social Reformer,*Chinese Sketches; Records of the BuddhisticKingdoms; Remains of Lao Tzu; From Swatow toCanton Overland; Chinese Poetry in English Verse;History of Chinese Literature; China and theChinese; Chinese Pictorial Art; Adversaria Sinica;Religions of Ancient China; Chinese Fairy Tales;The Civilization of China; China and the Manchus;A Chinese Biographical Dictionary ; Catalogue ofthe Wade- Library; Freemasonry in China; andseveral aids to the study of the language. Thegreatest of his works is the Chinese-EnglishDictionary, of which the second edition was issuedin 1912. For English scholars this great dictionaryhas practically superseded all others.GILL, WILLIAM JOHN, was born at Bangalorein India in 1843, and obtained his commission inthe Royal Engineers in 1864. After serving someyears in India he inherited a handsome fortune andproceeded to indulge his passion for exploration.He first travelled in Persia, and read an accountof the journey to the British Association : it waspublished in the Geographical Magazine for October,1874. He then stood thrice for parliamentbut was not elected. He next took a trip in N.Chihli and Liaotung. Then he went to Ssuch'uanwith Barer, travelled into N. Ssuch'uan alopeI?05-

!grownjI LovETTjChineseGILMOURENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAwhere no European had penetrated before, then incompany with Mr. (General) Mesny to Batang,Ta-li fu and Bhamo, where he arrived in November,1877. For the geographical value of his workhe received the gold medal of the Royal GeographicalSociety and another a year later from theParis Geographical Society. In 1880 appeared hisbook The, River of Golden Sand, a very fine book,but not representing the scientific value of his work :that may be better seen in the report published inthe Journal of the Boyal Geographical Society,vol. xlviii. He made two other journeys, inAfghanistan and in Tripoli, while on leave ; he wasthen sent on special service with special rank to^^gypt'- In the Sinai peninsula he and ProfessorPalmer were murdered by Bedouins, August 11,1882.BuETSCHNEiDER : History of European BotanicalDiscoveries; Yule : The Times, October 31, 1882.GILMOUR, JAMES, the "apostle of Mongolia,"was born near Glasgow in 1843. He graduatedat the University there in 1867, studieditheology at Cheshunt College, and was sent toChina by the London Missionary Society in 1870.The L.M.S. had decided to re-open its early workamong the Buriats in N.W. Mongolia, which hadbeen forbidden in 1841 by the Czar; and Gilmouraspired to undertake this task. China was in a'\bad state when he arrived; the massacre of Tientsinhad taken place in the preceding June, andthe attitude of the Chinese Government was mostunfriendly, but Gilmour, after a sihort stay inPeking, where he began the study of Chinese andMongolian, started off with a Russian merchant ona trip from Kalgan to Kiachta. From August, )1870 to November, 1871 he travelled incessantly,'•sharing Mongol tent-life, and learning the language. 1In April, 1872, he went to the agriculturalMongols north-east of Peking, but decided that asthey spoke Chinese, they could b^ evangelized bymissionaries from Peking, and from that time he|devoted himself to work on the Plain. He married!in 1874, and his wife shared his wanderings and'privations till her death in 1885. After that event,he worked alone until almost the close of his life.He died in Tientsin in 1891, of typhus fever.His end was undoubtedly hastened by his privations.Though much beloved and respected by theMongols, to whose bodies and souls he ministeredwith the greatest ardour, he died without havingbaptized one of them : but his work laid firm foundationsfor others to build on. He wrote Amongthe Mongols, a sincere and simple account of hisexperiences. Of this book the Spectator said,"Robinson Cr"DSOE has turned missionary; haslived years in Mongolia and written a book aboutit.": James Gilmour of Mongolia, 1892Recorder : vol. xxii.GINGAL. See Jingal.GINGER, Zingiber officinale, g chiang, isin the hilly districts in the north west ofKuangtung, where there are extensive plantations,and at Shiuhing. In parts of the West Riverdelta the crop succeeds rice.It is also grown all over Ssuch'uan, and inthe central provinces, and is much eaten in thegreen state as a condiment and corrective. Thatgrown in the southern provinces is much lessmucilaginous than the product of the Yangtze valley,and therefore much better adapted for makingpreserves and sweetmeats. Preserved ginger, mostof which is from Canton, is called T'ang-chiang^ !i[ ; the taste is inferior to West Indian ginger.As a drug ginger is used to stimulate digestion, toquiet nausea, and in the treatment of dysentery,and dried ginger is used for constipation, urinarydifficulties, etc. The export in 1916 wasi Pels.64,065, value Tls. 201,306.GINSENG :Panax ginseng; A# jen shen, isthe medicine par excellence, the dernier ressort whenall other drugs fail. It was reserved for the use ofthe Emperor and his household, and conferred byImperial favour upon high and useful officials whenthey had a serious breakdown in health. It wasobligatory for Governors to have some of the bestquality on hand for sale at some hundreds of taelsper ounce; the Co-hong also had to undertake thesale of it, and was thus kept in debt to the Government.The principal Chinese name is derived from afancied resemblance to the human form. The genuineginseng of Manchuria, whence the largest suppliesare derived—in the remote mountains—consists of astem from which the leaves spring, of a centralroot, and of two roots branching off. The rootsare covered with rings, from which the age isascertained, and the precious qualities are increasedby age. In the time of Tad Kxtang ginseng was onthe verge of extinction and its collection wasforbidden by Imperial decree. It is cultivated,but this kind is less valuable than the wild root.With a view to giving a false appearance of agehairs are tied round the roots, but a practisedeye can detect the deception. [Newchwang CustomsReport, 1865). In 1891 Korean ginseng was worthTls. 10-14 per catty. Sometimes roots of specialgoodness are worth Tls. 250 per catty ; the usualprice for native ginseng was Tls. 80. There wasat one time a large importation of American ginseng,but this has now ceased. The importation in 1916was worth Tls. 3,761,505, and the expert was pels.85,213, value Hk.Tls. 219,370.206

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAGOESGINLING COLLEGE, a Union College forWomen for the Yangtze Valley, situated at Nanking,of which city Ginling ^^ diin ling, orGolden Ridge is an old classical name. FiveMission Boards co-operate in the College, viz., theA.P.M. (North) and the Women's Boards of eacTiof the following American Missions : NorthernBaptists and Methodists, Southern Methodists, andthe Foreign Christian Mission. Work was begun inSeptember 1915, in temporary quarters, (a largeofficial residence having been rented) with a Facultyconsisting of four foreigners and four Chinese ; anda nucleus of 10 students. There are, however, fifteenor more Christian Girls' High Schools in theYangtze Valley which will act as feeders for theCollege and preparations are being made forNormal and other courses in addition to those inPhilosophy and Science now running. The Collegeis likely to have a great future. The President isMrs. Lawrence Thurston B.S. ; and the Trusteesare the same as for the University' of Nanking.GIORO or CHIORO, the Manchu surname ofthe rulers of the Ch'ing dynasty. The remoteancestor of the Manchu chieftains is supposed tohave had the name Aisin Gioro or 'Golden race'hence the title of the Chin or Kin (golden) dynastyof the 12th century. The term is used for membersof collateral branches of the Imperial family, whoare distinguished by a red girdle. Hence in commonChinese they are called 'Red girdles' ; the properChinese designation is. Chiieh lo ^^ .GIGUEL, PROSPER MAR IE, a French navalofficer, employed in the Chinese Customs, who gottogether a French-Chinese force of 400 men in thetime of the T'ai P'ing rebellion and did very goodwork with it. It grew to 1,500 men. In 1866 he wasappointed to establish the Arsenal at Foochow withthe title of Director.He was the only foreigner besides Gordon toreceive the honour of the Yellow Riding-Jacket.GLASS. There are two Chinese terms forglass, (i), liu li ^^ or pi liu li ifgg^ an earlytranscription of the Sanskrit vaidurya or PaliifJiiri/a, probably meaning rock-crystal. This termis in the Sltuo Wen. (ii), Po U i^ i^, which transcribesin a contracted form the Sanskrit spahtika,rock-crystal. This word dates from the fifthcentury a.d. Liu li is used for opaque glass of allcolours, including glazes and enamels ;po li isthe term for ordinary transparent glass:. China}received glass from the West about a.d. 110,chiefly from Alexandria. The art of making it,according to Chinese histories, was introducedoverland into Shansi and by sea to Nanking, earlyin the fifth century. The industry has beencarried on ever since. In modern times the chiefproducing centre has been Po-shan in Shantung.It is also made in the Kuantung leased territory.In glass-cutting the Chinese have excelled.HiRTH and Rockhill : Chau Ju-hua, p. 227;Btisiiell : Chinese Art, vol. ii ; T'otjng Pao, 1891.G ATS K I N S . The trade in untanned goatskinsarose through the disturbance in the New Yorkmarket created by the war between Chile and Peruin 1880. Agents were sent to China among otherplaces, and through them hints were obtained asto the preparation of skins, and-the local custom ofdrying them in the sun was discovered to be thecause of the ill success of experimental shipmentsmade, previously. These skins are used for boottops and also for bookbinding. Tanned skins andrugs are also exported, and the trade has grown toenormous proportions, nearly ten million pieces ofall kinds having of late been exported in one year.The skins are used as floor and carriage rugs andas imitation furs, the longer and more wiry hairsbeing plucked out. The best skins are found inthe west. Their quality gradually deteriorates astheir place of origin lies further east. They camefrom Shensi, Honan, Anhui, Hupei, and Shantung,but a strong trade has sprung up more recently inSsuch'uan skins, and Kueichou and Kiangsu alsosupply a limited number. In the Great Plainalmost every peasant group possesses several goats.The proportion of the export trade at the mostrecent date are as follows : Tientsin, 43 per cent. ;Chungking, 24 ; Hankow, 18 ; Ichang and Shanghai,5 to 7 per cent. One of the chief markets isPochow, Anhui; the trade is in some districts inthe hands of the Mahommedans.The export in 1916 was untanned skins 9,888,271pieces, value Tls. 5,466,044 ; tanned skins 494,771pieces, value Tls. 485,729. Customs Reports.GOBI j^lg ko pi (desert), a name for Mongolia,also called Sha mo, ^^ (sandy waste), and Han haiThe name is especially applied^ W (rainless sea).to the lowest part of the Mongolian tableland,which is almost entirely a stony and sandy desert.The Gobi Desert has an altitude of two thousand orthree thousand feet, and undulates with hills ofone hundred to eleven hundred feet high. SeeMongolia; Han Hai.GOD OF LITERATURE. See Wen Ti.GODOWN; a warehouse, from Malay gadangor gedong.GOES, BENOITDE,a Brother in the Societyof Jesus, was born in 1562. He was a soldier inIndia till he entered the Society in 1588, and wasordered to explore the land-route to Peking. Startingfrom Agra in October, 1602, he reached Yarkandin eleven months, after incredible hardships. Hestayed there a year, then towards the end of 1605207

GONENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAreached Su chow ^ ^ in Kansu. Mohammedansthere told him the Jesuits were in Peking, and hesent to let Ricci know of his arrival. P. Riccisent Fjr. Fernandez to his succour, but he reachedSu chow only a few weeks before de Goes died,probably poisoned by Mohammedans, in April, 1607.1879).Bruckeb, Benoit de Goes, {Etudes rcligieuses,GOH. See Wei Ch'i.GOLDEN LILIES ±^. A poetical term fora woman's bound feet ; said to date from Tung-HUN Hou ^^g^A.D. 500, who said of his dancingconcubine, 'Every step makes a lily grow.' SeeFootbinding.Sects.GOLDEN HORDE. See thin dyna-ity.GOLDEN ORCHID SOCIETY. See SecretGOLDFISH, Cypri/ius auratus or Carassiusauratus Linn. H ^ chi yil, ^ f^ fu yii, ^ ^chin yii. There is a large number of varieties tobe found all over China, with great variety ofnames. It is a question whether the gold-colouredfish is ever to be found in a state of nature.See Bibliography under Fishes, p. 181.GOLD, TO SWALLOW. A mere euphemism,meaning to commit suicide with poison. It is usedof officials, who, when condemned to death aresometimes graciously allowed to commit suicide.Many, both foreigners and Chinese, have understoodthe phrase literally ; even Davis seems to havegiven credence to the error; see his China duringthe War, vol. i, p. 202.GONCALVES, JOACHIM ALPHONSE, aLazarist missionary and sinologue. He was bornin Portugal in 1780, and reached Macao on June 28,1814. Here he spent the rest of his life teachingin the College of St. Joseph, and studying dailyboth Mandarin and Cantonese Chinese. His workshave had only a limited use, through being writteneither in Portuguese or in Latin. According toCallery, they were 'rich in materials but entirelydestitute of theoretic explanations.' His Latinworks are of small value; the others place himamong the most eminent sinologues. He died onOctober 3, 1844. Callery's Memoir is very interestingand pleasant.G0N9ALVES' publications were GrammaticaLutina (1828), Arte China (1829), Dicciojiario Portuguez-China(1831), Diccionario China-Portuguez(1833), Vocabularium Latino-Sinicum (1836), Lexiconmanuale Latino-Sinicum (1839), Lexicon magnumLatino -Sinicutn (1841). A manuscript dictionaryalso was left complete at his death.Callery : Notice Biographique, etc., translatedin Chinese Repository, vol. xv, p. 69.GONGS.See Musical I?istrumc7its.GORAL, Urotragus, a goat-like animal belongingto the Family Bovidcr. The species in N. Chinaand their distribution are as follows :IJrotrugus cinercus, N.W. Ssuch'uan ; U. griscus,N.W. and W. Ssuch'uan; U. niger, N.E. Ssuch'uan,N.W. Hupei; U. aldrigeanus, I-chang, CentralHupei ; U. arnoxixianus , Chekiang ; ZL raddeanusManchuria ; TJ. caudatus, N. Shansi, Chihli.Sowerby : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii.GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE, was bornin Woolwich on January 28, 1833, and was killedin Khartoum on January 27, 1885. In 1860 he tookpart, as Captain of Engineers, in the Expeditionaryforce sent to Tientsin and Peking. The same year,when Shanghai was in danger of being taken by theT'ai P'ing rebels, a force of Chinese irregulars hadbeen formed by Ward, and paid for by the ChineseGovernment, to withstand the rebels. In 1862 ithad been assisted by detachments from both theBritish and French forces, Gordon taking a. prominentpart as senior Engineer officer. Ward fellin an assault near Ningpo and was succeeded byliURGEViNE, who was shortly afterwards dismissed.In March, 1863, Major Gordon was given the command.Under his leadership the "Ever-VictoriousArmy" captured Fu-shan, raised the siege ofChan-tzu on April 5, captured Tai-tsan on May 3,Quinsan on May 31, Woo-kiang at the end of July,and Soochow, the stronghold of the rebels (whowere now being assisted by Burgevine), in November.The city was surrendered to Gordon andLi Hung-chang, under promise of life to theWangs, who were then executed by Li's orders.At this act, Gordon resigned his command, andrefused a gift of Tls. 10,000 from the Emperor.He was induced to take up his command again, andin March—May of 1864 cleared the district roundthe T'ai-hu of rebels, being wounded at Kin-tangon April 5. Chang-chow was taken on May 11, afterwhich the Army was disbanded. The Emperorgave him the rank of Ti-tu and the distinction ofthe Yellow Jacket. With the assistance of Parkes,Gordon established a camp of instruction outsideShanghai, largely drawn from his disbanded troops,to serve as a disciplined force for the defence ofthe settlement. He left China on November 24,1864. He was invited to Peking in 1880 to commanda Chinese army against Russia, but he advisedpeace and declined to enter the Government service.See T'ai P'ing Rebellion.GORGES, THE YANGTZE. These are fivein number and occupy about 150 miles, from I-changto Kuei-chou fu. The river is narrowed to aboutone third of its usual width and the wat«r is fromthree to four hundred feet deep in some places.Limestone cliffs rise to 2,000 feet or more in height.^0$

andENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAGOVERNMENTGOUGH ISLAND, a new island formed by thesilting of the inner bar at Wu-sung near Shanghai.See Astroea Channel.GOUVEA, ANTOINE DE, ^i^^Ho Ta-hua,a Jesuit Father born in 1592 in Portugal, who,after a stay in Goa reached China in 1636. Hestudied the language at Hangchow, then proceededto Wuch'ang, where in two years he baptised overtwo hundred adults and built a church. He thenwent to Foochow and to other places, but his workwas largely ruined by the troubles of the Tartarconquest. In 1652 he was at Soochow and in thatyear there were 2,359 baptisms in Kiangnan. He"then returned to Foochow rebuilt the churchthere. In 1665 he was arre.sted, taken to Pekingand exiled to Canton ; there in 1669 he was madeVice-provincial. After the exile he returned toFoochow to look after the twenty-four churcheswhich had depended on him before the persecution.He died there in 1677.Havret : La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-foii,II, p. 68, note.GOVERNMENT, THE REPUBLICAN.TAst of the Different Indejiendent Departmentsof the Chinese Government (based en the "Listof Officials"— Chih Yiian Lu ^ fi ^ —anofficial publication of the Cabinet, for the lastquarter of 1916.The Presidency (Ta Tsung T'ung :fc It ^).The Vice Presidency (Fu T.sung T'ung U^M )The Senate (Ts'an I Yiian ^ g| ^).The House of Representatives (Chung 1 YiianThe Cabinet (Kuo Wu Yiian ^^^).The Office of "Chiang Chiins" (Chiang Chiin FuThe Audit Department (Shen Chi Yiian ^ gf^ )•The nine Ministries (Pu ^R).The Peking Gendarmerie (Pu Chiin T'ung LingYa Men ^%Um.mf^)-The Central Salt Administration (Yen Wu ShuThe National Tobacco and Wine Administration(Ch'iian Kuo Yen Chiu Shih W^u Shu ^ |3The Revenue Council (Shui Wu Ch'u ^ ^ ^ )•The General Staff (Ts'an Mou Pen Pu ^M^"^)-The Supreme Court (Ta Li Yiian ±^^).The National Conservancy Bureau (Ch'iian KuoShui Li Chii ^®7KflJM)-The Department of Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs(Meng Tsang Yiian M M ^)-The State Historiographer's Office (Kuo Shih KuanThe Government of the Metropolitan District(Ching Chao ;^ %).The Governments of the Provinces (Sheng ^) andthe Special Administrative Areas (T'e PiehCh'u Yii i^JgiJlSj^).The Presidency.The President is elected in accordance with theterms of the Presidential Election Law, of October6, 1913, which forms the only part of the permanentConstitution which has been passed and put intoforce. Article 1 provides that "a native of Chinaover forty years of age, possessing citizen's rightscomplete and unimpaired, who has lived in thecountry for upwards of ten years, is eligible for thePresidency of the Republic." Election is by anelectoral college composed of the two Houses ofthe National Assembly sitting together. The termof office is five years, subject to one re-election.The duties of the President, until the permanentConstitution is promulgated, are as setforth in the Provisional Constitution of March 15,1912. That instrument provides that the Presidentis the source of all executive powers. He promulgatesthe laws and issues orders for their execution.He is the Commander-in-Chief of the Army andNavy. He appoints and removes all civil andmilitary officials on his own responsibility, exceptin the case of the appointment of members of theCabinet, Ambassadors, and Ministers, when theconcurrence of the legislature is necessary. Withthe concurrence of the legislature he can also declarewar and conclude treaties. He can introduce billsand veto legislation, but his veto may be overriddenby a two-thirds vote of legislature.The President may be impeached by thelegislature for high treason after a majority voteof three-fourths of a quorum consisting of morethat four-fifths of the total number of the members.The Vice Presidency.The office of Vice President is also providedfor in the Election Law of October 5, 1913. Theelection is held at the same time as that for President.Article 5 provides that the Vice Presidentsucceeds to the Presidency, in case the post isvacated, and serves to the end of the President'sterm.The National Assembly.The National Assembly is constituted in accordancewith the law for the organization of theNational Assembly of August 11, 1912, which providesthat it shall be made up of a Senate (Ts'anI Yiian g kH^) and a House of Representatives(Chung r Yiian ^^I^)- The Senate, for themost part, represents the provinces, each ProvincialAssembly electing two Senators. Additional representationis provided in the Senate for Mongolia,Tibet, Ch'inghai, the Central Educational Society(Chung Yang Hsiieh Hui tjl^^^), and the27209

IGOVERNMENTENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAChinese residing abroad. The House of Representativesis designed to represent the people, eachprovince being allotted a certain number of Representatives,in accordance with its population,on the basis of one for every 800,000 persons.Mongolia, Tibet, and Ch'inghai also send delegates.Senators serve for six years, one-third retiringevery two years. Representatives serve for threeyears.The powers of the National Assembly are aslaid down in Article 19 of the Provisional Constitution,which reads' as follows (this Article beingin force as regards the National Assembly untilsuperseded by the passage of the permanent Constitution):Article 19.—The Advisory Council shall have thefollowing powers :(1) To passi all law bills.(2) To pass the budgets of the ProvisionalGovernment.(3) To pass laws of taxation, cf currency,and of weights and measures for thewhole country.(4) To pass measures for the calling of publicloans and to conclude contracts affectingthe National Treasury.(5) To give consent to matters provided inArticles 34, 35, and 40.{Note:—Article 34 refers to the appointmentof members of the Cabinet, Article35 to the declaration of war and the conclusionof treaties. Article 40 to thedeclaration of a general amnesty).(6) To reply to inquiries from the ProvisionalGovernment.(7) To receive and consider petitions ofcitizens.(8) To make suggestions to the Governmenton legal or other matters.(9) To introduce interpellaticms to membersof the Cabinet and to insist on their beingpresent in the Council in making repliesthereto.(10) To insist on the Government investigatinginto any alleged bribery and infringementof laws by officials.(11) To impeach the provisional President forhigh treason by a majority vote of threefourthsof the quorum consisting of morethan four-fifths of the total number ofthe members.(12) To impeach members of the (Cabinet forfailure to perform their official duties orfor violation of the law by majority votesof two-thirds of the quorum consisting ofover three-fourths of the total numberof members.The Cabinet (Kuo Wu Yuan ® ^^).The Cabinet is composed of a Premier (KuoWu Tsung Li Wi^ &'^)> and the Ministersof the nine Ministries (Pu ^) of ForeignAffairs (Wai Chiao ^^), Interior (Nei Wu ft :|5),Finance (Ts'ai Cheng g^ jEJc), War (Lu Chiin ^%),Marine (Hai Chiin ^ %), Justice (Ssu Fa fj ^),Education (Chiao Yii ffc^), Agriculture and Commerce(Nung Shang ^ ^ ), and Communications(Chiao T'ung SfeM)The members of the Cabinet are provided forin Chapter V of the Provisional Constitution, whichstates that they shall assist the President in assumingresponsibilities and shall countersign all billsintroduced and all laws and orders issued by thePresident. They and their deputies may be presentand speak in the legislature.Article 19 of the Provisional Constitution providesthat the legislature may insist on the presenceof members of the Cabinet to reply to interpellations.It may also insist on the Governmentinvestigating into any cases of alleged bribery andinfringement of laws by officials. The same Articlefurther provides that the legislature may impeachmembers of the Cabinet for failure to perform theirofficial duties or for violation of the law by amajority vote, which is slightly less than thatrequired for the impeachment of the President.Eight Councillors (Ts'an 1% f|) are attachedto the Cabinet Office. There is also a Secretariat(Mi Shu T'ing^^H), made up of a ChiefSecretary (Mi Shu Chang |i5^:g), six Secretaries(Mi Shu |j5 ^), twenty Senior Clerks (Ch'ien Shili^%), and fifty-six Junior Clerks (Chu Shih ±^ ).Four semi-independent Bureaus are connectedwith the Cabinet; the Bureau of Laws (Fa ChihChii ^^IJ^^. the Civil Service Bureau (Ch'iianHsu Chii ^^ Imj). the Bureau of Statistics (T'ungChi Chii ^ft-^V and the Bureau of Printing (YinChu Chii ^m^)-The Audit Department (Shen Chi Yiian WsY^)-A system of auditing the Government accountsis provided by a law. dated October 3, 1914. AllGovernment offices throughout the country areobliged to submit monthly reports of their receiptsand "expenditures to the Audit Department at Pekingfor inspection and verification.The Department is also entrusted with thework of auditing the accounts of the whole countryfor the fiscal year and submitting suggestions tothePresident.The officials of the Department are as follows :The Auditor-General (Shen Chi Yiian YiianChang mtf^n^)-The Assistant Auditor-General (Shen Chi YuanFu Yiian Chang ^[It^fi'J ^:gl-210

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAGOVERNMENTThree Chiefs (T'ing Chang ^.^ ) of each ofthe three Bureaus into which the Departmentis divided.Fifteen Auditors (Shen Chi Kuan ^ |j- '§" ).Twenty-seven Assistant Auditors (Hsieh ShenKuan ^'M'-^)-One Chief Secretary (Shu Chi Kuan ChangFive Secretaries (Shu Chi Kuan ^BE'"^).Accountants (Ho Suan Kuan ^ ^ 'f ).The Ministries (Pu i^).The organization of each of the nine Ministriesis similar. Each has a General Office (Tsung WuT'ing II, gj H), which is entrusted with the keepingof tlie archives, the management of accounts, andother matters relating to the internal affairs of theMinistry. Each has a number of Departments(Ssu n]), varying in number from three to eight,which divide the routine work of the Ministry.In each Ministry there is one Minister (Tsung('hang ,1^,:^), and at least one Vice Minister (Tz'uChang ^^). The Ministries of Foreign Affairs,Marine, Justice, Education, and Agriculture andCommerce each have one Vice Minister, the otherMinistries having two apiece.The officials ne.xt in rank to the Vice Ministersare the Councillors (Ts'an Shih S^), oi whomeach Ministry has four, except the Ministry ofEducation which has three. Their duties consist ofdrafting laws, orders, and documents, under thedirection of their superior officers.Next in rank are the Chiefs of Departments(Ssu Chang In] :gt).Next come the Secretaries (Mi Shu ^. ^ ),usually four in number.After the Secretaries come the Senior andJunior Clerks (Ch'ien Shih ^ l[i and Chu Shihnumber from 134 in the Ministry^^), varying inof the Interior to 66 in the Ministry of Education.These officers are not found in the two Ministriesof Marine and War, where the clerical staff is on adifferent basis.F'^inally each Ministry, with the exception ofthe Ministry of Foreign Affairs, employs a numberof technical men (Chi Cheng J^ jg and Chi Shih&±)-Ministers and Vice Ministers are appointeddirectly by the President, the appointment ofMinisters being subject to the consent of theNational Assembly. Officials between the gradescf Councillor and Senior Clerk, inclusive, are recommendedby their superior officers and the headsof their Ministries to the President, who appointsand commissions them. Officials of the grade ofJunior Clerk and under are recommended to officeby their superior officers and commissioned andappointed by the head of the Ministry.The following table shows the Departmentsinto which the Ministers are divided :Foreir/n Affairs. hiterio Fi7iance. War.Political Affairs Civil Admin istraticn Taxation Military Administration(Cheng Wu jjr gj ). (Mill Chih ^fh)- (FiI shui M m)- (Chiin Heng ^l'^)-Commercial Affairs Land s Accounts Military Affairs(T'ungShangmiS). (('hih F^ang m:^). (K'uaiChi^lt). (Chii'n Wu ^ ^ ).Intercourse Police Currency Ordinance(chiao Chi 3J: n). (Ching Cheng !^g(). ((.'h 'iian Pi $,^ ). (Chiin Hsieh $;^).Works (T'u Mu ± ^x. ) Public Loans CommissariatCeremonies (Kung Chai ^ "^ ). (Chiin Hsii f^%).(I^i Sufgf^). Treasury Medical (Chiin I ^ ^).Health (K'u TVang^jgi). Law (Chiin Fa W- ^ )•(Wei Sheng^lfe).LivestockAgricultureand(Chiin Mu %6ik).'Marine. Justice. PJducat i(/v. Commerce. Cniiiniiiiiirotiuns.Naval Administration (Jivil Affairs General Mining Railway(Chiin Heng^lB). (Min Shih Education (K'uang Cheng jj^iEJc )AdministrationNaval Affairs SW)- (P'u T'ung Chiao Agriculture and (Lu Cheng Sl|g().Chun Wu¥^). Criminal Yii nm.mm- Forestry PostsOrdinance Affairs Technical (Nung Lin M.^ )•Yu Cheng Ui^ )•(Chun Hsieh ¥;^). (Hsing Shih Education Commerce and Telegraph andEducation m m)- (Chuan Men Chiao Industry Telephone(Chiin Hsiieh ? ^). Prisons Yii^n^w)- (Kung ShangX^ )AdministrationCommissariat (Chien Yd Popular Fishing and (Tien Cheng «jfX )(Chiin Hsii % ^). ^m). Education Stock Raising ShippingLaw (She Hui Chiao (Yu Mu^ift). (Hang Cheng ^j^)(Chun Fa ¥^)Yii ijittlkW).211

GOVERNMENTENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAThe. Central Salt Administration (Yen Wu ShuThe Central Salt Administration is constitutedin accordance with the terms of Article 5 of theChinese Government Reorganization Loan Agreement,of April 21, 1913. While independent ofthe Ministry of Finance, it is clos«ly associatedwith it by reason of the fact that the post ofDirector General (Tu Pan ^ ^) must always beheld by the Minister of Finance, while that ofChief of the Administration (Shu Chang ^ -^ )has always been occupied by one of the ViceMinisters of Finance.Within the Administration a Chief Inspectoratehas been organized, as provided in the Article ofthe Agreement above mentioned, which reads inpart as follows :"This Central Salt Administration willcomprise a Chief Inspectorate of Salt Revenuesunder a Chinese(Chi Ho Tsung So ^^|SM)Chief Inspector (Tsung Pan ^.jgl), and aforeign Associate Chief Inspector (Hui Pan•^^), who will constitute the chief authorityfor the superintendence of the issue of licensesand the compilation of reports and returns ofrevenues. In each salt-producing district therewill be a branch office of the Chief Inspectorate(Chi Ho Fen So J^:^^JW), under one Chineseand one foreign District Inspector (So ChangJ9f &) who shall be jointly responsible for thecollection and deposit of the salt revenues. Theengagement and dismissal of these Chinese andforeign District Inspectors, and of the necessaryChinese and foreign staff at the Chief andBranch Inspe^orates, will be decided jointly bythe Chinese and foreign Chief Inspectors, withthe approval of the Minister of Finance."The National Tobacco and Wine Administration(t'h'iianKuo Yen Chiu Shih Wu Shu ^^ g j^This is an independent department, createdJanuary 21, 1916, to take charge of the publicsales and taxation of tobacco and wine for thewhole country. The direction of the Administrationis in the hands of a Director General and anAssociate Director General.The Revenue Council (Shui Wu Ch'u Ift^^)The Revenue Council was created by an Edict,dated May 9, 1906, to take charge of the MaritimeCustoms. Supervision over the Customs is exercisedthrough the Inspectorate General of Customs atPeking and the Superintendents of Customs (HaiKuan Chien Tu?^^^^), who are stationed atthe different ports.The principal officials of the Revenue Councilare the Comptroller General (Tu Pan ^^), theAssociate Comptroller General (Hui Pan '%^ ),&Councillor (T'i Tiao ^ |^), and an AssistantCouncillor (Pang T'i Tiao %i^M)-The. National Conservancy Bureau (Ch'iian KuoShui Li Chii -^UiiuM^)This Bureau was established for the purpose ofdealing with questions of river conservancy. It isindependent of but closely allied to the Ministryof Agriculture and Commerce, because of the natureof its work and because the post of Director General(Tsung Ts'ai l&HI^) of the Bureau has been occupiedfrom the first by the Minister of Agriculture andCommerce. The immediate direction of the affairsof the Bureau is in the hands of the Vice DirectorGeneral (Fu Tsung Ts'ai |lj|ig. ig).The Administrative Court (P'ing Cheng YiianThe Administrative Court was organized forthe purpose of trying impeachments of official?.Deliberations take place before one of the threeSub-Courts into which it is divided. The principalofficials of the Administrative Court are theChief of the Court (Yiian Chang ^ S), whoexercises supervisory control over the affairs of thewhole Court, and fifteen Judges (P'ing Shih ^^),who sit in the Sub-Courta.The Metropolitan District (Ching Chao m^^)-The name of the Metropolitan District waschanged in 1914 from "Shun T'ien Fu" fig 5^ Jl^ to"Ching Chao" :^ ^fe , in accordance with thedecision to abolish the term and office of Fu(Prefecture).The Metropolitan District comprises an area ofabout one hundred miles square, centering aroundPeking and including twenty District Cities(Hsien JH). The chief official is the Governor(Ching Chao Yin jR^fe.^), whose seat is at Peking.He is independent of the Chihli provincialauthorities' and responsible only to the CentralGovernment. Within his jurisdiction his functionscorrespond with those of a Governor of a province.Provincial Government.The chief civil authority in each province is theGovernor (Sheng Chang ^^), who is appointeddirectly by the President. His jurisdiction in eachcase extends over one province only, the oldgrouping of provinces which existed during theManchu regime having been abolished.The Governor exercises supervision over theTaoyins, District Magistrates, and other local212

officials. The District Magistrates are appointed ordismissed by the President at the recommendationof the Governor. The Taoyins are appointeddirectly by the President and carry on their workunder the supervision of the Governor.The Governor may issue provincial Orders(Sheng Ling % -^ ) and may suspend the Ordersissued by the Taoyins, District Magistrates, etc.He also exercises control over the militia and, incase of necessity, may request the co-operation ofthe regular military establishment.The ordinary functions of the Governor areexercised through the Administrative Department(Cheng Wu T'ing ^ ^ ^.) of his office, the Chiefof vv'hich (T'ing Chang H;^) is an official appointeddirectly by the President. The Department isdivided into four Divisions (K'o f4 ) • ^^ GeneralENCYCLOPAEDIA glNlCAAffairs (Tsung Wu ^^), Interior Affairs (Nei Wu^ ^), Educational Affairs (Chiao Yii |JC h')? *"^Industrial Affairs (Shih Yeh MM)-Every six months the Governor is required tosubmit a report to the President on the records ofthe various officialssupervision.subordinate to him or under hisIn each province all matters connected withfinance are under the direction of a provincialDepartment of Finance (Ts'ai Cheng T'ing Kt J^^.))which is practically a branch of the Ministry ofFinance. It is under the control of the Ministryand also under the supervision of the Governor ofthe province. The principal official in the Departmentis the Chief of Department (T'ing ChangThe Department of Finance exercises generalcontrol over the officials of the province who collecttaxes, who may either have tax collecting as theirsole duties or who have such duties added to otherfunctions. The former are more under the controlof the Department, the latter more under thecontrol of the Governor.The District Magistrates who collect taxes arein a different position from that of other taxcollecting officials, being subject to the supervisionboth of the Department of Finance and the Governor.They are not subject to removal by theDepartment of Finance, which can only report themto the Governor. Returns of taxes collected bythem are sent through the Governor and thencethrough the Department to the Ministry of Finance.Appointments and removals of District Magistratesv>ho collect taxes ai-e decided by the Governor andreported by him to the Ministry of Finance.The relation of the Governor to judicial mattersin his province is similar to his relation to financialmatters, but his powers in this regard are moreextensive. The principal judicial authority in theprovince is the Chief Judge of the Higher Court(Kao Teng Shen P'an T'ing T'ing ChangGOVERNMENTig ^ ^^JH, ^, S), the supreme court of the province.He exercises his functions both under the directionof the Ministry of Justice and of the Governor.The latter's control over the judiciary is assuredby his power to fix the appointments as well as thedismissals, rewards, and punishments of theofficials in the law courts, courts of procuration,prisons, et

GOVERNMENTENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNtCAThe Ministry of the Interior occupies a peculiarposition in relation to the Governor. The latter isrequired to keep it informed of all his recommendationsfor the appointment, dismissal, et*., of theDistrict Magistrates and other officials under hisjurisdiction, as well as of the arrangements madein his Administrative Office.The Ministry of Foreign Affairs maintainsrepresentatives in the provinces t« conduct the localintercourse with foreigners. These are the SpecialCommissioners of Foreign Affairs, or DiplomaticEnvoys, (Wai Chiao Pu T'e P'ai Chiao She YuanThe T(toy in.Each province is divided into a number of largedivisions, varying between two and seven, called"Tao" ( Jg ), each under the jurisdiction of anofficial called "Taoyin" (jg^).The Taoyin acts under the supervision of theGovernor of the province. Within his jurisdictionhis powers are similar to those of the Governor.He may be clothed by the Governor with authorityto exercise supervision over the District Magistrateswithin his jurisdiction in connection with theirfunctions as tax collectors and judges, such supervisionbeing exercised under the direction of theprovincial Department of Finance and the HigherCourt. Reports must also be submitted regardingthis part of their duties to the Governor.The Taoyin exercises general supervision overall other acts of the District Magistrates within hisjurisdiction. He may issue Orders (Tao Ling jE-^)and may cancel Orders issued by the DistrictMagistrates under him. He may submit recommendationsto the Governor for the appointment,reward, or punishment of such District Magistratesand he may, in case a vacancy occurs, fill it by atemjjorary appointment.Like the Governor the Taoyin is also givenauthority to use the militia in his jurisdiction andto apply to the regular military forces for aid whenoccasion therefor arises. In doing this last,however, except under extraordinary circumstances,he must send his application through the Governor.Finally, the Taoyin has the right, in matters ofgreat urgency or importance, to petition the Presidentdirect, in which case he must report hisaction to the Governor.The District Magistrates.The district Magistrate (Hsien Chih ShihIR ^ ^ )is the chief civil authority in the thirdand smallest division of the province—the District(Hsien |S), —the number of which in each Taovaries greatly.The typical District consists of a walled townand its surrounding country.The duties of a District Magistrate are varied.Except in the important centres he is usually theprincii)al judge in the District, exercising hisfunctions, as has been stated, under the supervisionof the Taoyin, the Governor and the Higher Court.He is also usually the chief tax collecting officialin his District, acting under the supervision of theTaoyin, the Governor, and the provincial Departmentof Finance. Within the scope of his authorityhe may issue Orders (Hsien Ling Ijg-^). He controlslesser officials in his District.The District Magistrate is the principal policeofficer of his District, whether the police force isirregular and of the old style, or whether a modernDistrict Police Station has been established In thelatter case he occupies the position of Chief of theDistrict Police Station (Hsien Ching Ch'a SoSo Chang M^^JilrM^).In matters of importance the District Magistratehas the right to petition the Governor direct,in which case he must report his action to theTaoyin.Like the Governor and the Taoyin the DistrictMagistrate is given control over the militia in hisDistrict, and he may request the co-operation ofthe regular military forces.The Police.The Local Police Dejjurtmtnts (Ti Fang Ching Ch'a%:j^^^^).T'ingUnder the terms of a Presidential Mandateissued in August, 1914, it is provided that LocalPolice Departments shall be established in each ofthe provincial capitals and commercial centres, totake charge of matters relating to policing, publichealth, and fire prevention. If established in acity which is the headquarters of a Governor, itcomes under the latter's jurisdiction.The Chief of the Local Police Department (T'ingChang ^^), is recommended to office either bythe Taoyin or by the Governor. The latter forwardsthe recommendation to the Ministry of the Interior,which in turn petitions the President to make theappointment. The Chief of the Local PoliceDepartment may issue police regulations subject tothe approval of the President. He has the powerto cashier his subordinates and in general he directsthe affairs of his Department subject to the supervisionof the Taoyin or Governor.The District Police Stations (Hsien Ching Ch'a SoelseThese may be established in the Districts orthe Districts may rely for their police force onthe local trainbands (Pao Wei T'uan f* ^ S)-Where a District Police Station has been esta,blishedthe District Magistrate is the Chief of the Station(So Chang f)(&).Sub-Stations may be established214

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAGRAMMARSin a District. The detailed regulations to governthe work of the District Police Station are drawnup by the District Magistrate and referred, throughthe Taoyin, to the Governor, by whom they arefixed and then reported to the Ministry of theInterior.The. Peking Police Department (Ching Shih Chingch'aT'ing ^A^mmm,)-The organization of the Peking Police Departmentis similar to that of the Local Police Departments,the principal difference being that the formeris under the direct supervision of the Ministry ofthe Interior.[R.P.T.]GOVERNORS OF HONGKONG. The followingis a list of those who have held this post.I'litil the appointment of a British Minister toleside in Peking (1860) the Governor and Cominander-in-(Jhiefof the Colony of Hongkong andits dependencies was also H.B.M. Plenipotentiaryand Minister-extraordinary and Chief Superintendent'ofTrade.Sir Henry Pottingeh, k.c.b., June 26, 1843.Sir John Francis Davis, k.c.b.. May 8, 1844.Sir Samuel George Bonham, k.c.b., March 20, 1848.Sir John Bowring, ll.d., April 13, 1854.Sir Hercules George Robert Robinson, September9, 1859.Sir Richard Graves MacDonnell, k.c.m.g., c.b.,March 15, 1865.Sir Arthur Kennedy, k.c.m.g., c.b., April 16, 1872.Sir John Pope Hennessy, k.c.m.g., April 22, 1877.Sir George Ferguson Bowen, g.c.m.g., March,1883.Sir George William Des Vckux, k.c.m.g., October1887.Sir William Robinson, g.c.m.g., December 10, 1891.Sir Henry Arthur Blake, g.c.m.g., November 25,1898.Sir Matthew Nathan, k.c.m.g., July 29, 1904.Sir Frederick Dealtry Lugard, k.c.m.g., July 28,1907.Sir Francis Henry May, July 4, 1912.See each of these names in separate articles.GOVERNORS OF PROVINCES.Under theManchus and in the first years of the Republic theprovinces of Chihli, Ssuch'uan and Feng-t'ien wereadministrated by a Viceroy |g,-^ t-iung tu, alone,while all other provinces, either singly or in pairs,had a tiovernor ^ ^ hsiin fu, (colloquially calledfa t'fti JSRlg), some of them a Viceroy as well.After the Republic was established the officeViceroy was abolished and each province separatelywas ruled by a Governor who was entitled ^ ^tutu.ofAfter the Revolution of 1913 YiiAN Shih-k'aiseparated the civil and military powers, giving thechief civil official in each province the title JS 14 nlhsiin an shih and the chief military official that of^^ ^ chiang chiin. In 1915 these two officials weremade to reside in different cities, the civil governorgenerally occupying the provincial capital.After the succession of Li Yuan-hung thetitles though not the functions of these officialswere changed again, by a decree of July 6, 1916;the civil governor became ^ ^ sheng chang, andthe military governor ^ ^

GRAMMARSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAgenerally remained in manuscript. A number ofsuch MSS. may be seen in the Hunterian Museumof the Glasgow University. The first to publishwas Yard (q.v.), in 1730. Fourmont followed witha Grammar founded on Varo. Marshman ofSerampore wrote Clavis Sinica or Elements ofChinese Grammar (1814) and in 1815 Morrisonissued a Grammar of Chinese. In 1822 Remusatpublished Elemens de la grammaire chinoise.G0N5ALVES' works (Grammatica Latina, 1828, etc.),were in Latin and Portuguese, The NotitiaLinguae Sinicae of Premare first appeared in 1831an English translation by J. G. Bridgman wasissued at C'anton in 1847. Bazin, in 1856, printedGratnmaire Mandarine.After this, as foreigners in China increased innumbers, the aids of all kinds for students of thelanguage become too numerous to mention ; but thebest known were those by Edkins (Grammar ofColloquial Chinese) ; Summers {Handbook of theChinese Language, Grammar and Chrestomathy)LoBSCHEiD (Grammar of the Chinese Language) ;and there were many which were useful for a timeor for a district, which are now forgotten. It willbe noted that, so far, there has been no hesitationin speaking of Grammar.Later, however, such books took the form ofProgressive Lessons, Manuals, and Collections ofidiomatic phrases. Giles, John Ross, \^. A. P.Martin, Dyer Ball and a score of others publishedsuch works in English ; but the two which' havebeen the most used are Wade's Yii-yen Tzu-erh Chi,1867, (see Tzu-erh Chi), and Mateer's Course ofMandarin Lessons (1892) ; the former being formany years the manual for Consular and Customsservices, the latter, appearing much later, beingthen more used by missionaries.Wade issued at the same time with the abovenamedwork on the Colloquial another course inDocumentary Chinese, Wen-chien Tzu-erh Chi. Asimilar work prepared for the use of Customsstudents is Hirth's Text-bouk of DocumentaryChinme. The same author has published a valuablesmall book, Notes on the Chinese DocumentaryStyle.Two important works by the Jesuits must benamed ; the Cursiis lAtteraturae Sinensis by Zottoli,in 5 volumes, and Rudiments de Parler et de Stylerhinois by Wieger, in 12 volumes.These are but a few out of many. Hopkins,HirxiER, Bullock, Imbault-Huart, Vissikre,Boucher and many more must here be merelymentioned.Since the 'new Chinese' came in with Japaneseinfluence, the increase of newspa])ers and the generaleducational awakening, there has been a new crop ofworks meant to teach it.Morgan's Chinese S2)caker and Wtn-li Styles,Mrs. Mateer's New Terms for Old Ideas, Otto'sTranslations from Modern Chinese, De Bruin'sIntroduction to Modern Chinese, and Baller'sWen-U Jjcssons are amongst .the newest works. SeealsoLexicography.CoRDiER : Bibliotheca Sinica, col. 1650.GRAND CANAL ^ fSJ yii ho, imperial river;jg JBI yiin ho, transport river ; (^ fel ch'a ho, riverof locks. The great canal connects Peking andHangchow, about 650 miles apart. The credit ofits construction is often given to Khubilai Khanbut it had already existed in parts for a thousandyears; on making Peking his capital he added thenorthern part of the canal so as to make throughcommunication between Peking and the old SungCapital, Hangchow. The portion between the twogreat rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze,was first made in the Chou dynasty, about 485 b.c.by channels joining the various lakes of that district,and it was altered from time to time duringlater centuries as need required, as lakes becameshallow, etc. In the Sung dynasty it was colitinuedto Hangchow which was then the Capital, makingit some 430 miles long. The northern portion fromthe Yellow River to Peking was made by KhubilaiKhan at the end of the 13th century ; it was some500 miles in length and made the total length ofthe Canal some 1,200 miles; the exact length asgiven in Gandar's elaborate study is 3,630 li.Gandar : Le Canal hnperial, (Var. Sin. No. 4).GRAND COUNCIL or State Council T^m^chiln chi ch'u, was instituted in the Shun Chihperiod (1644-62) and was the highest authority inthe empire after the emperor. It might be calledthe emperor's Privy Council, where state businesswas transacted daily from 4 to 6 a.m. It wascomposed, in later times of five Ministers, Manchusand Chinese, who held other offices. The title,which means literally 'Army-plan place,' shows itwas originally a military council.GRAND SECRETARY. The Grand Secretariat1^ ^ nei Ico, inner hall, was the SupremeCouncil under the Ming dynasty, but was in practicesuperseded later by the Grand Council (q.v.). Itthen formed a Court of Archives with four GrandSecretaries, two Manchu and two Chinese, with thetitle (colloquial) l|i ^ ch\ing Vang central hall, or(literary) ^ ftj tsai hsiang. The office, with itsnominal duties, was the highest honour to which anofficialcould attain.tender the Ming Emperors the familiar titlewas ko lao ^^, Elder of the (nei) ko. This waswritten Colao by the Jesuit missionaries.GRANT, JAMES HOPE, bcrn July 22, 1808,was appointed commander of British troops in theAnglo-French expedition of 1860 against China,216

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAGREAT LEARNINGwith the rank of Lieutenant-General. It was hewho had the task of destroying the Y,iian MingYuan. He died March 7, 1875.GRAPES, Vitis vinifera, ^^ f'u t'ao. Thegrape is not a native of China but was broughtfrom central Asia by Chang Ch'ien in the secondcentury B.C. The first mention of it in Chineseliterature is in Ssu-MA Ch'ien. There must havebeen several varieties introduced, to account for thenumber of varieties pow found in N. China.A white grape grown near Hsuan-hua fu is themost expensive of all Chinese grapes, and is onlyto be had in limited quantities. The berries aremuch elongated. They can be kept, with care, tillFebruary. There are also seedless white grapes inN. China. Purple grapes also are grown, in several\arieties, central Shansi being especially noted forthem. One variety, if put in baskets and placed incool cellars, can be kept for almost the whole year.Vines are always trained over arbors or somesuch supports, with very long main leaders. Afterthe first frost in October the vines are taken down,pruned and if neces.«ai-y coiled up, and are thenburied to protect them from the severe cold ofwinter.Several .species of wild grape are found, V.amurensis and others. From some a fairly goodwine is made.Meyer : Agriculttcral Explorations, etc. ; Bret-SCHNEIDER : Botanicoii Sinicum, I, p. 25 ; Ma^^^Polo, c. 37. ..^.^j^^^*'GRAPHITE. See Mine^hfGRASS CHARACTER ^^ ts'ao tzfi, the('hine.«;e running hand, used in business but not inofficial documents. It dates from the Ch'in ^dynasty, about B.C. 220.GRASSCLOTH,g;fg, the name given to clothwoven from ramie, hemp, pineapple fibre, or fromany mixture of these. There are many qualities,the best closely resembling foreign linen. The valueof the export in 1916 was Hk.Tls. 1,710,336. SeeFibres,textile.GREAT BRITAIN AND CHINA. The relationsof Great Britain with China, both in peaceand in. war, have been more important during thelast two or three centuries than those of any etherPower.The story opens with the arrival of Weddellin 1637 and includes the long and varied experienceof the East India Company down to 1834; theAmherst and Macartney embassies ; the FirstWar, ending with the Treaty of Nanking in 1842;the cession of Hongkong; Gordon's victories overthe T'ai P'ing rebels; the Second War, ending withthe destruction of the Summer Palace and theTreaty of Peking in I860; Margahy's murder; the282i;opening of many ports to foreign trade ; down tothe leasing of Weihaiwei in 1898.All these matters are dealt with under separatearticles.The total trade between Great Britain andChinese in 1914 was Tls. 127,000,000, the percentageof China's whole trade being 13.8 with Great Britainor 49.0 with the British Empire.The following is a complete list of all Ministerswho have represented Great Britain at the courtof Peking.1853, December 24, Sir John Bowring, Plenipotentiaryand Chief Superintendent.1857, April 17, James Bruce, Earl of Elgin andKincardine. Special Mission.1859, January 14, Hon. F. W. A. (afterwards SirFrederick) Bruce, Envoy extraordinary andMinister plenii^otentiary.1860, March 20, James Bruce, Earl of Elgin andKincardine. Special Mission.1865, April 7, Sir Rutherford Alcock, Envoyextraordinary and Minister plenipotentiary andChief Superintendent of British trade.1871, July 22, Thomas F. (afterwards Sir Thomas)Wade,, En\-oy extraordinary and Minister plenipotentiaryand Chief Superintendent.1876, February 21, the same, with new credentials.1883^ Jitly 1, Sir Harry S. Parkes, Envoy extra-* ordinary and Minister plenipotentiary.1885, May 2, Sir R. Hart, Envoy extraordinaryand Minister plenipotentiary. (Did not takeup appointment).1885, November 24, Sir J. Walsham, Envoy extraordinaryand Minister plenipotentiary.1892, April 1, N. R. (afterwards Rt. Hon. SirNicholas) O'Conor, Envoy extraordinary andMinister plenipotentiary.1895, January 1, Sir C. M. (now Rt. Hon. Sir C. M.)MacDonald, Envoy extraordinary and Ministerplenipotentiary.1900, October 26, Sir E. M. (now Rt. Hon. Sir E.)Satow, Envoy extraordinary and Minister plenipotentiary.1906, May 31, Sir John N. Jordan, Special Envoyextraordinary and Minister plenipotentiaryad.int.1906, October 26, the same; Envoy extraordinaryand Minister plenipotentiary.[1909, February 24, the same ; Special Ambassadorextraordinary to attend the funei'al of theEmperor Kuang Hsii]. See Treaties.GREAT LEARNING, :k ^ ^'« ^•^"^^' ^^®second of the Four Books. Its authorship is uncertain,though it is usually ascribed to K'UNG Chia grandson of Confucius.the fifth century B.C.Its dale seems certainlyIt was added as a chapter to

! andGREAT TRAVELLERENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAthe Li Chi in the 2nd century a.d. by Ma Yung.According to Chu Hsi and others the meaning ofthe title is Learning for adults, as Hsiao hsiieh isLearning for "the young. See Classics.Legge : Classics, vol. i.GREAT TRAVELLER, THE, MiA ta hsingBiot's term for an official named in the Choujeti.Li; the chief authority in charge of all dealingswith the States, and the reception of ambassadorsor visitors to Court. He, with a junior colleaguecalled the "Small Traveller," had constantly toexamine into the condition of the populations ofthe Feudal States, and keep the Emperor informeduf everything going on within the Empire. He wassubordinate to the Board now called Hsing Pu Jfi)Board of PunisJiments ; (see Six Boards).BiOT : Le Tcheou Li; Hirth : The AncientHistory of China.GREAT WALL, THE, called by the Chinese(S S :^ ^ w«« ^» ch'ang ch'eng, ,' the myriad-Ztlongwall.' It is the wall built by Shih Huang Tiagainst Tartars after trying for ten years to overcomethem. It began in the present Kan.su andreached to Liao-tung, advantage being taken of allnaturally fortified places in constructing it. Therewere also some portions existing of previously builtwalls which were utilised. Its length in a straightline is 1,300 miles, but its actual length is 1,500miles. Its height was from 15 to 30 feet ; it variedin height, in material, etc., according to the importanceof the different localities ; stone, brickand earth being all used in its construction. Withinthe wall were camps, on the wall were towers, andoutside were moats and ditches, making the wholedefence very effective for the time, so long as theguards did their duty.There are, according to Eockhill, two GreatWalls, one called pien ch'eng ^ Ijg frontier wall,extending from the Gulf of Chihli to the west ofKansu ; the other called the Ch'ang cVen^ ^ t|Slong wall, or ^Yan li ch'eng 'jg S. i^ myriad li wall,branching off near the eastern end of the other,encircling the north-western boundary of Chihliand following the range which separates that provincefrom Shansi for several hundred miles. Theformer is faced with brick as far as east Shansi,after which it is mere earth ; the latter is facedwith brick or stone throughout its whole length,and is a much greater work.It is stated that besides 300,000 troops, all thecriminals of the land were set to build this wall,including many literati. The difficulty of feedingthem and the suffering they must have endured canbe judged from the statement that of 182 loads ofgrain despatched only one would reach its destination,the rest being eaten or sold along the road.It was repaired under the Ming dynasty,^(Hsien Tsung, 1464—87). It has now become amere geographical boundary, military posts beingmaintained only at the passes. The most importantof these are Shan-hai kuan at the eastern extremitythe Kalgan Pass (Chang-chia k'ou) in the N.W. ofChihli; the Yen men ^ P^ {Goose-gate) Pass, N. ofShansi ; and the Chia-yii ^ jjg Pass at the extremewest.Within the wall is often spoken of as Kuan nei|g^ and without the wall as fv'ou wai p ^.TscHnPE : Histoire du Royawne de Ch'in, c. vRocKHiLL : The Land of the Lamas, p. 8.GREBES. See Pygopodes.GRIFFIN. A .slang term, applied to untrainedpomes newly imported from Mongolia to Shanghaiand also to young men newly come to Shanghaifrom the West.GROS, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS, was bornat Ivry-sur-Seine on Februai-y 8, 1793. He enteredthe diplomatic service, and was made a Baron in1829. He was sent as special High Commissionerin China in 1857 and signed the Treaty of Tientsinbetween France and China, after the allied forceshad taken Canton and the Taku forts; he was sentagain as Ambassador extraordinary and High Commissionerin China in 1860, when, after enteringPeking he signed the Additional Convention ofOctober 25, 1860.De Moges : Souvenirs d'une avibassade enChine, (or English translation, 1861).GROSiER, Abbe, was born at St. Omer, March17, 1743, and died in Paris, December 7, 1823. Hewas Canon of S. Louis du Louvre, and later waslibrarian to H.R.H. the Count D'Artois. He isknown as the author of an important work whichfirst appeared in 1785 as the thirteenth and lastvolume of Mailla's Histoire de la Chine; its titlewas Description Ghierale de la Chine. The thirdedition of it was entitled De la Chine, ou Descrijdiongtnerale de cet Emjnre; it was in seven volumesand was published in 1818-20. The work was reviewedby Remusat, who speaks of it as a goodresume of the Ijcttres Edifiantes, Duhalde's workand the Memoires of the French missionaries, putinto convenient order and enriched with some usefuladditions. It was translated into English, GermanItalian.Remusat : Nou^-^aux Melanges Asiatiques,p. 283 ; CoRDiER : Bibliotheca Sinica.GROSVENOR MISSION. After the murderof Margary in Yiinnan a Mission was sent by Sirthe matter onThomas Wade to make enquiry intothe spot. The members of the Mission were theHon. T. G. Grosvenor, Second Secretary of theBritish Legation, A. Davenport and E. C, Baber,218

•ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAGUILDof the Consular Service. Blue Book, China, No. 3,(1878).GROUND-NUTS (Peanuts) :^^ hua-sUng;also :& IE ^ ch'ang sMng kuo : Arachis hypogea.Ground-nuts have been cultivated for centuries inSouth China ; but not until more recent times northof the Yangtze, for they are not mentioned by thehistoriograi^hers of the Macaktney and AmherstEmbassies, who described all the crops they saw.They are now, however, cultivated all over China,from Central Manchuria to Hainan. Ground-nutsflourish best in a sandy loam and require anabundance of sunshine during the growing period,without too much rain. These conditions exis-t inthe valley of the Yellow River, in E. Shantung andS. (Jhihli and part of Honan, which are now thechief exporting districts. Large quantities are alsoproduced in the old bed of the Yellow River, inN. Kiangsu, and also along the sea-board of Chihlitowards Shanhaikuan. Sowing is in early springand the harvest in October. Cultivation is cheapand causes little trouble, and the returns are good.There are two kinds, the large and the small. Theformer was introduced from the United States bymissionaries to Shantung and is called the foreignpeanut. The soil in which they grow is sifted, soas to obtain even the smallest nuts. They areeaten roasted as in ihe West or are used in confectionery.The oil is used in cooking, lighting,and to adulterate the more expensive rape-seed oilthe refuse cake, for manuring purposes, is sent toKuangtung, and the shells are used to fatten pigs.The oil production is one-third by weight of thenuts, or even more under favourable circumstances.Until the nineties little of this product was shippedabroad, but with the development of railways inNorth China the trade advanced by leaps andbounds. In the Lower Yellow River region, wherethe land has been covered with sand by successivefloods, nothing will grow but ground-nuts, but sincethe demand from foreign countries set in, thefarmers have planted vast areas with the crop, andthe trade has assumed great proportions. In theWest the extension of the oil industry, for soapmaking,for machinery lubrication, etc., has createdthe demand to which India and China respond moreand more yearly. The cake is considered as one ofthe best for live stock.The suppression of opium has been anothercontributing factor in the growth of the trade;lilyflowers, a less paying crop, have also been supplantedin the Huai River region.Although there were large shipments from thenorth to Kuangtung in 1896 (600,000) piculs, mostlyfrom Chinkiang) the foreign trade did not developuntil 1909, since when it has expanded enormously.In that year the pro

GUILDENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAin the hands of aliens : e.g., in Wenchow the craftsof needle-making, fish-hook making and gold-beatingare entirely in the hands of aliens, and they areforbidden to teach Wenchow men.Administration.—The officers of a Guild generallyconsist of a manager and a Committee electedannually, each serving in rotation as manager.Each member serves in turn on the committee.There is also a salaried secretary, a literary manwho communicates with the officials when necessary,and appears in court as the legal representative ofthe guild. He also collects subscriptions from themembers for charities and public works. The Committeeconvenes meetings to regulate prices, to fixstandard weights and measures, to regulate salesby credit, rates of storage, insurance, packing, etc.Each Guild has its own rules and may alter them asoften as exigency demands.Be venue.—The income of Guilds is acquiredchiefly from taxes on the amount of the members'sales, by entrance fees and by fines. The members'books are examined periodically and those withfalse accounts are heavily fined, or are expelled.Jurisdiction.—Disputes between members aresettled by arbitration at a meeting of the Guild.The Guild also helps in the expenses of a law-suitof a member, if it be thought a worthy one.Rewards are given for the discovery of thieves or.•stolen property, and any member found concealinga robbery or I'eceiving stolen goods is heavilyfined, and if he refuses to pay the fine, is expelled.All intercourse with an expelled memberis forbidden, and any member having dealingswith him is heavily fined. The Shanghai TeaGuild has or had a rule that no members shouldhave dealings with a firm in litigation with aforeign firm until the case is adjudicated. Forbreaches of regulations, members are fined, the finesranging from temple candles, a feast or a play, toconsiderable sums of money ; or are punished byexpulsion and boycott. Personal violence is sometimesinflicted on rebellious members, occasionallyresulting in death. The members are expected torender assistance at fires and the Guild often has afire-engine of its own. It subscribes to the funeralexpenses of its poorer members, sometimes presentingthe coffin.Guild-hall.—The more important Guilds havea building where the members transact business andhave feasts and theatricals. Usually there is ashrine to some patron deity to which the membersdo obeisance at the annual meeting.Journeymen occasionally form a temporaryassociation to combine against their masters onaccount of some grievance, and sometimes strike forincrease of wages. Apprentices serve from threeto five years, and at the end of their term contributea sum towards expenses, or pay for a play. ManyGuilds limit the number of apprentices, and regulatethe hours of work.ii. The Hui-kwan is of older origin than thetrade-guild, and probably existed as far back asthe T'ang dynasty. A Kiangsu club is referred toin the Ming dynasty. Membership is open to all,whether officials, business men or others, who comefrom the home province. A salaried manager andhonorary committee are elected annually, and thereisa salaried secretary.Revenue.—^Members pay to the club a percentageof their profits or earnings, and co-provincialofficials subscribe fixed sums, the highest probablybeing Tls. 600 paid by a Viceroy to the Hupei Guildin Foochow.2'he Guild huilding, like that of the tradeguild,has a special deity presiding over it. Itserves as quarters for co-provincial officials passingthough the city. The Guild has a special mortuarywhere coffins of members are stored before beingsent back to the native province, and it provides acemetery for the members. The various provincialGuilds in Peking assist poor scholars of their provinceswho come up for examinations.The Guild controls the trade between the homeand the alien province, promotes the general interestsof its members and protects them from thejealousy of native firms. Any dispute between itsmembers is settled by the Guild, but where amember has a law-suit against a man not of hisprovince, the Guild prosecutes on his behalf if thestep is sanctioned by all the other members andhelps to defray expenses.iii. The 'Guild merchant' or ai^sociation of allthe merchants of a locality to regulate trade is arare institution in China. Morse names the onlythree well-marked instances, the Great Guild ofNewchwang, the Swatow Guild, and the formerCanton Co-hong, [q.v.].Morse : The Gilds of China; K. : ChineseGuilds, N.C.B.R.A.S. Journal, vol. xii ; Mac-GowAN : Chinese Guilds, ibid., vol. xxi.GULLS. See Laridae.GUM BENJAMIN, ^g,^, an hsi hsianj,balsamic resin from Styrax benzoin, is importedfrom Borneo and Sumatra. Its oil is benzoin oil,used medicinally, as a perfume (incense) and intanning.GUM MYRRH,J3[^, an import, is the exudationfrom Balsamodendron myrrha, Nees. It isused as a purifier.GUM OLIBANUM, a$, from India andAfrica, obtained from stems of several species ofBosweUia; used medicinally powdered or as plaster,and as a perfume (frankincense).GUMPACH, JOHANNES VON, a Germanby birth, but naturalized in England. He was220

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAHAINANemployed as Professor of Astronomy by (Sir)Robert Hart for the T'ungwen College, but provedrecalcitrant. A flippant account of him may be readin Dr Martin's A Cycle of Cathay, p. 304, but theother side may be read in the appendix to a workby von Gumpach,. The Biirlingame Mission; ajwlitical disclosure, etc., 1872. In this he giveswhat he called 'a clear, succinct and impartial reviewof the Mission by an eye-witness of its mysteriousbirth.' Succinct it is not, extending to some 600pages ; and impartial it is not, being full of violentanimosity and vituperation of Hart, Burlingame,Martin, Wade and others. But it is a curious andinteresting volume.GUNNY, a coarse kind of cloth, made fromthe bark of a tree and used for covering bales, orfor bags, etc.See Fibres, textile.GUNPOWDER. Opinion is much divided asto the invention of gunpowder by Chinese and theearliest use of firearms among them. It is statedthat the ' fire-drug ' i\ ^ huo yiieh, whose nameseems to indicate a foreign origin, was introducedfrom India in the fifth century a.d. But it wasnot used for fire-arms apparently until the middleof the twelfth century. According to Schlegel theMongols used cannon in 1232.Mayers : On the Introdurllon and use of Gunjmvder,etc.. Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., 1870; Martin :/^ore of Cathay; Williams : Middle Kini/dotn,vol. ii, p. 89; Schlegel : On the Invention and useof Fire arnh

jHAKKASUNOYCLOPAEDIA SINICAinhabit the fringe of coast land; in the interior are inear the northern end, with its port Hoihow, open;to foreign' trade. There are no other towns to name,vinces, and are also distinguished by cleanlier habitsand by the unbound feet of the women. It is onlypossible to give a rough estimate of their numbersbut there may be some fifteen millions of them.Where they originated is an Unsolved problem ; butit is supposed they emigrated from Honan in the4th and again in the 9th century. Some went to(.'hekiang and Fukien, others to Kiangsi. Many,M'ho settled amid a civilisation not very differentfrom their own, would blend and be to-day indistinguishablefrom the Southern Chinese. Others,who settled among the wild tribes of Fukien, wouldpreserve their Honan speech and customs, and theseare the present Hakkas. In the Sung and Mongoldynasties many of these migrated to (Molchu)Kai yin ^ {£ in Kuangtung, the families now theretracing their ancestry back some 20 generations.The Hakkas have emigrated in large numbersto the Dutch East Indies, Borneo, The Straits andBurma. There are said to be half a million inFormosa and there are many in Hainan.Notes and Queries on China and Japan, vol. iChinese Eecorder, vol. xxiii.HALIMA, or KalimAjB^jSt^, a Tibetan priestwith such a reputation that Yung Lo sent an embassyto bring him to court. On arrival he wasasked to say masses for the emperor's parents, andafter the ceremonies there were various supernaturalmanifestations, auspicious clouds, heavenly dew,|white elephants, etc., etc. Yung Lo thereupon gavejLaw, Buddha of the Western Paradise, etc. Histhree chief disciples were made Ta Kuo Shih :^gg$Grand State Preceptors and chief prelates of thewhole Buddhist church.HALL OF CLASSICS, Pi yung kung UM"^belonging to the Kuo tzu chien, was built by .Ch'ienLung near the Confucian Temple, in the N.E.corner of Peking. It contains 3,000 stone tabletsinscribed with texts from the classics. At statedtimes the Emperor used to go there to expound theclassics. In the grounds are a stone and porcelainp'ai-lou and an ancient sun-dial. See ImperialAcademy.Favier : Peking; Fisher : Guide to Peking.HAM I,B&^IS Ho-mi Ving a town in EasternTurkestan (Sinkiang) on the old south road {THenshun nan lu) ; also found on maps as Khamil. Theisland is Kiungchow,jthe Loi. (See Aborigines).population is 5,000 or 6,000.The capital city of theIt has a fine Buddhi.st temple and a splendidmosque dating from 1420.HAMILTON, PORT. See Port Hamilton.HAMSTER. See Muridde [Cricetidm andPhodopus).HANBURY, THOMAS, Sir, was born inLondon, 1832 and died at his residence near Venti-the island being still very undeveloped.:HAKKAS. A distinct and virile strain of theChinese race, mostly found in the hilly regions ofKuangtung, Kuangsi, Kiangsi and Fukien. Theyspeak a dialect different from those of these promigliain March 1907. He was a merchant inShanghai, was known as a philanthropist, and hasleft his name connected with a school which hefounded there. The Hanbury School, chiefly forEurasian children, now one of the schools controlledby the Municipal Council; and with a Sailors'Home, The Hanbury Institute.HANCE, HENRY FLETCHER, was born inLondon on August 4, 1827. After receiving a verygood education in London and Belgium he came atthe age of 17 to the new colony of Hongkong, andin September 1844 entered the Civil Service. Hedevoted his spare time to collecting and describingthe plants of the Island, and in 1849 he receivedfrom the University of Giessen the honorary degreeof Doctor of Philosophy, In 1854 he was transferredto the Superintendency of Trade in China,under the control of the Foreign Oflace. In theburning of the Factories of Canton he lost his booksand botanical collections. The Superintendencywas abolished on the establishment of the BritishLegation in China in 1859, and for a time he hadto go back to his old post of Senior Assistant inCanton, but in 1861 he was made Vice-Consul atWhampoa, twelve miles below Canton. There helived for some twenty-five years, collecting anddescribing the local flora as he found leisure, aswell as examining what was sent to him from otherports of China. He also made several botanical excursionsin Kuangtung and Hainan. He wa.'!Acting-Consul three times at Canton, and in 1886was appointed Consul at Amoy, but he died amonth after his arrival there, on June 22. Hisherbarium amounted to 22,437 specimens and wasleft to the British Museum. Many plants havebeen named after him,A list of papers written by him on botanicalsubjects, to the number of 222, is given by Bretschneider.Parker : Journal, N.C.B.E.A.S., vol. xxi,p. 309 : Brexschneider : History of EuropeanBotanical Discoveries in China.HAND BAY, a small bay in the Ta-lien wan.Like other bays there it received its name when theBritish forces were there in 1860. Captain Handwas in command of a vessel.Swinhoe : Nar

.jgi,•TCM.itM^ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA HAN FEI TZUHAN DYNASTY, ^IB. Called WesternmHan(from its capital being at Ch'ang-an) or Earlier f^Han. It was founded by Liu Pang (q.v.), a manDyn. Titleiilgj Ti Chieh 69yl']^ Yiian K'ang 65 He was an expert in criminal law. He was at oneji^gf Shen Chiieh 61 time in office under the prince of Han, to whom heWu Feng 57 was kin, but afterwards entered the service of•^H Kan LuS3 the Ch'in ruler (later Shih Huang Ti), and wasH^ Huang Lung 49 at first much esteemed for his talents. He fell,fluence of Lao Tzu's doctrine of passivity [wu wei).Accession Reign Title AdoptedB.C.B.C.TCiff' Yuan Ti 48 ^j^ Ch'u Yiian 48of peasant origin, in B.C. 206, after some years ofYung Kuang 437i^-Jfefighting against the second Ch'in Emperor. TheJllDg Chien Chao 38dynasty lasted 231 years under 15 rulers. (See^^ Ching Ning 33below). Almost every reign was troubled by incursions/S^fJ- Ch'eng Ti 32 Chien Shih 32of, or excursions against the Hsiung-nu]^f^Jpjip Ho P'ing 28B^ jj-lj. The new Emperor repealed the decree ofYang So 24Ch'in Shih Huang Ti as to the destruction ofIgJSjJ\^^ Hung Chia 20books, and was the first Emperor to sacrifice to7jiJ§ Yung Shih 16Confucius. Wen Ti was a great patron of7C5S Yuan Yen 12literature and modified the barbarity of punishments.Wu Ti made great conquests, extending Sfj5> Ai Ti 6 Jl^p Chien P'ing 6^JW Sui Ho 8the enijjire on the South, and annexing part ofTCS Yiian Shou 2Korea and Tonkin. He was entirely given over toa.b.a.u.Taoist magic. Ovferland trade with India, Parthia 2J1^ P'ing Ti 1 7cjl§ Yiian Shih 1and Mesopotamia was begun. Buddhism, according M^k J« Tzu Ying 6 M$S Chii She 6to some accounts, was now first heard of in China.Ma Ch'u Shih 8An envoy who travelled as far as to the Oxus, on jgj:^^ Hsin Huang-ti,his return introduced the grape and pomegranate. ^Ip Wang Mang,Incapable rulers brought about rebellions whichUsurper 9J§^® Shih Chien Kuo 9weakened the empire, and Wang Mang usurped the^HL T'ien Feng 14throne for some years, but he was finally defeatedit^ Ti Huang 20by princes of Han and the dynasty was re-established fiP§i Huai-yangWang 23as the Later Han.^i Ti Hsiian " Keng Shih 23Dyn. Title Accession Reign Title Adopted HAN DYNASTY, LATER. There have beenM^ Kao Ti orB.C.B.C. two dynasties with this title ; one, the second partof the great Han dynasty (see Han, Later) also calleditM Kao Tsu 206Eastern Han ; the other, the unimportant partialg,^ Hui Ti 194dynasty of the period of the Five Dynasties [q.v.].;^^ Kao Hou 187gi5 Lii Shih5:^ Wen Ti 179 ^y^ Hou Yiian 163f:^ Ching Ti 156 t^^ Chung Yiian 149of Shu, with its capital at Ch'eng-tu, as the^7C Hou Yiian 143legitimate successor of the Han dynasty, thoughJE^iff- Wu Ti 140 Htc Chien Yiian 140lasted a shorter time than the other two.7C^ Yiian Kuang 134The Shu ruler belonged to a branch of the HanYiian So 128Imperial house, (Liu). See Three Kingdoms.TCj^ Yuan Shou 1227C^ Yuan Ting 116Dyn. Title Accession Reign Title Adopted7C*J Yiian Feng 110BH^i^ Chao Lieh Ti 221 m^ Chang Wu 221j!c«J T'ai Ch'u 104 '^± Hou Chu 223^M T'ien Han 100 MM Chien Hsing 223mB Yen Hsi 238j^ttii T'ai Shih 96^m Ching Yao 258'i0\i Cheng Ho 92'^M Yen Hsing 263fl^C Hou Yiian 88DB ^ Chao Ti 86 jg^ Shih Yiian 86 HANFEITZU||^.^,a noted philosopherylJ^ Yuan Feng 80 who died about B.C. 233. He occupied an independentH ^ Hsuan Tiposition, being a disciple of HsiiN Tzii (q.v.),73 Shih y^^ pgn 73 while his treatise on government showed the 7C2p Yiian P'ing 74in-223HAN DYNASTY, MINOR ^MIE- Thisname is often used for the Epoch of the Three^Kingdoms, since the Chinese regard the kingdom

HANGCHOWENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAhowever, a victim to the jealousy of a rival officialwho represented that Han's connection with theChinese Emperor would be harmful to Ch'in. Hewas imprisoned, and poisoned himself in despair.Some fragments of his works remain.HANGCHOW i^^, the capital of Chekiang,is in lat. 30° 12' N., and long. 120° 12' E. It wasopened to foreign trade in 1896 (by the JapaneseTreaty), and is on the Ch'ien-t'ang river at itsentrance to the sea, in a narrow unnavigable bay.Before the terrible destruction wrought by theT'ai P'ing rebels, who devastated the city anddistrict, Hangchow was one of the most famouscities of China for its wealth and beautiful scenery,ithe West Lake being celebrated for its templecrownedhills.Hangchow is not, for China, very ancient,having been founded in a.d. 606. It was thecapital of the Southern Sung dynasty in the 12thcentury, and was described, under the name ofKinsay, by Marco Polo, who visited it in the13th century. Hangchow has for centuries beennoted for its silk manufactures, many thousands ofpeople being employed, but many have been thrownout of work by the fancy for foreign satins ; there isnow a foreign-style filature. Other manufacturesfor which the city is noted are fans (oiled-paper)scissors, and tin-foil. Of recent date are a cottonmill, and soap and match factories.The Grand Canal commences at Hangchowthe Shanghai-Hangchow railway, (105 miles), wasopened in 1909, in which year tne first Provincial.Assembly also met. The population ig 594,000.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 2,966,640 4,321,876Net Chinese „ 4,202,666 3,644,570Exports ... 12,822,168 13,161,301Total Hk.Tls. ... 19,991,474 21,157,747HAN HAI,J|l}^. a Chinese name for theMongolian plateau. Han meaning dry and haimeaning sea, the idea has been held that the districtwas the bed of an ancient sea. Geology does notfeuppoi-t this theory; hai no doubt refers to theflatness of the land and han to the dryness of theclimate : 'the rainless sea' is more correct than'the dry sea.'HANISTES, or marchands hanhtes. SeeHaniiiHtes.HAN J In.See Han, Sons of.HANKOW, in lat. 30° 35' N., long. II40.I7'E., is one of three cities at the junction of the Hanriver and the Yangtze, the others being Hanyang,across the Han, and Wuchang, on the opposite or.south bank of the Yangtze.This concentration of population in the verycentre of China, and on the Yangtze at a pointwhich can be reached by ocean-going steamers,renders the group of cities the most important commerciallyin China. Hankow was opened in 1862,the gross value of the trade then passing throughthe Customs amounting to less than Tls. 30 millions :the figure is now six times that amount. The openingof the railway to Peking in 1905 caused a greatdevelopment of trade with the north.The commercial history of Hankow since theBoxer outbreak has been one of continuous "boom,"with occasional set-ba-cks. In the decade endingthe 19th century the average annual gross value ofthe trade was only Tls. 63 millions, whereas for theyears 1907 to 1916 it was 138 millions, and in 1916174 millions.Hankow is a collecting and distributing centrefor goods from many quarters. Here come by railsesamum and goat-skins from Honan ; beans, silk,cotton, hides, gypsum, etc., from the Hupei plains,and nutgalls, varnish, wood-oil and vegetable tallowfrom the Western mountain regions, down therivers Han (from Shensi) and Yangtze, and fromHunan, though part of this trade no longer comesto Hankow since the opening of the Hunan ports.Large quantities of raw material are also broughtto Hankow for the factories there, which arerivalled in importance only by those of Shanghai.Besides the Arsenal (at Hanyang) and Mint (atWuchang) and the railway and electric light works,there are the celebrated Hanyang Iron and Steelworks, which draw their supplies from Tayeh(Hupei) and the Pingsiang Colliery (Kiangsi) ; twoengineering works, chemical and brick-works, antimonyrefining works, kerosene oil tanks, 5 flourmills, 9 oil mills, 3 cotton works and 1 silk factory,3 paper mills, 2 soap factories, besides tobacco,wool, tea factories and 3 hydraulic press factoriesfor pressing hides, etc.The population of- the three cities is 1,321,000.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports ... 43,306,528 49,159,373Net Chinese „ ... 15,634,508 19,551,322Exports 101,963,686 106,108,792Total Hk.Tls. ... 160,904,722 174,819,487Since the establishment of the post in Hankowthe following have been the British Consuls orConsuls-General.1860, December 27, William Raymond Gingell,Consul.1864, January 25, W^alter Henry Medhurst (later.Sir Walter), Consul.1871. August 17, Patrick Joseph Hughes, Consul.1880, February 25, Chaloner Alabaster (later. SirChaloner), Consul.224

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAHANNAN1886, April 22, Chbistophkr Thomas Gakdner,Consul.1893, June 15, Alexanpeb Frater, Consul.1893, December 1, Pelham Laird Warren (later,Sir Pelham), Consul.1899, October 12, the same, Consul-General.1901, July 1, Everard Duncan Home Fraser (nowSir Everard), Consul-General.1911, January 22, Harry English Fulford, Consul-General.HAN, LATER or EASTERN, i^ or ^ M *E(a.d. 25-214) was founded by Kuang Wu Ti, afterthe crushing of the usurper Wang Mang. Thecapital was moved to Lo-Yang and the empire wasdivided into thirteen provinces under governorsresponsible to the emperor. Successive rebellionswere subdued, one being raised by a chieftainessin North Annam. In consequence of a dreamMing Ti sent envoys to India to enquire aboutBuddhism. In his reign a dyke was made 30 mileslong, to prevent the overflow of the Yellow River.Ling Ti ^ ^ had a struggle with the EasternTartars (Tung-hu), gave great encouragement tolearning, and instituted the system of literaryexaminations for official posts. Towards the endof the period, arose the usurpers Tung Cho fg ^and Ts'ao Ts'ao, whose rebellions brought greatdisorder and the downfall of the dynasty.Greater intercourse took place with the West,Roman traders arriving in Cochin-China, and aChinese embassy being sent to the Persian Gulf.An influx of Buddhist missionaries from Samarkhandtook place.The Han dynasty or dynasties lasted 426 yearsunder 25 rulers, and was a period of much glory.It may be called the first national dynasty, and theterm Men of Han y| A ^"^ ^^^^ ^f -^"^ ^ "F"still used by Chinese as the nearest approach to anational designation, shows the estimation in whichthis dynasty has always been held.See Han Dynasty.Dyn. Title Accession Reign Title Adopteda.d.a.d.'^^1§- Kuang Wu Ti 25 -^^ Chien Wu 25l^TC Chung Yiian 56K^ Ming Ti 58 ^j^2ji Yung P'ing 58%^ Chang Ti 76 -^-^ Chien Ch'u 76847C?n Yiian Hofiifn Chang Ho 87m'f^ Ho Ti89 7jt7C Y""S "^^*"^la Yuan Hsing 105^^ Shang Ti 106 '^zp Yen P'ing 1063c^ An Ti107 y^f^ Yung Ch'u 107^ T'ai (orTi:^Yuan) Ch'u 1147j;^ Yung Ning 120j^^ Chien Kuang 121^^ Yen Kuang 1222922^Dyn. Titlem* Shun TiX^^ Ch'ung Ti%^ Chih Ti®# Huan Tim.^ Ling Ti^^^ Shao TiW^^ Hsien Ti«* Min Tiion Reign Titlea.d.126 ;,i,^145 7%-M146 :^'m147 m^7m168 m^^^'189 %^,189 7%Mqi2pmmYung ChienYang ChiaYung HoHan AnChien K'angYung ChiaPen Ch'uChien HoHo P'ingYiian ChiaYung HsingYung ShouYen HsiYunf^ K'angChien NingHsi P'ingKuang HoChung P'ingKuang HsiChao NingAdoptedYung HanChung P'ingCh'u P'ingHsing P'ingChien AnYen K'angA.D.126132136142144145146147150161153155158167168172178184189189189189190194196220HAN LIN YUAN M^HcIK, called by differentforeign writers The Imperial Academy, The NationalAcademy and The College of Literature-.The term Han TAn, meaning Forest of pencils,was in use early in the eighth century for a societyof scholars who acted as scribes to the Emperorbut the Yiian or College was founded later in thecentury, and near the time when printing first cameinto use. Its work was to compile the dynastichistories, to draft decrees, etc., and the great workssuch as the K'ang Hsi Dictionary , the Yung Lo TuTien, as well as The Sacred Edict, were the workof its members. The higher members were ex officioCouncillors to the Emperor. In their literary workthey were scribes and editors rather than originalwriters or thinkers.Martin gives the Constitution of the Yiian asit existed under the Manchu dynasty, in 24 articles.The members were perhaps 500 in number. Membershipwas the highest literary distinction attainable,and was given to chin shih {g i graduateswho could pass a further examination called tien shihU ^ or Palace examination.Martin : The Lore of Cathay.HANNEN, NICHOLAS JOHN, was born inLondon, August 24, 1842, and died at Shanghai onApril 26, 1900. He came to the Far East in 1868and from 1891 was Chief Justice of the Supreme

HANNISTESENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACourt for China and Japan. Together with thisoffice he was Consul-General for Shanghai from 1891to 1897. He was knighted in 1895.HANNISTES or Hanistes, the word used bythe French for what the English call Co-hong (q.v.).HAN SHIH ^^, cold food, a Chinese festival,held immediately before Ch'ing Ming, the greatSpring Festival which falls on April 4-5. For threedays no fires are supposed to be kindled ; hence thename of the feast. Ch'ing Ming was anciently thegreat day for the re-lighting of fires.The feast is said to have its origin in the deathof Chieh Chih-t'tji (q.v.), but this is only a lateexplanation, and De Groot connects the extinctionand re-kindling of the fire with similar ancientpractices in the West.De Groot : Les Fetes annuellement ceUbries aEmoui.A term by which allHAN, SONS OF, ^^.Chinese, except those of Kuangtung, name themselves.It derives from the Han dynasty (q.v.).HAN, STATE OF ^, one of the Three Chin^ or three States into which Chin was divided inB.C. 451, or by imperial recognition in B.C. 403.It was one of the Six Martial States leagued againstCh'in, and furnished one of the Four Leaders whohindered for some time the final victory of Ch'in.It destroyed the State of Cheng and moved itscapital thither as being better fortified by nature :hence the ruler is sometimes called King of ChengCheng Wang. After many wars it was finallyextinguished by Ch'in in B.C. 230.TscHEPE : Histoire des Royaumes Han, Wei etTchao; Hirth : The Ancient History of China;Parker : Ancient China Simplified.HAN TZU HSI ISI^Hp. The dictionaryof Basile de Gemona. See Lexicography.HAN TZU HSI I PUiir^|i^8|> Klaprgth'ssupplement to de Guignes' edition of Basile deGemona's dictionary. See Lexicography.HAN W^N KUNG. See Han Yu.HAN YU ^^. born in Honan in a.d. 768, wasone of the greatest men of the T'ang dynasty, beinggreat as a statesman, philosopher and poet. Hemade the celebrated protest to the Emperor HsienTsuNG on his sending to Shensi for a miracle-workingbone of Buddha, and having it conveyed tocourt in state. Han Yii was banished for this tofill a post in the wilds of Ch'ao Chow in modernKuangtung, and would have been executed, had notpowerful friends at court interceded for him. Heworked well at civilizing the semi-barbarous peopleof his district, and was eventually restored tofavour. There is a story that he was afterwardsconverted to Buddhism by a monk named Tai Tien.His poems and essays are regarded as perfectmodels, both in style and originality. As a philosopherhe is chiefly known by his theory of humannature.He held that men are not all born alike, somebeing innately good, some innately evil, and others,compounded of the two. He thought he had thusreconciled the teachings of Mencius and HsiiNTzu, and for a time his doctrine was accepted,though afterwards Mencius' position was re-affirmedby the Sung philosophers.He died in 824, and was canonized as ^ . Heis generally known as Han W^kn Kung. His tabletwas placed in the Confucian temple in 1084.HAO, ^. The capital of the early Choudynasty, situated near the present Hsi-an fu. Thecapital was later removed to Lo-i ^^ jgr in Honan.HAO CH'IU CHUAN. See Fortunate Union.HAPPER, ANDREW PATTON, born inPennsylvania in 1818, died in Ohio in 1894. Hewas a medical missionary of the American PresbyterianMission, North, who reached China in 1844.He wrote on the 'term question' under the pen-nameof Inquirer. See Canton Christian College.HAPPY VALLEY, THE,^?f£}i huang ni pu,yellow mud creek. A valley in Hongkong some30 acres in extent, used as a race-course. On thehillside are the various cemeteries of the Colony.HARBIN B&MJii Lat. N. 45°',45' ; Long. E.126°.'.38',is in the Ashilio district of Kirin province,Manchuria, on the river Sungari. It derives itsexistence from the fact that it was made, in 1898,the junction for the Port Arthur and Vladivostocklines of the Chinese Eastern Railway. Before thatdate it was a tiny village. There were 12,000foreign inhabitants in 1901 and 35,000 in 1903, whenthe railway was thrown open to regular traffic.The town developed enormously during the Russo-Japanese War, when it was the supply base for theRussian armies. There are three divisions of theforeign town—Old and New Harbin, and thePristan ; and there is also the Chinese quarter ofFukiatien, which the plague ravaged so terriblyin 1911.The industries of Harbin are growing in importance.There are 19 flour mills in the district(10 in Harbin itself), producing nearly 140,000 tonsyearly, and 20 large bean-mills, turning out 224,000tens of beancake. The Chinese population is 28,600.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports — —Net Chinese „ 1,279,769 1,420,605E.xports 3,648,629 2,739,912Total Hk.Tls. ... 4,928,398 4,160,517HARDOON REPRINT. See Buddhist Canon.226

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAHAWSHARES. See Leporidce.HART, ROBERT; born in Ireland, 1835, hedied at Great Marlow in Bucks, in 1911. He wentto China in 1854 as student-interpreter in theSuperintendency of Trade at Hongkong, then enteredthe Consular Service. In 1859, during the Anglo-French occupation of Canton he was made Inspectorof Customs in that city. The Shanghai native citybeing in the possession of rebels, the Custom Housewas opened in the foreign settlement with a Joint-Inspectorate of Great Britain, United States andFrance. In 1861 the Collectorate of ForeignCustoms at the Treaty Ports was granted regularpowers by the Central Government, and the managementwas placed in the hands of Mr. Lay (^'.t;.) whoat that time was in charge of the Shanghai Collectorate.Lay resigned in 1863 and Hart was appointedin his place. He then re-formed and re-organizeduntil the Maritime Customs became the onedependable and substantial source of revenue forthe Imperial Government it has ever since been.In the Boxer outbreak he was treated withshameful ingratitude, his home destroyed, his personalbelongings lost; yet he persisted in loyaltyto the Manchus ; but in 1906 they inconsideratelyand rudely, without consulting him, tried to dividehis authority by appointing high Chinese officials tocontrol Customs under the title Shui wu chii. Hartresigned next year ; the resignation was not acceptedbut he received a year's leave of absence, whichwas renewed each year till he died.His activities were not limited to the CustomsService : he was keenly anxious to help China onthe intellectual side ais well as the material. Thiswas seen in his establishment of the T'ung WenKuan {q.v.), in the special publications of theCustoms and in the encouragement given to authorsof various works on Chinese subjects. He alsocounted for a good deal in the negotiations betweenthe Tsung-li Yamen and foreign powers. It waspartly he who inspired the BukLiNGAME Missionhe arranged terms after the Franco- Chinese war of1884, and had something to do with every importantmatter in foreign and Chinese intercourse duringforty years. He was actually named as BritishMinister in May 1885, but returned to his post asInspector-General of Customs or I.-G., since he wasindispensable there.His life on its political and administrative sidecan never be written, since all the records of earliernegotiations, diplomacy and organization were destroyedin the Boxer troubles.His honours included a baronetcy (1893), andthirteen grand crosses from European Sovereigns,besides Chinese honours, including the ennobling ofthree generations of his ancestors. His statue hasbeen put up on the Bund in Shanghai. SeeMaritime Customs.CoRDiER : Histoire des Relations de la Chine,etc., vol. i, p. 165.HA-TA-MEN. The Manchu name of one ofthe gates of Peking, called in Chinese Ch'ung-wenmen g| 3t P^HAUGE'S SYNOD MISSION.Headquarters :—St. Paul, Minn. U.S.A.Entered China, 1891.Works in Honan and Hupei.(Named from Hans Nielsen Hauge, (1771-1824),a celebrated evangelist in Sweden).The iirst three missionaries settled in Hankowto get the language, and after two years openedwork in Fanch'eng ^ :^ in Hupei, but were muchhindered by official opposition. This is the mission'schief centre, and has a hospital and boys'and girls' high schools.In 1897, T'ai-p'ing tien :fe'pJig was opened,work was begun at Hsin-yeh ^gjgp Honan, in 1903,and within late years Ki kung shan H fi- jU andTeng chow fg^Hj have been opened. The Missionalso maintains one professor at the Union LutheranTheological Seminary at She-kow near Hankow.In 1916, the Mission reported 22 foreign workers.HAVRET, HENRI, Jesuit missionary, born inFrance in 1848, died at Sicawei in 1901. He hadentered the Society in 1872, and came to the KiangnanMission in 1874. Resident at Wuhu he barelyescaped in the riots of 1891, his papers and thoseof P. Pfister [q.v.) being lost. Being then appointedrector at Zikawei he began that valuableseries the Varietes Sinologiques, in which appearedhis important work La Stele chretienne de Si-nganfou.A list of his works may be found in theT'oung Pao, 1901, p. 387.HAWKS. See Accipitres.HAWS, Cratcegus pinnatifida ®|^suari cha orllj ^ shun cha, and it has various other Chinesenames.In North China these are carefully cultivatedin orchards of grafted trees, and there is quite anextensive trade in the fruit. The haws are of abright red colour, of an agreeably sour taste andfairly hard ; the best are. as big as a good-sizedcrab-apple.The fruit is much used by the Chinese in makingpreserves and sweetmeats. Foreign residents oftenmake an excellent jelly from it. One variety issliced, dried and kept for winter use; it is eithermade into a drink which is considered very wholesome,or stewed with sugar.The best haws are grown in Shantung, especiallynear T'ai-an fu.I227

HAYTON IENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASeedlings are abundant, bearing a smaller andsour fruit, which is an excellent substitute for cranberries.The stock used for grafting the larger-fruitedvaHeties on is the wild C. 'pinnatijida. Thisgenerally has large thorns, while the cultivatedtreesare without them.Meyer : Agricultural Explorations, etc.HAYTON I, also written Hethum, a king ofLittle Armenia, living at Sis in Cilicia, who paida visit to Mangu Khan at Karakorum. He seemsto have started at the beginning of 1254, and hereached home again at the end of July, 1255. Someaccount of his travels has come down to us.Yule : Cathay and the Way Thither.HEAD-FLATTENING.This practice existedin the earliest times. It was common among theTunguses. The settlers that reached China aboutB.C. 2282 flattened the skulls of infants so as toproduce a tapering shape above and a broad onebelow. The custom was noted in Kashgar by theBuddhist pilgrim HsiiAN Tsang in the T'ang period.In the Sung period the practice was in force inKorea, Manchuria and Kashgar, the children's headsbeing flattened by stones. Under the Manchudynasty it was a common practice among Manchusto lay infants first on one side and then on theother to ensure a long narrow head. During theT'ai P'ing rebellion the distinguishing test ofManchus was the shape of the head.Martin : Les Deformations Craniennes en Chine,(Revue d'Ethnographie II) ; China Review : vols,xiii, p. 44, xiv, pp. 171, 220 ; Chinese Recorder :vol. iii, p. 163 ; Lacouperie : Babylonian

jotherENC"S^CLOPAEDtA SlNICAHCNRVHengshan is named in both parts of the YiiTribute of the Shu (Legge, p. 112, 130). The FourPeaks (apart from references to the Minister atthe court of Yao and Shun who was so named) arementioned in the Shun Canon (Legge, 35) and theChou Officers (Legge, 531). Although there is nostatement in the text identifying Hengshan withthe Southern Peak, there is no reason for questioningthe correctness of the tradition. But there aregood reasons for not identifying the present Hengshanwith the mountain referred to in the Classic.When the Yii Tribute was written (probably notearlier than the seventh century B.C.) nothing southof the Yangtze was known. The references to themountain in that work are best explained, if it weresituated above the entrance to the Tungting lake;there is nothing to indicate on which side of theYangtze it was.The earliest dated reference to the mountainoccurs in Ssu-ma Ch'ien, in his chapter on Ch'inShih Huang Ti (Chavannes, II, p. 154). In b.c.219, Shiii Huang Ti toured to the Hengshan whichis apparently identified with a "Mt. Siang" whichin its turn is connected with the two daughters ofYao who became the wives of Shun. Legend connectstheir graves with an island just inside theTungting lake—which would fit in quite well withthe statements of the Ssu-ma text (as indeed wouldany other place which could be got at when sailingfrom the Huai on to the Yangtze !)At the break up of Shih Huang Ti's empire,the title of King of Hengshan was given to Wu Juiin B.C. 205. Four years later, Hengshan was incorporatedwith Huainan, and Wu Jui was given thetitle of King of Changsha. There can be no doubtthat the latter kingdom must be put farther souththan the former, i.e., the Hengshan of B.C. 200 laynorth, and not as now, south of Changsha. TheHengshan title was revived from 164-122 and givenIto a scion of the royal family. But Ssii-ma givesno indication in his Table (Chavannes, iii, p. 93)as to the position of that Hengshan.By the first century B.C., the Chinese powerhad extended to Canton and beyond. Some timebetween B.C. 200 and 100, the frontiers of empirehad caused the "Southern Peak" to be moved tothe South of Changsha. After that, there wouldbe no opportunity for moving it from the positionit must have gained by that time and which itoccupiesto-day.Aneroid readings made by visitors to the topindicate a height of between 4,000 and 4,500 ft. forthe highest peak. The range is some 20 miles longfrom north to south and runs parallel to the Siangat a distance of about 10 miles to the west.At the southern extremity of the range is thePeak named Kou-lou on which the Yii Tablet stands.Legge has shown in his Prolegomena that themonument is a comparatively modern fraud.A few miles from the Great Temple is a largemonastery named the Nan-t'ai Shih. The foundationdates from the Ch'en dynasty; and historysays that the first Buddhists to go to Japan startedfrom this monastery. Japan has presented themonastery library with a complete set of the BuddhistClassics in commemoration of the event.The eighth month is the special month ofpilgrimage. A few years before the end of theManchu rule, the number of pilgrims who worshippedat the large temple at the foot of the mountainwas probably little short of a million each eighthmonth. The numbers have greatly fallen off since229the establishment of the Republic. The GreatTemple now standing took the place of a still largerone that was burnt down some two hundred yearsago. The present building is about 90 ft. high.The chief idol is called Sheng Ti, Holy Em2)eror.There are a considerable number of temple*on the mountain side; most of them are Buddhist.None of the Taoist temples are large.Wakren : Three Sites in Hunan, etc., N.C.B.R.A.S. Journal, vol. xliii. [G.G.W.]HENLE, RICHARD, a priest of the GermanSteyl Mission, born in 1863 in Germany. He cameto China in 1889, and was murdered together withPere NiES in Shantung in 1897. These murdersled to the German occupation of Kiaochow. SeeTsingtau.HENNESSY, JOHN POPE, Sir, Governor ofHongkong from April 22, 1877 to March 7, 1882.There seems to have been incessant turmoil throughouthis period of administration, due to completeincompatibility between the Governor and thegoverned. There was perpetual strife in the LegislativeChamber, and at one time there was a threatto bring the question of his rule or misrule beforeParliament. He was knighted in 1880.HENRY, AUGUSTINE, a doctor of medicineand a very successful botanist, (not to be confusedwith Benjamin C. Henry, also a botanist and alsocalled Doctor). He arrived in Shanghai in 1881 inthe Customs Service. He was medical officer atIchang from 1882 to 1889, and not only himselfstudied the almost unknown flora of the district butalso employed Chinese collectors. He further usedhis leave in making journeys of exploration, withthe result that his Hupei and Ssuch'uan plants includedabout five hundred new species and twentyfivenew genera. He continued his researches inHainan for a short time, then in Formosa and laterin S. Yunnan. By 1896 he had increased his collectionto 5,000 species.He has written Chinese Names of Plants(Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xii) ; Notes on theEconomic Botany of China; Chinese Jute andHem'p (Customs Publications, No. 16, 1891) ; andpapers in the Kew Bulletin and elsewhere.See Botany.

HENRYENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCABretschneider : European Botanical Discoveriesin China.HENRY, BENJAMIN C, a missionary ofthe American Presbyterian Mission (North) whoarrived in China in 1873. He has been an enthusiasticbotanist and has made valuable collectionsof plants during his travels in the interior. Heis the author of an interesting book of South Chinatravels, Ling Nam, London, 1886,He is not to be confused with Dr. AugustineHenry, also a well-known botanist.Bretschneider : European Botanical Discoveriesin China.HERMIT KINGDOM, THE. A term usedfor Korea on account of its isolation up to 1882.HERO R A'^^fJ' or perfect man, the secondgrade of attainment in Taoism, higher than Immorialhsien and below Saint ^ sheng. With these thebody, though not changed to pure spirit, is so subtleand free from the laws of matter that they can flyatwill from world to world.WiEGER : Taoisme; Dore : Recherches sur lesSuperstitions en Chine, tome ix, p. 487.HERODIONES, an Order which includestheIbises, Spoonbills, Storks and Herons. The Subordercontaining Herons, Bitterns, etc., will befound under Ardeae; the other species found inChina are as follows.SUB-ORDER Ciconiae (Storks). FamilyCiconiidae. Lejjtoptilus javanicus, the smallerAdjutant, in Hainan and Kiangsi. Ciconia boyciana,the Eastern White Stork, found in N. Chinaand Mongolia. C. nigra, the Black Stork, in N.China, Mongolia, Ssu'chuan and Kiangsi. Pseudotantalusleucocephalus, the Painted Stork, on thecoast, from Kuangtung to Chihli.SUB-ORDER Plataleae (Spoonbills). FamilyPlataleidae. Platalea leucorodia, the Spoonbill,Formosa, Mongolia, Kuangtung, Chihli, Fukien,etc., but not common. P. minor, the LesserSpoonbill, Kuangtung to Kiangsu.FAMILY Ibididae (Ibises). Ibis melanocephala,the W'hite Ibis, in S. China, and in smallnumbers in the north. I. nippon, the Japanesecrested Ibis, Chekiang, central and N. China.Plegadis falcinellus, the Glossy Ibis, on the S.E.coast.David et Oxjstalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine,(Ciconiides, Plataleid^s, Tantalides).HERONS. See Ardeae.H ERR ADA. See Z?e Barfa.HERVEY SAINT-DENYS, MARIE JEANLeon D', Marquis, was born in Paris in 1823 anddied there in 1892. He studied Chinese underStanislas Julien and became Professor in theCollege de France in 1874. A list of his numerouswritings and translations is given in the T'oungPao, 1892.HETHUM. See Hayton I.HEUDE, PIERRE, a French Jesuit priest,born June 25, 1836. He arrived in China inJanuary, 1868. He was a zealous naturalist, andwas stationed at Zi-ka-wei near Shanghai, but madeat least five journeys of exploration in mid-China.He formed a valuable Museum of Natural Historyat Zi-ka-wei and has written many valuable zoologicalpapers, most of which appeared in the importantseries created by him and entitled Memoiresconcernant Vhistoire naturelle de V empire chinots,(Zi-ka-wei). His most important work is Conchyliologiefluviatile de la province de Nanking (Paris).He died at Zi-ka-wei, January 3, 1902.Bretschneider : History of European BotanicalDiscoveries, p. 870; T'oung Pad, 1902, p. 38.HIDES, cow and buffalo, form a very considerableitem in the export trade of China, and areexported from every port, nearly 17,000,000 Taelsworth having gone abroad in 1915. The exporttrade began in the late seventies, especially fromHankow. In 1877 there was a strong demand forthe Yangtze Valley hides for military accoutrementsfor the troops engaged in the Russo-Turkish War.The trade received a severe set-back owing to thehides being imperfectly cured, larvae having emergedfrom them on the voyage to Europe on one occasion,causing severe damage to the woodwork of vesselscarrying these goods. Cattle have since 1880 beenspecially reared for the hide trade in the GreatPlain of China, and, curing having been put on asatisfactory basis, the trade has developed to itspresent great proportions. The export in 1916amounted to Tls. 17,581,462.HIGH CARTS i^$ kao chii, a name givento the Uighurs, who, living north of the desert,were accustomed to vehicles instead of alwaysriding.See Uighurs.HILDESHEIM MISSION FOR THE BLIND,a German Ladies' Society, which grew out of theBerlin Foundling Mission [q-v.) in Hongkong.Work began in 1890, after it was found impossibleto educate the blind girls with those who could see.In 1899, beriberi broke out among the girls, and allwere moved to Macao. In 1902, the HongkongGovernment granted the Mission a site in Kowloonon which a Home was built, to which the childrenwere removed from Macao in the same year. Twobranches of the work have been formed, one inconnection with the Berlin Mission, at Shiu-chow fu,and one at the Basel Mission station of Ka-yin chow,near Swatow.In 1916, seven lady workers are reported.230

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAHIRTHHILL, DAVID, Wesleyan Missionary Society'smissionary to China, was born at York, December18, 1840. He reached China on March 26, 1865 andwas stationed at Hankow, removing to Wjichangin 1867. Having travelled and preached in the.district of Wusiieh, he went to live in that town,on the river, some 120 miles below Hankow. In1878 he went to Shansi and spent two years infamine relief work. For this work he adoptedChinese dress and continued to wear it to the endof his life. He returned to Hankow and Wuchang,where he spent the rest of his days, going toEngland on furlough twice in the 31 years of hismissionary work. His chief joy was itinerantpreaching, but he was keenly active in promotingvarious institutions for the temporal and eternalwelfare of the people. His life was a life of mostbeautiful devotion and self-denial. He died onApril 18, 1896, and was buried in Hankow cemetery.See Wedcyan Missionary Society.Baebkr : David Hill, Missionary and Saint/Hf-LLIER : Life of David Hill; Cornaby : DavidHill, the Apostolic Chinese Missionary.HILLIER, a family of which three membershave done important work in China.Charles Batten Hillier came in some positionon a merchant ship, joined a business firm whichfailed in 1842, and was, the same year, made clerkin the Hongkong Police Court. He worked hardat Chinese and obtained steady promotion till hewas Chief Magistrate of the Colony and Memberof the Legislative Council. In 1846 he married thedaughter of the missionary Dr. W. H. Medhurst.Chinese and foreigners had unlimited confidence inhis integrity, and it was regarded as a great loss toHongkong when he was appointed in 1856 asH.B.M. Consul in Siam. He died the same year.(Norton-Kyshe : History of the Laws . . .ofHongkong).Walter Caine, his son, was born at Hongkongin 1849. He became a student-interpreter in Chinain 1857, and after being Assistant Chinese Secretary,then Chinese Secretary, in Peking, then Consul-General in Korea, he was Professor of Chinese inKing's College, London, from 1904 to 1908. Hethen became Adviser to the Chinese Governmenttill 1910. He was made K.C.M.G. in 1897 and C.B.in 1903. He now lives in London. His publishedworks are The Chinese Language and how to learnit, (1907) ; An English-Chinese Dictionary, (1910).Edward Guy Hillier was born in 1857, theyounger brother of Sir W. C. Hillier. He enteredthe service of the Hongkong and Shanghai BankingCorporation in 1883, and has been Agent, of theBank in Peking since 1891. He has engaged inthe negotiation of various loans to the ChineseGovernment from 1895 to tbe present. Since 1896he has been totally blind. He was made C.M.G. in1904. See Hongkong and Shanghai Bank.HIMLY, KARL GEORGE FRIEDRICHJulius, born at Hanover in 1836, died at Wiesbadenm 1904. He was Interpreter in the German ConsularService in China, retiring in 1876. A list ofhis writings, which are nearly all in German, isgiven in the T'oung Pao, 1904, p. 624.HIMMALEH, an American brig sent by theowners, Olyphant & Co., to Borneo in 1837, withboth missionary and commercial aims, G, T. Lay,then agent for the British and Foreign BibleSociety, went as a passenger, with the Rev. EdwinStevens of the American Board Mission. Theinstructions to the captain (Eraser) said, "Whileyou are proposing the opening of commercial intercourse,let it be seen that you concur in their [Lay'sand Stevens'] wish to gain a footing for medicaland Christian residents." The captain was alsowarned to avoid Spanish and Dutch settlements, or,if obliged to visit them, to say nothing of his commercialpurposes. Stevens died at Singapore onthe way down, and his place was taken by the Rev.J. T. Dickinson of the same Mission. The undertakingwas not very successful. Lay wrote anaccount of the voyage; it forms the second volumeof the work named below. See Morrison, Ship.The Claims of Japan and Malaysia upon Christendom,exhibited in Notes of Voyages, etc; NewYork, 1837.hTnAYANA, /J» Hhsiao ch'eng, literally'small conveyance ' i.e., the 'simplest vehicle ofsalvation. The primitive form of the Buddhistdoctrine, its characteristics being the presence ofmuch moral asceticism and the absence of quietismand speculative mysticism. An advanced phase ofdogma succeeded it, Mahayana {q.v.) with a lessimportant connecting link, Madhyimayana. Theoriginal meaning of the three terms expressed thecomparative powers of saving, i.e., conveyance toNirvana, in the three orders of Sainthood.The name Hinayana is not accepted by canonicalBuddhists. A more correct term is Theravada or'School of the Elders.'HIRTH, FRIED RICH, was born in Germanyin 1845, and studied at Gotha, Leipzig, Berlin andelsewhere. From 1870 to 1897 he was in the ChineseCustoms Service, being in the Statistical Departmentin Shanghai from 1878 to 1888. He was Presidentof the North China Branch Royal AsiaticSociety for the years 1886-87. On the founding ofthe Chair of Chinese at Columbia University in1902 he became the first Professor, and has heldthe position ever since. He is a correspondingMember of quite a number of foreign learnedSocieties, and has written several very valuablebooks. His works are as follows :Text-book of28X

HISTORIESENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAbiographies of important persons of the dynasty,^} lieh and containsDocumentary Chinese, Shanghai, 1885-1888; Chinacalled chuan, Narratives, example.and the Roman Orient, 1885 ; Notes on the Chinese and such accounts of foreign countries as thereDocumentary Style, 1888; Ancient Porcelain, 1888; may be. Such is the general plan of a DynasticChinesische Studien, 1890; Ueber fremde Einflusae History, though it may be deviated from. Ssu-main der Chinesischen Kunst, 1896; Scraps from a Ch'ien's Shih chi ^ gg may be regarded as theCollector's Notebook, 1905; Chinese Metallic Mirrors,model. For each of the dynasties down to the Ming1907; The Ancient History of China, 1908; there is such an official history.and, (in collaboration with JRockhill) Chau Ju kua,St, Petersburg, 1911 ; with various other monographsCompilations of these histories have appeared atdifferent times, and the present collection is knownand contributions to periodicals.as The Twenty-four Histories. Every such collectionHIRUNDINIDAE, a Family which comprises begins with the Shih chi of Ssu-ma Ch'ien ; thethe Swallows and Martins. Hirundo gutturalis, the authors of the other twenty-three, with the periodare given by Wylie and by Cordier.class of Chinese histories isEasternswallowHouse or Chimney Swallow, is the common covered,of China, Mongolia and eastern Siberia;II.—The secondit is abundant in Formosa and is probably resident called ^ j^ pien nien, Annals. The Gh'un ch'iuin the south of the island. jgi f^H. erythrogastra, theof CoNFUCiXJS is the typical work of thisAmerican Swallow and H. tytleri occur on class. The chronicle is consecutive, but under eachmigration in E. China. H. nipalcnsis is very year the history is divided into the various subjects.common all over China and Mongolia. It comes to The earliest work of this class is the BambooPeking before the common swallow and departs Annals 4t ^ IE •¥•> but these may not be authenticlater. H. striolata is resident in Formosa. Cotyle records . After those already named the moctriparia, the Sand-Martin, is fairly common in the celebrated work is^ J^ jfi. ^ Tzu chih t'ung chien,northern provinces during most of the year, except by Ssu-ma Kuang. The period covered is, roughly,in Kansu; it is also found in Mongolia but is less from B.C. 400 to a.d. 960. The same author wrotecommon there. C. sinensis, the Indian Sand-Martin, elucidations of his work, tablets, complementaryis found in Formosa. C. fohhienensis La Totjche, volumes, etc. Other writers produced commentariesin the southern half of China, as far north as the and extensions. A century later the work was reconstructedvalley of the Yangtze. Ptyonoprogne rupestris theand condensed by Chu Hsi, with theCrag-Martin, is very wide-spread through N. and title ii, M ^ @ T'ung chien hang mu. This alsoW. China and Mongolia. Chelidon lagopus, the was followed by elucidations, researches, revisions,Siberian Martin, is very common in E. Siberia, and etc. A new and inclusive edition appeared with theis found in the Western Hills near Peking and at imperial imprimatur in 1708.Mu-p'in in Ssuch'uan, and in the central provinces,III.—The third class of histories is namedbut it is not seen in great numbers in China. C.lB^;"iC^ chi shih pen mo or Complete Records.dasypus, the Black-chinned House Martin, has been The writers of such works are not bound by thetaken at Shaweishan. C. kashmiriensis summers inplan of the Dynastic Histories, nor do they confineN.W. Fukien, also in W. China.themselves to mere memoranda in chronologicalDavid et OuStalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine.sequence. They take general surveys of selectedHISTORIES OF CHINA.—CHINESE.—In subjects. The Shu Ching ^|g may be consideredChinese literature historical works hold a high the authority for this class. The first example isplace, and, as is natural in so ancient a country, are ^gm^TJCjJc T'ung chien chi shih pen mo byvery numerous. They are divided into three main YiiAN Shu %Mt. o^ the Sung dynasty, who dissectedclasses.Ssii-MA Kuang's T'ung chien, bringing the matterI.—The Dynastic Histories, called jE^ cheng under separate headings.shih, form the first class. The History of each The above are the three great divisions ofdynasty is prepared after the dynasty has ended, Chinese histories ; but there are many historicaland is on an accepted plan. The plan include

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAHOMICIDE(3) A class which is extremely important to thestudent of history is that called 18-^^^ chao lingtsou i, 'Official Documents.'(4) A large class coming under the headingHistories is that termed @ |E chuan chi, Biographies.At least one such work is believed to date from somecenturies b.c. This is a memoir of Yen Ying,supposed to" have been a disciple of Mo Tzu ; theauthor is not known. Besides an enormous numberof separate biographies there are works treating ofclasses, such as mathematicians, Manchu officials,etc.'; and since each Dynastic History has a sectiondevoted to biography, the total amount of suchliterature is very great.(5) Another and more limited class is |^ |^sliih ch'ao, Historical Excerpta according to Wylie'stranslation. These are collections of extracts fromhistorical works, after the example of Confucius^.who is supposed' to have compiled the hundredchapters of the Shu Ching from an earlier work in3,240 chapters.(6) One more group is that named 5||£ tsai chi,which consists of annals of independent st-atesbordering on the Imperial China. The earliestexample is a history of the States Wu §i andYiieh %, from the 12th to the 16th century B.C.(7) Finally there is a small class entitled ^'^shih ling, Chronography, dealing with the matter ofthe seasons.FOREIGN.—There is a great amount of writingon Chinese history by Western scholars, but thereare few works which profess to cover the whole ofthe vast period of China's recorded existence. Themost complete native history, T'ung chien hang mu{v. sup.) was translated more or less fully byDe Mailla into French, {Histuire genercde de IdChine, 1777-85). Boulger in 1881-84 published aHistory of China; Macgowan in 1897 is-sued Th0Imperial History of China; and there are useful.small works in English by Hawks Pott and byLi Ung-ping. Most of such writers, however, dealwith a particular period ; and the number of suchpartial histories, from works of the early Jesuitsdown to those on the T'ai P'ing Rebellion is verygreat. Latotjrette's paper on the work alreadydone will be found very useful. See T'ung chienhang mu; Ssu-ma Ch'ien.Wylie : Notes on Chinese Literature; Cordier :liiblivtheca Sinica, col. 557 ; Latotjrette : A Surveyof Work done by Western Students, etc.. Journal,N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii.HOANG, PIERRE, ^

HOMICIDEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAHe took refuge with the French Consul, but aftermany days was given up to the Chinese, whopublicly strangled him. This was the first case ofChinese executing a foreigner for killing a foreigner.In 1800 there was a case in which a ship ofHis Majesty was involved. H.M. schooner Providbncefired on a boat which refused to answer onbeing hailed under suspicious circumstances. OneChinese was wounded and one fell overboard andwas drowned. The captain refused to surrende/the man who fired except on condition that hehimself might be present at the trial, and he madecounter-charges of attempted theft. The woundedman got well ; the Chinese thought the drownedman might have thrown himself overboard ; thematter ended there.In November, 1784 a Chinese was killed by agun fired from the Lady Hughes while saluting.The Chinese authorities demanded the surrender ofthe gunner and were told he could not be identified.The supercargo went to Canton to explain thematter, but was tnere decoyed into the city andarrested. He was well treated but was held responsiblefor what had occurred on his ship ; andit was later found out that if this measure hadnot succeeded the Chinese were prepared to arrestthe President of the East India Company's Committee.The merchants, English, French, Dutch,Danish and American, joined to order armed boatsup from their ships to protect the factories. Toprocure the release of the supercargo, however,there was no way but by the surrender of thegunner. WTiat sort of a trial he received is notknown, but he was strangled on January 8, 1785,under orders from Peking. A comparison of datesshows that these orders were given before the trial.In a drunken brawl of sailors on February 24,1807, a Chinese was killed, and the officials demandedthe guilty man. An enquiry was held onihe Neptune to which the sailors belonged, but itwas impossible to find out who struck the fatalWow, nor could the Chinese, though the HongMerchant Mowqtja offered a reward of twentythou.«and dollars for the identification of the culprit.Trade by English ships was stopped for twomonths by the affair. At last an inve.'tigation washeld by the Chinese magistrate at the factory, theCaptain of the Neptune being present with SirGeorge Staunton and the Select Committee.Fifty -two men were examined, and one EdwardSheen was fixed on as guilty of accidental homicide.He was detained in the "English factory till the nextyear, when he was rfleased on payment of the fineprescribed by Chinese law in such cases, Tls. 12.42,(about £4).In 1810 the death of a Chinese was alleged tohave been caused by an English sailor, but therewas no proof of the fact and the ship even was notidentified. Clearance of English ships was at firstrefused, but was then granted on condition thatthe guilty person, when discovered, should bepunished according to the laws of England.In 1820, November 23, a Chinese was accidentallyshot in a boat at Whampoa. Just as an investigationwas about to be made a butcher on theCompany's Duke of York went mad and killedhimself. It saved trouble to assume that he wasthe man sought for, and the family of the deceasedwas severely dealt with by the authorities fordoubting it.In the next year the Company's ship LadyMelville was somehow involved in the death of aChinese woman. Money was given to prevent theaffair being put into the hands of the officials.It is said that such cases of hush-money wereinnumerable.In the same year, September 23, 1821, an Italiansailor named Terranova, on the American shipEmily at Whampoa, dropped an earthen pot overboardand killed a woman, in a boat alongside.His surrender being demanded and refused theAmerican trade was stopped. Then a trial by theChinese magistrate was allowed to be held on hoardthe ship. The trial was a mockery of justice, butthe ship's officers put the man in irons in agreementwith the sentence, but did not then surrender him.The trade was still stopped, and after another weekTerranova was sent to have a second trial in thecity. No foreigner was present ; the wretched manwas a;;ain condemned, within twenty-four houis hewas strangled, and his body was sent on boardthe Emily.A few later cases might be added as well asa series of assaults on foreigners for which Chinesewere punished by tlieir own authorities. The abovelist shows the difficulty of early intercourse witha people whose ideas on the administration of justicewere so different from our own and whose attitudewas so arrogant. All these cases and more besidesare given by Morse.Morse : International Relations of the ChineseEmpire.HONAM ?BJ 1^ south of river, a suburb ofCanton, lying opposite the city on the other side ofthe river. It has grown enormously in recent times,and nov.- extends two miles along the water-sideand has 200,000 inhabitants.HONAN ?SJr(t» ^o^th of river, the name of aprovince which lies almost wholly south of theYellow River. It has Chihli and Shansi to thenorth. Shantung, Kiangsu and Anhui on the east,Hupei on the south and Shensi on the west. Itsarea is 68,000 sq. miles and its population 25,000,000.It is a very fertile plain except in the south-westernpart, where the most easterly of the Kunlun spurs234

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA H. & S. BANKhave a height of 7,800 feet. The important riversare the Yellow River and the Huai ho ft 5^ Jtheformer made its most recent change of direction inHonan, turning northward near K'al-feng, thecapital.The best known places are K'ai-feng fu andHonan fu ; to the west of the latter city is thecelebrated Lung men (q.v.). From the legendarydays of Fu Hsi the capital of the Empire hasseveral times been in Honan. (See Cajjitals). Theliterary name of the province is Yu ^ and of thecapital, Fienliang vi» ^.HONG ff • The Chinese word means a row orseries and is applied to warehouses built in rows.The factories (q.v.) in Canton being built so werecalled Hongs and the name was specially appliedto the native commercial houses connected withforeign trade. The name has come to be used ofallbusiness firms.Hence the term ' hong merchants.'HONGKEW fcCP humj tou; from the localpronunciation of the characters, which mean 'rainbowport.' It is the part of Shanghai lying northof the Soochow Creek, often called the AmericanSettlement. See Shanghai.HONGKONG; §Ji an island in 22° 1'— 9'N. lat. and 114° 5'-18' E. long., off the coast of theKuang-tung province, some 40 miles E. of Macaoand 90 miles S. of Canton, and belonging to theLadrone group; a British Crown Colony, ceded byChina in 1841. The island is about 11 miles longand 2 to 5 miles broad, with a coast line of 27 miles.It is a mass of hills, rising to 1,900 feet. TheChinese characters of its name are of doubtfulmeaning but Fra/jrunt Streams is the most acceptedtranslation. The place has no history prior to itsoccupation by Great Britain.For some years before the first war with Chinait had been recognized that British trade requireda place of freedom from the vexatious control of theChinese authorities. In 1840 Hongkong was usedas the headquarters of the British expedition anddeclared a free port, but it was not till the NankingTreaty of 1842 that the cession of the island wasformally recognized by the Chinese Government.Its rapid progress at first was soon checked by theheavy mortality from fever consequent on thebreaking up of the malarious soil, and the abandonmentof the place was discussed. It is now con-.sidered healthier than most places in the samelatitude. In 1860 Kowloon peninsula [q.v.], alreadyloaded in perpetuity to (Sir) Harry Parkes by theGovernor General of the Liang Kuang, was cededby the Convention of Peking to Great Britain.In spite of some fluctuation the growth and progressof the Colony have been remarkable. In 1915the total civil population of the Colony was 509,160,beincr 13,320 non-Chinese and 495,840 Chinese.The value of the trade is about £50,000,000per ann., and in 1905 a Parliamentary paper showedthat in respect of tonnage Hongkong was the leadingport of the world.The Colony is administered by a Governor,aided by an Executive Council of five official andtwo unofficial members. There is a LegislativeCouncil with eight official members and six unofficial.HONGKONG & SHANGHAI BANKINGCORPORATION, THE. The bank was foundedon the 6th of August, 1864, when a meeting ofinterested merchants and others was held inHongkong at which the following resolution waspassed :" That the persons present do form aProvisional Committee for carrying out theobject of the following Prospectus :The Hongkong and Shanghai BankingCompany, Limited.Capital $5,000,000.In 20,000 Shares of $250 each.To be Incorporated by Charter.Provisional Committee.Hon. F. Chomley, Esq., (Messrs. Dent & Co.)A. F. Heard, Esq., (Messrs. Aug. Heard & Co.)T. Sutherland, Esq., (Superintendent,P. & O.S.N. Co.)G. F. Maclean, Esq., (Messrs. Lyall Hill & Co.)Douglas Lapraik, Esq.,\V. NissEN, Esq., (Messrs. Siemssen & Co.)H. B. Semann, Esq., ( Messrs. Oilman & Co.)W. Schmidt, Esq., (Messrs. Fletcher & Co.)A. Sassoon, Esq., (Messrs. D. Sassoon Sons & Co.)Robert Brand, Esq., (Messrs. Smith KennedyPallanjee Framjee, Esq., [& Co.)VV. Adamson, Esq., (Messrs. Borneo Co., Ltd.)G. S. Helland, Esq. (Messrs. I. Bund & Co.)Rustonjee Dhimjeeshaw.Counsel,E. H. Pollard, Esq." The Scheme of a local Bank for this Colonywith Branches at the most important places inChina has been in contemplation for a very longperiod. The local and foreign trade in Hongkongand at the open ports in China and Japan hasincreased so rapidly within the last few years thatadditional Banking facilities are felt to be required.The Banks now in China being only branches ofCorporations whose headquarters are in Englandor India, and which were formed chiefly with theview of carrying on exchange operations betweenthose countries and China, are scarcely in aposition to deal satisfactorily with the local tradewhich has become so much more extensive andvaried than in former years. This deficiency theHongkong and Shanghai Banking Company will'2B5

H. & S. BANK ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAsupply and will in fact assume the same positionwith relation to this Colony as the PresidencyBanks in India or the Banks of Australia in theirrespective localities." The establishment of a Mint in Hongkongproviding an adequate supply of proper currencywill under a local Banking medium be essential tocarry out its operations and the almost certaindisappearance of the existing Compradoric systemso far as money is concerned will also ensure Banksbecoming in course of time the exclusive mediumfor the transaction of the monetary operationsconnected with trade. . . ." The Bank will commence operations simultaneouslyin Hongkong and Shanghai. ... Ascircumstances render it advisable the Bank willestablish Branches at other places."The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Company,Limited, commenced business in April, 1865,with a capital of $2,500,000, being 20,000 shares of$250 each, $125 paid up. The Head Office wasestablished in Hongkong, and the first ChiefManager was Mr. Victor Kresser, a Frenchman.The first Manager of the Shanghai Branch wasMr. David McLean.In 1866 the Bank was incorporated under aHongkong Government Ordinance and the titlewas altered to The Hongkong and ShanghaiBanking Corporation.The shares of $250 of which $125 was paid upwere subsequently changed to $125 shares with anuncalled liability of $125.The Capital of the Bank was increased atvarious times from the original 20,000 shares to120,000 shares of $125 = $15 millions, at which itstands at the present time (1916) with Reservesof :—$18,000,000 in Silver,$15,000,000 in Sterling @ 2/- = £1,500,000invested in the British Government^% War Loan,and in addition to above Reserves :$ 250,000 Marine Insurance Account,$3,027,000 carried forward in Profit andLoss Account.The following are the increases of capitalwhich have taken place :Original Capital 20,000 shares ... $ 2,500,000Increased in 1866 to 40,000 shares,but not fully paid up until 1872when the Capital was $ 5,000,000Increased in 1883 to 60,000 shares $ 7,500,000Increased in 1890 to 80,000 shares $10,000,000Increased in 1907 to 120,000 shares $15,000,000The Dividend on shares is paid on a sterlingbasis, and during recent years the distribution hasbeen £2.3/- per share half-yearly with a bonus of5/- at the end of the year, making £4. 11/- pershare per annum equivalent to nearly 36% perannum on the capital taking exchange at 2/- tothe dollar.At the start the Bank had offices only atHongkong, Shanghai and London, but a Branch wasopened in Japan in 1866 and shortly afterwardsoffice.s were established in the principal ports inChina as well as extending to India. A very finebuilding was erected a few years ago for the LondonBranch.The Bank steadily expanded its activities tovarious parts of the world, and at the presenttime it has 34 different offices established at :AmoyLoudonBangkokLyonsBataviaMalaccaBombayManilaCalcuttaNagasakiCantonNew YorkColomboPekingDalnyPenangFoochowRangoonHankowSaigonHarbin San FranciscoHongkew (Shanghai) ShanghaiIpohSingaporeIloiloSourabayaJohoreTientsinKobeTsingtauKuala LumpurYokohamaDuring the period 1870 to 1875 the Bank hada series of lean years, when its fortunes seemedat the lowest, but, from 1876 onwards its positionsteadily improved. From that time, the prosperityof the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank was assured,and has continued unbroken ; a materialcontributing element in this success being undoubtedlythe fact that its Head Office andDirectorate were domiciled in Hongkong, and itspolicy directed by men thoroughly acquaintedwith local needs and conditions.Apart from the services the Hongkong andShanghai Banking Corporation has rendered toBritish trade generally in the Far East, its namehas been most prominent in connection with ChineseGovernment loans, of which it was the pioneer, andof which it continues to be the most representativechannel. A list is given at the end of this article.The first Chinese Government Loan was arrangedwith the Foochow authorities and wasfloated in 1875 for £539,748. 18/- {i.e. Tls. 1,720,000or $2,398,884) of which in January 1875 £352,700of the Bonds were offered to the public. Interestwas at the rate of 8% per annum, the issue pricewas £95 with exchange 4/1^ per dollar.During the ten years which followed, theBank issued sijc loans for the Chinese Government236

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAH. &$. BANKboth in silver and in gold, for comparatively smallamounts. In 1894 and 1895, during the Chinese-Japanese War, the Bank issued two loans, one insilver for Taels 10,900,000, and the other in goldfor £3,000,000. The agreement for the latter loanwas signed at the Tsungli Yamen on Chinese NewYear's Day, 1895, when the official Seal of theMinistry had to be brought out for the purpose,an unprecedented relaxation of immemorial Chinesetradition.In 1895 the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking.Corporation, with the approval of the BritishForeign Office, entered into an agreement withthe Deutsch-Asiatische Bank, representing a groupof German financial houses headed by the Disconto-Gesellschaft, for the joint financing of ChineseGovernment loans in London and Berlin ; andunder this arrangement the Chinese Government5% Gold Loan of 1896 and the 4^% Gold Loan of1898, each for £16,000,000, were negotiated andissued jointly by the two Banks, the proceedsbeing applied to the payment of the Chineseindemnity exacted by Japan after the war.In 1898 when a movement began for thefinancing and construction of railways in China,the Bank, in conjunction with Messrs. Jardine,Matheson & Co., formed the affiliated Companyknown as the British and Chinese Corporation,Ltd., for the financing and management of railwaysand other industrial enterprises, and its name hassince become widely known in connection withrailway development in China. Its formation wasfollowed later by the creation of a similar affiliatedCompany known as the Chinese Central Railways,which included important French interests.In 1909 the agreement of 1895 between theHongkong and Shanghai Bank and the Deutsch-Asiatische Bank for the financing of ChineseGovernment loans was extended to admit aFrench group represented by the Banque derindo-Chine, the combination being enlarged laterby the admission successively of American,ilussian and Japanese groups, represented re-.'jjjectively by Messrs. J. P. Morgan & Co. ofNew York, the Russo-Asiatic Bank, and theYokohama Specie Bank. It was this consortium,known as the " Sextuple Group," which in 1913negotiated with the Chinese Government the ReorganizationLoan for £25,000,000 ; the Americangroup, for political reasons, dropping out of thenegotiations on the eve of their conclusion, andleaving the British, German, French, Russian andJapanese groups as the final signatories.The Hongkong and Shanghai Bank has aBritish Eastern staff of 204 members; its presentChief Manager is Mr. N. J. Stabb, appointed in1910. Of the names which have earned distinctionin the service of the Bank, by far the mostprominent is that of Sir Thomas Jackson, Bart.Appointed Chief Manager in 1876, Mr. Jacksondirected the affairs of the Bank until his finalretirement in 1902, and it was under his wise andfar-seeing policy that it attained the position whichit now enjoys. On his retirement from the ChiefManagership, Sir Thomas Jackson joined the LondonCommittee of the Bank, of which he continuedto be an active member until the time of hisdeath in 1915. He was knighted in 1899,"andcreated a Baronet in 1902.Sir Thomas Jackson's personality was markedby a simplicity, straightforwardness and genialitywhich made him universally beloved by the communityin the Far East, to whom he was affectionatelyknown as " T. J." Speaking of him atthe first meeting of shareholders after his death,the Chairman of the Court of Directors said :—"There can be no better tribute to his memory andwork than the position the Bank now holds. Greatand many as were the public services he rendered,his most enduring monument is the standard ofcommercial morality which he set throughout theFar East. Nothing that was not generous, nothingmean or underhand, could abide his presence, andhe leaves to those who follow a noble and inspiringexample of unselfish devotion to duty."Sir Evi^EN Camekon, K.C.M.G., was Managerof the Shanghai Branch of the Bank from 1873till 1889 ; and, as the strong and able lieutenantof his Chief and colleague in Hongkong, is entitledto rank equally as one of the founders of theBank's prosperity. In 1890 he became Managerof the London Branch, where he rendered valuableservice to the British Government by his adviceon Chinese financial matters, for which the honourof K.C.M.G. was conferred on him in 1900. Heretired on account of ill-health in 1905 and diedin 1908.Sir Charles Addis, after a long career in theFar East, was appointed a Manager of the LondonBranch of the Bank in 1905, which post hestill continues to hold. He received the honour ofknighthood in 1913, in recognition of his servicesas head of the British group in connection withthe negotiation and issue of the Chinese ReorganizationLoan.Mr. E. G. HiLLiER, C.M.G., was appointedagent of the Bank in Peking in 1891. In 1896,following the strain of the negotiation of theAnglo-German Loan of £16,000,000, he lost hissight. Blindness, however, did not prove a barto carrying on his special work, and he is atpresent the representative of the Bank in itsofficial relations with the Chinese Government andin the negotiation of loans. He was made aC.M.G. in 1904.237

H. & S. BANK ENCYCLOPAEDU SlNlCACHINESE GOVERNMENT EXTERNAL LOANS, 1874-1914.Title of Loan. Date of Issue. Issuing Agents. Amount of Loan. InterestRepaymentBegins-Eiids.Principal OutstandingonDec. 31 St, 1916.Chinese Imperial Government8 per cent. Loan of 1874Chinese Imperial GovernmentLoan of 1877Chinese Imperial Government8 per cent. Silver LoanChinese Imperial GovernmentSilver Loan, 1881Chinese Imperial GovernmentLoan of 18s5Chinese Imperial Government6 per cent. Loan of 18«5Chinese Imperial Government7 per cent. Silver Loan (E), 1886Chinese Imperial Government7 per cent. Silver Loan of 1894Chinese Imperial Government6 percent. Gold Loan of 1895Chinese Imperial Government6 per cent. Gold Loan of 1896(Jan.I Mar.18751876H. & S B.C. (Hongkongand Loudon)£352,700£274,915 i8P/» 1876-1?85 (Redeemed)Dec. 1877 H. & S.B.C. £1,604,276 8 „ 1878-1884 ^Redeemed)3Iar. 1879 H. & S.B.C. (Shanghai) S'hali Tls. 1,949,500 8 ., 1879-1884 (Redeemed)July 1881 H. & S.B.C. (H'kong) S'haiTls. 4,384,00(1 8 ,,1883-1887 (Redeemed)Mar. 1885 n. & S.B.C. £1,505,000 7 „ 1889-1895 (Redeemed)June 1885 H. & S.B.C. £ 750,000 . 6 „ 1891-1895 (Redeemed)Dec. 1886 H. & S.B.C. (Shanghai) S'hai Tls. 767,200 7 „ 1887-1917 £1,670Nov. 1894 H. & S.B.C. S'hai Tls. 10,900,000 7 „ 1904-1913 (Redeemed)Feb. 1895 H. & S B.C. £ 3,000,000 6 „ 1900-1914 (Redeemed)( Mar.\ Sep.18961896H. & S.B C. London &D. Asiatische BunkChinese Imperial Government Jfiir. 1898 H. & S.B.C, Deutsch-4J percent. Gold Loan of 1898 Asiatlscbe BankCliine^e Imperial Government Feb. 1905 H. & S.B.C, Deutsch-5 per cent. Gold Loan of 1 905Asiatische BankChinese Government 5 per cent.Reorganization Loan of 1913May 1913 H. & S.B.C, Deutsch-Asiatische-Bank,Bqe. de I'Indo Chine,Russo-Asiatie Bankand Yokohama SpecieBank, Ltd.£10,000,000 )£ 6,000,000 j5 ,,1897-1932 £10,479,600£16,000,000 44 „ 1899—1943 £12,905,4-25£ 1,000,000 5 „ 1906-1915 (Redeemed)£25,000,000 5 „ 1924-1960 £25,000,000CHINESE GOVERNMENT EXTERNAL (RAILWAY) LOANS, 1874-1914.Title of Loan. Date of Issue. Issuing Agents. Amount of Loan. InterestRepaymentBegins-EndsPrincipal OutstandingonDec.3l8t, 1916.Imperial Railways of N. China Feb. 1899 H. & S.B.C. (for British& Chinese Corp., Ld.)Shanghai-Nanking Railway1904 H. & S.B.C. (for B. & CJulyf( Jan. 1907 Corporation, Ltd.)Canton-Kowloon Railway Apr. 1907 H. & S.B.C. (for B. & CCorporation, Ltd.)Tientsin-Pukow RailwayShanghai-Hangchow-NingpoRailwayImperial Chinese GovernmentGold Loan of 1908 ( for redemptionPeking-HankowRailvvay)Tientsin-Pukow Railway SupplementaryLoan( IMar.{ June1908190JH. & S.B.C. (for ChineseCentral Rlys., Ltd.)and D. A. BankMay 1908 H. & S.B.C. (for B. & CCorporation, Ltd.)Oct. 1908 H. & S.B.C. and Bauquede L'Indo-ChineNov. 1910 H. &S.B.C.( for ChineseCentral Rlys., Ltd.)and U. A. BankHnkuang Railways (1st Series) June 1911 H. & S.B.C, Banque deI'Indo-Chine, D. A.Bank, «t Amer. Gmup£2,300,000 5 ^/o 1905—1944 £1,610,000£2,250,000£ 650,000 15 „ (»)— 1953 £2,900,000£1,.500.000 5 „ 1920—1937 £1,500,000£3,000,000 )£2,000,000 )5 „ 1919—1938 £5,000,000£1,500,000 5 „ 1919—1938 £1,600,000£5,000,000 ., 1919-1938 £6,000,000£3,0(0,000 5 „ 1921—1940 £3,000,000£6,000,0C0 5 „ 1927-1950 £6,000,000(») Redeemable at 6 months* notice.The Bank was associated in the flotation of two loans for the Siamese Government, one in 1905 for £1,000,000, and the secondin 1907 for £3,000,000, botli at 4^* „. It has also been associated in the flotation of several large Japanese Governmeht Loans.238

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAHOPKINSHONGKONG UNI VERSITY, THE, came intoexistence in 1911; Sir F. Lugard was the firstChancellor, and Sir Charles Eliot (q.v.) of theUniversity of Sheffield, was appointed first Principaland Vice-Chancellor, and in October 1912, teachingin three Faculties was begun.The nucleus of the University was the HongkongSchool of Medicine for Chinese, founded in1887, which had done a modest but valuable workfor twenty years, without any buildings of its own.Having received $60,000 from the bequests of twoChinese gentlemen, and a site from Government,this institution in 1908 appealed to the public forfunds to extend its work. The idea of a Universityhad been suggested as far back as 1905, and analternative scheme was now drawn up whereby theSchool of Medicine, instead of building for itself,should become the Medical Faculty of a University.Various difficulties having been overcome the HongkongGovernment gave a site of 23 acres, Mr.H. N. MoDY gave the buildings and prepared theland at a cost of about $345,000, and an Endowmentand Equipment fund was started, which before theend of 1909 amounted to more than one and aquarter million dollars. To this fund Messrs.BuTTERFiELD & SwiRE, with their allied firms, gave$40,000; the Chinese government also subscribed;the Governor of Canton, having first assured himselfthat the standard of the University was toequal that of the University of London, gave hiswarm support, and invited contributions from theCanton province ; the Chinese, both of Canton andHongkong, gave generously; the Governors of theStraits Settlements and Macao, and the ShanghaiMunicipal Council recommended the scheme ; andfrom as far north as Mukden, and as far southas Australia, wealthy Chinese sent donations.The foundation-stone was laid in March 1910,when Mr. H. N. Mody was knighted by the orderof His Majesty King Edward VII, who also commandedthat scholarships bearing his own nameshould be established for British subjects. Thesite given by Government is 200 feet above the sea,and commands a fine view of the harbour. Thebuildings were calculated to accommodate 500students, with capacity for extension—and besidesthe class-rooms, laboratories, Great Hall, libraries,etc., include residential quarters for the Stalf andfor undergraduates ; and a large playground hasbeen provided. The LT^niversity is also close to theHospitals.The wish of the Committee of the Universitywas to begin with the two Faculties of Medicineand Engineering as the most urgently necessaryfor the development of China and amelioration ofher conditions, but a Faculty of Arts was addedowing to pressure brought by the Chinese residentsin the colony.The University, while specially intended forthe benefit of the Chinese, is open to all, irrespectiveof race, nationality or creed ; the degrees conferredare equal to those of the University oi Londonand as one of its avowed objects is the formationof character, all students are required to reside,either in missionary hostels, or the quarters providedby the University itself.Another object is to promote a good understandingwith the Chinese Government, and thiswould seem to have been attained, to a large extent.The Chinese in the Straits and in Canton have givenmunificently ; the President of the Chinese Republicgives five scholarships of the annual value of $400,and Canton Province has given twenty scholarshipsof $300 annually.There is a Consulting Committee in London inaddition to the Court, Council and Senate in Hongkong.The number of students in 1917 is about 200.HONG MERCHANTS. See Co-hong.HOOMUN CHAI TREATY, also called theBogue Treaty. This was a supplementary treatysigned by Sir Henry Pottinger and Kiying at theBogue, October 8, 1843. It was abrogated byArticle I of the Tientsin Treaty of 1858 ; but someof its provisions were embodied in that treaty,notably the "most-favoured-nation clause," Art. viiiin the old, was repeated in Art. liv of the newtreaty. It is not given in Hertslet's Treaties, butwill be found in the Chinese Repository, vol. xiii,in the Customs volume of Treaties, Conventions,etc., and there is a precis of it in Mayers' Treaties.HOOPOES. See Anisodactyli.HOPE, JAMES, Sir, the British commanderof the squadron which brought the allied ministersnorth in 1859. He did not reach the rank ofadmiral till 1870. He arrived at Singapore in April,1859 to replace Sir Michael Seymour. In June ofthat year he received the disastrous check at theTaku forts, and was severely wounded. He was incommand of the British fleet in the expedition whichwas sent the next year as the result of this outrage.He was botn March 3, 1808 and died at Linlithgowin Scotland on June 9, 1881.HOPKINS, LIONEL CHARLES, was bornin 1854 and came to China as student-interpreterin 1874. He was Vice-consul at Shanghai in 1895,Consul at Chefoo in 1897 and Consul-General atTientsin from 1901 to 1908, when he retired fromthe service and was honoured with the ImperialService Order. He is a keen student of earlyChinese, and has written a number of papers on theOracle Bones {q.v.), on Chinese numismatics, Chinesenumerals, etc. These have mostly appeared in theE.A.S. Journal.

HOPPOENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAHOPPO, the official at the head of the MaritimeCustoms in the earlier trade with foreigners atCanton. Representing the Ministry of Financesi^a^hu pu) he was dubbed with this titlein errorby the foreigners.Another derivation of the name is from Hoi-pu,the truncated form inCantonese of Yiieh Hai kuanP" ^^ISnK Controller of Kuangtung MaritimeCustoms. Williams gives ho po ^f^ boatmasteras the origin. The office was always filled by aManchu, generally by a member of the Imperialfamily ; it was abolished in 1904.Morse : The Gilds of China.HOR$E,WILD; there are probably two speciesin Chinese territory, the Tarpan, Equus cabalhis,. in Hsinchiang, and E. prjevalslcii in Hsinchiangand W. Mongolia. It is, a question whether thelatter is an indigenous wild horse or is descendedfrom escaped domestic horses. See Equidoe.HO SHANG U^- The ordinary Chineseterm for a Buddhist priest.HOSHIGA-URA. See Star Beach.HOSIE, ALEXANDER, born January 16,1853, was educated at Aberdeen and appointed astudent-interpreter in the British Consular Servicein 1876. In 1881 he succeeded E. H. Parker asConsular Agent at Chungking, and from that centremade several important journeys, making a greatmany valuable observations on matters connectedboth with natural history and with trade. In 1893he wrote a valuable report on Formosa, where hehad been Consul, giving much important informationon geography and on the economic plants ofthe Island. He was Commercial attache in Chinafrom 1905 to 1908, and was a member of the OpiumCommission at Shanghai in 1908. He was knightedin June, 1907.His works are Three Years in Western China,1890 ; Manchuria; On the Trail of the OpiumPoppi/, 1914; besides a large number of Reports(on Formosa, on Ssuch'uan, the Eastern Frontierof Tibet, etc.).HOUQUA, HOWQUA, etc., the best knownand most important of the Hong Merchants. Hissurname was Wu (Cantonese Ng), and Wu HowKxTAN €2 fS *^ is given in the Chinese Repositoryas 'the original name.' His name proper wasWu Tun-yuan. Th« termination 'qua,' in this andother well-known examples (MowQUA, Mingqua,etc.), is honorific or respectful, equivalent to ourMr. or Esquire. It stands for kuan "g", an official.The business name or hao of the firm was Ewo ^^All accounts of him speak, not only of hisperfect probity,—for which all the Hong Merchantswere remarkable so far as their dealings withforeigners were concerned,—but also of his friendlinessand extreme generosity.His fortune was immense, being estimated atone time at $26,000,000; and when Canton wasransomed for six million dollars, the Hong Merchantssubscribing two millions of it, Houqua'acontribution was $1,100,000. He was also called onto subscribe $1,000,000 towards the $3,000,000 agreedon by the Nanking treaty as due to BritishMerchants.He died on September 4, 1843, at the age of 75.HSIA DYNASTY XlE, so named from asmall State in Honan, was founded by the GreatYii, who had drained the flooded country andreceived the throne from Shun. From his time thesuccession became hereditary, the family name beingSsu ig(.The Empire then contained one or twomillions of Chinese, apparently colonists amongaborigines. There is little reliable history of sucha remote period, but it is supposed that bronze wasthen first cast and precious metals first used asmedia of exchange. Seventeen sovereigns held swayand the dynasty lasted 439 years. The last rulerwas infamous for cruelty and voluptuous living, andwas driven out by Cheng T'ang who founded theShang dynasty.Dyn. Title Accession Dyn. Title AccessionB.C.B.C.:^^ The Great Yii 220E ^ Huai 2040^ Ch'i 2197 ^ Mang 2014i:m T'ai K'ang 2188 M Hsieh 1996nm f'hung K'ang 2159 ;j;pf Pu Chiang 1980tg Hsiang 2146 M Chiung 1921Interregnum of g Chin 1900forty years JL¥ K'ung Chia 1879commencing 2118 jR Kao 1848^^^ Shao K'ang 2079 ^ Fa 1837If Ch'u 2057 m^ Chieh Kuei 1818HSIA MENgP^. The Chinese name forAmoy as well as for the island on which the citystands. See Amoy.HSIAOCanon of.CHING ^%^. See Filial piety,HSI-AN FU M^M>the capital of Shensiin lat. 34° 16' N., long. 108° 38' E., on the Wei,the chief affluent of the Yellow River. As Ch'ang-an^ 3c ^^^ ^^^y ^^s the capital of the Han dynastyunder the Emperor Kao Ti, (b.c. 206-194) and alsoof Kao Tsu the founder of the T'ang dynasty,(a.d. 620-627). The Manchu Court fled to Hsi-anin 1900.Famous for the Nestorian tablet and the Pei-lin(forest of tablets), and rich with the relics ofancient civilization, Hsi-an has also considerablecommercial importance and the Wei Valley is veryrich. The projected great Western railway willenhance Hsi-an's importance. It has also been thestarting point of the religious movements which240

'inENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAHSI YU CHIhave influenced the Chinese. Here Mohammedanismfirst secured a hold in China, Buddhism andXestorianism flourished and the Jewish Colony-ettled.HSI CHEN. See Fouj- Garrisons.HSI EH CHI A ^^ or Hsi chia; commercialagents for Mongols and Tibetans, on the Kansufrontier. Their duties are hereditary. As hsiehI hia means rest-home or rest-family, Rockhill referslu Hue's mention of Maisons de repos, and surmisesthat a former duty of the hsieh chia was to keepfreeinns for Mongols and Tibetans.RocKHiLL : The Land of the Lamas.HSI EN FENG ,^11 the reign-title of the-eventh ruler of the Ch'ing dynasty, whose personalname was I CHU ^^. He was the fourth son ofTag Kuang and was born in 1831. He succeededliis father in 1851, and had a troubled reign, shewinghimself not at all equal to his task ; he wasweak and in general contemptible as a ruler. Themost important deed of his reign was to receiveYehonala {q.v.) as a concubine, and make her themother of a son ; thus introducing into Chineseliistory the remarkable woman who is universallyknown as the Empress-dowager. The T'ai P'ing^Rebellion filled a good part of his reign and was< not suppressed till after his death. The SecondWar with England had place at the end of his reign,and when the allied English and French forces wereadvancing on Peking he weakly fled to Jehol, leavingI'rince Kung to do the best he could with theforeigner. He never returned to the capital, dyingin Jehol in 1861. His successor was T'tjng Chih,his infant son by Yehonala, with the Empressmotherand the Empress-Consort as co-Regents.HSI EN SHENG ^^ elder born. The equivalentof our title Mr. It is especially used as anoun meaning a teacher.HSI EN T'lEN :5fc5e 'Former Heaven' or'Preceding Heaven ' Society, a secret sect saidjto have been founded by one Lo Htjai |5il® in the'.reign of the Ming Emperor Wan Li (1573-1620).The same man is also credited with founding theLung Hua and Wu Wei Societies {q-v.). Lo Huaiin what is described as his 49th existence was bornthe prefecture of Lai-chou in Shantung. He wasordained as a Buddhist priest on Chiu Hua Shan,but his teaching is a mixture of the Three Religions.He travelled much, and died in Peking, where heis said to have worked miracles, and so turned asidethe Emperor's wrath, always ready to burn .againstSccieties.The sect is non-ritualistic and opposes outwardshow, and there is no propagandism. The initiationcommandments ofconsists in a vow to keep the fiveBuddha. The members are mostly well-to-do ; theirmeetings are generally held in each other's houses,men meeting with men and women with women, theobject being the recitation of sutras, and edifyingconversation. They are all vegetarians, and spenda good deal of money in buying up animal life.De Groot has described them as he found themin Amoy, where they were very numerous. SeeSecret sects.De GaooT : Sectarianism and the Religion ofthe Chinese.HSI EN YUN igit. a name found in somebooks meaning the Huns ; an early designation ofHsiung nu (q.v.).HSI LING ®^, the western tombs of theManchu emperors. See Mausolea.HSI SHIH or Hsi tzu ^MoJ"fS^f- Themost beautiful of women in Chinese tradition. Shewas sent as a present by the prince of Yiieh to thePrince of Wn with the intention of ruining him :the plan was a success.HSIUNG NU -eg^. Western Tartars of Mongolia,first heard of in B.C. 318 when they alliedwith five Chinese powers against the menacingattitude of Ch'in. They are the ancestors of theHuns and Turks.Paiikeb, : Ancient China Simplified, p. 150. •HSIU TS'AI ^yj;-, cultivated talent; a graduateof the lowest rank, generally translated in Englishas bachelor of arts. See Chii jen; Chin shih, etc.HSI WANG MU.See Si wang mu.HSI YU CHI ^gsilB- There are two wellknownChinese books with this title, and a greatdeal of confusion exists, not so much because ofthere being two, but because foreign writers whospeak of one generally ignore the other.The important one is the record of the travelsof Ch'iu Ch'ang-ch'un {q.v.) who went from Shantungto the court of Chenghis Khan in Persia in1221-24. It was written by Li Chih-ch'ang, oneof his disciples, who accompanied him and kept ajournal. It has been translated into Russian by theArchimandrite Palladius, and Paxtthier translatedpart of it, badly, into French. The importantparts of were done into English by Bretschneider :he makes no mention of the other book with thesame name.This second work is of a very different natureit is a popular novel, based on the travels ofHsixAN Tsang to this extent and no further, thatthe chief personage is called by HsiiAN Tsang'sposthumous name and that he travels in search ofBuddhist books. It begins with a stone monkeyhatched out of a stone egg who becomes Master ofthe Horse to the chief Taoist divinity. Most peoplewill regard it as a hotch-potch of puerile absurdities.31241

AIIIHSUANG CHUANGENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAIt has, however recently been partly translated andthe rest summarized by Dr. T. Richard as anEpic and Allegory and one of the world's masterpiecesof literature. His translation has the titleA Mission to Heaven. He takes it'for granted thatit is the work of Ch'iu Ch'ang-ch'un, but Gilessays otherwise. In his Chinese Literature Gilesgives a very brief outline of the book but does notthere mention tbe other work of the same title nordoes Richard mention it anywhere. It is knownto the Chinese as the Hou or Later Hsi yu chi.It may be well to add that there is a thirdwork with a similar name, the Hsi yil chi M i^ ^Ewhich is the genuine travels of HsiiAN Tsang.Giles : Chinese Literature; Bretschneider :Mediaeval Researches, vol. i ; Richard : Missionto Heaven, 1913.HSiJAN CHUANG.See Hsuan Tsang.HSUAN TSANG ^§| or Yuan Chtjang 7c §^and various other forms ; the 'style' (official name)or the religious name of the celebrated Buddhistpilgrim Ch'kn I. He was born in Honan, a.d. 600,and in 629 he set out secretly from Hsi-an fu forIndia. In 645, having first obtained the Emperor'spermission, he returned, bringing 657 sacred booksand 150 relics of the Buddha. He spent the restof bis life in translating the books and also wrotethe account of his travels, the well-known Hsi-yilchi M^nE "ot to be confused with Hsi yu chi® 3^ IE (5'-^-)- This has been translated byStanislas Julien in 1857, by S. Beal in 1884, andby Thomas Watters, whose work, edited by RhysDavids and S. W. Bushell, was published posthumouslyin 1904.HSiJAN TU i^ J^ suspended way, a nameoccurring in HsiiAN Tsang's travels. It was crossedby Pan Ch'ao with an army, (After Han Records^MIE)- It is identified by Wylie with HinduKhush. Chinese Recorder, vol. iv, p. 52.HSUAN T'UNG ^^,the reign-title of thetenth Emperor of the Manchu dynasty. The ruler'spersonal name is P'u I ^^ and he is the son ofPrince Ch'un and nephew of the preceding EmperorKuang Hsii. He was born on February 11, 1906,and succeeded to the throne on November 14, 1908.On February 12, 1912, he abdicated, being allowedhowever to retain the title of Manchu Emperor forlife. On July 1, 1917, while these pages are inthe press the young Emperor has been restoredby General Chang HsiiN ; but the restoration is afiasco.The following table is of use to show the relationsof the Manchu rulers from Tag Kuang toHsuAN T'UNG. The dates are the dates of accession.TAO Kl-ANG (1821)1st son 4th son 6th son 7th sonI Wei HSIEN FENG (1851) Trince Kcng Prince Ch'unKUANG PrinceTsAi CHIH T'UNG CHIH (1862) TsAi Ch'enc HSU (1875) Ch'un(ail opted)P'u WEt(adopted iiejihew)HSiJ KUANG-CH'I ^3t^HSUANT'UNG Inoawas born nearShanghai about a.d. 1560. He rose to the Han-lindegree and became acquainted with Ricci, helpinghim to translate books on mathematics, astronomyand firearms. He was baptized with the namePaul. He memorialized the Emperor with suggestionsfor the defence of the Empire, was madeCensor and ordered to raise troops. He found,however, that his advice was neglected, and hewithdrew from active life. He was recalled whenhis help was needed, but was later disgraced, andthis occurred twice ; but in 1628, on the accession ofTsuNG Cheng, he was restored to his rank, andlater arrived at the highest offices. He died in1634. He was a friend and protector of missionaries,and the great Jesuit establishment nearShanghai called Zi ka wei or Hsii chia hui^^Mperpetuates his name. His grave is at the villageof that name. His daughter was baptized by thename of Candida {q.v.).HSUN-FU SSlf. The Governor of a province(before the Revolution). The common designationwas Fu t'ai ^ •§.HSUN K'UANG, ^^ -JI, known as Hsun Tzuor the Philosopher HsiiN, was a native of the Stateof Chao, born in 340 b.c. He was a high officerof state, and spent most of a very long life in theKingdom of Ch'i. At eighty-six years of age hewas impeached and retired to Ch'u, where hegathered a group of disciples including Han Fei Tzu{q.v.) and Li Ssu {q.v.). He died at the age of 120.He is best known by a philosophical treatise inthirty-two "books" in which he upheld with greatforce the doctrine of the innate badness of humannature, -as a basis for his system of corrective ethics.He resembles Hume in some of his views, notablyas to the artificial nature of society. He emphasizedthe value of the canonical books, and laidthe greatest stress on ceremonial and on music aseducative influences, thus opposing Mo Tzu.Suzuki has a thoughtful estimate of his place inChinese thought.Suzuki : History of Chinese Philosojihy; Giles :biographical Dictionary.HSU PAUL.See Hsu Kuang-ch'i.242

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAHUANGPUHSiJ SHEN fi^lt, a native of Honan, of thethe first century of our era. He wrote a famouscommentary on the Five Classics, but is best knownas the author of the Shuo Wen {q.v.).HSU, STATE OF, ff, a very small feudalState of the Chou period. The rulers had the sameancestry as those of Ch'i.HUAI NAN TZiJ Jgr^^ the literary name Ofthe Prince of Huai Nan, a grandson of the firstHan Emperor. His name was |gij ^ Liu An. Hewas a devoted Taoist, and a great searcher afterthe elixir of life, and other magical treasures. Hewas a contemporary of Ssu-ma Ch'ien, who relatesthat he spent all his property in his occult pursuits,and that he died by his own hand, when discoveredplotting to succeed to the throne. The later Taoistshowever, insist that he attained to immortality andwas possessed of wonderful supernatural powers.He embodied the results of his researches in a bookcalled Himr/ lieh cJxvnn ^ g^ @, {q.v.), familiarlyknown as (the treatise of) Huai Nan Tzu. It isone of the standard works of the Taoists.HUANGPU CONSERVANCY. The Huangpu1.^ a tributary channel chiefly maintained by tidalaction, which connects the lake system in theSouthern Yangtze Delta with the Yangtze at Woosung.It derives its principal importance from itsrelation to Shanghai, which is on the left bank15 miles from the mouth. Spring tides averagingabout 12 feet in the mouth of the Yangtze Estuarydiminish to 10 feet at the mouth of the Huangpu andform a strong wave with rapid currents whichsweeps up that river even to the easternmost ofthe lakes ( "Hsi Tai" or "Tien Shan" ).The accessibility to Shanghai from the seadepends on the bars at the mouth of the Yangtzeand the Huangpu. The latter river had two bars,the inner and tlie outer Woosung bar with 12 and18 feet of water at ordinary low water respectively,which early proved to be serious obstacles, and werethe subjects of a British " Blue Book " in 1874.In 1876 two reports by engineers were submittedto the Consular Body of Shanghai, but it was nottill 1889 that 'any actual work was done. Dredginghaving been tried but proved Ineffectual, Mr.J. DE lliJKE was called in by the Shanghai GeneralChamber of Commerce in 1897 and reported on thecontinued deterioration which was proceeding, andmade certain proposals. Annexe 17 of the "Boxer"Peace Protocol of 1901 comprised "Regulations forthe Improvement of the Course of the Huangpu"and a Conservancy Board was appointed. No stepswere taken to fulfil this agreement and in September,1905, a new agreement was signed. TheConservancy Board was to consist of the ShanghaiTaotai and the Commissioner of Customs and the243Chinese Government undertook to provide twentyannual payments of 460,000 Haikuan Taels.Mr. DE RijKE-was appointed engineer and tvorkwas begun in 1906. The "Ship Channel" was closedin 1910 and the new fairway (" Astraea Channel,"formerly the "Junk Channel" ) was dredged. The"Inner Bar" was thus eliminated and by a trainingwall running out into the Yangtze the "OuterBar" was washed out, so giving a minimum depthof 20 feet at average low water as well as a clear600 feet width all the way to Shanghai.At the end of 1910, when the total expenditurereached some 6,500,000 Shanghai Taels, funds werelacking the work was disorganized and Mr. deRiJKE left.The work was, however, not even half completed.Silting was noticed in the "Astraea Channel"in 1911 and in October, Mr. H. von Heidenstam,who succeeded Mr. de Rijke as Engineer-in-Chief,submitted a "Project for the (;ontinued WhangpooRegulation," with complete plans and estimates,showing that Tls. 6,000,000 spread over ten yearswould be required for the continued regulation.After some negotiations with the Government itwas agreed in April, 1912 to proceed, and aConservancy Tax of 3% on the Customs duties andIs per mille on duty-free goods was authorized.The Board (which now included the HarbourMaster) was supplemented by a Consultative Committeeof six members, one from each of the fiveleading shipping nations and one selected by theChinese Chamber of Commerce.Work has proceeded regularly since July, 1912.Pheasant Point (a sharp convex near the mouth)was cut away and a contract for four million cubicyards of dredging was let. A second training wallat the mouth on the right bank was also built andvarious groynes and reclamations have been madewith favourable results.In 1916 the Board acquiredits own dredging plant and dredging of theconvexes at Shanghai (Pootung Point) and Nantouis now being executed.The regulated channel shows now in 1916 adepth of 24 feet at ordinary low water over awidth of nearly 600 feet right through from Woosungto Shanghai.Several large dredging and training works areplanned and will be executed according to programmeof the 1911 Project.Elaborate hydrographic surveys have beenmade both of the Huangpu and of the YangtzeEstuary with a view to scientific treatment of theproblem.The tax imposed in May, 1912, has yieldedabout half a million taels per annum, but decreasedsomewhat during 1915 owing to the war.De Rijke : He-port on Whangpoo River fromShanghai doivnward, 1898; von Heidenstam:

HUANG TlENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAProject for the Continued Whangpoo Begvlation,1911. Second Edition, 1912;^ Report on theHydrography of the Whangpoo, 1916; Report onthe Yangtze Estuary {in relation to the Whangpoo),1917. [H. V. H.]HUANG Tl or Huang Shang ^X or ^ ^The Emperor. Other titles are T'ien Tzu 'H -f',Son of Heaven; ±^ Chu Tzu, Lord, etc.See Imperial Titles.Makers : Manual of Chinese Titles.HUANG Tl, ^^ the Yellow Emperor, one ofthe legendary rulers of China, B.C. 2698-2598. Theinvention is ascribed to him of wheeled vehicle.s,armour, ships, pottery, etc. The phoenix and theChH tin appeared at the end of his reign in approvalof his wise and beneficent rule.H U I H U I HJIgJ. The common term for Mohammedan.The word Jiui means to return, and theattempt has been made to explain hui-hui as equivalentto 'Islam,' denoting return and submission toGod ; or the return of the body in death to theearth and of the mind to the path of truth ; fromillusion to reality, etc., etc. Another theory derivesthe name from Hui-ho or Hui-hu a people ofnorthern Mongolia, Uighiirs or Ouigours ; anotherregards it as a corruption of Arabic ya akhouya" my brother," and again it is the Chineseonomatopoeic name of those with unintelligiblespeech, comparable with the Greek SapSapoi etc.The origin of the term may therefore be regardedas an insoluble puzzle.It appears first in the records of the Liaodynasty (a.d. 917). See Mohammedanism.Broomhall : Islam in China.HUl YUAN ^^, A.D. 333-416, a Buddhistpriest whose name in the world was Chxa Kj anative of Shansi. He is regarded as the founder ofthe Pure Land School of Buddhism, though at leastone of the books of the School had been translatedinto Chinese at a much earlier date. In early lifeha was an ardent Taoist, and it is said that after hewas converted to Buddhism he still used ChtjangTzu to enforce his preaching. He was born in 333,established himself at Lu-feng in Hupei in 373 andtaught there till his death in 416.HU KUANG JSg^, the old name of a provincenow divided into Hupei and Hunan.The two aretogether still called by this name, or by the nameLiang Hu ^J39 Two Hu.HUMAN SACRIFICES. See Sacrifices, human;Suttee.HUNAN mM South of the lake, a centralprovince with an area of 83,398 sq. miles and apopulation variously estimated between 21,000,000and 23,000,000. It gets its name from the Tungt'ingLake, which occupies about 2,000 sq. miles ofthe north-eastern corner of the province. The provinceitself is practically the area drained by threelarge rivers with their tributaries. The Siang Jffl,Tzu -^ and Yiian iJc rivers all rise outside the southside of the province. The Siang enters the provincein the centre of the south, the Tzu, somewhat eastof the south-west corner, the Yiian, somewhat northof that corner. Including the navigable waters ofthe tributaries each of these rivers offers nearly1,000 miles of waterway. Each river has an importanttown on its bank not far from the lake, wherein pre-steamer days cargoes could be transferredfrom the shallow boats used in the upper watersto the deeper boats more useful across the lake andon the Yangtze ; the Siang has Siangtan ; the Tzu,Yiyang, and the Yiian, Ch'angte. Each also has acity of prefectural rank about mid-course; theSiang, Hengchow; the Tzii, Paok'ing; the Yiian,Shenchow fu. These six cities, with Yochow (whichstands at the Yangtze entrance to the lake), are,after Changsha, the most important in the province.The Siang is the largest of the three rivers ; in itsbasin stand half the county towns of the province.The mountains which separate these rivers andtheir tributaries from each other have not beenscientifically surveyed. The Sacred Peak of Nanyoh(see Heng shan) is some 4,500 ft. high; butfurther to the west in the ridge separating the Tzufrom the Yiian, a western traveller registered abarometer height showing 5,600 ft. at the pass.The people of Hunan are a characteristicallyrice-eating people : small-boned, "active, wiry. Inmany of their characteristics, e.g., clannishness,love of travel, willingness to scrap old methods anduse new, they are midway between their southernCanton and their northern Hupei neighbours.•The people do well in developing the agriculturalpossibilities of the low lying plains round theTungt'ing Lake and Siang valley; but only moderately,as regards the possibilities of forestry—alongthe rivers one comes to astonishingly beautiful wood?of bamboo and other trees alternating with milesand tens of miles of barren hillsides ;—not evenmoderately well as regards the mineral wealth.Only hand labour has so far been used (even thoughthe example of Pingsiang, just over the Kiangsiborder is ever before their eyes, as all its productionsare transported through Hunan). Yet withthe mere scratching of the soil the wealth is suchthat it is evident that with proper machinery andabundant capit-al, the riches might surpass thedreams of avarice. There are not only the usefulminerals and metals, coal, iron, tin, copper, antimony,but, after spates, gold is washed out of someof the river sands, and many of the important newlydiscovered metals such as tungsten have about thebest percentages of any such ores yet worked.244

. HUNGENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAHUNTERIn 1902, a railway was constructed for thePingsiang mines running to Chuchow on the Siang.This was extended to Changsha in 1911 (by exceedinglyexpensive and very poor workmanship underChinese direction). Part of this line is now includedin the Canton-Hankow railway which will shortly(1917) be opened from Changsha to' Wuchang.Extension of the Pingsiang line on to Nanchangwill bring Changsha into connection with the Yangtzeat Kiukiang. Mining lines connecting Paok'ingwith the south are also projected. There is a smalllight railway of 10 miles in connection with theShui-k'ou shan mines (lead) and the Siang aboveHengchow.In addition to the mineral exports the provincedoes a good trade in rice, tea, timber, beans, hemp,wood oil and wheat. Also in such manufactures asfire-crackers, paper, paper umbrellas and some porcelain(from Liling).The history of the province barely goes backas far as the Chou dynasty.(For legends connectedwith the earliest times, see N.C.B.R.A.S. Journal,vol. xliii). Though the old name of Ch'u is affected(^ M ^s used by scholars for ^ |fi[), the feudalkingdom of Ch'u only touched the northern fringeof the province. Only one Hunanese name is connectedwith that State, viz. CH'ii YiiAN (q.v.),B.C. 332-295. Ch'in Shih Huang Ti in one of hisprogresses entered the province. His grandson, withwhom his line became extinct, was sent to Chenchow,in the far south of the province, to die. For theHan relationship with Hunan, see Changsha andHt'ng shan. One brilliant name at the very beginningof the Sung School of Philosophy, that of(Jhou Tun-i, is connected with Hunan. In the daysof the T'ai P'ing rebellion the province suddenlysprang into the very front rank. The rebels enteredthe province in 1852 and were immediately subjectedto a heavy defeat by Chiang CnuNG-YiiAN, the companionof Tseng Kxjo-fan. Escaping by a landroute on tlie east of the province while Chiangwaited for them on the river, they arrived at Chang-.^ha which they besieged for ninety days. In spiteof mines which they exploded under the walls theywere unable to enter the city, and raised the siege.It was this initial success that led to the employmentf'f Hunan soldiers, who, under TsKi^G Kuo-fan (andwith the help of General Gordon) finally put downtlie rebels.Hunan was always proud of the share her sonshad in saving the dynasty. At one time, it is saidthat out of six viceroys, five were Hunanese. Forthe remainder of the Manchu days, it was an unwrittenlaw that the great viceroyalty of Nankingt::liouldbe held by a Hunanese.In the recent movement resulting in the Repi.hlio,P^unanese had their share. Those who onlyknow the brag and cowardice that disgraced theclosing days of Huang Hsing's life would hardlycredit the dare-devil work he did in earlier days.Tsai Ac was the first to take up arms against YiiANShih-k'ai's imperial projects. Sung Chiao-jkn,who was assassinated in Shanghai in 1912 was onefrom whom much was expected. The first Re-.publican Governor, T'an Yen-k'ai, like the secondPresident, is a clean-handed, patriotic man whowould prefer the quiet of his home to the cares ofoffice.[G.G.W.]HUNCH UN i^#, Lat. N. 42° 53'; Long. E.131° 18', is situated near the point where theRussian, Korean, and Chinese frontiers meet in EastManchuria. It was opened by the Manchuria Conventionof 1905, but the Customs did not begin tofunction until 1909. Hunchun began its existenceas a military post in 1714. The trade (in beans andfarm products, and game) is small. The populationis 2,610. * •1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 239,885 336,667Net Chinese „ 100,873 —Exports 205,247 269,728Total Hk.Tls. ... 546,005 606,385HUNDRED NAMES. See Pai hsing.HUNG HSIU-CH'UAN mW^, a Kuangtungman, born in 1812,' who was the leader of theT'ai P'ing rebellion. He learned something ofChristian doctrine in his youth, became a fortuneteller,and joined a society called the Society ofGod, rising to be its head. In 1836 he announcedhimself as brother of Christ and collected manyinto a kind of Christian sect.In 1850 he began therebellion, styling himself ^ ^ T'ien-wang orHeavenly Prince. He committed suicide immediatelybefore the end of the rebellion in 1864.See T'ai P'ing Itebellion.HUNG LEAGUE.HUNG LI EH CHUAN ?j| ^| i|fSee Triad Society., one of thestandard works of the Taoist canon, more generallyknown by the name of the writer Huai Nan Tzii[q.v.). The title is said to be equivalent to ;^ HH Mor the Story of the Great Light.LOU MENG ^I®.^. See Dream ofthe Bed Chamber.HUNTER, WILLIAM C, an early Americanresident in Canton, reached China in February, 1825,after a voyage of 125 days from New York. Afterstudying Chinese at the Anglo-Chinese College inMalacca, he was employed by the firm of Russell& Co., and became a partner from 1837 to 1842. Hedied at Nice in June, 1891. He was the author oftwo books, issued in 1882 and 1885 respectively,and republished in 1911. They are The Fan Kwaeat Canton and Bits of Old China.245

HUNTINGENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAHUNTING RESERVES, IMPERIAL, @ ^a vast track of hundreds of miles set apart early inthe Manchu dynasty for jsreserving large game andfor exercising Imperial troops in hunting. It is inthe Jeh-ho (Jehol) region.HUNG WU i^t^. The reigning title of thefounder of the Ming dynasty. He was a native ofAnhui named Chu YiiAN-CHANG, born in 1328 ofv«ry poor parents. When parents and brother haddied from hunger he sought to enter the Buddhistpriesthood, , led a wandering life for some years,then fought under Kuo Tzu-hsing against theMongol dynasty. He made himself prince of Wuin 1364 and four years later Emperor of the GreatMing dynasty under the year-title Hung Wu, withhis capital at Nanking. The last Mongol Emperordied in 1370, and though invasions by the Mongolscontinued for some time their re-establishment washopeless. Hung Wu took the whole country andruled it with wisdom, being a great patron ofeducation and literature. He modified the systemof examinations which lasted till this century,published a Penal Code, abolished such punishmentsas mutilation, prohibited eunuchs from holdingoffice, made Buddhism and Taoism state religions,and asserted suzerainty over Korea. In his old agehe became suspicious and destroyed many of thosewho had helped him to the throne. He waspopularly known as the 'beggar king.' He died in1399.HUN YUAN MEN i^TCfl , » sect which isstrong in Manchuria. It was founded in theW.\N Li period at the beginning of the 17th centuryby Han P'iao-kao of Chihli. It has no temples orpriests, but meets in private houses under paidleaders, and has been described as a branch of theTaoist sect worshipping Buddha. The membersare, of course, vegetarians.Inglis : Chinese Recorder, vol. xxxix, p. 270.HUPEI jjg:|t:,a province in the Yangtze basin,formerly making with Hunan the province Hukuang.The division between them was made by K'ang Hsi.The area is 71,428 sq. miles and the population35,280,000. The name, meaning 'North of the lake,'refers to the Tung t'ing lake. Its literary namesare Ch'u 21 and 0^. Its adjoining provinces areHonan and Shensi on the north, Shensi and Ssiuch'uanon the west, Hunan and Kiangsi on the south,and Anhui on the east. The province is elongatedeast and west, in which direction the Yangtze flowsright through it. The Han river enters from thenorth, falling into the Yangtze at Hankow, and isnavigable throughout its course in the province.The Eastern K'un lun spurs occupy about half thearea, rising to 11,000 feet ; the rest of the provinceis a fertile plain, producing cotton, rice, corn andtea ; and there are many lakes.The chief city is Wuchang |^g, on the southof the Yangtze; opposite to it are Hankow {q.v.)and Hanyang, the population of the three citiesbeing nearly two millions. Besides Hankow, Hupeihas the treaty ports of Ichang and Shasi (q.v.).Hankow is connected with Peking by a railwaywhich is being extended southwards to Canton.HUTUKHTU or Khutukhtu ig'-J^^H, Mongolianfor Saintly. The class of dignitaries so calledis a marked and essential feature of Tibetan Buddhism.The Mongolian term is interpreted intoChinese as ||^^\ the one who returns, an Avatar.Each hntukhtu at death comes forth re-embodied insome new-born child.They were at first only known in Tibet, butthe system has now overspread all Mongolia.The number of Jiutvhhtu,—to which class theDalai Lama and Panshen Lama belong,—is onehundred and sixty. They are familiarly termed?B '^ A wo Fo or living Buddha.The official generally known among foreign readersby this title is the Cheptsundampa Hutukhtu,-the Metropolitan or Patriarch of the Khalka tribes,with his residence at Urga. He ranks third amongthe Lamaist hierarchy. He acts as spiritual colleagueto the Chinese Agent at Urga. His title Cheptsundampais Tibetan for 'venerable best' ; he isalso called by the Sanskrit word T'drandtha, (aname of doubtful meaning), being regarded as there-incarnation of that Tibetan lama and' author.Brunnert and Hagelstrom : Present DayPoliticcd Ortjcmization of China, 1912; Mayers:Chinese Government , 3rd ed. p. 119.HWAI RIVER CONSERVANCY.See ConservancyWorhs.HYMNOLOGY. Few Christian hymns havebeen written by Chinese so far, but many hymnbookshave been issued by missionaries. Thus Dr. Neviuspublished one in 1864, replaced by one produced byDrs. Mateer and Nevius (221 hymns) ; Dr. GriffithJohn put out the Hankow hymnbook in 1876, (200hymns) ; Drs. Goodrich and Blodget issued thePeking hymnbook in 1877, (315 hymns) ; ArchdeaconMoule a collection of 221 hymns ; Mr. Woodruffa book of hymns with accompanying tunes, andRev. J. Lees a hymnbook of 429 hymns in 1891.The last was founded on a work of 1862, whichcontained 56 hymns by Eev. W. Burns and 61 byDr. Edkins.At the present time the majority of the largerMissions have their own collections, and many ofthe smaller Missions also. Nearly all the hymnsare translations of Western favourites, some ofwhich appear in twenty different versions.The majority of Chinese Christians being simpleand unlettered folk, the missionaries' tendency has246

II.G.,ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA I HO CH'UANbeen to sacrifice literary merit to edification, aridmany of the most widely-used hymns, tried by thestandards of Chinese poetry, are pitiful doggerel.Probably the best collection from the point of viewof style is that used in the Basel, Berlin andRhenish Missions in Kuangtung. It would seemthat, generally speaking, the genius of the Chineselanguage is more akin to solid and stately hymnsthan to the lighter type with repetitions andchoruses ; but, as in the West, the swinging, easilylearnt tunes of the latter, gain them popularityin spite of feeble words.HYPNOTISM, mentioned in Chinese literatureas far back as the middle of the seventeenth century,is used as a means of enquiry into the future andalso for the cure of serious illness. It is used ingreat secrecy, being an offence against the law.Giles : The Civilization of China, p. 67.I, ^, a general name found in the Li Chi forbarbarian tribes on the east boundaries of China.Some important tribes lived on the bank of theHuai river and round the present Hsii chou inKiangsu. They were gradually absorbed by theChinese civilization around them.The structure of the character would imply thatthey were known as users of the 'great bow' ( ^(jraat, '^ a bow). This is the character forbiddenby the Tientsin Treaty of 1858 to be used of theBritish Government or subjects in Chinese officialdocuments.IBIS. See Herodiones.ICHANG, % g / ch'ang, a treaty port inHupei on the north bank of the Yangtze, in lat.30° 44' N. and long. 111°- ,18' E., 397 miles aboveHankow and 1,000 miles from the sea. It wasopened to foreign trade by the Chefoo Conventionor Agreement of 1876. The district is poor andscantily populated, and Ichang is only importantas a port of transit for goods going to or coming fromChungking ; there are now five steamers runningbetween the two ports. The Ichang Gorges beginsome ten miles above.The population is about 40,000, the foreignresidents numbering 187. The chief articles of exporttrade are beans, grain, sesamum seed, vegetabletallow and wood-oil. Work on the Ichang-Wanhsienrailway was begun in 1910.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 1,144,896 1,429,897Net Chinese „ 703,569 1,686,492Exports 3,052,114 3,514,062Total Hk.Tls. ... 4,900,579 6,629,451I CHING, ^m.,the. Book [or Canon) ofChanges, one of the Classics, perhaps the oldest ofall. The Diagrams {q.v.) or Trigrams which arethe nucleus of the work, are ascribed to Fu Hsiabout 2800 B.C. The / Chi7ig consists of expositionsof these. The text consists of sixty-four shortessays by Wkn Wang, father of the founder of theChou dynasty, thirteenth and twelfth centuriesB.C. He is said to have written them while inprison. These are called Tuan^. They arefollowed by a commentary supposed to have beenalso written in prison by Chou Kung son of WenWang ; this is called Usiang ^. The remainderof the work consists of ten sections said to havebeen written by CoNFrciiTs; these are named -f* S|xhih i, Ten Wings.The book is regarded with the utmost venerationby the "Chinese, but in spite of thousands ofexpositions its meaning remains dark. Foreignstudents have given the most varied views on thesubject : it is a political work, enigmatically written ;or it is a lunar calendar ; or it is a vocabulary, withnotes, of a non-Chinese language.Being a book of use in divination it is said tohave escaped being burned by Ch'in Shih HuangTi.It is revered by Confucianists and Taoists alikeIt has been translated into Latin by the Jesuitmissionary Regis (1834-39) and others ; into Frenchby Philastre (1885, 1893), and de Harlez, (1895),and into English by Legge, (1882).Wylie : Notes on Chinese Literature; Giles :Chinese Literature ; James : Chinese Recorder, vol.xxix. p. 334.IDES, EVERT ISBRAND, a German sent byPeter the Great to Peking in 1693-95. The Czar'sletter was not received, because his name tookprecedence, in it of the Emperor's (K'ang Hsi).Ides wrote a not very trustworthy account of hisJourney, and the secretary of the Embassy, AdamBrand, wrote another.a common designation of the Inspector-General of Chinese Customs.I HO CH'iJAN, (Righteous Harmony Fists).See lioxerism.247

I HO YUAN ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAIHO YUAN, l^ifil ® a name for the SummerPalace at Peking. It is taken from the TA Chi orBook of Rites.J HSING YAO. See Boccaro Ware.I LAN FU. See Sansing.i LI, ^ 3^, a district now included in Sinkiang.It lies to the north of the T'ien Shan, a triangularwedge in the mountains, belonging geographicallyto Mongolia rather than to Sinkiang. The chieftown is Kuldja. Hi is close to the Russian borderand was occupied by Russia in 1871 for the protectionof her own frontier during Yakub Khan'srebellion, but was nearly all restored to China bythe Treaty of St. Petersburg in 1881.ILIPU, ^^^, a Manchu who was Viceroyat Nanking at the beginning of the First War in1840, and was appointed High Commissioner foraffairs in Chekiang, in view of the British havingoccupied the Chusan Islands. The plenipotentiarieshaving been got away from the Pei ho. by Kishen,made an armistice for Chekiang with Ilipt:, andarrived at Macao on November 20. When theConvention was made which ceded Hongkong itwas disowned by China early in 1841, and amongother officials punished for the state of affairsIlivu was degraded and sentenced to be banis'hedto Hi. In March, 1842, however, he was recalledto act with KiYiNG as plenipotentiary at Canton,and was one of the signatories to the Treaty ofNanking in August. He died the next year whileHigh Commissioner for Canton affairs.Morse : The, International Relations of theChinese Empire.ILTIS, German gunboat of 489 tons, wreckedon the Shantung coast. It left Chefoo with sealedorders on July 23, 1895, probably for Kiaochow,which was already an object of.desire. After roundingthe northern point of the Shantung Promontoryit met. the force of a terrible typhoon and wasdriven on Flat Rocky Point, nine miles north ofthe south-eastern point of the Promontory, nearthe bay of Sang-kou. Of eighty-nine officers andmen only twelve escaped ; the boat went down withthe rest, who sang to the Kaiser and the flag asthey died. There is a hand.some monument on theBund at Shanghai to commemorate the tragedy.ILTIS HUK, a small headland east of Tsingtau.Missionaries of the interior of Shantung havethere built cottages for summer residence.IMBAULT-HUART, CAMILLE CLEMENT,born in 1857, died at Hongkong in 1897.He reached China as student-interpreter in1878, and wa« French Consul at Canton andChevalier of the Legion of Honour when he died.A list of his various works is given in the T'oungPao, 1899.IMMORTALS. In Taoism immortality is theresult of ascetic practices combined with the takingof proper drugs etc., which develop tbe vital forcesand make the man independent of a material body.Such a man may seem to die, but death is only ametamorphosis ; the Immortal quitting his bodyranges through the universe at will, enjoys perfecthealth and has nothing lacking to his happiness.The term for an immortal is fillHsien. There arein Taoism two grades higher than the Immortal :the Hero and the Saint.DoRE : Mecherches sur les Superstitions, tomeix, p. 486.IMPERIAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,®-3^^ /fwo Tzu Chien. An assemblage of titledliterary dignitaries with its seat in a large groupof buildings near the Temple of Confucius in theN.E. corner of Peking. In the centre of a quadranglehere is a fine specimen of Chinese architecture,where each sovereign once in his reign wassupposed to sit as President and read an essay ofhis own before the assembled scholars of theEmpire. Students of the Academy were calledchien sheng ^^. Imperial Academy is used bysome foreign writers to denote the Hanlin YUan.Martin : Lore of Cathay [An Old University).IMPERIALCLANSMEN. See Yellow Girdles.IMPERIAL NOBILITY. Members of the Imperial House of the Manchu dynasty had one ofthe following titles.1.—Ho-she Ch'in wang ^t^^SE., Prince of fisrtorder.2.—To-lo Chiin wang ^B.M^, Prince of secondorder.^M^Wl,3.__To-lo Pei-leiPi'ince of third order.4._Ku-shan Pei-tzu ©UJ.R-?*, Prince of fourthorder.5. -~Feng-en Chen Kuo Kung ^HilS^ ,ImperialDuke of first degree.6.—Feng-en Fu Kuo Kung -^S^S^^ ImperialDuke of s'econd degree.7. -Pu ju Pa fen Chen Kuo Kung ^AA^^®^-Imperial Duke of third degree.8.—Pu ju Pa fen Fu Kuo Kung TfAA^^M^-Imperial Duke of fourth degree.9.—Chen Kuo Chiang Chiin MM^^> Noble ofImperial lineage, ninth in line of descent.10.—Fu Kuo Chiang Chiin $igl5|^^, Noble ofImperial lineage, tenth in line of descent.ll._Ffeng Kuo Chiang Chiin ^Mi^^l Noble ofImperial lineage, eleventh in line of descent.12.—Feng-en Chiang Chiin ^Um^, Noble ofImperial lineage, twelfth in line of descent.Some of these titles are Manchu words inChinese dress. The ranks were generally reducedeach generation; thus the son of a pei-lei was a248

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAINFANTICIDEpei-tzu, the title in this way becoming extinct in thethirteenth generation.There were exceptions to this rule ; some titleswere given with 'the right of inheritance for ever,'shih hsi wang t'i ftMM^- This was the casewith the Iron-capped Princes, ^ $f ip i t'iehrnao tzd wang, descendants of the eight Manchuprinces who helped in the conquest of China;they are all, by right of perpetual inheritance,Princes of the first or second degree, (Ch'in Wangor Chiin Wang).Besides, the honour of a perpetual title wasgiven to others, as, for example, to Prince Kung,Prince Ch'ing and Prince Ch'un in the late yearsof the Manchu dynasty.Descendants of Hsien Tsu j^ |J the founder ofthe dynasty are called Tsung Shih ^ g ImperialClansmen, or Yellow Girdles {q-v.), while collateralrelatives of the Imperial House are called Gioroand Red Girdles, [q-v.).Beltchenko : Present-day Political Organization,etc.IMPERIAL TITLES. The most distinctiveand important of such titles is T'ien Tzu ^ J-, Sonof Heaven or So7i of God, since this designation hasbeen applied to all Chinese sovereigns from remoteantiquity whatever other titles they may have had.Yii applies it to himself in a speech recorded in theShu C'hing.The character Ti ^ is of doubtful derivationbut its meaning is connected with lordship andgovernment. It was anciently used for God, bothalone and in combination, as Huang Ti ^^^ AugustRuler, and Shang Ti J^^ Supreme Ruler. It wasalso used for the ruler of all under heaven andwe then translate it by Emperor. History appliesit posthumously to the most ancient sovereigns ofthe legendary period, and it was in use down tothe end of the Shang dynasty.The Chou rulers all used the title wang ^,which is generally translated as King. The reasonfor this change is not stated, but it has been supposedthat the former title Ti had been so greatlydiscredited by some holders of it that a change wasnecessary, and a comparison has been made withthe hatred of the Romans for the title Rex. Asthe central authority of Chou grew weaker thefeudal States usurped this title, beginning with thesemi-barbarian Ch'u in the eighth century B.C., andin the fourth century nearly every one of the greatprinces called himself by the imperial title wang.On overthrowing the Chou dynasty the conquerorarrogated the title Ti, the first time it had beenclaimed by a reigning sovereign ; he added to it theold term Huang ^ August, and ruled as the FirstAugust Emperor, i^^lH^ Shih Huang Ti. Legendaryhistory had the Three Huang followed by the FiveTi; by the conabination of the titles for himself32while stillalive the new ruler reached the height ofarrogance and shocked true Chinese feeling.Nevertheless the title, once introduced, hasbeen in use ever since, with Huang shang ^Ji,T'ien Wang ^2, Heavenly King, Yiian Hou ^ ;g,Sovereign, Chih Tsun iglit, most Honourable, WanSui Yeh H^lg, Lord of Ten Thousand Years,etc., etc., till the coming of the Republic.INFANTICIDE. There is considerable conflictof opinion as to the prevalence of infanticidein China at the present day. Authorities such asDr. Dudgeon, Dr. Lockhart, Prof. Giles, BishopMouLE, Dr. Martin and Dr. G. E. Morrison believeit is not more practised than in Europe. On theother hand, Sir J. Barrow stated that in Pekingalone 24 infants daily were thrown out to die andwere collected by carts at night ; Mr. Douglasasserts that in Fukien 20 per cent, of the femaleinfants were destroyed ; Mr. Michie stated that itwas of very common occurrence among the poormissionaries in Kuangtung have said that in certaindistricts only one out of three females is allowed tolive ;parents in those parts are obliged to go toother places to purchase wives for their sons.Places specially mentioned in connection with thecrime are Canton, Foochow, Hinghua, Amoy, Tsungming,Ningpo, Hankow and Kiangsi province.Giles called a symposium on the question in1885 ; as will be seen by reference to the N.C.B.R.A.S. Journal the opinions of seventeen contributorswere as equally divided as possible.That Chinese recognize it as a more or lesscommon practice seems shown by the "babytowers" and "baby baskets" provided for exposedinfants by Buddhist nunneries. In Ningpo beforethe T'ai P'ing rebellion there existed a nativeassociation calling itself the Society for SavingInfants, which fined parents convicted of killingtheir children and gave to poor parents a cashbounty on the birth of a female child. A pamphlet,entitled Save the Children was circulated in the5th year of Kuang Hsii containing a proclamationfrom the Viceroy of Canton against the practice,and republishing five penalties enacted against it inthe reign of Ch'ien.Lung.Infants are sometimes suffocated by means ofpaper dipped in vinegar and laid over their faces.More often they are drowned. Occasionally theyare buried alive. But the usual way is to neglectthem or leave them to die. As a rule only femaleinfants are killed, but Matignon speaks of deformedor weakly male infants being destroye«l.The chief cause of infanticide is poverty, theparents being unable to pay the marriage expensesof daughters or to bring up a large family. Thegrandmother sometimes destroys a female infantout of anger that it is not a male. Murderingchildren in order to use parts of their bodies for

INDEPENDENTENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAmedicine is stated to be not infrequent and ismentioned as a capital crime in the statutes,Giles : Adversaria Sinica; Douglas : Society inChina; Journal, N.C.B.B.A.S., 1886.INDEPENDENT LUTHERAN MISSION.Works in Tang-hsien, Honan. It had two workersin 1917.INDO-CHINESE GLEANER, THE, amagazinebegun by Dr. Milne. The first number is forMay 1817, and wa® printed at the Mission Press,Malacca. It was "published quarterly or as oftenas matter can be furnished." The work is nowexceedingly rare.INK, CHINESE ^mei, is made from i—oilof sesamum, rape-seed, or wu-Vung ; ii—varnish;iii_pork fat. The lampblack made by the combustionof these substances is classed according tothe materials and the grade of fineness, and alsoaccording to the time taken over the process ofcombustion. The paste made of this lampblack hassome glue added, and is beaten on wooden anvilswith steel hammers. Two good hammerers canprepare in a day eighty pieces, each weighing halfa pound. A certain quantity of musk or of Barooscamphor, for scenting it, and gold leaves, areadded ; the latter, the quantity of which varies from20 to 160 to the pound, being to give a metalliclustre. The materials thus prepared are mouldedin moulds of carved wood, dried (which takesabout 20 days in fine weather), and adorned withChinase characters in gilding. About 30 or 32average-sized sticks go to the pound. There areover a dozen grades. Nearly all writing is donewith this ink, rubbed down on a stone slab, andapplied with a paint-brush of hair of sable, fox,or rabbit, set in a bamboo holder. Wuhu ConsularReport, 1896.The best sort of ink is the Chin met ^ ^,produced from t'ung-oil soot and that from lampwickgrass ^^. It also contains a sort of isinglass,g| made from fish-maws ^ J];; a preparation ofcamphor called y)^^; musk; and a liberal sprinklingof gold-leaf ^ g|. It is made in Peking and Anhui,and sells for almost its weight in silver.Rubbed on the lips and tongue it is considered agood remedy for fits and convulsions. The secondquality of ink is that from Anking, made by Anhuimen only ; it differs from the former in having lessmusk and gold in it. The ordinary ink is Yen mei,made from resin Igi: W or its soot, the bestcow-glue ^BiJSy ^ very little camphor, and withgold only as characters outside. The commonestkind is made of coarser soot and glue, andis named 1|. This is used for writing largecharacters on posters, etc. The best inkstands arerare, being usually treasure-trove of the Mingdynasty ; they are made from a pa.ste produced bygrinding jewels, called l^'S , and sell for fancyprices. The next best are those made from jigg 7B-A rare sort is made from Talifu marble. The commonestkind is called ^ ^,a cheap mixture ofpaste and mud. The export in 1916 amounted toTls. 67,327.Wuhu Consular Report, 1896 ; China Review,vol. ix, p. 256.INSECTIVORA. These mammals are generallyfound in damp, well-vegetated districts, whereinsects are more abundant ; some, however, haveadapted themselves to desert conditions. SeeHedr/ehog; Mole; Shrew.INCENSE. See Joss-sticks.IN SHAN lyill],yin shan, the mountains northof Shensi, lying east and west and blocking thecourse cf the Yellow River to the north. They arewell wooded.INSTITUTIONOF THE HOLY FAMILY,an Institution in Shanghai, dating from 1894, andmanaged by the Auxiliary Nuns. There is a schoolfor Portuguese girls with 281 scholars, a fre« schoolfor Manila girl.« and a day-school for Chinese girls.The number of nuns engaged is twenty-two. TheInstitution receives a grant from the InternationalMunicipal Council.INTERCALARY MONTH, m^ ?"« yueh,a thirteenth month in the year, added seven timesin nineteen years, to bring the lunar into correspondencewith the solar year.There have been several methods of insertingthis extra moon. That at present in use requiresthe following conditions ; the winter solstice mustfall in the 11th moon, the summer solstice in the 5th,the vernal equinox in the 2nd, and the autumnalin the 8th ; the extra month must not include thepassage of the sun from one zodiacal sign to anotherthe 1st, 11th and 12th moons must not be duplicated.INTERLOPERS, a term used for merchantswho, without any leave or licence, would do tradewith China to the detriment of the East IndiaCompany. The Company would sink much capitalin gradually building up a market, while aninterloper, desiring simply to make profit on asingle voyage, would suddenly cut in and undersellthe Company. At the beginning of the 18th centurythe Company obtained statutary powers for dealingwith them. Eames : The English in China.INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF CHINA,The, the name given in 1897 to "The Mission amongChina," which was begun inthe Higher Classes in1894, by Rev. (now Dr.) Gilbert Reid, M.A. of theA. P.M. Dr. Reid withdrew from that Mission forthe purpose, as it did not see its way to undertakesuch an enterprise, which, indeed, appeared at thetime almosit hopeless, in view of the prejudice and250

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAINVENTIONSconservatism of the mandarins and literati generally.Dr. Reid began in the end of 1894 to open and extendacquaintance with Chinese of the higher classes inPeking, meeting with numberless rebuffs and disappointments.An "official sanction" however, underthe Board of Foreign Affairs was given to his projectsin 1897, and a number of high officials, includingLi Hung-chang, promised their support.Development was delayed by the cou2j d'etat of1898, and by the Boxer movement, but in 1903 itwas decided to establish an " lu/ternational Institute" at Shanghai, some Chinese of the placegiving the site (on the Avenue Joffre in the FrenchConcession) at a cast of $25,000, while the buildingswere erected with foreign money.The Institute was incorporated in 1906 as aLimited Liability Company, with joint control byChinese and foreigners, by a charter under Hongkongordinances ; but after the. outbreak of theEuropean War, the registration was withdrawn,British law conflicting with some of the ArticlesofAssociation.The Institute has thrice received tlie sanctionof the Chinese Foreign Office, and is registered there.There is an Advisory Council of sixty members(only forty in 1917), an Executive Committee offifteen, and five Trustees.The object of the work was defined from thebeginning as "the promotion of friendly relationsbetween Chinese and foreigners, and between Christiansand non-Christians, the progress off Chinain general as well as co-operation with her higherclasses in all that affects that progress," etc., etc.The methods employed during the twenty-threayears since the work began have varied considerablyfrom time to time, but social intercourse has alwaysbeen the chief. For some years a school was carriedon (closed in 1910) ; literary work has been done,and a monthly paper published, called the InstituteJit'cord ; a Conference of Religions, a Ladies' InternationalClub, and a Museum chiefly of Chinesecommercial exhibits, which was intended in courseof time to be an International one, have been otheractivities.The number of members has averaged 150 yearly.A number of foreign workers, both honoraryand salaried, have at one time or another beenconnected with the Institute, but in 1917, theforeign staff consists of Dr. and Mrs. Reid.For various reasons the War has adverselyaffected the Institute, and its future is uncertain.INTERNATIONAL REFORM BUREAU.Headquarters :—Washington, D.C.There is one agent in China, located in Peking.INTORCETTA, PROSPER, WtS^U, a Jesuitmissionary in China, born in Piazza in Sicily, in1625. At sixteen he ran away from the study oflaw, determined to give his life to missionary work.He wasi sent out in 1656 with P. Martini andfifteen other missionaries of the same Order.In 1659 he left Macao and entered China, goingin the first place to Kiangsi. There he hadgreat success until success aroused persecution,and at the instigation of Yang Kuang-hsienhe was arrested, taken to Peking, beaten andsent to prison at Canton. Twenty-four fellowprisoners,after they had replaced him by a missionaryfrom Macao, sent him to Rome to plead forprompt help for the suffering Mission. He returnedto find the prisoners set free, and he went to settleat Hangchow, where he lived through anotherperiod of persecution in 1690 and died on October3, 1696. He had translated some of the classicsinto Latin, but these works are now either unknownor extremely rare.Remusat : Nouveaiix Melanges Asiatiqiies.INVENTIONS. It might seem that theChinese are the least original and inventive of allcivilized peoples, and that the world is indebtedto them for nothing except tea and silk.On the other hand, many inventions which havehad great effect on the world's progress have beencredited to the Chinese, only the inventions werenot spread through the world and were of small useto the Chinese themselves. Thus gunpowder, themariner's compass, printing, etc., have been claimedas early Chinese inventions ;yet in each case thesame thing had to be independently originated inthe West, while the Chinese have got small profitfrom their earlier knowledge.Foreign students have of course been keen tosift the evidence on these matters, but so far thereis no perfect agreement with respect to the threeimportant inventions named above.The purely Confucian scholar of only twentyyears ago would not admit that there could be anythingnew under the sun : all would be found inChinese literature and history. Every Western inventionhad been at least foreshadowed and hintedat in Confucian books ; at the worst the knowledgemight be regarded as lost with lost literature ; butnothing new could find hearty acceptance unless itcould be considered as a mere return to earliernative knowledge and methods. And this appliedto everything, from bicycles to constitutionalgovernment ! Thus the Duke TsAl Chih in aspeech in England calmly assumed that the compassand gunpowder were both Chinese, and doubtedwhether in the latter article " our germ " haddeveloped to the benefit of mankind.It seems unfortunate that foreigners have donemuch to support such conceited views; indeed,Giles says that the Chinese did not claim themariner's compass but that tlie honour has beenthrust on them. He further declares that the251

IRENENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA"south- jjointing chariot" about which there hasbeen such nonsense written, was not a compass buta mechanical carriage, which, from its description,will not work. At the same time Giles thrustother honours on them : the taxicab is undoubtedlyChinese, because in the ninth century a.d. theymade a cart in which a drum was struck mechanicallyafter a certain number of revolutions of thewheels : it was called the 'measure mile drum cart.'Then follows an article on Traces of Aviation inAncient China, and we may have some Chinesescholar expressing regret that "their germ" hasdeveloped into the Zeppelin !It seems strange that no one has solved themystery of the Eight Diagrams by claiming them asthe germ ' ' of the Morse alphabet ! But in theChina Review Martin and Macgowan discussed theearly telephones and phonographs of China. SeeGunpowder, etc.Giles : Adversaria Sinica; China Review^ :vol. xiv, p, 164.IREN, a name for the Nosu aborigines, given(together with Bahu) as another name for them byPollard in East of Asia, vol. v.IRISH PRESBYTERIAN MISSION.Headquarters :—Belfast, Ireland.Entered China, 1869.Works in Manchuria.This Mission began in the year after the deathof the Rev, W. C. Burns at Newchwang, and inresponse to his dying appeal. Dr. Joseph M.Hunter and the Rev. Hugh Waddell were thefirst missionaries. The latter retired through illhealthin 1871, and Rev. J. Carson replaced him.Other workers followed in 1884. From the beginning,an informal agreement obtained betweenthe Irish and Scotch Presbyterians that the formerwould concentrate on the western part of theterritory, and the latter on the eastern, and since1891 'the Cljinese converts of the two Missions haveformed one church.Newchwang was the first station started by thepioneers on arrival; and Chin-chou fu ^ ^Hi /ff(1885), ^ ^ Hsin-min (1888), Moukden (1889),g; Jg Kuang-ning, and ^ ^ H Faku-ting bothopened in 1891, are the six stations occupied inSheng-king Province.In Kirin Province, the oldest station is K'uanch'eng tzu ^ i^ ^ (known to travellers on theManchurian railway as Ch'ang ch'un) which wasopened in 1886, and Kirin city, and Yii-shu tingI^^K, both occupied in 1891.In 1889, the Zenana Mission of the IrishPresbyterian Church began to send out ladies toManchuria.From the beginning of missionary effort here,much greater success attended preaching than wasmet with in other parts of China. The principalreason given is the weakening of clan influence andold idolatrous customs among the immigrants fromShantung and elsewhere, who form the greater partof the population. A second reason may have beenthe united front presented by the two PresbyterianMi&sions who for many years were the sole Protestantpropagandists in the country.The Chi no-Japanese war of 1894-5, with itsblow to Chinese pride, resulted in a great increaseof enquirers ; and though great care was exercisedin receiving converts, it was not always possible todiscriminate between the worthy and the unworthy,till the Boxer movement in 1900 came and winnowedout the latter. When the danger then became acute,the missionaries in the southern part of the fieldescaped to Newchwang, and those in the north toVladivostock. Of the Christians 300 were massacred: many saved their lives by recantation, butsome of these returned afterwards to the Church.In the Russo-Japanese War 1904-5 mission workwas partially stopped for a time, and MissionprojDerty in some cases injured, but in most of thestations the foreigners were able to stay and helpthe many refugees, suffering from famine, diseaseand exposure.In the year 1906, the Native Presbytery formedits own Missionary Society, to finance and controlthe sending of Chinese missionaries to distantparts of Manchuria and to Mongolia, In 1908, agreat revival swept over the Presbyterian Churchof Manchuria, as well as over the Danish Lutheranconverts.Two great disasters have also been experiencedthe plague which began in December, 1910, in whichMukden and K'uanch'engtze especially sufferedand the fearful floods of 1915, which hinderedevangelistic work and did great damage to themission property at Hsin-min.Educational work.—The Mission joins with theother two missions working in Manchuria in theManchuria Christian College, and in the UnionMedical College, and with the Scottish Presbyteriansin the Theological College, all in Mukden. Everystation except Mukden, has middle schools for boysand girls, the latter staffed by the Zenana Mission,which also runs Girls' Normal Schools at K'uanch'engtzeand Hsin-min fu. At this last stationa Normal School for boys was opened in 1916,Medical work has been emphasized in theMission from the beginning and a large proportionof its workers are physicians. Though hospitalwork has not been so imperative since the Japanesehave flocked into Manchuria, as they have establishedmodern hospitals in nearly every large cityyet there is still ample room for the Missions'activities in this branch of work. The Irish Presbyterianshave nine hospitals, viz., at Kirin, two,252

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAJADEmen's and women's : at K'uanch'engtze, the same :at Hsin-rain and Newchwang, hospitals for men,and at Fakuting, Kuang-ning, and Chin-chou, forwomen.Statistics for the year ending December 31, 1916.Foreign missionaries 44Chinese staff 397Communicants 10,146Non-communicant members 2,280IRON. See Minerals.IRON-CAPPED PRINCES. See ImperialNobility.IRTISH, a river whose upper waters are atthe western boundary of Mongolia. It drains acultivated valley on the south side of the Altaimountains.ISINGLASS, ^ Byii chiao. No isinglassproijer, manufactured from the dried air-bladdersof fish, appears to be imported into China. Theisinglass or fish glue of the tariff is said (Williams,Commercial Guide, p. 95) to be made from thenoses and sounds of a species of carp caught in theGanges. This fish glue is prepared in thin,diaphanous sheets, which are used in water coloursfor porcelain painting, in giving a lustre andsurface to silks, and in the manufacture of Indianink ; it has countless uses, but is not employed asan article of food. In addition to this import, alarge quantity of clarified seaweed from Japan isalso introduced into China and known by the nameof isinglass. This is used entirely as an edible.The import in 1916 amounted to Tls. 341,982.ISLAM. See Mohammedanism.ISONTOCK, the term found in Auber's Chinafor Tsung-tuh or Tsung tu ^ ^, viceroy orgovernor-general of a province.ITALIAN RELATIONS WITH CHINA.See Foreign Relations.IVORYWARE, a speciality of Canton, wherevery fine carved work is turned out; the carvedballs, containing from 3 to 20 interior balls, andtaking three months' labour to execute, are particularlynoteworthy. Fans, chessmen, card-cases,paper-knives, billiard balls, and many other ornamentalarticles are made; for native use ivory ismade chiefly into chopsticks, inlaid work, mouthpiecesof pipes, rings, and foot-measures.I YIN, fft ^ the minister of Ch'kng T'ang,Prince of Shang and first Emperor of the Shangdynasty. He assisted in the campaign againstChieh Kuei, last Emperor of the Hsia dynasty.Later on he banished Ch'Sng T'ang's grandson formisconduct and did not let him return till he hadpromised to be good. He was a wise minister andof great value to the State. There are sundryabsurd traditions about him.JABGU, the title given to the chief of theWestern Turks in the sixth and seventh centuries,qagan being the corresponding title among theNorthern Turks.Ytjle : Cathay and the Way thither, vol. i, p. 58.yeh kou, ^ J&J AC K A L, If^ il kou huan, ^ if^ch'ai Icon,^ ^ yeh kan, etc. It is met with inShantung, Shensi and Liao-tung, and is describedby Chinese writers under various names. In theErh-ya the male is said to be called huan and thefemale lang : hence the latter has sometimes beentranslated jackal instead of wolf.JACKASS POINT, the landing place in frontof the Factories in old days at Canton, and the spotwhere the inhabitants of the Factories took the airin the evening. Hunter : Bits of Old China.JACKSON, ARTHUR C, a missionary physicianof the U.F. Church of Scotland (1885-1911)who arrived in Mukden in November 1910, to jointhe teaching staff of the Union Medical Collegethere. When the pneumonic plague attacked thecity, he volunteered his services, but after a week'slabour, died of the disease. His memorial servicewas attended by the Viceroy, and the ChineseGovernment decreed Taels 10,000 to his mother,who gave it to the College.JACKSON, THOMAS, Sir, was born June4, 1841 in Ireland. He went to the East in 1864to the Agra Bank, joined the Hongkong andShanghai Banking Corporation in 1866, and wasmade Chief Manager in 1876. In 1899 he wasknighted and received a baronetcy in 1902, inwhich year he retired. A bronze statue of himhas been set up at the north side of the Bank inHongkong. See Hongkong and Shanghai Bank.JADE is the name given to two kinds of hardstone, nephrite and jadeite. The word is derivedfrom the Spanish ijada, the colic, the Mexican jadebeing called by the Spaniards the colic stone.Nephrite means kidney stone.Nephrite is a silicate of calcium and magnesium,of specific gravity 2.4 to 3.18, and hardnessi 6 to 6.5.253

JADEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAIt varies in colour according to the proportion ofiron it contains. The Chinese divide nephrite intonine kinds :— (1) the colour of clear water, fen g;(2) indigo blue, pi % ; (3) moss green, pi ^ ; (4) thecolour of kingfisher feathers, /u jpg ; (5) yellow,Lun 3^; (6) cinnabar red, chiumj %; (7) blood red,'"en ^; (8) lacquer black, hsieh ^; (9) opaquewhite, cha g*.Jadeite is a silicate of aluminium and sodium,of specific gravity 3.2 to 3.41, and hardness 7. It ismore vivid and more translucent than nephrite.The Chinese have three names for jade : yu 3E«a general term for Khotan nephrites ; ?;/ yii @ 5,for a dark green jade, including nephrites from nearLake Baikal and jadeites from Yiinnan ; feA ts'ui^ ^, an emerald green jadeite from Burma.Jade has always been greatly prized by theChinese for its supposed medicinal virtues, for itstranslucency, sonorousness, colour and highly polishedsurface. Ancient jades of the Chou and Hanperiods were obtained from China proper, the chiefmines at those times being Lan-tien and Feng-hsiangfu in Shensi and Nan-yang in Honan. Other places•where jade was subsequently found were Ssuch'uan,yielding a white jade stone and a black "ink jade,"mo yii ^3i, the Lu-yung river in Tonkin, and theLiu-yang river in Hunan. After the 11th centurythe native supply seems to have come to an end.In 1891 jade was found in the Nan-shan mountainsof Kansu.Most of the jade in China during the last2,000 years was obtained from Khotan, the firstmention of it by Chinese writers being in the reignofl Wu Ti (B.C. 140-86). It is quarried in theKun-lun mountains, found in the rocks of theKarakash river and in the beds of streams nearYarkand. It is also transported into Yiinnan fromBurma.Although jade is associated with Canton,famous for its jade ware, the stone is not nowmined in China, but west of Myitkyina in UpperBurma, whence China obtains all her jade. Theonly other mines known are in New Zealand. TheBurmese mines were discovered by the Yiinnanesein the 13th century and the stone was taken toCanton in its rough state overland. It now,however, goes via Rangoon. There is a mine ofcoarse jade 20 miles north of Kuanhsien, in Ssii-, ch'uan, but only a few piculs a day are extracted.The stone is brought down to Chengtu and madeinto ornaments (Hosie, Ssuch'uan, p. 95).The most ancient jades in China are implementsdug up in Shensi and Shantung and near Kalgan,attributed to some aboriginal race. In the Choudynasty (b.c. 1122-255) ceremonial jade tablets wereworn by the Emperor, and plaques and discs of jadewere employed as insignia of rank for princes andofficials. The Emperor also used jade memorandumtablets,and even in the last dynasty Imperialdocuments, essays and poetry were inscribed onjade. An ancient jade astronomical instrument isdescribed in the Shu Ching. Jade used in barteris mentioned by a writer in the 7th century B.C. andcoins of jade were used in the first century a.d. Jadeseals were employed in the Han period. Girdlependants,clasps and buckles were worn in theChou dynasty, sword-ornaments under the Hans,while in the time of the T'ang dynasty jade girdlescame into fashion at court. As the stone wassupposed to have the property of preserving fleshfrom decay, jade amulets were buried with thedead in the Chou and Han periods. Amulets in theform of a cicada were placed on the tongue of thecorpse, the cicada being an emblem of resurrection,while others in the form of a fish, emblem of watchfulness,were placed over the eyes. The otherapertures of the body were closed with jade, andjade weights were placed on the body and in thesleeves of the shroud. Many other objects in jade,.«uch as mirrors, were buried with the dead.Different designs of jade are exhibited bydifferent dynasties ;jade of the Hsia dynasty haselaborate carving and inlaid precious stones orgold wire ; that of the Shang dynasty is simpler andinscribed with worm-style characters ; that of theChou dynasty is more elaborate with inscriptionsin Great Seal characters ; the Han jade was simplein design, the Sung showed a bold style of carvingunder HsiiAN Te of the Ming dynasty and Ch'ienLung of the Ch'ing dynasty very beautiful jadeswere produced.The chief centres for jade-carving at the presentday are Canton, Socchow and Peking. The lapidaryworks a treadle with his feet and uses tools smearedwith abrasives. There are four kinds of pasteemployed for this purpose in Peking :" yellowsand " from quartz crystals, " red sand " fromgarnets, " black sand," a kind of emery, and" jewel dust " from ruby crystals, with which thejade is finally polished. The tools used are, firstan iron saw, then a circular saw to shape the jade,after which it is carved in relief with lap-wheels,pierced by diamond drills, or cut by wire saws.A tubular drill is used to hollow out the interior ofvases. Polishing tools are of fine-grained wood,gourd-skin and ox-leather, smeared with ruby dust.Jade objects have a large variety of uses.Sacrificial vases, incense-burners, pots and ewers,bowls and cups, thumb-rings, ear-rings, bracelets,and hair-pins for personal adornment, linked chainsas tokens of friendship, Ju i, mirror-stands, andcombs as betrothal gifts, locks for children's necks,pen-rests for students, statuettes, carved screens,sacred peaches, pomegranates, the eight Buddhistemblems for altars, are examples. A study of th«2^54

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAJAPANESE RELATIONSobjects made in this hard stone is of inestimablevalue for the comprehension of Chinese psychology.A magnificent catalogue of the articles in theBishop collection, housed at the MetropolitanMuseum of New York has been published, andtreats of jade from the artistic point of view.BusHELL : Chinese Art ; Laufer : Jade;Strehlneek : Chinese Pictorial Art.JADE GATE, 5. P^ yu men, the most westerngate of the Great Wall, through which passes theroad from Kansu towards Chinese Turke«tan. Itis supposed to derive its name from the jade importedfrom Turkestan passing through it.JADE IMPERIAL GOD. See Yii-hvangs/iaixj-ti.JAGGERY, a word sometimes found inbookson China of a century ago. It denotes coarsebrown sugar, made from the sap of palm-trees.It is an Indian word, and is another form of theword siKjar, both being corruptions of Sanskritsarkara, Malay chakkara, Portuguese jagara.Yule : Hobson-Jobson.JAMETEL, MAURICE, Professor ofChinesein the Ecole des Langues Orientates rivanfes inl^aris for a few months before his death. He wasborn near Paris in 1856 and died in 1889. A list ofhis jniblications is given in the T'oung Pao, 1892.JANG 10, the name found in the Catalan Atlasfor Yangchow. In Marco Polo it is Janguy, andin Odoric Jamathay or Jansu.JAPANESE RELATIONS WITH CHINA.It is long since Japan first came into touch with theChinese. It was in the reign of the Emperor ChuAi W* S ^ :^ when, according to the Chronicles, aKorean scholar, Wa ni St, brought the Analectsof Confucius and a Chinese poem consisting ofone thousand different characters ("f-^Jit ch'ienczu wen). The date is said to have been a.d. 285,but it is not certain. There is another earlyJapanese record which states that in a.d. 57 or inthe 86th year of the Emperor Sui JiN ^ fn 5c ^the Governor of Ito ^ |g in Chikuzen ^ fjcommunicated with the Chinese authorities andreceived from them a seal with the characters^ ^ R H S•'the Prince of the country Ito ofHan.' This suffices to show that there wascommunication between the two countries at thisearly date, whether official or not ; most of suchcommunication having been with the Japanese inKiushu Ji9^ Island.The first official intercourse was in the 6thyear of the Emperor Yuryaku ^11^3^^ , a.d. 461.An envoy from the Wu dynasty ruler came to Japan,and return envoys were sent by Japan two yearslater.International relations date from the 3rd yearof the period Ta Yeh :^^ in the Sui p| dynasty,or the 15th year of the Emperor Sui kg fg-g- ofJapan : a.d. 607. In that year Imoko Ono gf ft^^was sent with a State letter to the Sui ruler.In Chinese history it is mentioned that in the20th year of K'ai Huang ^^ (a.d. 600) a Japaneseenvoy was sent to Wen Ti ^^, the Sui ruler,butno mention of it is found in any Japanese work.The main object of Ono's mission was to getBuddhist books direct from China, instead of asformerly, from Korea. In the following year theChinese Emperor sent Fei Shih-ch'ing ^ift^ toJapan in company with Ono, the object being,apparently, to study the geographical conditions,manners and customs, etc.In 894, or the 6th year of the Emperor Uda^^ MiCHiZANE Sugahara ^M al R was appointedenvoy to the T'ang ^ ruler, but for various reasonsthe mission was not sent. Previous to this manyBuddhist priests from Japan had studied in China,,the best-known being Saicho g[^ and Kukai ^ ^or KoBO TAiSHi SiiS:A:fi$.In the time of Kiyomori Taira ^jsj^^, aboutA.D. 750, the port of Hyogo £^}g^ (the present Kobeit^ was)opened for trade with China. Tradewas also carried on in Kyoto ]|[|^, Naniwa ^WC.(tho present Osaka i^M), Hakata Jf ^ in Kiushuand at Tsuruga ^^ on the coast of the Sea ofJapan.In 1276 Khubilai Khan sent 100,000 men toattack Japan, under the Generals A Ta-hai RBI^^and Fan Wkn-hu ^%I^; but the Japanese resistancewas such that none of the enemy landed, while astorm destroyed the ships. Trade was of coursemuch interfered with, but it was resumed when theMing §g dynasty was established.What the Japanese term Wako and the ChineseWo kou g^, that is, Japanese raiders, were commonon the Kiangsu and Chekiang coasts in theMing dynasty, and even later in Fukien and Kuangtung: at one time they occupied Formosa.When HiDEYOSHi Toyotomi ^ E ^ ^ wasprime minister of Japan he tried to attack Chinathrough Korea. The Japanese defeated the Minggeneral Tsu Ch'eng-hsun Jfl, ;^ |||| at P'ing jang2p^ in 1592, the first year of Bunroku XM oiJapan, and the fighting continued for some yearsbut at HiDEYOSHi s death the Japanese troops leftKorea. This affair also was an interruption to thetrade of the two countries.At the fall of the Ming dynasty help was soughtfrom Japan but was not given.Under the Tokugawa ^. ;ij regime in JapanJapanese merchants were forbidden to engage inforeign trade ; up to that time the chief trade withChina, had been at Ningpo.20{^

JAPANESE RELATIONSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAAfter the Restoration in Japan that countrysought to end the period of closed doors by makingtreaties with foreign powers and by sending consulsto attend to trade matters in China.A dispute arose, however, with regard toFormosa. In the 4th year of Meiji igjj ^ (October,1871) natives of Miyakojima ^'g'AI and YayeyamajimaA S llj III several times drifted in junksto the northern part of Formosa, where the aboriginesare very savage, and some 54 Japanese fishermenwere there murdered. The Chinese colonieswere in the west of the island and the aborigines werenot under the control of the Chinese Government,which, indeed, was the reply of 'the Chinese authoritieswhen negotiations were first opened. TheJapanese therefore appointed Lieut. -General Saigog ^ (;5^i^ as Governor General of the area occupiedby savages in Formosa, with five war-ships. In1874 he attacked the aborigines, killed the chieftainand made eighteen tribes surrender. Then theJapanese army, with its head-quarters at Kuei shan>Abegan the work of pacification. China made111her protest, declaring that Formosa was Chineseterritory, demanding the evacuation by Japanesetroops and asserting that if anything in the islandneeded to be rectified representations should be madeto China who would take all responsibility. Saigoreplied that negotiations must be referred to theJapanese Minister at Peking. Toshimichi Okubo^^^fljjg, was sent from Japan, with powers toconclude peace or declare war. The negotiationswith Prince Kung ^ >S, 3E were ended after sixweeks through the mediation of Sir Thomas Wade,the British Minister : China paid Tls. 100,000 to thefamilies of the murdered fishermen and Tls. 400,000for the expenses of the expedition, and Japan agreedto evacuate the island. The indemnity was quiteinadequate, but the negotiations had also the resultthat the Loochoo Islands were recognized asJapanese.Further complications followed later respectingthe relations between Korea, China and Japan.China tried to act in Korea as though that countrywere under China's suzerainty. But Japan hadmade a treaty with Korea in 1876, recognizing herindependence and opening some of the ports totrade. Other Powers followed this example ; in1877 Great Britain and Germany, in 1878 Russiaand Italy, and in 1879 France all concluded treatieswith Korea, yet China was always interfering inKorea and extending her influence there.In 1882 there were riots ; Korean rioters burntthe Japanese Legation, and Mr. (later Viscount)Hanabxjsa Vi3^'^> *he Japanese Minister toSeoul, ha'd to escape on to a British vessel. Hereturned later for negotiations, while China sentWu Chang-ch'ing ^:gg. Yuan Shih-k'aiand Ma Chien-chung^IftSUJEIII A, with troops to settlethe riots. A new treaty was made with Korea, andChinese influence much increased.In 1884 there was another attack on the JapaneseLegation in Seoul; Yuan Shih-k'ai instigated theKoreans to cause trouble, while Kim Mo-kin 5fe5%and others tried to effect some reforms. TheJapanese obtained an indemnity from Korea, butthe whole matter being of vital importanceHiROBUMi Ito (later Prince Ito, who was killed atHarbin by a Korean assassin) ^MW^ was sentto China in 1885 to settle the pending questionsfinally. An agreement was reached, (1) that bothChina and Japan should withdraw their troopsfrom Seoul ; (2) that the Korean king should beadvised to introduce foreign training for his army(3^ that in case China or Japan wished to sendtroops to Korea it should be previously arrangedbetween the two powers by written despatches.On the 27th May, 1894, on the 27th year ofMeiji, owing to the intrigues of China, Kim Mo-kin,the Korean Reformer, was killed by an assassin inShanghai. When Kim's remains were being takento Japan they were stolen by Chinese police, takento Chemulpo on a Chinese man-of-war, and werecut to pieces and thrown into the Han river.There were riots in 1894, too serious for theKorean government to suppress ; she asked forChina's help, and Li Hung-chang, then viceroy ofChihli, sent six battalions of troops under GeneralYeh Chih-ch'ao 3jgiS-^. Japan was informed ofit, with the assurance that the troops would bewithdrawn as soon as the internal troubles weresettled. Japan's reply was to the effect that shehad never recognized Korea's dependence on China,and she sent Mr. Otoui i^0^ ^ •^ (later Baron) asJapanese Minister with a mixed Brigade to Seoul,escorted by a naval landing party.YiiAN Shih-k'ai proposed that both sides shouldwithdraw their troops, but as he insisted on Koreabeing regarded as a Chinese dependency there wasno way to negotiate, and war began on August 1,1894. By the treaty of peace, March, 1895,negotiated by Li Hung-chang and Hihobumi Ito,Japan obtained the cession of Formosa, and wouldhave also added to her territory the southern partof the province of Mukden ; but owing to the interferenceof Russia, Germany and France she hadto accept in lieu thereof an indemnity of Ku-p'ingtaels 30,000,000.Russia, later on, obtained the leaseof Port Arthur and Dalny, thus providing herselfwith a naval base ; she had also built the so-calledChinese Eastern Railway through Manchuria downto Dalny and threatened Korea with the establishmentof another base in Korea.If Korea and China were both so strong as toprotect their own independence against foreignencroachment, then there would be no danger toJapan. If, on the other hand, they are weak and256

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAJAPANESE RELATIONSat the mercy of a third power, then the existenceof Japan also is menaced and insecure. That wasthe reason for the war with China ; and now Russiabecame a menace to the independence of Japan,since neither China nor Korea could resist the expansionof her influence.War with Russia began in February, 1904 ; buttwo events previous to that must be noted. In 1900Japan had taken part in the expedition against theBoxers, and her troops had shewn themselves notinferior to the European forces there present. InJanuary, 1902, the first Anglo-Japanese Alliancewas made,—an attempt to check Russian expansioninthe Far East.Japan was victorious in the war with Russia,with the result that Manchuria and Korea were notleft in the hands of a strong power which couldLlius threaten Japan's existence.Japan found it necessary to annex Korea,because of the amount of intrigue there, detrimentalto the former country. In 1906, at the secondHague Conference a secret emissary from Korea,acting without reference to Japan, protested againstKorea not being included in the Conference. ThePowers declined to take any action. On October26, 1909, Prince Ito was assassinated, and in thenext year things in Korea were in such a state thatJapan was obliged in self-protection to annex thecountry.Japan has always respected the independenceof China, short of endangering her own. The preservationof China's integrity, the policy of theopen door and equal opportunity, have been agreedon in the Alliance with Great Britain, and thereis the same agreement with France, Russia and theUnited States.There also arose the Fa-ku-men Railway question.This, as well as the questions of the Chinchow-Aigunand Tsitsihar Railways, is due tointrigues of the Chinese to create prejudice againstJapan and to check her influence in Manchuria.If these railway schemes were simply and genuinelyfor the benefit of China, Japan could make noprotest; but the concession-hunters were, unwittingly,utilized by China against the interestsof Japan, and a protest became necessary.After the Revolution of 1911 a Re-organizationLoan was arranged with the four Powers GreatBritain, France, The United States and Germanyin 1912; and Russia and Japan joined later oncondition that the loan should not used inManchuria and Mongolia.When the Great War began in 1914 Japan wasat first a neutral Power; but as the German baseat Tsingtao proved to be a menace to the interestsof Japan's ally Great Britain, Japan joined thebelligerents and iu joint action with Great Britaincaptured Tsingtao.33^57At the end of 1916, when there was a movementto restore the monarchy with YiiAN Shih-k'ai asEmperor, Japan joined with the other powersinteresited in giving a warning to YiiAN of thedangers of such a course.In commoii with the European Western Powersconcerned Japan is desirous of preserving Chinaintact as a State. Being, like Great Britain,France, Russia and the United States a creditstate, it is to the interest of Japan that China'sfinancial autonomy should be secured, and thatthere should be good administration on modernlines, instead of endless political disputes.In January, 1915, Japan, with a view to settlingall questions pending with China and securing alasting peace in the Far East began negotiationsthrough the Minister in Peking, Mr. HiOKi HgaAn agreement was signed on May 25, 1915. Thisagreement has been much criticized, but Japanclaims that a careful examination of it shews shehas no ambitions in China, but sought to clear up,once for all, the disputable points between the twocountries. The opposition to Japan, displayedthroughout China, was due to internal politicalreasons connected with the ambitions of YiiANShih-k'ai. Had China agreed to the desires ofJapan she might have increased her revenue by theexport of war materials to Europe, instead of gainingnothing in the way of trade through the war.Commercial relations between China and Japanhave become very intimate and Japan's share oftrade in China has been much increased.The following are the percentages of Japanesetrade in 1916, as published by the Statistical Departmentof the Chinese Maritime Customs, and theyare given side by side with the British percentagesfor the purpose of comparison.TonnageTradeRevenueJapaneseBritishTotal trips .. 10.60 16.89Tonnage employed .. 27.53 40.72Foreign trade ... . .. 36.49 35.00Coast trade .. 22.70 40.63Total Foreign and coast 28.96 38.07Duties on cargoes ... .. 35.21 37.34Tonnage dues ... . .. 34.05 40.94Opium likin .. 19.13 77.87Total dues and duties 35.04 37.74^ [T s.]The following are the Ministers and Chargesd 'Affaires who have represented Japan at Peking.Akiyoshi Yamada (General, afterwards Count),November 1873—February 1874.Sakimitsu Yanagiwara (Count), February 1874—December 1874.YuREi Mori, November 1875—May 1878.Ki Shishido (afterwards Count), March 1879—March 1881.

JARDINEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICABUYO Enomoto (Admiral, afterwards Viscount),August 1882—October 1885.Sabubo Shioda, December 1885—May 1889.Keisxjke Otoei (afterwards Baron), June 1889.JuTARO KoMURA, Charge d'affaires till July, 1894.Tadasu Hayashi (afte;:ward Count), May 1895—October 1896.FuMio Yang, March 1897—December 1899.GoNSUKE Hayashi, Charge d'Affaires for threemonths :—September, October, November, 1899.ToKTJJiRO NiSHi (Baron), November 1899—December1900.JuTARO KoMURA (afterwards Marquis), December1900—September 1901.Yasuya Uchida (afterwards Viscount), September1901-June 1906.GoNSUKE Hayashi (afterwards Baron), June 1906June 1908.HiKOKjcHi Ijuin, June 1908—July 1913.Enjirg Yamaza, July 1913—May 1914.YuKiCHi Obata, Charge d'Affaires, June 1914—August 1914.Eki Hioki, August 1914—July 1916.YtiKiCHi Obata, Charge d'Affaires, July 1916August 1916.GoNSUKE Hayashi (Baron), August 1916JARDINE, MATHESON & Co., an importantand long-standing British firm founded by Dr.William Jardine of the East India Company,Mr. James Matheson (later Sir James) and Mr.H. Magniac. At first Matheson remained inIndia, Magniac was the agent in Canton and Macao,while Jardine travelled between. On the extinctionof the East India Company the firm as abovenamed was established in Canton and Macao about1834. Jardines sent the first free ship with freetea from Whampoa, March 22, 1834. Till then ithad been a licensed firm, sailing 'country ships'ig.v.). In 1842 business was transferred to Hongkong.The firm has always been prominent in allefforts for the welfare of the colony. Among othergood deeds, Mr. Joseph Jardine, as recorded inthe preface to Legge's Classics, undertook theexpense of carrying that great work through thepress.It became a private Limited Liability Companyin 1905. The firm is known by the Chinese nameI'Jwo f^ ^ (i ho), a very old hong name. SeeHouqua; Factories.JARDINE STEAMER. See Steam. Vessels.JASPER POOL SOCIETY, ^^ yao ch'ih.(The reference is to the fabled Lake of this name,which, according to Buddhist and Taoist legends,lies ai the foot of the jade-stone Tree of Life in theforests of chrysophrase belonging toSi Wang Mu,iq.v.) in the K'un-lun Mountains).This, one of the most important of the VegetariansSects of China is of course Buddhist in origin.It claims to have arisen in the reign of LiangWu Ti and to have had Ta-Mo (Bodhidharma)as its first Tsu Shih or "Patriarch." Several laterpatriarchs were Chinese priests, but the sixth was alayman and ever since only laity have been admittedto the sect, the priests having another. The TsuShih is supreme wherever the sect extends, havingten Shih ti under him and fifty-four Ting k'angwho are district teachers and managers. Belowthese are various other officers. Wine is forbiddenas well as meat, and all desire of wealth and allindulgence in anger must be forsworn. Silk mustnot be worn, and a cat must on no account be kept.Entrance fees are compulsory and other contributions towards the printing and distribution of tracts,and the preservation of animal life, et-c., are expected.The use of contemplation and the constantreciting of the secret books of the sect, are part ofthe means used to escape the wheel of transmigration.In 1902 the fifteenth patriarch had beenalready twenty-one years in prison at Hanyang, ona false charge of being the leader of a White Lilycontingent, which was brought against him by ascholar whom he had offended. His followers ofthe Jasper Pool Society numbered 100,000, but werenot connected with political intrigue. A ful)account of this sect is given in the Chinese Recorder.vol. xxxiii. See Secret Sects.JAURIAS, HELENEANAIS MARGUERITEde, was born on May 1, 1824. In 1844 she enteredthe (Jompagnie de Filles deJa Charite and in 1855was sent out to China. She first laboured inNingpo, where she had to leave her work for eightmonths because of the T'ai P'ing rebels. She wasnext sent to Shanghai where she was asked toorganize what is now known as the MunicipalGeneral Hospital. The nursing staff has been providedby the same Company, (Sisters of Charity ofSt. Vincent de Paul) from the time she organizedit in 1863 down to September 1913. She was nextsent to Peking and spent the rest of her days at theJen Tzu fang Orphanage, passing through theagony of the Boxer siege to die immediately deliverancecame,—August 21, 1900. The book namedbelow is the story of her life.Mazeau : L'Heroine da Pi-tang, HiUne deJauriaA.J EHANGIR, leader of a rebellion in Kashgariain the reign Tao Kuang, 1825. He claimed to bethe descendant of native chiefs, whose rights hadfirst been recognized by the Manchuis but later takenaway. The government by Chinese officials hadbeen very oppressive and unjust, and the peoplerallied in great numbers to the standard of revolt.An army sent from China suppressed the rebellion258

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINlCAJESUITSafter many engagements, and took Jehangir prisoner.He was brought to Peking and there executed.JEHOL ^fSr^ ji ho erh {erh is written eulby the French) ' hot river,' a city and prefecturealso called Ch'eng-te fu :#:@.;j^, about one hundredmiles north of Peking and in Chihli beyond theGreat Wall. It was formerly the country seat ofthe Chinese Emperors, whose palace and park havea surrounding wall of fifteen miles in length. Thereare many monasteries in the neighbourhood. Thechief of these was built in 1780 after the model ofthe Panshen Erdeni's fortress-temple, at Tashilumboin Tibet, for his reception when he came tojoin in the celebratio'n of Ch'ien Lung's seventiethbirthday.•In 1793 Lord Macartney was received there byCh'ien Lpng, and Chia Ch'ing died there in 1821.Tao Kuang ceased the annual visits and gave upthe costly hunting establishment there. During theinvasion of the North by the Allied armies in 1860,HsiEN Feng fled to Jehol and died there the followingyear.JENGHIZ. See Chenghis.JESUITS. "The Jesuits are the real foundersof the missions of China," writes M. H. Cordieu(art. China, col. 672). The first of the Society toset foot on any Chinese soil was St. Francis Xavier,who died November 27 or December 2, 1552 in theisland of Shang-ch'uan (Sancian, Saint John's)without having been able to reach Canton. Afterhim, Ai.exander Valignani (died 1606), MichaelHuggieri (died 1607), Francis Pasio, (died 1612)succeeded in entering Canton, Macao and Chaok'ing(Kuangtung), but net the interior. Thishonour was reserved for Matthew Ricci (1552-1610).Arrived at Macao, (1583), he passed from Chaok'ingto Nan-ch'ang (Kiangsi) in 1588, from thereto Nanking (1595). In 1595 and 1598 he stayed forsome time at Peking, where he definitely settled in1600. He was the first Superior of the PekingMission. The Fathers Longobardi (1610) and daRocHA (1622) succeeded him with the same title.Father Emmanuel Diaz, junior, was the firstVice-provincial of China, (1626). The vice- provincecomprised Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, German,Swiss, and Belgian Jesuits, with few French.In 1685, Louis XIV sent six Jesuits to thetar East. Father Tachard remained in Siam, butFathers Fontaney, Bouvet, IjE Comte, Gerbillon,and DE ViSDELOU arrived in China in July, 1687.They founded the celebrated French Mission ofPeking, which, being placed under the protectorateof the king of France, had its Superior independentof the Vice-provincial ; its first Superior was FatherP!; Fontaney (1687).Thp Jesuits had, at the tiine of the ^suppressionof the Society (1773), four churcHe.'? at Peking.The northern (Pei-t'ang) belonged to the Frenchmission; the southern (Nan-t'ang) to the Portuguesemission; the western (Si-t'ang) and the eastern(Tung-t'ang) were dependent on the vice-province.The vice-province and the French mission each haditscemetel-y outside the walls of Peking, Sha-la-erh(see Chala) for the former, Ch'eng-fu-sse for thelatter.In the interior of China a great number ofJesuit residences were to be found, some dependenton the vice-province, others on the French missionthe Fathers in this way evangelized the provincesof Chihli, Shansi, Shensi, Shantung, Honan, Ssuch'uan,Hukuang, Kiangsi, Kiangnan, Chekiang,Fukien, Kuangtung, and Kuangsi. (For a list ofthe residences see Pfister & Sica, Catalogus, p. 59).It is well known what part was played at Peking bythe Jesuit scholars'—astronomers, mathematicians,geographers, and historians, and by their artists,musicians, and mechanicians. Even at the time ofthe most furious persecutions they remained infavour, and more than once brought about amitigation of the persecuting Edicts. The mostnoted among them have articles dedicated to themin this Encyclopedia, so we confine ourselves hereto indicatng the collective works which we owe tothe Jesuits of China.1.—The Mays of China, undertaken by the orderof K'ang Hsi, and executed between 1708 and 1718under the direction of Father Tartoux ; his collaborators,with the exception of Father Bonjour,an Augustinian, were Jesuits.2.—The Description geogiaphique de la Chine,drawn up by Father Dv Halde (Paris, 1735), fromnotes furnished by 27 missionaries.(See Du Halde).3.—The numerous letters which appeared in thecollection of Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses, (34volumes, 1702-1776).4.—The Mirnoires concernant Vhistoire, lessciences . , , des Chinois, sent mostly by theFathers Amiot and Cibot, edited by FatherBrotier, Brequigny, and others (Paris 1776-1814).(See Amiot).5.—The fine collection of sixteen engravingsordered by the Emperor K'ien Lung to commemoratehis conquests in Central Asia ; the artistswho drew them at Peking were Jesuits, with theexception of John Damascene, an Augustinian.They were engraved at Paris under the directionof C'. N. Cochin.Of the role of the Jesuits in the question of theChinese ceremonies, we have nothing to say here, aspecial article having to be devoted to this matter.(See liites Controversy).A number of Portuguese Jesuits were recalledfrom China and imprisoned in Portugal at the timeof the persecution of Pombal.259

JESUITSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAAfter the news of the suppression of the Societyby Clement XIV came to Peking (September, 1774),the Jesuits there continued to live on good termswith the Lazarists who had replaced them ; thelast member of the old mission of the Society inChina, Father Louis de Poirot, difed beforeOctober 1815. The Jesuit bishop of Nanking, Mgr.GoDEFROiD Xavier de Laimbeckhotjen, died onMay 22, 1787, in a small Christian community inthe neighbourhood of Shanghai, and was buried inthe Christian cemetery near Soochow.The native priests and Christians kept theirJesuit missionaries in memory. So, as soon as thenew.'? of the re-e.stablishment of the Society byPius VII (1814) was known to them, they tooksteps to obtain the return to China of the brethrenof Ricci. Letters are extant from the native priestsand the Christians of Peking and Nanking to theVery Rev. Father Roothaan, general of the Company,and to the Sovereign Pontiff Gregory XVI toplead this cause. (1832, 1833, 1839). On his side,Mgr. Louis DE Besi, nominated Vicar-apostolic ofShantung by Gregory XVI in 1839 and administratorof the bishopric of Nanking, which comprisedthe three provinces of Kiangsu, Anhui, and Honan,asked by numerous letters addressed to Rome thatJesuits should be sent to help him in his heavytask. On January 13, 1840, a letter from CardinalFransoni, prefect of the Propaganda, invited theVery Rev. Father Roothaan, general of theCompany, to send three or four fathers to Mgr.DE Besi. Fathers Claude Gotteland, BenjaminBrueyre, and Francis Esteve offered (themselvesfor this mission, and sailed from Brest on April 28,1841. By September 23 they were at Manila, andon October 21 at Macao; being driven out by thePortuguese government, they took refuge in theChusan Islands, which the English had just taken,and from there they reached Shanghai; FathersGotteland and Estkve arrived there on July 11,1842, and Father Brueyre rejoined them somemonths later. In the years which followed,numerous missionaries were sent to help them.According to the new decisions of the Propaganda,each Congregation or Society of missionaries hadcharge of one or more missions. The Jesuits remainedthen in Kiangnan, under the jurisdictionof the administrating bishops of the diocese ofNanking. In 1856, as they formed the quasi-totalityof the missionaries of Kiangnan, the Propagandaformed 'this Mission (provinces of Kiangsu andAnhui) into a Vicariat-apostolic entrusted to theSociety ; the first Jesuit Vicar-apostolic of Kiangnanwas Mgr. Andrew Borgntet.We cannot in this place describe the apostoliclabours of the Jesuits in Kiangnan ; let it suffice tosay that the Vicariat, which numbered in 1842between 50,000 and 60,000 Christians, counts in 1916231,721 baptized and 85,620 catechumens. Thereare 188 Jesuits there, of whom 38 are natives. Theprincipal works of the mission of Kiangnan wereestablished at Shanghai, and at the village ofZi-ka-wei, 8 kilometres from the town. Duringthe first years of their stay in China, the Jesuitmisisicnaries were occupied by the work of theapostolic ministry, and then by the terrible trialsof the T'ai P'ing rebellion, and could not devotethemselves to the scientific work which had been thecause of so much of the influence of their predecessorsof the Peking mission. Directly peace wasre-established by the exploits of the "Ever-Victorious Army" of Gordon, Mgr. Languillat,successor to Mgr. Bobgniet, and .the JesuitSuperiors, had the idea of taking up again thetradition of their Mission. Zi-ka-wei was chosento be the principal centre of the scientific laboursof the mission. First there was established ameteorological, astronomical, and magnetic observatory(1873). At present only the MeteorologicalObservatory is at Zi-ka-wei ; the AstronomicalObservatory is at Zo-se, near the Church ofthe Pilgrimage, 30 kilometres from Shanghai, andthe magnetic observatory is at Lu-kia-pang, halfa league from the station of that name, onthe Shanghai-Nanking Railway). The Zi-ka-weiObservatory is well-known for the warnings itgives to ships, which enable them to foretellthe coming of the dreaded typhoons several daysahead. It publishes every day a chart of themeteorological state of the China coasts, and everymontJi a report of the state of the temperature.The directors of the three observatories havepublished many notes on the observations made attheir institutions. The ]Museum, which was establishedat Zi-ka-wei in 1872, contains rich collectionsrelating to the flora and fauna of China; thedirectors of it have issued six volumes of Memoiresconcernant Vhistoire naturelle de VEmpire chinoise.Another scientific work is due to the Fathers ofZi-ka-wei : the Varietes sinologiques, a series ofstudies on the religion, history, geography, legislation,and social condition of the Chinese; the 46thvolume appeared in November, 1916. The CursusUtte.ratnrae sinicae of Father A. Zottoli, s.j. {q.v.),the Giographie de Chine of Father L. Richard(English edition by Father M. Kenelly) thelioussoU du language mandarin of Father Boucher,and a great number of classic works testify to theintellectual activity of the Fathers of Kiangnan.All these works are issued from the press atT'ou-se-we, near Zi-ka-wei. This press, together"with about ten other workshops, is entrusted to themanagement of the Jesuit Brother coadjutorsabout 300 orphans, brought up at the expense ofthe work of the Holy Childhood, are learning tradesthere which are making them capable of maintainingthemselves.260

IENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAJEWELLERYThe Kiangnan Mission publishes in France aquarterly review, Relations de Chine.The Jesuits have yet another mission in China,the south-east Chihli Mission. In 1856, at therequest of Mgr. Mouly, cm., the Propagandadivided the vicariat of Chihli into three ; theJesuits had the eastern part, except for Tientsin,which continued to belong to the vicariat of Peking.The first vicar-apostolic of south-east Chihli wasMgr. Adman Languillat, bishop of Sergiopolis.According to the Eeturns for 1916, this Missioncounts 97,652 baptized Christians, and 834 catechumens.Several of its members, especially Fathers{L. WiEGER and S. Couvreur, have distinguished|under their names). The headquart€rs of thisMission is at the village of Chang-chia-chuang, nearHsien-hsien in Ho-chien fu. In 1916 there were insouth-east Chihli 83 Jesuits, of whom 22 werenatives. Numerous letter^ from the Fathers ofsouth-east Chihli are to be found in the quarterlyReview China, Ceylon, and Madagascar. Most ofthe Jesuits of the two Missions of Kiangnan and("hihli are French : the Kiangnan Misision is imderthe Province of Paris, and that of S.E. Chihliunder the Province of Champagne (having itsheadquarters at Reims).BiBLiOGRAi'HY.—On the history of the earlyJesuits of China, the necessary information will befound in the first two chapters of the anonymouswork La Mission Tie Kiang-nan (by H. Havret, S.J.)I'aris, 1900. The best general resume is that ofM. H. CoRDiER in the article China : Society ofJesus, in the Catholic Encyclopaedia, vol. 3, p. 672,sqq. On the history of the missions of Kiangnanand of S.E. Chihli, see J. de la Servikre, Histoirede la Mission du Kiang-nan, T'ou-se-we, 1914Leroy, En Chine, au Tche-li sud-est, Lille, 1899.On the scientific works of the Jesuits of the old andthe new Society, consult Sommervogel, Bibliothequedes Ecrivains de la Compagnie de Jesus, articleChine, vol. 2, col. 1140 sqq., and notices of theprincipal Fathers ; and H. Cordier, BibliothecaSi/iica, col. 1036 sqq. The Catcdogus Patrum acFratrum, S.J. qui a morte S. Francisci Xaveriiin Sinis adlaboraverunt (Fathers Pfister and Sica,latest edition, Shanghai, 1892) is out of print forthe first part (1552-1779), and will be shortlyre-edited. The second part (1842-1916) was re-editedin 1908, but is not on sale. S.JET, ^Jfl Hsi p'o, is called by Chinese blackamber. A Chinese writer in the 7th century statedthat it was dug out of the desert 300 li south of Hsichow near Turfan. A Chinese physician of the11th century says it was found 100 feet deep in thesoil in the district of Kiao ho. This was transportedto China and lasted till the 11th century whenthe supply ceased. A powder made from it wasmuch prized for its medicinal virtues.JEWELLERY. Although jewellery does notplay a very important role in Chinese Art a noteon the subject is necessary, especially as thejewellery of purely native design is rapidly givingway, (notably in the Treaty Ports where the"fashions" of China are set,) to that made inWestern form." Jewellery is of course," (to quote fromBushell), "much employed in common life by theChinese, as in most other eastern countries, as aconvenient means of investment of their savings.In the absence of any gold and silver coinage, theprecious metals are most readily kept in this way,being under the constant supervision of the weareras portable property. He deems solidity the mostdesirable quality of the rings and bangles whichare the usual forms, and looks on weight andpurity of metal as more likely to retain their valuethan artistic workmanship. Sometimes a plainflexible rod or band of god or silver is worn roundthe neck or arm, serving like the gold chains andrings worn by our knights in the middle ages asa present proof of respectability, and a readyresource in case of emergency. Bullion is moresafely carried in this way, than as the shoe-shapedingots in a purse tied to the girdle, and pieces canbe easily snipped off as occasion requires. Allobjects of this kind are made of pure metalwithout any alloy. The jeweller stamps. the nameof his shop inside the ring or bangle and thus bindshimself, by guild law and custom, to buy it back atany time by weight, without questioning the qualityof the material."For jewellery of a more decorative characterthe Chinese employ most of the technical methodsknown in the west, and supplement the simple toolsat their command by an infinite patience anddexterity. Thus, plates are pressed in moulds,hammered in repousse style, carved in elaborateopenwork designs, and finished with the gravingtool."In the art of filigree work the Chinese jewellerin somehas attained such proficiency as to make itdegree distinctive of the country. This is occasionallyexecuted in gold, but more commonly in silvergilt,the gilding being added to prevent tarnishingas well as for show. An effective addition to thefiligree work is an inlay of the accompanyingdetails with the turquoise-tinted plumes of theking-fisher (fei-ts'ui) which is almost peculiar toChina."Enamelling is a more durable combination thanfeather work, and this is also widely practised.The dark blue vitriable enamel obtained from thenative cobaltiferous ore of manganese is a favouriteinlay for silver obiecta, the pale turquoise blue261

JEWSBN CYCLOPAEDIA SINICAafforded by coi)per being more used with gold ; butboth tints are sometimes combined in one scheme ofdecoration. Another special branch of theenameller's art consists in the preparation ofimitation stones and jewels in coloured fluxes ofappropriate tint, which so often take the place ofreal stones in Chinese jewellery."Precious stones, when they are used, are notcut in facets, they are merely polished and seten cabuchon. The gems, and the pearls, which lastare highly appreciated when of good shape andfine lustre, are always drilled through and fastenedto the setting by fine wire."It is interesting to note that many of Btjshell'sremarks throughout the article, other than thosequoted, though written but yesterday, are to-daj"(1917) true but in part ;—Chinese jewellery is passingthrough the fiery furnace of transition which istesting all institutions, all ideals, all arts, bothfine and useful in the land which, for centurieswas considered by its inhabitants as being in theforefront of civilization.BusHELL : Chinese Art. [F.A.]JEWS IN CHINA. The Jewish colony atK'aifeng fu in Honan was first made known to theWestern world by Ricci in the 16th century, andwas visited and written about by other Jesuitmissionaries of the next century. In 1850 theLondon Society for promoting Christianity amongthe Jews- got a deputation of two natives to visitthe colony, and the results were published the nextyear in a book by Rev. G. Smith, with translationsby Dr. Medhurst of some inscriptions. Dr. W. A.P. Martin paid a visit to K'aifeng fu in 1866.There were then seven left out of seventy families,numbering from three to four hundred persons, andthe Synagogue was in a state of complete ruin.They could not trace their tribal pedigree, nevermet as a congregation, had no Sabbath and nocircumcision, and seemed on the point of merginginto the heathendom around them ; their onedistinction being the custom of picking out thesinew from the flesh they eat,—a custom which hasgiven them their name among Chinese of T'iao chinChiao ^ aiS |Jt (pluck-sinew sect). In spite ofvarious attempts to help them, both by Jews andChristians, their condition seems to have gonefrom bad to worse since then.The site of the Synagogue was bought in 1912by the Mi-ssion of the ('hurch of England in Canada,which works in the city.Summarizing all the information obtained frominscriptions, by JesuitK and others, it appears thatJews came to China during the Han dynasty,probably soon after a.d. 34, when they wereterribly pprspouted in Babylon ; but. it is popsiblethat they came earlier for purpcseg of trade.Their Scriptures are now deposited in manyWestern museums, etc.,—British Museum, Oxfordand Cambridge Libraries, Yale College, HongkongMuseum, etc. They are none of them ancient.There appear to have been Jewish Colonies inNingpo, Hangchow and elsewhere m former times.There are many articles on the subject in manyJournals ;probably the best books to consult arethose by Adler and Tobar.Marcus N. Adler, CJunese Jews; Perlmann,History of the Jews in China (1913) ; Tobar,Inscriptions Juives de ICai-fonrj-fou (Var, Sin.);Martin, A Cycle of Cathay, p. 353; Smith. TheJews at K'ai-feng Fu; Wtlie, Chinese Repository,vol. XX.JINGAL, from the Hindustani jangal, a swivelor a large musket. It is the Chinese blunderbuss,about twenty pounds in weight. It is fired from afixed swivel or with the barrel resting on a man'sshoulder.JINRIKSHA, from Japanese words meaningman-power vehicle; a light two-wheeled conveyancedrawn by a man or men and used for one or twopassengers. It is said to have been the inventionof an American missionary in Japan about 1870.The use of it has spread to all parts of the Eastwhere there are suitable roads.JOB'S TEARS, -t ^ jen mi, Coix lachrymajobi L. This grain plant, erroneously termed"pearl barley" in tlie Customs eXport list, is verymuch cultivated in China. Its name is derivedfrom the tear-like shape of its capsules. The seedsare said to possess diuretic and cathartic properties,and are used medicinally, although they are alsoboiled and made into gruel, or added to flour cakesin small quantities to attract buyers. The plant issaid to have been introduced to China by the famousM\ YiiAN in 49 a.d. The largest unhulled corns arcstrung into ix>saries by priests. A wine is made byfermenting the grain, and is given in rheumatism.HosiE : Ssuch'uan, p. 10 ; Manchuria, p. 180Stttart : Chinese Materia Medica, p. 122.JOHN DE PLANO CARPINI, or John ofPian de Carpine, a Franciscan friar, derived hisname from thfe place now called Pian la Magione,fourteen miles from Perugia. He was at the headof a mission sent by Pope Innocent to the Mongols.He left Lyons on April 16, 1245, delivered hisletters to Ktjyuk Khan, not far from Karakorum,on July 22 of the next year, and brought back tothe Poj)e the Khan's haughty reply in the autumnof 1247.D'AvEZAC : Recneil de Voyages et deMhnoires, vol. iv ; Rockhill : The Journey ofWilliam of Bubrvch, etc., (Hakluyt Society, 1900)Beazley : The Texts and Versions of John de I'lanoCarpini, etc.. (Hakluyt Society, 1903).262

AENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAJUAN JUANJOHN DE' MARIGNOLLI. See MarignolU.JOHN, GRIFFITH, D.D., was born at Swanseain 1831, arrived in Shanghai as a missionary ofthe London Missionary Society in 1855, and settledin Hankow in 1861, where he remained till thebeginning of 1912 when he returned to England anddied six months later. He had remarkable abilityand success as a street chapel preacher, and wasalso well-known as a translator of the new Testament.JOHN OF FLORENCE. See Marujnolli.JOHN OF MONTE CORVINO was bornabout 1247, in Italy, but in what district is doubtful,the honour being claimed by two places of thesame name. He became a Franciscan monk, andafter many years' work in the near East was sentby Pope NicoL.\s IV to carry letters to KhubilaiKhan. He probably reached Khanbaliq (Peking)in 1293, but it is not known whether he sawKhubilai, whose death took place early in 1294.His succeiis in Khanbaliq or Cambalec was so greatthat in 1307 an Archbishopric of Cambalec wascreated, with unusually ample powers, and sevenother Franciscans were sent out to be suffraganbishops under the new metropolitan. Only threeof these reached Peking ; they consecrated the newarchbishop, and all three were in succession bishopsof Zaitun. The Khan, (probably Khubilai'sgrandson), is said to have been baptized by him :but almost every Khan of the dynasty has beenre[)orted as a convert.He was the first Archbishop of Cambalecand in effect he was the last ; for though otherswere appointed it does not appear that any of themruled from Peking or even reached it.John of Monte Corvino died in Peking about1328, more than eighty years old ; and Favier statesthat there were about 100,000 converts by that time.Yule: Cathay and the. Way Thither; DaCiVEZZA : Storia Universal delle Mi-isione Ftancescane.JOHN OF PIAN DE CARPINE. See John(/' Piano Curpi It i.JOHNSTON, REGINALD FLEMING, wasborn in Scotland, 1874, and educated at the Universitiesof Edinburgh and Oxford. He carried offvarious prizes and graduated with honours in theSchool of History at Oxford. He passed the examinationfor the Indian and Colonial Civil Services,1893, and was appointed to Hongkong, where heActed as Clerk to the Legislative and Executive(,'ouncils, and as Assistant Colonial Secretary,1899-1904 ; and as private Secretary to the Governor,1900-1902. He was transferred to Weihaiwei toact as Secretary to the Government and as Magistrate,1904. In 1906 he was appointed to the newlycreate

JU IENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAJ U 1 , 4d Jit 'as you like it' ; an article of peculiarshape and generally called a sceptre. It is however,not a symbol of royal power, and it seemsto have been in use in China before the arrival ofBuddhism. Chad Hsi-ku (13th century a.d.) statesthat it was originally made of iron, was used topoint the way and for self-defence ; that it wasreally a blunt sword. Later it was used as part ofceremonial regalia and was made of jade, amber,lacquer, etc. It is mow given as a token of goodwishes to a friend.Giles : Chine.^e Pictorial Art, p. 159; Parker :China and Religion.JU JEN, BiA- See Juan-juan.JUJUBES, Zizi/phus sativa, ^ tsao. This hasoome to be translated ' dates,' and the fruit iscommonly called by that misleading name amongforeigners : it is not easy to see why. The jujubeis an important cultivated fruit in North China,and there are probably quite a hundred varieties.It prefers a porous, alkaline soil like the loess, alight rainfall and a dry, cold winter. The treeis remarkable for the amount of neglect it can putup with : it is about the only fruit tree roundwhose roots the soil need not be cultivated ; it producesequally well where the ground is troddenhard as stone.The fruit is generally brown and shining andvery plump when fresh ; when dried it shrivels andbecomes more red. Different varieties are eatenfresh, dried, preserved in sugar, stewed or smoked.Among the hundred varieties may be mentionedthe wu hu tsao or seedless jujube, grown nearLading in Shantung. It is said to be the onlyseedless variety in all China—and, indeed, it is notabsolutely seedless, but the kernel is so soft thatone eats it without perceiving it.The mi tsao or honey jujube is not a varietybut a preparation for which the Chi?i tzu tsao ischiefly used. These are boiled in sugared waterthen dried for a couple of days. They are slightlyboiled again, then partially dried. The skins arenext slashed slightly and the fruit boiled againin a stronger solution of sugar, honey beingadded for the best grades. They are then dried,and the best kinds can be sold at 40 Mexican centsa pound.One jujube tree has great ornamental value,the Zizyphus sativa tortuosa, called in Chinese theLunr/ chna tsao shu ^/R^^ cr dragon-claw jujube.It has peculiar gnarled and twisted branches and ismuch prized by the Chinese. The trees are propagatedby grafting on the wild jujube ; they arevery rare.Finally, the wild jujube Z. sativa spinosa growson every city wall in the North, and in many waste,stony places. " It has troublesome thorns, especiallyon the smaller bushes, and is often used as fencing.The fruit is small and pleasantly sour, and is ea»ten.The Jujube is known as Hung tsao or Reddate to distinguish it from the Hei tsao, Blackdate, the Persimmon {q.v.).Meyer : Agricvltural Explorations, etc.JU LAI FO, ftn^fl. the Sanskrit Tathagata,a title of Buddha. The words mean literally "theBuddha who came thus." The Sanskrit mightequally well mean "who went thus," but the Chineselong ago, rightly or wrongly, adopted 'came' andnot 'went.'JUMPING RATS and Mice.This family ofRodentia should have been placed under Dipodidutthe name of the Family. There are six speciesknown in N. China and neighbourhood, their namesand distribution being as follows :—Allactaga monyolica, Mongolia, N. Shansi, N.Chihli; A. longior, Kansu ; Dipus soWerbyi, Ordos,N. Shensi ; Zapus setchuanus vicinvs, Kansu ; Sicistaconcolor, Kansu, Manchuria; S. caudata, Sagalhien.SowERBY : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.Sv, vol. xlvii.JUNG, ^, barbarians of the West. Thecharacter consists of ^ kan, a shield, and ko j^,a spear. There are seven kinds of them mentionedin the Tso Chuan, and accounts are given of theirattacks on Ch'i, Lu, Ts'ao and even on the RoyalDomain. Their seats were in (modern) Chihli, in(modern) Honan, etc., but there were more tribesthan the Tso Chuan has occasion to name, and theywere in greatest strength in the north-west, whereCh'in expanded at their expense besides gettingpractice in war with them. According to Hirththe name is connected with the name Hun ; theyare also known as Hsien-yii, Hun-yii, Hsiung-nu,etc., and were probably Turkish tribes; the usualappellation for them and other northern races isTartars.Legge : Chinese Classics, vol. v., (proleg.);Hirth : The Ancient History of China.JUNGLE, THE. See Ch'u, State of.JUNG LU, ^W( a Manchu, played a leadingpart in Chinese history during the days of theEmpress-dowager Tz'u Hsi. He was a kinsmanand a playmate of hers in childhood and commonreport says that she was betrothed to him from herbirth. Other rumours say that improper relationsexisted between them for years. These reports areonly recorded here because of the importance theyhad in the politics of the period.Jung Lu was one of the better type of Manchushe was extremely loyal to the Empress-dowagerfrom the beginning of her Regency when she crushedthe Ts.\i YixAN conspiracy with his help, for overforty years down to his death in 1903. This doesnot mean that he always agreed with her or that2U

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAKALGANhe escaped disgrace at her hands. He Avas not inagreement with her in her employment of theBoxers, but he did not desert her, though hisposition was one of great danger. He was alwaysmoderate in his views, and he was thus suspectedby both sides, reformers and conservatives alike. Itis also probable that his attitude was much misunderstoodby foreigners. Without having anyfriendship for them he saw the madness in theattempt to destroy their Legations, and they wereperhaps saved through his hanging back while otherswere rushing on to the extremest measures. TheEmpress-dowager disregarded his warnings, and hisposition, while out of her favour and opposed byKang I, Prince Tuan and other fanatics, was veryinsecure. When the madness had passed, thefugitive Empress-dowager had still to turn to himand found him still as trusty as he had always been.The most dramatic time of his life was in 1898,when the Emperor decided on a roup d'etat whichfailed and the Empress-dowager decided on anotherwhich succeeded. Kuang Hsii knew that the firststep in getting rid of his aunt must be the gettingrid of her faithful Jung Lu. He gave definiteorders to Yuan Shih-k'ai to proceed to Tientsin,where Jung Lu was Viceroy of Chihli, and puthim to death at once. Yuan went down by the firsttrain and told Jung Lu all about it. Jung Lu wentup to the capital by special train and told the plotto the Empress-dowager. After leaving some of hisown guards in the Forbidden City he returned toTientsin, while his mistress, early the next morning,seized and imprisoned the unhappy Emperor.At the time of his death he had attained thehighest honours which a subject could reach,—^hewas Grand Secretary and Grand Councillor. Buthe had another kind of honour. By Tz'u Hsi'scommand the second Prince Ch'un had marriedJung Lu'.s daughter, and the Empress-dowager hajdpromised that if there were a son of this marriagehe sliould be heir to the Throne. The promise waskept and Jung Lu'.s grandson became the EmperorHsiiAN T'ung.Jung Lu died April 11, 1903, at the age of 67.Bland and Backhousk : China under fhe Em.-lircns-Dowagv.1.JUNK, (Javane.se jung, a large boat). AChinese sailing vessel.JUTE.See Fibres, textile.JU YAO J^^. Porcelain of the Sung periodmade at Ju-chou ^ ^.KKAAN, The title used by Marco Polo for theGreat Khan ; the supreme ruler of the MongolsKhan being applied to subordinate princes. SeeQaan.KAFAROV. See Palladiu-s.KAIfInG FU, in lat. 34°. 43> N. and long.114" 24' E., is the capital city of Honau and standsabout 100 li south of the Yellow River. The capitalof Fu Hsi is supposed to have been here in 2800 B.C.Under the name Pien-liang '^ g^ it was the capitalof the Sung dynasty in the 10th century. It hasthe special interest of being the home of a Jewishcolony (see Jewts in China). The place has lostmuch of its former importance, but trade hasrevived with the coming of the railway. The chiefindustry is in groundnuts. The population isabout 200,000.KAILAN MINING ADMINISTRATION, anassociation of the Chinese Engineering and MiningCompany and the Lanchow Company. The formerCompany was formed in 1878 as a Chinese Companyand registered in 1900 as a British or internationalcompany under British law. The Lanchow Companyopened mines in the vicinity of the Kaipingmines. A long dispute with the Chinese governmentfollowed, as to the exclusive rights of theforeign company to the Kaiping coalfield.The struggle ended in the amalgamation of thetwo companies under an agreement ratified by theBritish and Chinese governments. Each companyretains its own share capital.The output of the mines from July 1, 1916 toJune 30, 1917, was 2,928,584 tons.KAIPINGAdministration.MINES. See Kailan MiningKALGAN, a corrupt form of the Mongolhulha, a mart, the town called by the Chines©Chang-chia k'ou 3^51$-P It is an important tradingcentre on the edge of the Mongolian plateau,4,000 feet above the plain, and some forty miles tothe north of Peking. It lies at the foot of a passleading up to the plateau itself, a thousand feethigher : this is the easiest of such passes andtherefore the most used.I3t265

KALMUKENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAThe tea for Russia is sent this way in thewinter season, when half a million camels are saidto be used in the transport.The ijojjulation is estimated at 30,000.KALMUK.See MomjoUa.KALPA, an Indian term, much used inBuddhist writings, meaning a period of timesufficient for the formation and destruction of amaterial universe.KAMBALOU.See Khanhaliq.KAMTON, the Portuguese way in former timesKming tung ; from which has comeof writing J^;^the name Canton.K'ANG, ^, a bed built of brick or earth sothat it can be heated with a fire underneath ; largelyused in North China.K'ANG HSI, J^^ the third son of ShunClUHJIIgi^, was born in 1655 and died in 1723.He was the second ruler of the Ch'ing dynasty,and succeeded to the throne when he was eightyears old. His name was ^ JP, (not ^Giles).as inHe was one of the most remarkable men inhistory, and the usual wonders which herald thebirth of great men are recorded in his case,dragons, strange lights and what not. It is statedthat each of his eyes had two pupils; hisforehead was broad, the mouth handsome; hisnose was 'mountainous' (but note that Le Comtesays it was small), and his ears big ; the lower partof the face was agreeable. He had a stentorianvoice, and was over the medium height, thoughnot tall; his face was pleasing, though stronglypock-marked. Unusually bright eyes gave greatvivacity to his features. (See portrait in LeComte's Memoirs and Observations). As tocharacter, he was very truthful. He had extraordinaryability in learning, and a marvellous memory.Five days before his death Shun Chih delegatedthe care of the boy to two Regents and appointedfour Assistant Ministers of State. All took theoath of loyalty before the corpse.K'ANG Hsi took up the reins of Governmentin the fifth moon of the eighth year of the periodand broke up the power of the regency, being angryat the illicit assumption of Ao Pei, a Minister,and others.His was a dominating and active personality,and the administrative acts of the empire, whilstthey were modified by the dynastic laws, and theadvice of his ministers, were to a great extent theexpression of his own will. Grouping his acts,{)ersonal and administrative, round his own idealof 'Peace for the Empire and Prosperity for thePecjple' it is possible to gain an impression of theman.As to peace for the Empire, he had barelyreached the age of manhood when he had to facepowerful enemies on every side; there confrontedhim the Southern Confederacy with great armiesled by the valiant Wu San-kuei in league with thePrinces of Fukien and Kuangtung ; he had tosubjugate the ruler of Shensi, and wrest Formosafrom Koxinga; he sent great armies against Mongolprinces who disputed rights and territory with him.These things required all the energy and sagacityof the young monarch.As to the prosperity of the people, their welfarewas a constant concern in all his plans. He alwaysaimed at purity in the administration. He wascareful of tlie public funds. He was frugal in hispersonal habits, and simple in his dress. Hispalace expenses he compares favourably with thelavishness of the Ming Court, which employedthousands of attendants, while he was satisfiedwith 500. He had reduced his expenses to 70,000taels, a tenth of the amount used in his father'stime. Yet he scattered his treasures lavishly onthe empire. He constantly remitted taxes andwiped out provincial deficits. In the 51st yearof his reign he remitted 33,064,697 taels poll andland taxes, saying it was more important to helpHethe people than to hoard up imperial wealth.begged a Governor at a farewell audience to findout the causes of the people's poverty, which shouldnot exist in such a wealthy country; and told himto use his own name and authority to frighten allmonopolists and oppressors of the people. Hepersonally wrote a motto :j|^-ti;I^ Incorruptibility,Carefulness, Diligence, for all officials, andconstantly sought out means of relieving ihesufferings of the people. He dealt unmercifullywith all unjust officials and put to death high andlow who were found guilty of maladministrationor usurpation of authority. He initiated reliefworks for distress : and forbad the distilling ofwine in Peking when there was a scarcity of corn.He was most liberal in the times of devastatingdroughts and calamities, at one time sending300,000 taels to Hsi-an fu in the time of plague, and,at another, a great gift of corn to Korea. He wasangry with the Peking Government for calling ineverything to the Central Treasury, thus depletingprovincial funds which inevitably would result indraining the people's money. He often abolishedlikin posts, as being detrimental to trade : andmade light taxation a cardinal article of policy.Public works of utility were initiated and greatattention was paid to the dredging of rivers. TheYellow River in particular had much attention. Acommission was appointed to find its source. Thereport is curious and interesting, describing thedistant sources which seem to lie in the clouds andinaccessible jjarts. Another time its tributaries,etc., were mapped out with a view of preventing

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAK'ANG HSIinundation. These undertakings he practicallysuperintended by frequent visits of inspection.He prohibited officials squeezing prisoners, andissued a severe decree against unjust claims to theland made by the Manchu conquerors, orderingthat what had been snatched from the Chinese inthe past should be restored immediately. (SeeHue's Chri.-

K'ANG HSIENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAstudied geometry, asti'onomy, medicine, anatomy andother branches of physical science. He establishedin his Palace various ateliers where he employedthe most skilful artists and workmen. He also, itis said, had Europeans to train the Chinese inWestern art, painting, engraving, sculpture, enamelling,and work in steel and copper.The annals of the times are full of his lectureson science and geography. He used to pride himselfthat he knew every river and mount-ain inChina. He was pre-eminently the 'preacher andschoolmasteT. Ta Ch'ing Hvang Ti Sheng Hsiinand his numerous edict* afford a .specimen of hiseloquence. He was a thinking man and had agreat propensity for writing. Sixty parts of theSheng Hsiin are by him. The funeral sermon onthe death of his mother is touching. The style ischaste and elegant. These sermons show that hewas an enemy of routine and sought for men ofmind. He continually urges his ministers todiligence and warns them against all forms ofdepravity.Withal he was full of friendliness andbonhomie. He would often invite friends andministers to spend a day with him in his gardensby the lake, fishing and writing poetry. The fi.shcaught he ordered to be given to their wives."Remember your wives in your pleasures," was hismotto to them. He used to send presents of scrollsand greetings to aged officials bidding them eatwell and be happy. "Think of me, as I do of you."Tn the feasts at the palace, he passed the cupround, assuring his guests that if they drank toomuch he would have them conveyed home decently.Guests generally had to write a line of poetry tofollow his.He was a most dutiful son and, when ibsent,wrote a letter every day to his mother. He worecalico when she died in the 56th year of his reign.On the 11th day of the 7th moon and the 61styear of his reign he fell ill, and died on the 14tli.He bequeathed the succession to his fourth son,"who is most like me, and is most capable of fillingthe post; let him succeed me."He married three times, his last wife survivinghim. He had twenty -three sons. "I am the fatherand root of 150 sons and grandsons. My daughtersmust be more numerous still. I leave the empirepeaceful and happy," he says in his will. He wascanonized as ig IH. "fc ^ 'Fff'Allan : Makers of Cathay; Boulger : Histaryof China; Bouvet : Portrait historique de I'Em-'pereur de la Chine; De Mailla : Histoire Genlralede la Chine; Du Halde : History of China andLettres Edifiantes; Hue : Christianity in CJtina;Magaillans : Novvelle Belation de la Chine;Remtjsat : Melanges Afiatiqnes; ^3^|| ; gl^ii^v[E.M., abridged]K'ANG YU WEI, m^^>also known asK'ang Nan-hai ;^, fJI ^ a scholar who had thechief share in persuading Kxjang Hsii to issue theReform Edicts of 1898. When the coup d'etat tookplace, six of the Reformers were summarily executed,but K'ang escaped. It was ordered that he shouldbe sought for .and, when found, put to death by theling eh'ih proce.ss. He has lived, however, not onlyto see the Republic established, but to take part inthe futile attempt of Chang HsiiN to restore theManchii dynasty in July, 1917.He is a native of Kuangtung, remarkable as ascholar, and has earned the title of The ModernSage. See Reformers.Bland and Backhouse : China under theEmpress-Dowager ; Bland : Becent Events, etc. ;Little : Intimate China.KAN KALI, from the Turkish for a cart; aname for the Uighurs, who are also termed Kao chii^ 1$. High carts. See Uighurs.KANP'U or KANFU, spelled Ganfu byMarco Polo, is generally supposed to have beena port on the north of the Hangchow Bay, halfwaybetween Hangchow and Chapu. In the T'angdyna.sty it was the chief port in China, and theonly one at which foreign trade was permitted.Arab and other traders were driven thence in theninth century to the number of nine hundred,according to Chinese annals. The port is nowsilted up and lies high and dry.There is another theory, however, due toKingsmill and Neumann, that Kuang (chou) fuor Canton is meant, and that no such port everexisted in Hangchow Bay.Cordier's Marco Polo : vol. ii, p. 198; Little :The Far East, p. 112; Kingsmill : ibid., quotation.KANSU, "H" ^, the most north-we.stern provinceof China, the third in point of size, having an areaof 125,483 sq. miles, with a population of 10,386,000.The name is derived from two of its principal cities,Kanchou and Suchow. Till the Republic it wasruled together with Shensi by a Viceroy, the twoprovinces being known as Shen-kan. Till 1882 thewhole of Hsinchiang was included in Kanau. Itsliterary name is Lung 1^.The province is mountainous, especially to tlieN.W., where the eastern extension of the K'un-lunmountains rises to 20,000 feet. The chief range isthe T'ien shan 5c lU- The peculiar shape of theprovince in the north-west is due to its lying betweenthe Alashan and Mongolian desert on the north,and the high table-land of Tibet on the south :this narrow strip is the gateway to Central Asia.The Yellow River runs right across Kansu; itis not navigable, but with its tributaries it enablesthe plains to be irrigated and thus enriches theprovince.Lanchou, with half a million inhabitants,268

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAKARA MOURENIs the capital. There are Mongols and Tanguts inthe province and a large proportion of the populationis Mohammedan. The great Mohammedan rebellion(1861-78) and the massacres by which it was suppressed,account for the present thinness of thepopulation.KAN WANG, *f^ ^, shield prince, cousin ofthe T'ien Wang, leader of the T'ai P'ing rebellion.He joined in 1859 and was made Prince and PrimeMinister. He was a man of great ability. He wasexecuted after the fall of Nanking in 1864. SeeT'ni P'ing IfebeUion.KAN YING, -g-5S, one of the officers used byPan Ch'ao in his great campaign in Central Asia.In A.D. 97 he was ordered to proceed to Ta Ts'in,that is, to Syria as a province of the RomanEmpire. The purpose of the expedition is uncertain.He reached T'iao-chih f^^, a country onthe Persian Gulf, but there he heard such anaccount of the length and difficulty of the seaJourney that he gave it up and retraced his steps.Giles : Biographical Dictionary; Yur.E :(itfhay and the Way Thither.KAN YING P'lEN ^.mU> ^''« Booh ofH>ward.-i and Punishments, a Taoist work but oftenin a Buddhist dress, attributed, though with littlecertainty, to the Sung dynasty. It is a very popularbook and large quantities are distributed gratuitously.A short sketch of its contents is given inGiles' Chinese Literature, and a full translationwill be found in Doolittle's Vocabtdary.KAOLIANG, Jg ^ kao Hang 'high grain,'Sorghum vulgare, the staple grain of Manchuria,also largely grown in many parts' of China north ofthe Yangtze, taking the place which rice occupiesill the south. Sown in April, it grows to a heightof 8 or 10 feet by September, when it is harves'ted.Its uses are manifold.Besides furnishing the greaterportion of the daily food, in the fonn of a palatableporridge, it supplies an alcoholic drink, thatchingfor houses and barns, matting for summer shedsand winter floors, and for packing, fencing, bridgingand house-building, and fuel where coal or woodis too dear. Brooms are largely made from thJB" broom-corn." No part of the plant is wasted.Eight pounds of seed are sufficient for an acre,which yields in good years over half a ton of grain.The green blades are gathered before the grain isfully ripe and stored for winter cattle-fodder, andthe roots are pulled up and used for fuel.Kaoliang is, however, a bad crop, as it requiresmuch from the soil and gives nothing in return.According to King the yield per acre of kaoliangfuel in Shantung is 5,600 lbs., worth about $10,and of grain 48 bushels. (pp. 158, 255). InManchuria 35 bushels of 60 lbs. weight is anordinary crop. In all such calculations it is importantto be sure of the size of the moy, quoted.HosiE : Manchuria, pp. 176, 359 ; King :Farmers of Forty Centuries.KAO LIN, 11 ^ hao ling, high ridge. A kindof earth consisting of the rotted felspar of disintegratedgranite, found in Kiangsi, near Santuao(Fukien), etc. See Chivaware.KAO TZU -^ ^, a philosopher contemporarywith MENCitis, who has not left any writings of hisown, but is known to us by his disputations withthe latter concerning human nature. He deniedfreewill. Mencixjs : Book XI, etc.KAPILAVASTU, near which is the birthplaceof S'akyamuni, in what is now known as the NepaulTerai. Its ruins were visited by HsiiAN Tsang,who places them N.W. of Gorukpoor (lat. 26° 46'N. and long. 83° 19' E.).KAPOK, the product of Eriodendron anfracluosum-,the cotton tree, which flourishes in the twoKuang provinces.KARA K'lTAI, or Black K'itai, an importantthough short-lived empire of Central Asia beforethe coming of Chenghis Khan. It had more or lessauthority from the Caspian to the borders of China.The empire was named K'itai as being founded by amember of the imperial family of the K'itan orLiao dynasty, escaped from China when that dynastywas overthrown by the Golden Tartars (Chiudynasty). The term 'black' was added by Mohammedanauthors either as implying inferiority to theoriginal K'itai or because the K'itai were infidels.To the Chinese the empire was known as the HsiLiao or Western Liao, and it lasted from 1125 to1212, when it was overthrown by Chenghis Khan.See K'itans.The rulers were as follows :Dyn. Title Acession Reign Title Adopted@.^ Te Tsung 1125 gEjg Yen Ch'ing 1125MM K'ang Kuo 1125^^^KanT'ien Hou 1136 ^^ Hsien Ch'ing 1136^^ Jen Tsung 1142 ijg® Shao Hsing 1142JicX Ch'eng T'ien 1154 ^fg Ch'ung Fu 1154^'^ Huang Te „MWi Ch'ung Te „7fc± Mo Chu 1168 ^H T'ien Hsi 11^8HowoRTH :The Northern Frontagers of China,Journal, R.A.S., 1875 et seq.KARA KORUM, Marco Polo's Caracoron, aMongol name meaning 'The Black Camp.' It wasfounded, according to Chinese historians, in the8th century, and was on the upper Orkhon river,south-west from Urga. It was chosen by ChenghisKhan as his capital.KARA MOUREN, blach river, the Mongolname for the Yellow River and for the Amur. SeeCaramoran.

KASHGARENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAKASHGAR, jgUWig Shu fu hsien, known inearly Chinese writings by many names, an importanttown in Eastern Turkestan or Sinkiang, situated inthe north-west of the Tarim basin. It has givenits name to th« whole region, which is often calledKashgaria. It is on the Great South Eoad (T'ienshan nan lu) and is an important commercial centre,the trade being principally with Russian Turkestan.The population is between 60,000 and 70,000.It is first mentioned in the Han annals, whenChang Ch'ien opened up the west, and Kashgarbecame a Chinese protected State. Pan Ch'ao alsotook it. Buddhism was introduced probably in thesecond century, a.d. Fa Hsien visited it in 400,and HsiiAN Tsang about 643.The relics there unearthed by Stein are comparativelyfew, probably because it was, by itsposition, early exposed to the zeal of Mohammedanism.Lansdell : Chinese Central Asia; Kuropatkin :luiKhijaria, Calcutta, 1882.KASHGARIA. See Turhestan.K ASHING, M^ ^^'« hsing, in Chekiang, is50 miles from Shanghai on the Shanghai-Hangchow-Ningpo Railway. It is a sub-station of the HangchowCustoms and was opened in 1896. The citywas severely handled by the T'ai P'ing rebels. Itisfamous for its gauzes and silk neckties.KENG CHIH T'U, mUU,(Illustrations ofHusbandry and Weaving). An album of forty-fivewood engravings with verses, published in 1696 bycommand of K'ang Hsi. Wylie first pointed outthat a v.'ork with the same title had appeared in 1210,In the later book Hieth recognized a tendency touse the rules of perspective, probably learned fromJesuit painters at Court. The earlier work is lost,but Laufer discovered a Japanese reprint of 1462,and a very interesting comparison can therefore bemade of the Sung drawings and the re-drawnpictures of the K'ang Hsi edition. In 1739Ch'ien Lung ordered a new edition to be prepared,in which the earliest poetry is omitted and newmatter, both verse and prose, is added.The work has been reproduced in German byOtto Franke, [King tschi Vii, Acherbau undti^idengewinnung m China, Hamburg, 1913), withfull notes and explanations, and with both the olderand the newer illustrations.KENNEDY, ARTHUR EDWARD, (k.c.m.g.,C.B.), was Governor of Hongkong from April 16,1872, to March 1, 1877. He had little diplomaticbusiness with foreign countries, and the onetroublesome and important diplomatic matter withthe Chinese Government,—the Customs Blockade,was discussed exclusively with Downing Street.During his rule the various departments of theCivil Service were improved, and great attentionwas given to legislative measures. The revenue ofthe Colony was at a standstill, and few public workswere carried out. There was a marked decreasein crime, including piracy. The currency questioncaused a good deal of discussion ; it was at thistime that the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank firstissued one-dollar notes. In response to local appealthe Admiralty began, a new survey of the coastfrom Hongkong to Woosung.* Emigration waslegislated on, and efforts were made to keep thecolony clear of the dishonour which was due toMacao for its infamous coolie trade. The CustomsBlockade of Hongkong continued to irritate. Oneresult of the blockade, however, was to causeChinese merchants to discard junks for foreignsteamers. An attempt was later made to oustforeign by Chinese steamers; the China MerchantsSteam Navigation Company {q-v.) originated atthis time and with this object.Sir Arthur very much encouragedintercoui'sewith the Chinese, asking them to social gatherings,etc., at Government House, and inviting them tobring their petitions and grievances direct to him.Some years of experience changed his views as tothis method, and his practice.Great progress was made in educational workin his day, both secular and religious.The memory he left in the Colony was pleasant,though he had done less work than some formerGovernors ; and when he died some six years later(June 3, 1883), a statue was' erected to his honourin the Public Gardens.EiTEL : Europe in China.KERAITS, formerly an important tribe ofnorthern Mongolia, whose place of abode cannothowever at present be fixed with any exactitude.Prince and people became Christian early in theeleventh century, and all later references in historyregard them as Christian. In the early pai't of thethirteenth century it was to a Kerai't prince thatthe legend of Prester John was applied. KeraitChristians played a great part in the Yiian dynasty.The mother of Mangu and of Khubilai was aKerait princess.PELLiOff : Chretiens d'Asie centrale, etc.,T'oung-pao, 1914.KERR REFUGE FOR THE INSANE, wasopened in Canton in 1898, through the exertions ofDr. J. C. Kerr of the A. P. Mission (died 1901).As early as 1872, Dr. Kerr brought forward thematter of establishing such a Refuge, but the effortfailed for lack of funds. The Missionary Conferenceof 1890 gave its approval to the project, and1892, Dr. Kerr himself jjresented the site to theThe buildings,inCommittee in charge of the scheme.put up in 1897, with accommodation for fiftypatients, were given anonymously.270

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAKHUBILAI KHANIn JiiJy, 1917, three resident physicians areitported as connected with this Institution, the onlyone of the kind in China.KERSHAW, J. G. a resident in the Southwho collected butterflies during seven years anddescribed them in The Butterflies of Honfjhong;(Kelly and Walsh, 1907).KESHEN.See Kishe7i.KETTELER, CLEMENT AUGUST, BaronHevon, was born at Potsidam, November 22, 1853.ciiose a military life for a time, then entered theconsular service, and was sent as interpreter toPeking and to Canton. After being secretary tothe Embassy to Mexico he was appointed to succeedBaron von Heyking as minister-plenipotentiary atPeking, July 15, 1899. He was assassinated by aChinese soldier who shot him as he went to theTsung-li Yamen, June 20, 1900, A memorial archhas been erected on the spot where he was killed,in the Ha-ta-men Street. It has inscriptions inChinese, German and Latin, expressing theEmperor's regret for the outrage. See lioxcrism.KEYING. See Kiuinrj.KHAKHAN. See Qagan.KHALKA, a Mongol tribe. See Mongolia.KHAMBALU. The Mongol name for thei altar (Jity in Peking. See Khanhcdiij.S.^oKHAMIL.See//«m/.KHAN, nJtfj a Mongolian term for 'prince.'K(i

]KHUMDANENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAKHUMDAN, a name found under the formKhubdan, in the description of Taugas (q-v.) byTheophylactcs. It is sufficient in itself to provejis China, for it is the name by whichj;{inscription.;of thej(q.c). Its chief river is the Kan chiang f^ Jt Missionary Society in November 1824. Three yearswhich passes right from the southern boundary tothe Po-yang lake, and so discharges into the Yangtze,which just touches the noi-thern boundary.The great road called the Ambassadors' Road (q.v.)that Taugasruns up the Kan kiang valley, then crosses theCh'ang-an the modern Hsian fu was ^^,known to the Turkish"^^M,and West Asiatic nations, Mei-ling pa.ss (q.v-) into Kuangtung.The capital is Nan-ch'ang fu ^1^)1^, theand it occurs repeatedly on the Hsi-an fu Nestorianpopulation of which is 300,000. Ching-te chen {q-v.),tablet in the Syriac part of thecelebrated for porcelain, is in Kiangsi, and anotherl^AUTHiER regarded it as a transcriptionname Ch'ang-an; Neumann took it as representing well-known place in the province is Kuling {q-v.).Kung-tien ^g" [jg the palace or court ; but Yule There is one treaty port, Kiukiang, {q.v.).(quoting Haiitmann in Diet, de I'lslam, art.KIANGSU, jX li, almost the smallest but also(him;), says it is Khamdan or Khan fang, thealmost the most thickly populated of the EighteenEmperor's Hall, that is, Ch'ang-an or Hsi-an fu.Provinces. Its area is 38,610 sq. miles and itsYuLK : Cathay mid the Way Thither, vol. i,population close on 24,000,000. Its name is derivedp. 31. (1915).from the two cities Kiangning (Nanking) and Soochcw.KIAKHTA, TREATY OF, also known as theIt has Shantung on the north, Honan andTieaty of the Frontier, a treaty between Ruissia Anhui on the west, Chekiang on the south, and theand China, was signed at the Chinese frontier, Yellow Sea to the east. The whole province is annear Kiakhta, on October 21, 1727, as the result of alluvial plain, with very few hills. It has severalSava Vladislavitch's embassy. It settled the large lakes, the chief being the T'ai hu :*; ^ in theboundaries of the two empires, fixed the number south and the Hung tse ^\^ in the north. Itof merchants to be admitted to Peking at two includes the lowest portion of the Yangtze and hashundred every two years, opened trading-marts at no other important rivers, but its canals, especiallyKiaktou, Selingga and Nertchinsk; a church was in the south, are innumerable. The most fertile partbuilt in Peking, freedom of worship allowed, and of the province lies south of the Yangtze.four priests with six students of the language Nanking (q.v.) is the capital, and Soochow ispermitted to reside in the capital, etc. The Article equally important and famous. Other large townsrelating to Frontier offences was altered by a are Wusih (200,000 inhabitants), Sungkiang (50,000),supplementary treaty, October 18, 1768.Chenkiang (Chinkiang), Shanghai, Yangchow andSee Russian relations with China.Ts'ingkiang p'u. Some of these are describedHeutslet : Treaties. separately. There are five ports open to foreignKIANGNAN, the name of a province in the trade ; Shanghai, Nanking, Chinkiang, Soochow andMing period. In the Manchu dynasty it was divided Woosung.into the present two provinces of Kiangsu and At one time Kiangsu and Anhui were oneAnhui. See Kianysi.province, with the name Kiangnan. (See Kiangsi).The literary name of Kiangsu is Wu ^.KIANGSI. Before the Sung dynasty thecountry from Kueichou to the sea, all south of the K I A N G , TW . See Liuiuj Kiang.Yangtze and north of the Canton province, wasKIAOCHOW (Chiao chou), B 9^,f^ city ofone enormous tao Jg or Circuit called Chiang nanShantung on Chiao-chou Bay in the south of thejl ^, or South of the river. In the Sung -dynastyprovince. It was formerly of importance for trade,this was divided into six Lu g&, of which twobut the harbour has been allowed to silt up.retained the names of Chiang-nan east and ChiangnanWhen the Germans took Tsingtao at the entrancewest. Chiang-nan tung and Chiang-nan hsito the Bay the name Kiaochow was often used forbecame shortened afterwards into Chiangnan andthe territory, and appeared for instance on theirChianghsi (or Kiangsi), a name which, without thispostage stamps; though the city of Kiaochow washistorical explanation is quit« inappropriate, as itwell outside their sphere of authority. See Tsingtau.means West of the JRiver.1915 1916The province of Kiangsi has an area ofNet Foreign Imports 6,002,671 18,896,31869,498 sq. miles, and a population of 26,532,000.Net Chinese „ 874,934 5,032,322It has Anhui and Hupei on the north, Hunan onExports 6,318,642 22,934,187the west, Kuangtung on the south and Fukien andChekiang on the east. Most of the province isTotal Hk.Tls. ... 13,196,247 46,862,827hilly, though the hills do not rise beyond 3,200 ft.except on the Fukien border. In the north there KIDD, SAMUEL, born near Hull in Englandis low ground, associated with the Po-yang lake in 1799, reached Malacca as an agent of the London272

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAKISHENlater he was made Professor of Chinese in the Anglo-Chinese College, and on the death of Mr. Colliein 1828 he succeeded as Principal. In 1832 hishealth obliged him to return to England, and hewas never well enough to be sent out again. Afterthree years of pastoral work he was appointedProfessor of Chinese Language and Literature inUniversity College, London, in 1837. The appointmentwas for five years, and before it was renewedhe died, in June, 1843.Besides works in Chinese he wrote criticalnotices of Dr. Morrison's books, inserted as anappendix to the Memoirs of Morrison; and thework by which his name is best known, China,or Illustrations of the Symbols, Philosophy . . .of the Chinese, London 1841.VVylie : Memorials of Protestant Missionariesto the Chinese.KIDNAPPING. The term has been much usedin accounts of the First War, when the waylayingor enticing away of British soldiers or sailors wasthe only way for the Chinese to get any victory.Large numbers were thus kidnapped and put todeath by the officials during the British occupationof (husan. (See Davies : China during the War).Besides this special use of the term, it is constantlyemployed for the crime which is very commonin China of carrying off young children either tohold for ransom, or to sell into slavery. A ChineseAnt i -Kidnapping Society has existed for some yearsiri Shanghai, and has done good work, first inrescuing kidnapped children, then in caring forthem, teaching them trades, etc.KIELER MISSION.Headquarters : Kiel, Germany.Entered China, 1897.Works in Canton Province in Pakhoi and Limchoufu. with three foreign missionaries in 1917.KIKUNGSHAN. See Chi Kung Shan.K'l LIN, ^IHJ. See Ch'ilin.KIN DYNASTY.See Chin.KING. See Imperial titles.KINGFISHERS. See Anisedactyl i.KINSAY, an old name for the modern Hangchew,found in Marco Polo. It is simply theChinese Ching shih [^fgf , 'the capital', being theSouthern Sur. : capital from 1127. Its name wasthen Lin-an Rg^. The form Quinsay is alsofound.KIN TAN CHIAO, ^;B- ^ Chin tan chiaoReligion of the Elixir of Gold, or of the Pill ofImmortality, shows by its name its Taoist origin,thefor as early as the third century B.C. the Taoistalchemists pretended to have discovered a magiccompound which could turn baser metals to gold35273and confer immortality. It has also been knownas the Ssuch'uan Society since 1814, when seditionwas discovered and punished among its members inthat province. The sect is said to date from theT'ang dynasty, and to be the most numerous inall north and west China, and to include largenumbersi of earnest seekers after truth. In 1891,15,000 members were massacred by the Governmenton a charge of sedition, but the Society, thoughoften compelled to unite its members for selfdefence,was not of political origin. A suggestionthat Nestorian influence may be traced in some ofits doctrines is found in the China Mission Handbooh(1896).See Secret Sects.KIRCHER, ATHANASIUS, a Jesuit andone of the most learned men the Society hasproduced. He was born at Ghyzen in Italy in1602, and after entering the Order he worked atWiirzburg, at Avignon and then in Rome, wherehe died in 1680. He wrote many books, amongthem China monumentis qua sacris qua profanisnee non variis naturae et artis spectaculis,aliarumque rerum memorabilium argunientisillustrata; first printed in Amsterdam in 1667. Itis generally referred to as China Hlustrata, or inits French translation, La Chine Hlustree.;Hc '^^^ ^*"j *^6 capital of the provinceK I R IN , §of the same name, is in Lat. N. 43° 49' ; Long. E.126° 45' on the left bank of the Sungari, whichrises in the mountainous regions on the south-east.Its existence as a town of any importance datesfrcm about 1650, when docks were established there,and the forests began to be exploited for shipbuilding.It was made a department in 1726, a fuin 1880, and was opened by the Komura treaty of1905, as a "self -opened mart." The trade is chieflyin timber and its manufactures (coffins, furniture,carts, junks, etc.), and tobacco and bean oil.KISHEN, ^# ch'i shan, a Manchu, broughtup at the Court and of handsome appearance,insinuating manners and great ability, a personalfriend of the Emperor Tad Kuang.In the First War with China, when the Britishfleet was at Taku in 1840, Kishen was Viceroy ofC'hihli and was commissioned to treat with theenemy. He and Captain Elliot met on August 30,and it was arranged that negotiations should betaken up at Canton, the Chinese idea being, ofcourse, simply to remove the foreigner as far fromPeking as possible. KishEn was appointed HighCommissioner in Kuangtung in place of Lin, whobecame Viceroy there. He was in favour of conciliationand procrastination, but Lin led a partyin favour of war. The cession of Hongkong was adifficulty which caused negotiations to be brokenoff once, but it was agreed to by a Convention ofJanuary 30, 1841. The Convention was disavowed

K'lTAIENf'YCLOrAEDIA SINICAby both Governments; KiSHEN was degraded andleft Canton in chains on March 12; his property,which has been estimated at the value of ten millionssterling, was confiscated, and he was condemned todeath.However, later on in the same year he was sentagain to see what he could do to placate theforeigner; but English and Chinese alike showedcontempt for him, and in May, 1842, his sentencehaving been commuted, he was banished to theAmur.The terms of the Nanking Treaty, however,so much harder than his Convention, were hisjustification, and he was sent as Resident to Lhasa.Abbe Hue found him there and had a good dealto do with him. It was by him that the twomissionaries Hue and Gabet were expelled fromTibet. They state that he was afterwards Viceroyin Ssuch'uan. \Da VIES : China durhuj the War; Hue :in Tartary, Thibet and China, vol. ii.TravelsK'lTAI or Khitai, a corruption ofK'itan (q.i'.)..\lso given as plural of K'itan in Mongol.K'lTANS or Khitans, %f^ Eastern Tartars,were a Tungusic people ; the name survives in Cathayand the Russian Kita:i. Their home for centurieswas east of the Khingan Mountains and north ofthe river Sira. They were subject sometimes to theKhakans of the Turks and sometimes to the ChineseEmperor ; but early in the tenth century A-pao-chi,a chief of one of their tribes, united the wholepeople under himself and then subjugated theadjoining nations from the Korean Sea to the Altai.The ruler of the Later Chin ^^, in return forhelp received from the son of this conqueror gavehim a large piece of Northern China, and engagedto pay him annual tribute and to acknowledge hissupremacy. The ne.xt Chinese ruler net liking theseterms, the K'itans overran all the country north ofthe Yellow River, and established the Liao igDynasty. The capital was at first Liao-yang, butit was moved to Peking. When their power wasbroken after two centuries of rule, they went westto Kashgaria, and there founded the new dynastycalled We.stern Liao or Kara K'itai (Karakhitai),[q.v.) black K'itans.The first ruler of the Western Liao is said tohave invented for himself the title Gurkhan. Therulex-s of the Liao dynasty were as follows;Dyn. Title Accession Reign Title AdoptedAD-A.D.* ffl T'ai Tsu 907 j^^ Shen Ts'e 916^^ T'ien Tsan 922;^Bl T'ien Hsien 925*^T'ai Tsung 927 ^J^ T'ien Hsien 925^ ^ Hui T'ung 937•X^ Ta T'ung 946Dyn. Title Accession Reign Title AdoptedA.D.A.D.tft^ ShihTsung 947 '^t^ T'ien Lu 947^^ Mu Tsung 951 mm Ying Li 951jPj^ Ching Tsung 968 ^^ Pao Ning 968$1'^ Ch'ien Heng 978U m Sheng Tsung 983 tStm T'ung Ho 983eg^ K'ai T'ai 1012X^ T'ai P'ing 1020^^ Hsing Tsung 1031 j^fS Ching Fu 1031Ch'ung Hsi 1032M^it ^ Tao Tsung 1055 j*^ Ch'ing Ning 1055j^#| Hsien Yung 1066'Xm. Ta K'ang 1074i^^ Ta An 1083^^ Shou Lung 1092JiM T'ien Tsu 1101 f^ Ch'ien T'ung 1101XM T'ien Ch'ing 1110p. 146.«.;A: Pao Ta 1119Yule : Cathay and the Way Thither, \'Ol. i,KITCHEN GOD, THE, gg ^ Tsao chiin,known as n] t^ ^alsojg" ssi'i mitig tsao chiin, etc.DoRE has gathered over twenty different accountsof his origin from Chinese books, and it musttherefore be considered as unknown. It wouldappear, however, that his worship dates fromWu Ti, a devotee of Taoism, and was in conne.xionwith alchemy, in B.C. 133. His picture is stuck upnear the cooking-stove in every home; his chiefduty is to apportion to each member of the familythe length of their days; he also bestows wealth orpoverty, and he notes and reports to heaven all thegoodi and bad of the household. Besides morefrequent reports, he gives an annual one at the endof the year, when it is the universal custom to burnthe picture, putting a new one up after the NewYear.DoRn : Becherches siir les Superstitions, etc.,tome .xi, p. 901 ; China Review : vol. vii, p. 419.KITE, an armed brig of the British, which atthe time of the First War in 1840, got wrecked nearChapoo. Several survivors, including the wife ofthe sailingmaster, were taken by the Chinese, loadedwith leg-irons 18 lbs. in weight, and put in cages3^ft. high. They were thus carried some days'journey to Ningpo, and were afterwards kept asprisoners from September till the next February.SeoTT : Narrative of a Itecent Imprisonment inChina after the Wreck of the Kite; 1841.KITES, (birds). See Accipitres.KITTYSOL, a name given to the Chine.sebamboo and paper umbrella. The word is a corruptionof the Spanish or Portuguese (ptitasol.Wenchow is the chief place of manufacture, halfa million being exported annually from that port.274

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAKLAPfiOTHKIUKIANG, ^}x,chiu chiung, 'nine rivers,' atreaty jjort on the Yangtze, twelve miles from theoutlet of the Po yang Lake, 458 miles above Shanghaiand 142 helovi Hankow. It was opened toforeign trade in 1861. The chief export trade isin tea, porcelain from the factories at King-t6 chen,grass-cloth, ramie, tobacco, beans and paper. Thecity, which is a prefectural city [fu] of Kiangsiwas destroyed by the T'ai P'ing rebels, but hasrecovered its jarosperity and the population isestimated at 70,000. Southv;ard are the Lu Shan^ ^J among which mountains is Ku-ling {q-v.).The British concession, the only foreignconcession in the port, is on the river bank abovethe city and ardjoining the north-west corner of thecity wall. It has about 1,500 feet of river frontageand a depth of some 600 feet. There is a municipalcouncil elected annually.A railway to the provincial capital Nan-ch'ang(87 miles), has been in course of construction for along time. It has now reached the river bankopposite Nan-ch'ang, but the river has to be bridgedand it will be some time yet before the trade ofKiukiang is much benefited.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 11,182,258 12,614,416Net Chinese „ 6,981,601 6,361,145Exports 21,114,261 23,431,435Total Hk.Tls. ... 39,278,120 42,406,996KIUNGCHOW, M'M Ch'iung chou, the seat ofgovernment in the i.sland of Hainan. It was openedto foreign trade in 1876 by the Tientsin Treaty,but was afterwards neglected for 18 years. It isthree miles from the actual port, which is calledHoihow ^ Phoi hUm. Kiucgchow has a populationof about 50,000 and Hoihow of about 30,000.The harbour needs dredging, as loading and unloadingcan only be done at certain states of the tide.The island remains undeveloped and indeed largelyunknown. The trade is therefore so far not great.Half the exports is made up of sugar and pigs,sesamum seeds and dried fruits being next inimportance.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 3,486,066 3,706,775Net Chinese „ ... 196,216 24,924Exports 2,561,234 2,386,188PoTTiNGER was al/out to attack the city, August 9,1842. On the 29th he was one of the signatories tothe Treaty of Nanking. He was made Viceroyat Nanking and six months later, on the death ofIlipu, became High Commissioner for foreign affairsat Canton, and then, in addition to that office,Viceroy at Canton. There he so behaved in hismost difficult post as to win high praise from theforeigners who had most, to do with him. InFebruary, 1848, he was called to Peking and madePresident of Board of War; but in 1850, on theaccession of Hsien Feng, he was degraded, forreasons which are not clearly known.In 1858, when the Envoys of the Allies were atTientsin, Kiying once more came to the front withhis honours restored and with full powers to treat,but it will never be known whether he hadvolunteered to act, with a view to re-establishing hisposition, or had been put forward by the Chinesegovernment as being the best man to deal withforeigners ; he was received so brusquely, or evenbrutally, that he at once retired. It was Mr. Laywho suddenly produced an old memorial to theEmperor in which Kiying, to save himself fromdegradation, had defended his apparently friendlyrelations with the barbarians at Canton. The agedstatesman was staggered by the rebuff. A fortnightafter this failure he was condemned to summarydecapitation, but a.s an Imperial clansman wasallowed to commit suicide. He was 72 years old.One important act of his was the memorial to.the Emperor in favour of Christianity, to which hewas urged by Lagrene in 1844. The resultingrescript and proclamation gave toleration to RomanCatholicism and Protestantism alike.Morse : The International Itelations of theChinese Empire; Eames : The English in China;Chinese Repository, passim..KLAPROTH, JULES HENRI, was born onOctober 11, 1783. He began to study Chinese whenonly fourteen, with the help of Mentzel's incompletevocabulary and an imperfect copy of Diaz'Chinese-Spanish dictionary. He studied at Halleand Dresden, and at nineteen he published atWeimar the beginning of his Asiutisches Magasin.This led to his being called to Russia in 1804, andhe was appointed interpreter to Golovkin's embassyto Peking. He made a long detour to reachIrkutsk, then proceeded with the embassy toTotal Hk.Tls. ... 6,243,516 6,117,887 Kiakhta where he studied Mongol and Manchu andmade a collection of books. After reaching UrgaKIVEN. The French transliteration of ^ and then being refused permission to go to Pekinga book, or section of a book ; most commonly writtenthe mission returned to Kiakhta whence a journey(hiidii by English writers.of exploration was made to the east. He reachedKIYING or KEYING. ^ ^ Ch'i Yivg, a St. Petersburg again in 1807, after twenty months'Manchu and an Imperial Clansman or Yellow Girdle absence, and was welcomed with honours and rewards.The Russian government then sent him to((2-v.). He arrived at Nanking with Ilipu, as HighCommissioner at the moment when Sir Henry explore in Georgia and the Caucasus, but for somek275

\ofjPehin,IKOKO1Kokoii! edict,landjTs'aidam,KLECZKOWSKIENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAunknown reason he did not publish an account ofthis difficult and interesting journey. Being thensent to Berlin to superintend the printing of theCatalogue of Chinese and Manchu books in the St.Petersburg Academy, he took the opportunity ofHegetting his dismissal from the Russian service.had been dissatisfied with his treatment. Afterworking at Warmbrunn and losing manuscriptsthrough the invasion of the district, he went toItaly and visited Napoleon in Elba. He is said tohave engaged himself to write for the Emperor, butWaterloo prevented. He went to Paris in 1815 andstayed there frhe rest of his life. At Humboldt'srequest the King of Prussia in 1816 gave Klaproththe title of Professor of the Languages andLiterature of Asia, with a good salary, funds forpublishing his works, and permission to stay inParis till they were completed. He spent the restof his days in his favourite studies, varied withbitter and stinging criticisms and discussions. In1834, he paid a visit to Berlin for health's sake, butreturned to die in Paris on August 27, 1835. Afew of his many works are Asiatischcs Marjasin, 2vols., 1802; Inscription de Yu, 1811; Supplhnentau Diet, chinois du Basile de Glemona, 1819;Catalocjut des livres et manuscripts chinois etviantchous de la bibliotheque de Berlin, etc., 1822;Vhrestomathie mandchou, 1828; with a large numberof articles on Chinese matters scattered througlihis other works or in the Biographic Universelle,Journal Asiatique, etc. A more complete list willbe found in the C. and J. Repository named below.Chinese and Japanese Repository, vol. i ; JournalAsiatique, 1835.KLECZKOWSKI, MICHEL ALEXANDRE,fount, was born in Galicia, February 27, 1818, andwas engaged in the Shanghai French Consulate, in1847; he was naturalized as a Frenchman in 1850,and was attached to the French Legation at Pekingin 1854 ; he was charge-d'affaires from June 1, 1862to April 11, 1863. He was then recalled to Parisa» secretary-interpreter of Chinese, and gave acourse of lectures at the Sorbonne. He wasappointed Professor in the Ecole des languesnrientales vivantes in 1871, and died March 23, 1885.He published Courn de Chinois parle et ecrit, 1876,and a Discoui-se delivered at the Sorbonne, 1869.CoRDiER : Histoire des Belations de la Chine, etc.KNIFEMONEY;?]^.Ancient Chinese coins,of bronze, somewhat resembling a foreign razorbladein shape and size.See Numismatics.KOFFLER, ANDREW XAVIER, a Jesuitmissionary born in Germany. He reached China in1649 and died in 1660 in Kuangsi. He was attachedto the Ming court when the refugee emperor YungLi was trying to hold Kuangtung, and he baptizedthe Emperor's mother, wife and son, besides largenumbers of the clan, high officials and eunuchs.He fell into the hands of a band of Manchusoldiers and was killed by them on December 12,1660,—^the first martyr in Kueichou. It is said thathis real name was not Koffler but Wolfgang.See Helen, Empri^ss.Backhouse and Bland : Annals and Memoirsthe Court of Peking; Bulletin Catholique de1915, p. 294.NOR, also written K'u k'u nor, thelake, also used as the name of the districtcalled in Chinese Ch'ing hai ^ x^, clear or blue sea:which was made into a province of China by imperialin 1911. It lies in the north-east of Tibet, informerly called the Tangut country. The lakeis 10,700 feet above sea-level, and is an ellipse 200miles in circumference and 2,300 square miles inextent. No doubt it once communicated with thewhich was then an immense lake thatoverflowed to the Lob nor. Now Lob nor andTs'aidam are reedy marshes and Koko nor a closedbasin, an example of the desiccation which has beengoing on in Central Asia for ages.The inhabitants are Mongols (Eleuths), 29 tribesor banners, and Tangouths, 40 tribes.KOLAO SOCIETY. See Elder BrotherSociety.KONGMOONj XLf^ chiang men, 'river gate,' aTreaty Port in the West River delta, now somethirty miles inland in spite of its name. It is 87miles from Hongkong and 45 from Macao. It wasopened in 1934 by the Mackay Treaty. The cityIS on a creek, but the Customs House is on the WestRiver, two miles away, where a foreign settlementhas been made. A railway runs south through afertile district to Towshan, 83 miles away ; and theRailway Company has steamers running to Hongkong,eight hours journey, in connection with thetrains.The export trade consists in palm-leaf fans,tobacco, paper and joss-sticks.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 3,571,968 6,721,783Net Chinese ,, — —Exports 1,103,202 1,530,949Total Hk.Tls. ... 4,675,170 8,252,732KORKHAN, 'khan of khans', the title of theruler of the Karak'itai Mongols. It has been suggestedthat this word, corrupted into Gorkhan andJorkhan, was carried into Europe by Syrians asJcchan, the Jewish form of John, and that hencearose the stories of Prester John. This explanationis given by Yule in his Marco Polo, vol. i, p. 205,(1st ed.l276

KOUANG TCHEOU WAN, ^ MM> »ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNICAWwhich, with surrounding territory, was leased toFrance for ninety-nine years by the Conventionof 1898, the area of the leased land being 84,244hectares or 325 square miles, with a Chinese populationof 189,000. It is on the Kuangtung coast,opposite Hainan, and about 230 miles west ofHongkong. The harbour is an excellent one, theport is free, and trade is in a promising condition.The place is under the authority of the GovernorGeneral of Indo-China.K'OU CH'IEN CHIH, MUZ, the first bearerof the Taoist title T'ien Shih ^.J$ He was aTaoist priest with the surname Fu-chen, a nativeof Chihii. He settled on the southern slopeof Sung shan and studied magic, until Lao Tzuappeared to him, appointed him head of the Taoistreligion, gave him a book full of talismans andtold him he ought to take the title of T'ien Shih.He took the book to the Wei emperor T'ai Wu Ti(a.d. 424) who favoured him and bestowed on himthe title,Ssu-MA KuANG, T'ung chien kany iiiuMMMUDoRE : Recherches sur les Superstitions, tomeix, p. 540.KOU LOU STONE.See Tablet of Yu.KOUMDAN. See Khumdan.KOUMISS, KUMIZ, KIMIZ, an ardent spiritprepared from mares' milk, the habitual drink ofthe Mongols and other Asiatic nomads. It is madeby ^jutting fresh mares' milk with a little sour cows'milk or curd into a horse-skin vessel ; when acidfermentation begins the liquor is violently churnedwith a stick. After 3 or 4 days the drink is ready.It will keep a long time and is regarded as verybeneficial in pulmonary complaints. It is more orle.ss an intoxicant, according to the degree offermentation, but Mohammedan converts fromnomad tribes continue its use though abstainingfrom wine.KOWLOON, j/Ltl ''hin lung, the mainlandopposite the island cf Jricigkong. Hongkong havingbeen ceded to Great Britain in 1842, it was not till1860 that Kowloon was acquired. Bruce had thensent an ultimatum to China, and during the monthwhile an answer was awaited it would not have beenlegal to use any force. He therefore sent orders toSir H. Robinson in Hongkong, who put Mr. (Sir)Harry Parkes to work ; and he succeeded in rentingabout two square miles of the mainland togetherwith Stonecutter's Island for the sum of £120 perannum ! No wonder that Sidney Herbert, Secretaryfor War, exclaimed that the Chinese were the mostextraordinary people in the world ! Troops occupiedit on March 18, 1860. The same year, by theConvention of Peking, October 24, Kowloon wasceded to Great Britain.KOXINGAIn 1898 an agreement was made to cede toGreat Britain for ninety-nine years a total area of376 square miles including 90 sq, m. of islands.The district is called the New Territory, and ithas been already much developed, especially byreads and by the southern portion of the railway toCanton. The Chinese population is estimated at80,000.The control of the Customs stations on themainland near Hongkong was handed over to theImperial Maritime Customs in 1887, and a sourceof friction between the Chinese and HongkongGovernments thus came to an end. A considerabletrade is carried on with the Hinterland, and sincethe opening of the British section of the Canton-Kowloon railway, in October 1910, the traffic hasincreased. 1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 30,862,729 30,159,083Net Chinese „ 4,592,685 4,882,928Exports 11,182,958 12,001,472Total Hk.Tls. ... 46,638,372 47,043,483KaILWAY TRAF^^IC.Net Foreign Imports ...Net Chinese ,,E.xportsTotal Hk.Tls.1,560,115 1,825,465452,248 1,132,3502,012,363 2,957,815KOWSHING, iglS kao shenrf, the name of aBriti.sh boat employed by the Chinese governmentto transport troops to Korea when war with Japanwas imminent. She was met by Japanese men-ofwar,and as the Chinese troops would not allow theirforeign officers to surrender, she was fired at andsunk and over a thousand lives lost, July 25, 1894.KOXINGA or KOSHINGA, etc., M & ^hsing yeh, ' lord of the country's families.'KuoThe name, by which he is best known, of ChengCh'eng-kxjng ^ f6L ^]. He was the son of aChinese father from Fukien and a Japanese mother.Both his father and he fought against the Manchuswhen they were establishing their dynasty. Thefather at last submitted, but Koxinga remainedhostile and with his fleet of 3,000 junks becamemaster of the sea and ravaged the coasts. Failingto retain Fukien he established himself at Ch'ungmingIsland at the mouth of the Yangtze (1656).Next year he went up to Nanking, taking variouscities on the way ; but he was defeated with heavyloss and retreated to Amoy. Here he was soughtby the Manchus, but he destroyed their fleet (1660).The emperor then took the extraordinary measureof removing 10 miles inland all inhabitants of thecoast and river line between Canton and Nanking,destroying their villages and towns and leaving toKoxinga no hope of supplies for his fleet The la?tI277

KO YAOENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICArepresentative of the Ming rule, in whose causeKoxiNGA was fighting, was killed at this time, andthere was thus no further hope of the fleet bemgassisted by risings among the people. Koxingadetermined therefore to establish himself finally inI'ormosa. He was of course supported by Chineseimmigrants there, whom the Dutch had not treatedjudiciously. He reached Taiwan on April 30, 1661,and besieged the Dutch Fort Zelandia from June 1to February 1 the next year, when it was surrendered.During the siege he took many Dutchprisoners in the neighbourhood. One of these hesent to treat for him with the fortress ; but thishero, a Protestant clergyman named Hambrocockor Hambrouck played exactly the part of Regulus,encouraged the garrison to hold out, and returnedto be massacred by Koxinga with about 500 otherprisoners. The defenders of the fortress wereallowed to depart with their arms, etc., and theDutch rule came to an end.The new sovereign was naturally more acceptableto the Chinese than their foreign masters, butKoxinga refrained from taking the imperial title.He began his rule well, establishing schools, makingroads, etc. But in 1662, he sent the DominicanFather Ricci to Manila to demand that the Philippinesshould recognise his suzerainty, with thethreat that otherwise he would deal with the Spanishas he had with the Dutch. This demand naturallycaused troubles in Manila between Spaniards andChinese, in the midst of which a Chinese captaintied with his ships to Formosa and announced thefalse news that all Chinese in the Philippines hadbeen massacred. This report put Koxinga intosuch mad fury that after five days he died. Hisson and grandson continued his kingdom till itpassed to the Manchus.Koxinga was only 38 when he died ; he wasambitious, but with some traits of nobility ; a manof great boldness, resolution and intelligence, just,though severe to excess. His energy and mightmade him a terror to the Manchus and an object offear to the foreign peoples in the East.KO YAO, S-S- Porcelain of the Sung period,twelfth century. It was the manufacture of apotter called Chang the Elder, and is distinguisTiedfor its fine crackle. The name has since beenextended to all porcelain with crackled monochromeglaze of allshades of celadon, gray and white.BusHELL : Chinese Art, vol. ii.KUAN CHUNG, ^ f.li , or Kuan i wu ^^^.a native of the Ch'i State who became Minister ofState there and died b.c. 645. The speculativework called Kunn Tzu ^^ -J- is attributed to him,but it seems more probable that it is a forgery ofKcme centuries later. The friendship between KuanChung and Pao Shu-ya, the former minister, wass-o strong that they are referred to in (!hina a.sDamon and Pythias are in the West.His policy made Ch'i into a wealthy andinfluential State, and he has been called the fatherof institutions that have been of the greatest importancein the economical development of Chinae.g.the taxes on salt and iron.Among other methods to attract traders it is.stated in K'ang Hsi's dictionary, on the authorityof the Chan kuo ts'e, that he appointed houses forprostitutes in the capital of his state.His master was the famous Duke Huan.HiRTH : Ancient History of China; Legge :China Review, vol. i, p. 370. (Given also inHirth; v. sup.).KUANG CHOU WAN. See Komauj-tcheouKUANG HSU, it^(/lorious- succession, thereign-title of the last ruler but one of the Ch'ingdynasty, whose personal name was TsAi T'lEN fj^ ^.When T'UNG Chih died in 1875, his consortA-lu-t'k was with child, and if she had borne a sonshe would have thereby supplanted the Empi-essdowager Tz'u Hsi, who, though mother of the lateEmperor, had been only a secondary concubine.Tz'u Hsi, however, ignored the claims of the unbornchild, and A-lu-t'e did not live to become a mother.The possible successors to the throne werefirst P'u LuN, a grandson of the eldest son ofTao Kuang ; he was of a lower generation thanT'UNG Chih and could therefore perform the propersacrifices ; second, the son of Prince KuNG who wasthe sixth son of Tag Kuang ; he, however, wasnearly seventeen, and would therefore scon havetaken the power into his own hands. Tz'ii Hsi'spreparations having been made—including military—a Council of Clansmen with five Chinese oflficialswas called ; Tz'ii Hsi brushed aside the propositionthat P'u LuN should succeed, on the ground thathis father, Prince Tsai Chih, who was present, wasonly an adopted son of Tao Kuang's eldest son; shealso put aside the nomination of the son of PrinceKuNG, the 6th son of Tag Kuang, and herselfproposed Tsai T'ien, son of Tag Kuang's 7th sonPrince Ch'un and the Empress-dowager's .sister.The vote of the Council apiaointed Tsai T'ien, andTz'u Hsi immediately sent a strong guard to bringthe child to the palace. He was then four years old.The decision was contrary to dynastic law, andwas strongly opposed. Tsai T'ien (or Kuang Hsii),being of the same generation as his predecessor, hadto be the adopted heir of Hsien Feng his uncle,with the proviso that when he had a son, that sonshould be T'ung Chih's heir. A-lu-t'e is supposedto have committed suicide as a protest; though thisis not the only supposition with regard to her death ;\Vu K'o-TU, a Censor, committed suicide at the278

ENf'YCLOPAEDTA SINICAKUANG HSUtime of T'uNG Chih's funeral, four years later jand the many troubles of the Kuang Hsii periodare put down by the superstitious to the fact thatT'UNG Chih was left without an heir.The young Emperor seemed to cleave toTz'u An, the co-Regent, more than to Tz'u Hsi ; andthough Tz'u An was too amiable or poor-spirited tocause much trouble on her own account, she wassometimes urged and backed by Prince Kung to takeindependent action; (see An Tii-hai). There wasa sharp quarrel between the Empress-dowager in1880 at the Imperial Tombs on a question of precedence; it was quickly followed by the mysteriousillness and quick death of Tz'u An, and henceforthTz'u Hsi was the sole Regent.In 1887 Kuang Hsii completed his 17th year,but she was urgently petitioned to continue hercontrol of affairs for a time, and it was not tillFebruary, 1889, that she passed her powers over tothe Emperor on the occasion of his marriage toher favourite niece, the daughter of her brotherthe duke Kuei Hsiang. iShe then retired mere orless from active interference with government.The Emperor's father, the first Prince Ch'un,died in 1891, on January 1.In 1895 China was humiliated by Japan.T.'.'u Hsi knew full well where to place the blamefor the wretched condition of the army and navy.She defended Li Hung-chang, whose positionbetween the Japanese and the arrogant and ignorantManchus had been most difficult, and she heapedblame on the Emperor for acting without her knowledgeand. consent; which is not likely. It is saidthat the long years of bitter relations between thembegan at this time, and that the Emperor's Consortwas also henceforth quite alienated from him, whilethe death of his mother, Tz'u Hsi's sister, in 1896,niade the position more hopeless.The important leaders at the Court at this timeand later were Wkng T'ijng ho, formerly theEmperor's tutor, and representing the more liberalSouth; Hsii T'ung, formerly T'ung Chih's tutor,a conservative, and to all intents and purposes aManchu at heart, though a Chinese; Kang I, amost bigoted Manchu ; and K'ang Yu-wei whomWbng introduced to the Emperor. Prince Kungdied in 1898; and it was among these factiouselements that the Emperor's plans of reform wereborn. The first Reform Edict brought the Empressdowagerinto action ; she professed sympa,thy withreform, but tightened her hold on the managementof affairs, the first result being the dismissal ofVVeng T'ung-ho. The Emperor fell more and moreunder the influence of K'ang Yu-Vi'Ei and issuedone Reform Edict after another, while the Empress,looking on, grew more and more suspicious. Theconservatives at last begged Tz'u Hsi to resumepower, while on the other hand K'ang Yu-wei wasurging on the Eraperdr the necessity of seizing andsuppressing her.By August, 1898, the Empress-dowager was atone with the reactionary party. The Emperor wasseeking the help of Yiian Shih-k'ai, with a view tofirst killing Jui^'G Lu and then seizing the Empressdowager.She, still ignorant of this plot, orderedthe arrest of K'ang Yu-wei, who was immediatelywarned by the Emperor so that he escaped toShanghai. The simplest and best-known part ofthe whole story is that the Emperor then entrustedthe details of his plot to Yuan Shih-k'ai, who,having promised faithful performance straightwaywent and told all to Jung Lu. The immediateresult was that the Emperor was seized and confinedto the small island in the lake, the island calledOcean Terrace. His reign was finished thoughthe title of Emperor was left him, and Tz'u Hsientered on her third Regency. It is probable thatfear of trouble with the southern provinces, butmore especially the express warnings the Empressdowagerreceived from some of the foreign ministers^were the only reasons for Kuang Hsii being allowedto live. Six of the reforming party had beenarrested and were put to death, and K'ang Yu-wei,Liang Ch'i-ch'ao and Sun Yat-sen were condemnedto be executed when they could be caught. Someleading reactionaries whom the Emperor had dismissedwere restored to office. Tz'ii Hsi camemore and more under the influence of Kang I,but she put out many comforting edicts and had thebrilliant idea of charming the ladies of the Legationsby inviting them to the Palace. At the same time.she dreamed of a nation in arms and ordered thelocal train-bands to be drilled in Chihli, Fengt'ien,and Shantung. The Boxer outbreak [q.v.) followedin 1900, with all its virulence and indecision, till onAugust 15, the Court fled from the capital. TheEmperor was in a common cart with P'u Lun onthe shaft. It was some days before the cart wasexchanged for a mule-litter, then for a sedan chair.All through this period, though some decrees wereissued in the Emperor's name, he was a nonentity.In January of 1900, he had been made to beg forP'u Chiin, the son of Prince Tuan, to be Heir toT'ung Chih and successor to the throne. On thepunishment of Prince Tuan, the appointment wasrescinded in November 1901. The Court havingreturned to the capital, the Foreign Ministers werereceived in Audience as arranged in the PeaceProtocol, but the Empress-dowager was in the higherseat and the Emperor in the lower.Any particular that may be given as to theEmperor's life or mind is no more than an on dit.Little can be recorded beyond the facts that he wasabsolutely helpless in the power of the Empressdowager,that his health was bad and ever gettingworse, and that he died in November 1908. The279

KUANGSIENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAmost varied estimates have been made of his intellectualand moral powers, but the time to fullyunderstand him hKs not come.Bland and Backhouse : China under theEmpress-dowager.KUANGSI, J^H the broad ivest, an inlandprovince, adjoining Kuangtung and forming with itthe Two Kuang, (Liang Kuang).It is a wild, mountainousprovince, the most thinly populated one ofthe eighteen. The area is 77,220 sq. miles, and theinhabitants 5,142,000. The hills are not more thanabout 3,000 feet in height, but they occupy the wholeprovince. The Si kiang (West Eiver) with threetributaries are the chief waterways : the West Eiverruns right across the province to enter Kuangtung,and part of its Kuangsi course is navigable forsteamers. Sugar-cane, rice, cotton and maize arethe more important products, and there is greatmineral wealth though it has been little worked.Kueilin ;g|^, cassia grove is the capital city,with 80,000 inhabitants, but Wu chou i^ jHI is thetnost important city of the province and the centreof all its trade. It is on the Sikiang, two and ahalf days abve Canton. There are three ports opento foreign trade, Lungchow t'ing t|il^'I®. Wuchou fuand Nanning fu.The population consists of Cantonese (Punti),Hakkas and aborigines. The literary name for theprovince is ij pg Yiieh h.«i.KUANGTUNG, ^-^, the broad east, themost southern of the provinces, and better providedwith harbours than any other. It includes theisland of Hainan. Its area is 100,000 sq. miles andits population 31,865,200. It has Fukien, Kiangsiand Hunan to the north, Kuangsi and Tonkin to thewest, with sea on the south and east. Except forthe great delta of the Pearl River the province ismountainous, the hills rising in the north to 6,500ft. Its rivers are the Sikiang MtL(Q-v.) or WestRiver, with two large tributaries, the Peikiang:|b ^ or North River and the Tungkiang ^ jx orEast River, which together drain most of theprovince ; with the Hankiang ^ jl in the extremewest. The delta is very fertile, rice, sugar-cane,wheat, tea, tobacco, groundnuts, ginger and orangesbeing the chief products. There are extensive ccalfields in several districts.Kuangchou fu, known to the western world asCanton, is the capital. (See Canton). Other importantcities are Chao-ch'ing fu ^g/jff, Fatshan ^ jllwith half a million inhabitants; Shih Lung "^ f|;Swatow, {q.v.), etc. There are six ports open toforeign trade. Canton, Swatow, Hoihow (inHainan), Pakhoi, Samshui and Kiangmen or Kongmoon.(See under each heading). Three portionsof the province have been ceded to foreign powersHongkong (with Kowloon) to Great Britain, Macaoto Portugal and Kuangchow wan to France.The literary name for the province is Yiiehtung ^ y^lMore than half the population consistsof Cantonese [Punti or pen ti -^i^.); there arebesides Hakka (q.v.), Hoklo (from Fukien) andaboriginal peoples.KUANG, TWO. See Liang Kuang.KUANG YAO, }^-^, the general term for theceramic production of the Kuangtung province. Itis all stoneware, no porcelain being made in Kuangtung,though large quantities are carried fromChing-te-chen to be enamelled and re-fired inCanton. Bushell : Chinese Art, vol. ii.KUANG YUN, Jgf0. See Lexicography.KUAN-TI, M^, called Kuan Yii |g ^ andother names, is the Chinese Mars, the god of war.He was born in the modern Shansi and was a heroof the period of the Three Kingdoms. He was aloyal supporter of Liu Pei who became first Emperorof the Miner Han dynasty. Being taken prisonerby HsuN Cn'iiAN he was executed in a.d. 220, at theage of 58. Posthumous honorific titles were bestowedon him by several emperors, and Wan-li of theMing dynasty deified him. He has sacrifices on the15th of the 2nd moon and the 13th of the 5th. Histemple is called Wu sheng miao ^5gli5l, and he is tothe military what Confucius is to the literaryclasses, and in addition he has somehow come to beregarded as a god of literature.DoRE : Eecherches sur les Superstitions, vol. vi,p. 54.KUANTUNG or KWANTUNG, i^ :^: , east ofthe barrier, an alternative name for the Manchurianprovince Shengching, also called Liaotung.It is now also used for a portion of thatprovince, for the 'leased territory' in the extremesouth, about 1,300 square miles in area, which wasleased in 1898 to Russia for 25 years. (Conventionof Peking). After the Russo-Japanese war theleased territory passed to the Japanese by theTreaty of Portsmouth, 1905.It isoften wrongly spelt Kuangtung or Kwangtung,as in Norrega.\rd's The Great Siege and inHerslet's Treaties, where Kwangtung, NorthChina and Kwangtung, South China, are carefullydistinguished in the index. Kwangtung is theprovince of which Canton is the capital.KUAN TZU. See Kuan Chung.KUAN YAO, 'a*^, imiierial or official porcelain,the term being properly applied to Sungware made at the imperial potteries at K'ai-fengfu and Hangchow. The name is still used for theproductions of Ching-te -chen.BusHELL : Chinese Art, vol. ii.KUAN YIN, Mfi- The Chinese goddess ofMercy. See Avalokita,280

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAKUEI WANGKUAN YIN TZU, whose name was ^ ^Yin Hsi, the official who, according to Ssu-MACh'ien, was in charge of the "Pass" between theChinese Empire and the state of Ch'in, whenJ^AO Tzu [q.v.) arrived there on his way to retirementand obscurity, and at whose request the sagei'j said to have written the Tan Tt ChiiKj. Thereforethe work which now bears the name of Kvan YinTzu, if authentic, would antedate both Chuang Tzuand LiEH Tzu; but the internal evidence provesconclusively that it is of much later date, thoughembodying some early Taoist teachings perhaps fromthe lips of Kuan Yin Tzu himself. Its existenceis said to have been known in the Han dynasty,after which it was lost for a time. As it stands,it is full of the ideas of Mahayana Buddhism, andmay well date from the Sung dynasty. It isapparently an attempt to unite in one system theTaoist and Buddhist doctrines. Some extracts havebeen made by Suzuki, who thinks the whole work"full of profound philosophical reflection." It doesnot appear to have been translated into anyEuropean tongue.Suzuki : Hi.^torij of Chinese Pliilosnphy;Parker : Studies in Chinese Ihlir/ion.KUAN- ViJ. See Kuan Ti.KUBLAI KHAN. See Khnhilni.KUCHA, %^ Ch'in tzu, in the Tarim basinon the Great South Road between Turfan andKashgar. It was already a flourishing city in the.second century B.C. It appears to have been anAryan colony speaking the language known asTokharian B or Kuchanese ; see Arch(Volo(jy. TheHan records mention it, but it is not spoken of asa seat of Buddhism till the Former Ch'in, whenit was said to have a triple wall and athousand stupas and temples.lu 383, the Former Ch'in |ii ^ dynasty subduedKucha, and among other captives took Kumarajiva(q.c.) to China. During the next three centuriesthere are many references to the place which ismuch praised for its fertility, wealth religiousestablishments and music.HsiiAN Tsang visited and described it. In658, it was made the seat of government for theterritory known as The Four Garrisons. Wu K'ungvisited "it about 788, after which the next mentionof it is in the eleventh century, when it was underthe Uighurs, though Buddhism was evidently notextinct.Chavannes : Docwnents sur les Tou-hiue orciilmtavx;Stein : Ancient Khotan.KUCHENG MASSACRE; Ku ch'eng "S^ tiSis 90 miles N.W. of Foochow, and Hua shan ig Hior Hwa-sang, where the massacre actually tookplace, is 12 miles from Ku-ch'eng. On Hua-shanChurch of England Mission had a Sanatorium,ie36and here a sudden attack was made by some hundredor two hundred members of a Vegetarian sectwhich had been giving trouble to the local officials.The attack was made in the early morning ofAugust 1, 1895 ; nine foreigners were killed on thespot, Piev. R. W. Stewart and his wife, MissNellie Saunders, Miss Topsy Saunders, MissHessie Newcombe, Mis« Elsie Marshall, MissLucy Stewart, (not related to the other Stewarts)Nurse Lena Yellov, and Miss Annie Gordon.Several others received severe wounds, two Stewart281children dying of their injuries.KU CH'UAN HUl, l»f ^ fl- The fullest("hinese work on native coins ; issued in 1864. SeeNuinisnwfics.KUEI CHOW, Mi'fl. l^recinvsdistrict, a southernprovince, has an area of 67,182 sq. miles and apopulation of 7,650,000. It has Ssuch'uan on thenorth, Yiinnan on the west, Kuangsi on the southand Hunan on the east. Seven-tenths of the provinceis mountainous, the valleys lying at some 6,000feet and the hills rising to 9,000 feet. The chiefriver is the Wu chiang .(n; iX.which flows into theYangtze ; the Hua chiang ^{j fX. and Liu chiang i^ fCflow south into the West River, which for somedistance is the southern boundary of the province.There is a good deal of mineral wealth, which isneglected.Kueiyang fu ^^Jjf^, with 100.000 inhabitants,is the capital city.The province has only been part of the Chineseempire for two centuries, and part of it remainedindependent till 1869. The Chinese form only onefourth of the population, the rest being aboriginaltribes, Miaotzu, I chia, Chung chia and Lolo.(See Aboriffines).The literary name for the province is Ch'ien gj.K'UEI HSING, j^M., the god of literature,and distributor of literary degrees. Originally theconstellation K'uci ^ was worshipped as god ofliterature, and was supposed to be the palace ofWi^:N Ch'ang {q-'i'.). Later K'uei ^ in the constellationUrsa Major was substituted. The origin ofK'uei hstng as a god, and of W^en ch'ang and theconnection between these two is very difficult tounravel from the Chinese texts. Both are Taoistproducts.DoRF. : Beche.rches sur les Superstitions , vol. vi,p. 45; Mayers in N.C.B.R.A.S. Journal, 1869.KUEI RIVER, l^fl, I'uei hianfj, a river risingin the north-east of Kuangsi and falling into theWest River at Wuchow. Its upper waters andthose of the Siang river are joined by a canal, thusproviding a waterway between Canton and theYangtze ports. See Sianr/ Biver.KUEI WANG, ;S5E- See Yung Li.

KUEILIN FUENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAKUEILIN FU, ;^;fj;, the capital of Kuangsi,in ]at. 25°, 16' N., long. 110° 18' E. When ShihHuang Ti annexed Yiieh in 216 b.c. he named thenew province Kuei lin or Cassia Grove. The citywall, built in 1341, resisted the storming of theT'ai P'ing rebels. Above Kuei lin is the Kuei linPass over the Nan Shan, leading to the Siang rivervalley. The population of the city is 80,000. Theindustries are insignificant, and consist in tanning,paper-making and umbrella-making.KU LANG SU, gi^gl^, drum wave island;so named because of the booming noise made bythe sea on a hollowed rock : a remarkably prettyisland west of the harbour of Amoy, a third of amile from the city and having a circumference ofabout three miles. It was given over by China asan International Settlement in 1903, and theConsulates and nearly all houses of foreign residentsare found there, though business is generally doneon the Amoy side.KULDJA.See Hi.KULIANG, ^^, a well-known summer resortin Fukien is situated on hills nine miles east ofFoochow. The temperature never exceeds 85°, F.About a hundred houses are owned by foreigners onthehill.KU-LIANG CH'IH, ^^^, author of acommentary on the Ch'mi Ch'iu, which like thoseby Tso-ch'iu Ming and Ktjng-yang Kao is reckonedas a secondary classic. He lived in the fifth centuryB.C.Legge : Classics, vol. v., (prolegomena).KULING, the name given by foreigners to ahealth resort at the foot of the Ku niu ling Ife ^ ^Bull Range or Ox Ridge, in Kiangsi. (Richardgives it as ;;Lli chixi liiuj, Nine Ridges). It isreached from Kiukiang, without much difficultynow, since there is a motor service across the plainto be continued soon halfway up the mountain.The hisitory of the spot as a summer resort began in1895. The place is some 3,500 feet up. The censustaken on August 1, 1917 showed a foreign populationof 1,731. There are 320 houses, besides a church,a medical hall,etc.KUMARAJIVA, called the nineteenth Westernpatriarch of Buddhism. His father was a nativeof Kashmir who lived in Kucha. The son went toKashmir for his education, returned to Kucha as aMahayanist, and became noted as a teacher. Hewas among the prisoners taken by Lii Kuang, thegeneral sent by Fu Chien of the Former Ch'indynasty, who destroyed Kucha in 383. He stayedwith Lii KuANG in Kansu till 401, then went to thecourt of Yao Hsing, second ruler of the Later Ch'indynasty.He translated many works into Chinese, butit is probable that his knowledge of the Chineselanguage was not very profound, and his translationshave been generally superseded. He died about 412.Giles : Biographical Dictionary ; Edkins :Chinese Buddhism; Bunyiu Nanjio : Cat. ofTranslation of Buddhist TripitaJca.KUMDAN. See Khumdan.KUMIS. See Koumiss.KUMQUATS. See Oranges.K'UNG CHI, JLIS, a grandson of Confucius,born about 500 b.c, and author of the ^ J^ ChungYung or Doctrine of the Mean. His tablet wasplaced in the Confucian Temple in 1108.Giles : Biogra^Mcal Dictionary.ofKUNGMOON. See Kongmoon.KUNG PAO, ^ 1^, palace guardian; the titleaddress for those who held the honorary post ofJunior Guardian of the Heir apparent. SeeGuardian.KUNG, PRINCE, properly Prince of Kung,S^ )^2; (personal or quasi-surname ^ |^) bornin 1832. He was the sixth son of the Emperor TagKuang and brother of Hsien Feng who gave himhis princely title in 1850. He was a member ofthe commission which in 1858 tried Ch'i Ying(Ki Ying or Keying). When Hsien Feng fled toJehol at the approach of the Anglo-French forcesin 1850, it was on Prince Ktjng that all the responsibilitylay of making the best terms possible withthe foreigner. The Tsung-li Yamen was institutedthe next year, under his presidency. At the deathof his brother Hsien Feng, a conspiracy to seizetlie regency was crushed by him and theEmpress-dowager; (see Tsai Yiian Conspirarcy).The Empress-dowager by special decree madehis title of ch'in wang ^ ^, Prince cf the blood,to be hereditary for ever, but she always borehim some ill will, and four times at least hesuffered degradation, though perhaps only for aday or a week : the strong hand was always thereto keep him in his proper place and punishpresumptuous pride. His son was proposed assuccessor to T'ung Chih, but Tz'u Hsi would nothave it. From 1884 to 1894, he was in retirementthen he was called back to office, and from thattime till 1898, when he died, he was highly thoughtof by foreigners.K'UNG SHU-LIANG HO, fLiSit^lfe. Thefather of Confucius, remarkable for strength andstature. He married a second time at 70 years old,Confucius being the ofTspring of this marriage ; andhe died when his son was 3 years old, b.c. 548. Histablet is in the Confucian Temple.Giles : Biographical Dictionary.?8?

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICALACQUERKUNG-SUN CH'IAb.K'UNG TZU CHI A YU.See Tzu Ch'an.See GMa Yu.KUNG-YANG K/KO, i^^M, author of acommentary on the Ch'un C'h'iu, considered as a.secondary classic like the commentaries of Tso-ch'itjMing and Ku-liang Ch'ih. He lived in the fifthcentury B.C.Legge : Chinese Classics, vol. v., {prolegomena).K'UN-LUN MOUNTAINS, E^lU ^'-^nlunshun, also written K'wen lun. A name both geo-Ljraphical and mythical. In geography it means thegreat range of mountains vkfhich begins in the Pamirsin the west, divides Tibet from Chinese Turkestan,and dwindle.s away eastward in the hills whichdivide the Yangtze and Yellow River basins. Therange is regarded by geologists as the true backboneof Asia, being an earlier elevation than the Himalayanchain, south of Tibet.In legend K'un-lun is a mountain of CentralAsia, perhaps to be identified with Hindu Khushbut Taoist and other fables make it the centralmountain of the world, 10,000 li in height. TheHsi Wang-mu {q.v.) lives there with her fairylegions ; there is the fountain of immortality andthence flow the four great rivers of the world.Many of the legends are evidently Hindu in originand K'un-lun is the same as Sumeru.KUO SUNG-TAO, IPJiH a native of Hunan,resident Envoy ever sent by China to anythe firstother nation. He was sent to Great Britain in1876 ; Dr. (Sir) Halliday Macartney accompaniedhim as English Secretary, and also Mr. (Sir) W. C.HiLLiER. He returned to China in 1879 after anuneventful tenure of office, and died in 1887.CoRDiER : Histoire des Relations, etc.KUO TZU I,^•f'Wi} a native of Honan, bornin A.D. 697. He spent a long life in war and wasone of China's most successful generals-, subduingrebellions against the T'ang rule during four reigns.He died in 781, and has been canonized as ChungWxJ ^.m.Parker states that Kuo Tzu-i was suspectedof being a Nestorian Christian.Edkins : Kwo Tsl yi, Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S.,vol.XXXV.KUO YU, g^, State Speeches or Remarksconcerning the States; a work taken by most to "heby Tso-ch'iu Ming, historical matter accumulatedby him when preparing the commentary on theCh'un vh'iu. It is sometimes called Wui chuan.Wylie : Notes on Chinese Literature.K'U-P'ING TAEL. See Tael.KUSAI. A Manchu term, written gl iJ[j inChinese, denoting a national division (Manchu,Mongol or Chinese) under each of the Eight Banners.LAC.See Lakh.LACOUPERIE, ALBERT TERRIEN DE,born at Havre in 1845, died in London in 1894. Areverse of fortune in the business world drove himabroad. He went to London, and through theinfluence of Yule and others whom he interested,he was charged with the work of preparing thecatalogue of Chinese coins in the British Museum.Later he was appointed Professor of Chinese atUniversity College, the students' fees being his onlyreward. His life in England, where he was naturalized,was a constant struggle with poverty.In his studies and writings he was veryversatile, and brought forward many new theorieswith much eagerness, giving rise to keen discussion.The western origin of Chinese civilization is perhapshis most interesting theory.A complete list of his many and varied writingsis given in the T'oung Pao, vol. v, p. 428 et se^q.,and, of course, in Cordier's Bibliothecu Sinica.LACQUER.There are no exact records of itsorigin in China though the art can be traced to theSung dynasty. The medium used is lac, obtainedmainly from the lac tree {Rhus vernicifera), ch'i shu^ ^ cultivated in Central and Southern China.Thewhite resinous sap, which becomes black on exposureto air, is drawn from the tree during summer nights,collected and brought to market in a semi-fluid stateor in cakes. It is then ground and pressed throughhempen cloth and made into a viscous fluid.The lac is first prepared and coloured, then itis applied with spatula and brush in successivelayers to the surface, varying from three to eighteen,each layer being dried before the next is added ;finally the lacquered surface is ornamented withpainted designs, or carved before it has cooled.Wood is the usual groundwork.Yellow transparent lacquer contains gambogeon amber lacquer contains pigs' gall and vegetableoil ; the best red lacquer is made by grinding283

kAOAONESENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAt.iimabar with the raw lac; black lacquer containsiron sulphate or charcoal ;golden yellow is preparedby adding powdered gold ; silvery white, by addingsilver dust, etc.Chinese lacquer is divided into two kindspainted, hua ch'i ^^, carved, tiuo ch'i fljl^.Canton and Foochow produce painted lacquer.Carved lacquer, chiefly a vermilion red, is made atPeking and Soochow, but nothing of importance hasbeen produced at either place since the Ch'ien Lungperiod. Both kinds are sometimes inlaid wth preciousstones or mother-of-pearl. The art reachedits culmination under Ch'ien Lung (1736-95), buthas always been inferior to that of Japan, whichitlearnt it from China.BusHELL : Chinese Art, vol. i.LADRONES, the Portuguese name for thepirates who, at the beginning of the nineteenthcentury, were very bold and strong on the southerncoasts. It Avas estimated that there were 25,000men with 500 or 600 sail, well organized in fivedivisions. Most of the vessels were between 70 and150 tons, but there were some of 200 tons, carryingtwelve guns. Both merchant ships and coast townswere liable to attack, unless they had previouslypaid for exemption. The ladrones were under therule of a woman, the widow of one of their formerchieftains. They increased so much that the Chinesesought the help of the Portuguese who cruised withsix ships for six months between Macao and Canton,receiving 80,000 taels for expenses. In 1809 thepirates had increased to the number of 70,000 with1,800 ships, but the policy of cutting off supplies bykeeping all vessels in port, combined with quarrelsamong the pirate leaders, broke their power. Somewent over to the Government and were wellrewarded. Chinese Eepositoiiy : vol. iii, p. 68;D.wis : The Chinese, c. iii.LAD RONE ISLANDS or Ladrones, a group ofislands south-east of Macao, so named by the Portugueseas being the haunt of pirates. The Chinesename is Lao wan shan. Hongkong is properly inthis group.LAGOMYID/E, the Family of pikas or taillesshares. Six species are known from N. China, theirnames and distribution being as follows :—Ochotoiia danurica, Mongolia; O. bedfvrdi,Shansi, Shensi ; 0. annectens, E. Kansu; 0. causa,VV. Kansu ;O. cansa moroso, S. Shensi ; 0. syrinx,S. Shensi, S.W. Kansu ; O. surella, Shansi.SowERBY : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii.LAGRENE.THEODOSE MARIE MELCHIORJoseph, sent to China in 1843 with the title ofenvoy-extraordinary and Minister-plenipotentiary ofFrance, was born in Picardy, March 14, 1800. HeMgned with Ch'i Ying the treaty of Whampoa in1844. Pere Callehy was interpreter in this Mission,and issued the correspondence connected with theTreaty and also a Journal'of the diplomaticoperations ;' but this, by Lagrene's orders, was leftunfinished. Returning in 1846 Lagkene was madea peer of France. He died on April 27, 1862.Cordier : Les liclatioiis dc la Chine, etc.LAKH. A Hindi word meaning one hundredthousand.LAMA fj^^, a Tibetan word meaning 'thesuperior one and corresponding 'to Sanskrit Uttara.The title of all Tibetan Buddhist priests and monks,by courtesy, though strictly applicable only to abbotsand the highest monks. See Lainaism; Dalai Lama;Panshen. Waddell : Buddhism of Tibet.LAMAiSM is the form of Buddhism which isfound in Tibet, and Mongolia, and in the smallerHimalayan states. Previous to the introduction ofan already corrupt Buddhism into Tibet in theseventh century a.d. under a warlike ruler namedSrong Tsan Gami'O, nothing is known of Tibetanhistory. This chief had as wives a Chinese and aNepalese princess. Both were Buddhists, and undertheir influence the ruler accepted the new faith.The Nepalese Princess seems to have had thegreater influence, for the Tibetan written language,which dates from this time, is founded on Sanskrit.This first ruler, though not very much of a saint,was later canonized as an incarnation of Avalokitaon account of his services to learning and civilization.The new faith made very slow progress for the firstcentury, but a later chief sent to India for monks,books and further enlightenment, and Guru Rimi-oChe (the Glorious Teacher) is said to have respondedto the appeal, to have built in a.d. 749 the firstTibetan monastery and instituted the first order cflamas. This man, who brought a band of his discipleswith him, came from the northern part ofKashmir, a land full of magic and demons, and wasa pronounced Tantrist. The original Bon religion ofTibet, which has some affinity to the magical sideof Chinese Taoism, was full of tormenting spirits,who were worshipped with human sacrifices andmagical rites only understood by .the Bon priests.The Glorious Teacher was welcomed by the peopleas a great deliverer, though the priests of the ancientfaith opposed him. The final result was the mixingof the already corrupt Tantric Buddhism with theBon superstitions.The writings brought from India by GuruRiMPO Che and his followers were translated in theninth century, and the Tibetan Canon formed.It is difficult to ascertain the truth about the religionof this period, as the works attributed to theTeacher were written long after hi,s death; anddifferent sects early made their ap})earance. Themonks and the monasteries continually extendedtheir sway over the people, except for a brief284

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICALAMAISMpersecution ia the 10th century, which was endedby a lama murdering the ruler who had caused it.In the eleventh century, a famous reformernamed Atisa arrived, and spread a new interpretationof the old doctrines. The rise of the Mongoldynasty in China had great consequences forJ.amaism. Chenghis Khan had conquered Tibet,and when Khubilai Khan founded the Yiiandynasty he greatly encouraged Buddhism in boththe forms in which he knew it. He was the causeof Lamaism being introduced into Mongolia, and ofthe Tibetan canon being translated into Mongolian.In Tibet itself the Emperor recognized the headlama of one of the principal sects then existing,^—the Saskya scho(;l,—as Head of Tibetan Buddhism,and gave him tributary rulership over the country.The Saskya sect became so powerful that under theMing dynasty the leaders of other sects were givensimilar honours, as a matter of state policy.In the fifteenth century a great reformationtook place in Tibet through a lama named TsongKava from north-west China. It was known asGelugpa (or Gelupa, etc.), and possibly some influenceexerted by C'hristianity in Central Asia mayhave been a contributing cause. The change was inthe direction of a more elaborate ritual aiul organization;and at this time was brought in the idea,since so potent, of leaders being regarded as reincarnationsof previous leaders, or of Bodhisattvas.When Tsong Kal'A died his successor was believed tobe his re-incarnation ; and the fifth of this successionreceived recognition as temporal sovereign as wellas religious, leader. The Chinese government madehim Regent of Tibet, allowed the title of DalaiJjama (q.v.), and built him a palace at Lhasa. Withthis change of status, came change of doctrine asto the re-incarnations : the Dalai Lama was so longera re-appearance of the reformer Tsong Kapa, butwas Avalokita (or Padmapani, known in China andJapan as. Kuan Yin or Kwannon). For some timethe Gelugpa sect, thus made supreme in Tibet,persecuted all the others, but at last toleration wasbrought in, and the rivals each established reincarnatedBodhi&attvas as their heads, equal inholiness to the Dalai Lama, if lacking his temporalpower. The Imperial Chinese government alwayskept a nominal suzerainty over Tibet, and had thejjrincipal share in choosing the child in whom there-incarnation of Avalokita was to take place at thedeath of a Dalai Lama.It is difficult to estimate the numbers of thosewho profess Lamai-sm, the area being wide, populationscanty and information vague. The 4,000,000or so of Tibetans may be considered nearly allLamaists, and Mongolia has about 2,000,000 ofthem. In the Indian Stat«s there may be somehundreds of thousands. Even in Europe there isa remnant of Kalmuck Tartars on the Volga and theDon vv'ho hold this faith, but for the past lAmdredyears they have ceased to be under tlie control ofthe Dalai Lama. The principal sects of Lamaismafter the Gelugpa are the Kargyupa, and theSaskyapa, both founded in the eleventh century,and the Ningmapa, which claims to representBuddhism as it was first introduced into Tibet byGuKU RiMPO Che.The Gelugpa is the strictest of the sects, aswell as the most ritualistic. It is the only onewhich demands celibacy of its lamas. They areknown by their yellow headgear and clothing. TheKargyupa sect believe that their doctrine has comedirect from Adi-Buddha himself, not through anyof the Bodhisattvas. They were originally hermits.The Saskyapa sect regard Manju'sri as theirchief patron. They are specially strong in them.atter of magic. They wear red hoods and coats.The Ningmapa, or old Lamaists, also mostly wearred caps and clothes, but some of the sub-divisions,whith are largely intermixed with Bon doctrines,are known by a black head-dress. The Tibetan.srecognize in all eighteen sects, of their religion.The chief features which distinguish Lamaismfrom either Northern or Southern Buddhismare : 1. The hierarchical character of the priesthood; with its two great divisions, of the degreesof re-incarnated personages or divine beings, andthe degrees of the ordinary human monkhood.2. The large proportion of monks to laity.Every family, generally speaking, gives one son,mostly the eldest, to a religious life. A largemonastery may contain as many as 10,000, and thereare over 3,100 monasteries in Tibet.3. The disappearance of the higher Buddhistconceptions from among the people. Future recompensein another life for evil doing in this, theTibetan has learned from Buddhism, and little elseand from the old Bon religion he has retained a_lively and constant fear of evil spirits.4. Asi a result of the constant dread of thesetwo things, there is an all-prevailing use of charms,especially of the sacred fornuila, "Ommani padmehum,"and cf the reading of the canon. Writteticharms are swallowed in sickness, attached to wallsand carried on the person ; and prayer-flags, andprayer-cylinders, (incorrectly termed prayer-wheels)are found everywhere. So pressing is the needfor magic that even the numerous lamas do notsuffice to satisfy it, and a large number of laywizards also exist who are connected more or lessloosely with the mona.steries.5. The enormous number of objects of worship,including, in addition to the usual Buddhist deities,(as .seen, for example, in China) a large number oftutelary deities, early gods of the Bon religion andLamaist saijits and sages. See Dalai Lama, etc.Waddell : limlflfiixiik of Tibet; Hackmann :Ihiddhiiiii as a Itdujion.[C.E.C.]285

LAMA TEMPLEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICALAMA TEMPLE in Peking, ^fflg" Yung hoLumj, was originally built by the Emperor YtjngChkng of the Manchu dynasty as a palace, and thereCh'ien Lung spent his childhood. In 1740 Ch'ienLung gave it over to Lama priests, and built thema college where novices were taught prayers andlitanies in the Tibetan tongue, the exorcising ofdemons, astronomy, history and medicine. In itsmost flourishing state the monastery contained 1600lamas, but now there are scarcely 400 inmates. Thefir.st Abbot was sent by the Dalai Lama in Lhasa ashis representative at the Peking capital. Amongstthe notable sights are two large bronze lions and acolossal statue of Maitreya in sandalwood, 75 feethigh.LuDWiG : Yung Ho Kung, East of Asia, 1902.LAMPACAO (with various other spellings, suchas Langpitsaou), an island at which the Portuguesewere permitted to trade after 1542. In 1554 thetrade was concentrated there, instead of at Sancianor Sanshan {q.v.), which was closed. By 1560 therewere some five or six hundred foreign traders settledon shore there ; but this is the last mention made ofthe place, ana to-day it seems impossible to identifythe island, though it must be almost in sight fromMacao.Ljungstedt : Historical Shetch of the. Portuguese>>i'lHements.LAN CHOU FU |B.'>H;fif, the capital of Kansuprovince, lies in the centre of the Province and onthe right bank of the Yellow River.Its populationis given by Kbeitneb, and Richard as half a million ;RoCKHiLL says it is from seventy to eighty thousand.It was the post of the Governor of Shensi and Kansu(Shen-kan). The chief industry is the preparationof tobacco, and is mostly in the hands of Shensipeople; Rockhill states that a fourth of the inhabitantsare Mohammedans.Rockhill : The Land of the Lamas.LA NCHOW MINES. These coal mines are inthe neighbourhood of Kaiping, adjoining the minesof the Chinese and Engineering Mining Company.They are worked by the Lanchow Mining Company,which was founded in 1908 and has its seat ofadministration in Tientsin. The Company is nowassociated with the Chinese Engineering and MiningCompany; see Kailun Mining Administration.Its capital is three million taels, of which one-sixthhas been advanced by the Board of Finance.The coal is bituminous and specially suited forthe manufacture of coke.LAND OF DEEP CORROSIONS, THE, afree translation of IS!gam grog chi, a classical namefor Tibet. It is used by Waiid and Edgar todesignate the district where the Mekong, the Salwiuand the Yang-tze rivers flow in parallel, deeply-cutcourses.Ward :EoGAii : Journal, N.C.li.IL.i.S., vol. xlvThe Land of the Blue Poppy.LANG, 'ADMIRAL,' captain in the BritishNavy, was Commander of the Pei-yang fleet for theChinese till 1890, when his position became untenablethrough the intrigues of Chinese officials and heretired.LANG YAO ^^,porcelains of the earlyK'ang Hsi period with either apple green orsang-de-boeuf glaze. Yao means kiln and Lang isfor Lang T'ing-tso, who was Viceroy of Kiangsiand Kiangnan at the time.BusHELL : Chinese Art.LAN 11 DAE, the Family containing the variouskinds of shrikes, the mini vets and cuckooshrikes.The shrikes are solitary birds withharsh notes. Some species impale their preyon a thorn and then tear it to pieces.Lanius sphenocercus is found in S. Mongolia andE. Siberia, but in the winter it comes down toN. China and has been taken in Kiangsu andFukien. L. lahtora the Indian Grey Shrike, issaid by David to be less rare than the formerspecies at Peking. Ij. tephronotus, the Grey-backedShrike, belongs to India but is not uncommon inwestei'n Ssuch'uan. Ij. schach is a large bird foundin all the southern provinces and as far north asShensi. L. fuscatvs, the Dusky Shrike, is met within the south up to Foochow and also in Hainan.L. tigrinus is not uncommon in the central provinces,especially in Kiangsi, and goes north in the summerto Manchuria and Siberia. L. hucepJialus occursin the north of China. It winters sparsely inFukien and is common in winter on the LowerYangtze. It breeds in Eastern Siberia. Ij.lucionensis, the Philippine Shrike, is found in allEastern China, both on passage and as a summervisitant. It is this species as a rule that thePekingese use for the chase of small birds, andthey also keep it for its song. L. cristatus is theIndian Red-tailed Shrike ; it is found in summer inE. Siberia and probably passes through centralChina on migration. To this species is closelyallied L. superciliosus. Tephrodornis pelvicus, theNepal Wood-Shrike, has been taken in Fukien andHainan. The genus Pericrocotus comprises theMinivets, which are strictly arboreal birds. /'.brevirostris goes to pass the summer in Manchuriaand may be seen in spring and autumn at Peking.The Chinese, though clever in their treatment ofbirds, cannot keep this species in captivity beyonda few days. P. igneus, the Fiery Minivet, passesthe summer in the wooded hills of west China andJSlu p'in. /'. griseigularis Gould is common all the286

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICALAO TZUyear round in Formosa and Fukien and has beenfound in Hainan. P. speciosus, the Indian ScarletRlinivet is apparently a resident in the interior ofFukien. Compared with the other Minivets metwith in China it is larger and its plumage is morebrilliant. P. fratcrcuhis is the Burmese ScarletMinivet ; its colours are the same as in the precedingspecies, but it is a smaller bird ; it is resident inHainan and widely spread there. P. cinereusregularly visits Eastern China and goes in summerup to Manchuria and the Amur; in Peking it isseen but rarely. P. cantonensis or Swinhoe'sMinivet is very common in South China but doesnot go north of the Yangtze ; in autumn it migratesto Indo-China. P. roseus and P. stanfordi arefound in Kuangtung. Of the Cuckoo-Shrikes thereare three species found in China; Graucalusrex-pineti, resident in the interior of Hainan,Formosa and Fukien ; Campojihaga mdanoptera,which is common in the southern provinces ; andC satutata, which differs little from the last and iscommon in Hainan but not met elsewhere in China.David et Oustalet : Les Oiseanx de la Chine,(Laniides, Pericrocotides, Campephagides).LANTERNS, FEAST OF, W.^ teng cMeh,etc. This is the festival ranking next in importanceto that of the New Year. It dates from the Handynasty, some two thousand years ago, beingoriginally a ceremonial worship in the Temple ofthe First Cause from the 13th to the 16th of thefirst moon, bringing the New Year festivities to aclose. Lanterns were not part of the festival tillsome eight hundred years later, and three hundredyears later still two days, making six in all, wereadded to the feast by Imperial authority. Lanternsare lighted in abundance on the 15th, the great dayoi the feast, though the prettiness of the multitudinouslights is impaired by the mcon being fullterrific paper dragons are supported and movedalong the streets in realistic fashion by men whosebodies are concealed while their legs are in public.In the evening innumerable paper lanterns arecarried by the people or are hung in abundancealong the streets. Crackers without number arealso let off. The candle-ends from the illuminateddragons are eagerly sought for by childless women,and the dragons' eyes will give complete success toa brooding hen. Large quantities of a special cakeor dumpling are consumed at this festival. SeeFc-'tioals.De Groot : Les FC'tes annuelhs a Emoui.LAO K'AI :^gg, the French town at theTonkin-Yiinnan frontier, divided by the Nam-tiriver from the first Chinese town Ho K'ou. Thisis the limit of navigation on the Red Ptiver, 300miles from its mouth. It is a clean town, withfew Chinese in it since there is a heavy poll-tax.Little : Across Yunnan.LAO TZU :^^, also called Lao Chun ^^.the reported founder of theand Lao Tan ^ %,Taoist religion. Lao Tzu may be translated inseveral ways; Old Philosopher, or Old Boy or OldChild cr even the Ancient Philosophers. Toaccount for the name of "Old Boy," a fantasticlegend says that his mother bore him from her leftside after a gestation of eighty years, and that abbirth he had snowy hair and beard, and all theusual marks of advanced age.This account furthersays he was an incarnation of the supreme celestialbeing of the Taoist worship (hence the nameLao Chun) ; and that his birth took place inB.C. 1321. Legends of many kinds have been wovenround his name, though no countenance of thesupernatural is found in the Tao Te Ching attributedto him ; and the fabulous stories seem to havearisen after the arrival of Buddhism, to competewith the marvels told of Buddhist objects ofworship. All that is really known about him isfound in Ssu-ma Ch'ien's Historical Memoirs, wherewe learn that he was born in 604 B.C. and wastherefore an older contempoi'ary of Confucius.HLs surname is said to have been Li ^, and hisname was Ebb %, Ears. His native place was inthe modern Honan, and he was keeper of tliearchives at Lo Yan^, the capital of the Choudynasty, where he is said to have been visited byConfucius. The interview was not very succes.sful,Lao Tzu delivering himself of certain caustic andcritical remarks, and of various transcendentalopinions which made the orthodox sage compare himto "a dragon soaring above the clouds." This storyrests upon the authority of Chuang Tzu, andthough not improbable in itself, is supposed to havebeen invented by the latter to turn Confucius intoridicule.Lao Tzu is said to have foreseen that the C!houdynasty was near its fall, and to have retired into astate beyond the western frontier, about 500 B.C.The official in charge of the Pass, (see Kuan YinTzu) begged the sage for a book of his teachings,and the Too Tt Ching (q.v.) was prepared andhanded to him, after which Lao Tzu went westwardand was seen no more ; but in later ages, varioustraditions arose, such as that he went and convertedthe Tartars, etc.He was canonized by Kao Tsung circa 666 a.d.as ;3{CJl7C^^^> The Great Supreme Eiiiperar{or god) of the Dark First Cause. In a.d. 743, theEmperor Hsiian Tsung added M. Jb ^ ^, TheVenerable Prince of the Great Supreme. By Taoistshe is worshipped as the first of their Trinity,P'an Ku and Yii Huang Shang Ti, being theother?. See Taoism; Tao Te Ching; San Ch'ing.Parker : Studies in Chinese Beligion; Giles :Biographical Dictionary and Confucianism and itsRivals,287

LAPPAENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICALAPPA, called by the Chinese ^^b Kung-pak(Kung-pei), an island forming the west side ofMacao inner harbour at a distance of 1 to 1^ miles.The Customs opened a station there with severalsub-stations, for reasons fully given in the Customsreports. The Customs returns shew a falling offwhich is largely due to the proximity of other portsand the opening up of new steamer lines, etc.Piracy is very common in the district.,1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 11 ,740,818 10.335,168Net Chinese „ 594,920 418,408Exports 5,260;860 3,548,6591\)tal Hk.Tls. ... 17,596,598 14,302,235Customs Decennial Reports, 1892-1902.LARiDAE, a Family of the Order Gaviae; itconsists of the Gulls and Terns. The followingspecies are known in China.Lants canus, L. niveus, L. glaucus, L.(jlaiicescens, L. affinis, Eissa tridacfijla; these are allfound on the coast. L. crassirostris, on the coastand Po-yang Lake. L. cachinnans, the Yellow-leggedHerring -Gull, and L. vegae, both on the coast andin Mongolia.L. ridihundus, on coasts, rivers, lakes,etc., especially in the north. L. brimiieicephahis,in China and Mongolia. L. saundersi, common onfresh water in China and Mongolia. Hydroprognecaspia, the Caspian Tern, China coast and differentparts of the interior. Stenia bergii, the LargeCrested Tern, China coa.st, breeding in the islandsnorth of Formosa. Hydrochdidon hybrida, theWhiskered Tern, resident in Formosa ; LowerYangtze ; rivers and on the coast. H. leucoptera,the White-winged Black Tern, coast and interior ofChina, and in Mongolia. Sterna fluviatilis, theCommon Tern, coast and rivers. S. longipennis,Nordmann's Tern, N. China and Mongolia. S.melanauchen, the Black-naped Tern, south and eastcoasts. S. dongaUi, S.E. China coast. .S'.anaestheta, the Panayan Tern, in the islands of thesouthern and eastern coasts. .S'. fidiginosa, theSooty Tern, on the coast and in migration in theinterior. S. media, the Allied Tern, Fukien coast.S. anglica, the Gull-billed Tern, China coast.Stp.rnula sinensis, the White-shafted Ternlet,throughout China, on the coast and in Mongolia.Gygis Candida, on the south coast. Anons stolidus,the Noddy, eastern coast of Formosa and S.E.China coast.David et Oustalet : Lex Oiseavx dc la Chine,(Larides).LA R I GAUDIERE, the name given by theFrench to an island at the entrance to Kuang-chouwan, included in their leased territory. The Chinesename is Nanchou ^^.LARKS.See Aland idac.LAUFER, BERTHOLD, was born at Colognein 1874, was educated at Cologne, Berlin andLeipzig, and went to the United States of Americain 1898. He has been a member of several importantexpeditions, to Eastern Siberia, to China, etc., thelatest being the Mrs. Blackstone Expedition toTibet and China in 1908-10.Since 1911 he has heldthe post of Curator of Asiatic Ethnology in theField Museum of Natural History, Chicago.He isFellow or Member of a number of learned Societies,east and west. His works are numerous andimportant ; they include Contributions to PopularReligion of Tibet, 1898; The Decorative Art of theAmur Tribeis, 1902; Chinese Pottery of the HanDynasty, 1909; Pumance of a Tibetan Queen; ChinaGrave Sculptures; Jade, a Study in Chinese Archceologyand Religion, 1911 ; Notes on Turquois in theEast, 1913; Chinese Clay Figures, vol. i, 1914; TheDiamond, a Study in Chinese and Hellenistic Folklore,1915 ; Beginnings of Porcelain in China, 1917 ;besides a great number of monographs, articles andreviews on archaeology, religion, Tibetan literature,ethnology, etc., in English, German and French.LAUGHING THRUSHES, v. Crateropodinae.LAW.—Though Chinese law, in the earlieststages known to us, had passed beyond the primitivecondition of a set of customary rules, it neverthelessretained, throughout the whole period ofChinese history until the most recent times whenthe Monarchical form of government was overthrown,several primitive characteristics. Themost noticeable of these were that laws were notprimarily enacted with the object of ensuringjustice between man and man, but had for theirprime motive the securing of subordination of theruled to the ruler ; and that the laws enacted werepunitive, vindictive, and the result of ex-cathedradeclaration, rather than reformatory and made bycon.sultative bodies after mature deliberation anddiscussion. The reason of this is to be sought inthe national type : the sovereign was regarded asthe father, with absolute authority, of the people :he or his agents decreed the law, or rather, theappropriate punishment, for each offence as itoccurred ; and the father of each family was alsothe autocratic arranger of matters concerning thehome; whilst mercantile affairs were settled byprominent merchants or, in later times, usuallythe. guilds, or the village elders. With the maintenanceof private rights in civil or industrialquestions the state had thus generally no concern.Viewing Chinese law in relation to the socialstructure, we easily see why the most heinousoffences of man against man are not put first inthe primitive body of laws.Thus, sundry offences288

'|j''ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICALAW^not involving the lives of the rulers may bepunishable with severer penalties than the actualmurder of one private citizen by another. Theking was the law-maker, and " the various ceremoniesto be observed in marriages, funerals andmourning, hospitalities, religious worship, and theconduct of hostilities; the measures of capacity,length, weight, etc. ; and the written charactersof the language :—these were all determined byimperial prerogative. To innovate in them wasa capital offence." (Cajion of Sh^in, par. 8; Doctrineof Mean, ch. 28). In the earliest stages ofChinese law we find none, and throughout itshistory very little, of that differentiation andfor rape, illicit intercourse, etc. ; and death i^mta p'l, by various modes of execution, for assistingrebels against the government, robbery withviolence, etc. These "five severe penalties"might, on the grounds of compassion, doubt as tothe law, royal consanguinity, or exceptional merit,be commuted to banishment j){c liu to a greater orless distance, which was looked upon as a lighterpunishment than those attaching to the gravercrimes. Slighter offences than those punishablevifith the five severe penalties or with banishmentwere punishable with whipping |g pien, employedagahist officers in the courts, and flogging ^ -p'u,against those in the schools.heterogeneity which are pre-essential to progress.[There are very few of theObviouslyvarious weIbranchesare hereofnot at the beginning ofEuropean systems,things,without whichand indeed it ismodern Westernevident that this systemlaw would hardly seemwas into be lawexistence!atat leastall. LegisunderShtjn's predecessorlative, judicial, andYao,executiveand also^functionsthat ithave never may not have originated withbeen completely himdifferentiated 'in the Chinese;and it is necessary to note this because nativesystem. It has remained during almost its wholejcourse what we know as public law (constitutional|'\and criminal), and if we exclude the generalregulations concerning the government and the I|jaIthat what remains of the earliest enactments whichspecial rules concerning sacrifices, etc., we findhave come down to us is body of laws practicallyall falling under the heading of criminal law.'An account of early Chinese law must thus resolve !itself into a description of what were declaredto be crimes and what were the respective punishmentsassigned to them.We find the first mention of these in theclassical Shu Ching, or Canon of History (q.v.).We there read {Canon of Shun, par. 2) : Shun" gave delineation of the statutory punishments,enacting banishment as a mitigation of the fivegreat inflictions; with the whip to be employedin the magistrates' courts, the stick to be employedin schools, and money to be received for redeemablecrimes." Inadvertent offences and those whichmight be caused by misfortune were to be par-doned, but those who offended presumptuously or irepeatedly were to be punished with death. Thefive punishments 551 f\] wu hsing here alluded towere :— branding (on the forehead) ^ mo, atattooing of the face to mark a criminal off fromthe rest of the community, inflicted on those who" did not act according to right or did what theyought not to do;" cutting off the nose '^)\ pi, onthose who " altered or disobeyed the sovereign'slaws, changed the style of clothes, carts, sedans,etc., or who wounded, stole, committed adultery,or created disturbances harmful to the government;"cutting off the legs at the knees ^ij yiiehand amputating the knee-cap flS pin, for climbingover walls to steal, undermining or damaging citygates, destroying bridges, etc. ; castration ^ hung,37I289scholars, in order to explain the discrepancy betweenthe existence of these cruel punishments andthe alleged happy and relatively perfect conditionof things in the times of Yao, Shun, and Yuthe great examples of the perfect ruler, havemaintained that, though there were the laws andpunishments, there was really no necessity to putthem in force, for so high was the general level ofmorality that it was not even necessary to closea house-door at night and lost articles were leftwhere found until the owner returned for them.Laws and punishments existed merely as deterrents,and in those cases where, according to someauthorities, they had to be put in force, it wasstill sufficient to make an example, literally, ofthe offender, for instance, by clothing him in aconspicuous garment, this, so it is alleged, makinga greater impression than the infliction of theappropriate penalty. But though it is pleasingto find an approach to a veritable Eden assignedto the earliest periods of Chinese history, theargument is stultified both through being made tofit the facts, or alleged facts, instead of givingaa acceptable explanation of them, and alsothrough evidence which goes to prove that criminalconduct of different kinds existed which wasirreconcilable with the alleged state of perfectvirtue and perfect happiness. Though things mayhave been worse later on, they were not so perfectunder Yao, Shun, and Yij that the object of rightsocial living was attained merely by the enactment,without the enforcement, of laws. But this atleast may be said, that under these early sovereignsthe great blot on subsequent Chinese legislation,and a sure and certain symbol of absence both ofcivilization and comprehension, or at least fulfilment,of the right object of punishment, namely,the blot of the extending of punishments to the

1utatingjhowever,I criticismi an!whichIsubsequentj(theIgraduatedion:stigmatized.ItheIpunishmentjILAWENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAoffender's descendants or other relatives (regardingthe family or clan as the individual), was, so faras can be ascei'tained, non-existent.Yij (2205-2197 b.c), to meet the " growingdisloyalty," instituted the punishment of mutilation—acruel penalty which was retained by theShang and Chou dynasties. In this Early FeudalPeriod we read also of such barbarous punishmentsas " mincing " ^ hai and " embracing the red-hotpillar " (or " Heater "), walking a greasy poleso as to fall into a burning pit, etc., the diabolicalinventions of the tyrants Chieh Kuei (1818 B.C.)and Chou Hsin (1154 b.c), which, however,helped to bring about their downfall. At thebeginning of the Later Feudal Period ( ChouDynasty) we find drunkenness connected withtreason puni.shable with death, the same penaltybeing inflicted on anyone who delayed militaryoperations by not arriving at the appointed time.Strangling, confining by fetters, manacles, stocks,the " cangue," ^ chia, chaining to the marketstone,etc., were further methods of punishments,though some degree of leniency was shown by thesubstitution of amputation of the feet for amputationof the legs. Beyond the vindictive characterof the punishments in vogue, we find a furthersign of the primitive state of the law in the existenceof the lex talionis, which is advocated in theclassical Li Chi. It is expressed in these words :" With the slayer of his father one should notlive under the same heaven. With the slayer ofhis brother, one should never have to seek hissword (to deal vengeance). With the slayer ofhis intimate friend, one should not live in the samestate (without seeking to slay him)." It receivedthe emphatic approval of Confucius, and its spirithas permeated the Chinese mind throughout thewhole course of their history. Altogether therewere in the early part of the Later Feudal Perioda total of 3,000 punishable offences, including 500punishable with death and 500 with branding orfeet amputation. Crimes punishable with deathwere robbery, murder, unfilial, unbrotherly, unworthy,and factious conduct on the part ofofficers, splitting words so as to break the forceof the laws, confounding names so as to changewhat has been definitely settled, practising corruptways so as to throw government into confusion,making or using licentious music, strange garments,wonderful contrivances, and extraordinary implements,persisting in hypocritical conduct and beingdisputatious in hypocritical speeches, studyingwhat was wrong, giving false reports about theappearance of spirits, about seasons and days, andabout consulting of the tortoise-shell and stalks(divination).There were certain exemptions and mitigations.Children under seven and men over ninety wereexempted from punishment, and women from theof tattooing and feet-amputation.Instead of being castrated, a member of the king'sclan had his head shaved, being thus publiclyNo punishment was meted out toslayer of a robber or of rebels attackingtowns and villages. And there were fines, on ascale, in lieu of the severer punishmentsalready referred to; whilst a certain amount ofleniency was shown to imprisoned offenders duringthe most trying seasons of the year.jv' In 950 B.C. the aged King Mu, having decideda reform of the criminal law, the MarquisLij, Minister of Crime, was appointed to carry itout. The result was the Lii Hsing, or " Lii onPuni-shments," which we find embodied in theShu Ching. It was not a code properly so-called.Generally, this piece of legislation aimed at avoidingas much as possible the infliction of the deathpenalty, capital crimes being reduced in numberfrom 500 to 200, and the punishment of castrationbeing made more lenient, while the regulationsrespecting the punishments of branding and amp-the nose were made stricter. It was,subjected by Chinese writers to thethat it introduced, for the first time onextensive scale, the system of accepting moneyfines for the most heinous offences, a methodhas been followed in the legal code of everydynasty. But, despite this criticismforce of which must be admitted, though thesystem probably saved the lives of many innocentpeople), we must give full credit to King Mu forhis expressed wish to " make punishments ablessing " and for the foresight of his dictumthat " the proper end of punishments is to makean end of punishing." Moreover, the procedure,precepts, and forms prescribed were of a characterwhich would do no discredit to modern Westernsystems.The " three stock " law, according to whichthe three family connections of a criminal wereexecuted with him, was introduced by the Stateof Ch'in ^ in 746 B.C.During the Feudal Period the laws of the" Son of Heaven " were supposed to be thosewhich governed the " Middle Kingdom " as wellas the whole array of feudal states, but after 771B.C., when imperial decadence set in, the vassalstates "drew up and publi.shed laws of their own."The early Chinese held the same sensible viewas the early English jurists respecting codification,disapproving it as being a mould into which allkinds of cases had to be made to fit (though theydid not go on to the establishment of a system ofequity). The advent of written law was supposedto connote decay of government; it was thoughtthat if the people could refer to a written text,they would resort to devices to evade the letter of290

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICALAWthe law. Nevertheless, by 650 b.c. codes beganto appear. In that year a code, about which verylittle is known beyond that it was regarded asextremely severe, was compiled by Tsang Wen-CHUNG, a statesman of Lu ; between 581-521 B.C.primitive codes were represented by sets of lawscast on iron tripods ; and in 536 B.C. a penal codefor the regulation of ])unishments was drawn up.The latter, which is said to have been the realfoundation of subsequent Chinese criminal law,was compiled by Tzu Ch'an (Kung-stjn Ch'iao),chief Minister of the State of Cheng (part ofmodern Honan), and was of a comparatively mildcharacter, but when it was cast on metal for theinformation of the people it met with the oppositionof the officials, including Confucius, whoregarded it as conducive to the undermining ofauthority. The great sage himself was, like themajority of Chinese jurists, obsessed by the" insubordination " idea of law. He was chiefmagistrate of the town of Chung Tu and laterMinister of Crime in Lu (500-496 B.C.). Hisclassification of crimes was (i) offences againstheaven and earth ; (2) professing spiritual mattersso as to cause rebellion ; (3) opposing humanrelationships ; (4) confusing civilization ; and (5)manslaughter. He is credited by Dr. Legge{Chinese. Classics, I. Prol. p. 74) with " anapproach to our jury system," on the ground that" when any matter came before him, he took theopinion of different individuals upon it, and in'giving judgment would say, I decide accordingto the view of so and so.' " But if this was anapproach to the jury system it was the nearestthe Chinese have so far made. He also administereda severe lesson to superiors and parents forneglect in training, leading to crime : "A fatherhaving brought some charge against his son,Confucius kept them both in prison for threemonths, without making any difference -in favourof the father, and then wished to dismiss themboth. The head of the Ke was dissatisfied, andsaid, ' You are playing with me, Sir Minister ofCrime. Formerly you told me that in a State ora family filial duty was the first thing to beinsisted on. What hinders you now from puttingto death this unfilial son as an example to all thepeople? ' Confucius with a sigh replied, 'Whensuperiors fail in their duty, and yet go on to puttheir inferiors to death, it is not right. Thisfather has not taught his son to be filial ;—to listento his charge would be to slay the guiltless. Themanners of the age have been long in a sadcondition ; we cannot expect the people not to betransgressing the laws.' "Though further sets of laws were cast ontripods, none seems to have had any permanentinfluence. The code which proved to be the exemplarof all subsequent codification was- thatknown later as the " Law Classic " drawn up byLi K'uei, {Li K'uei Fa Ching) a statesman in theservice of the first ruler of the Wei State, in the4th century B.C., but said by some writers to havebeen first put in force undei' the Ch'in dynasty(255 B.C.) From this time on, each dynasty adaptedthe code of its predecessor to its own time andcircumstances. The " Law Classic " was dividedinto six sections, the firstthree relating to practice,the fourth to general administration, and the lasttwo to an exposition of offences. It " representedall that was best in the laws of the different feudalstates." It is remarkable that among crimes punishablewith death it included polygamy (despitethe sanction of Confucius), but the intention mayhave been to stop the then prevailing practice of" making wives of concubines."Further bodies of laws which may be classedas codes were those of Shen Fu-hai (Shkn Tzu) andKung-sun Yang (also called Wei Yang and ShangYang) of the Han and Ch'in States respectively.They represented a party known as Fa Chia, or" Legalists," who advocated the rigorous enforcementof severe laws as a means of ensuring peacein the disturbed kingdom. Their work is assignedto the year 351 B.C. They settled the law ofmutual responsibility (which has practically alwaysbeen so marked a feature of Chinese legislation)whereby a crime involved ten families and fiveneighbours. " They also arranged the punishmentsof being involved in the death penalty, ofmutilation, of death (by various means), of piercingthe skull, wrenching out the ribs, and boilingin a cauldron." Being cut in two at the waistwas the penalty for failing to denounce an offender.In the Shu Ching, which provided us with anaccount of " Lu on Punishments," we find also adescription of the procedure in force during theFeudal Period. It is best quoted without abridgement:" When both parties are present, with theirdocuments and witnesses all complete, let all thejudges listen to the five-fold statements which maybe made. When they have examined and fullymade up their minds on those, let them adjustthe case to one of the five punishments. If thefive punishments do not meet it, let them adjustit to one of the five redemption-fines ; and if theseagain are not sufficient for it, let them reckon itamong the five cases of error." In settling the five cases of error there areevils to be guarded against ;—being warped bythe influence of power, or by private grudge, orby female solicitation, or by bribes, or by applications.Where such things are, the offence becomesequal to the crime before the judges. Do youexamine, and prove yourselves equal to everydifficulty."291

ILAWENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAWe now come to the Monarchical Period ofChinese history (221 B.C.—1912 a.d.). The " FirstEmperor " abolished the laws of the ancient kingsand established laws of his own, known as the" Nine Laws," the severe character of which (atleast when the decline of the dynasty caused thelaws to be made even severer than they were atfirst) may be judged from the nature of some ofthe punishments decreed. Anyone who discusseda book or a poem (in violation of the embargoon the ancient literature) was executed and hisbody exposed. Ministers guilty of treason wereexterminated. Slander of the government waspunished by execution of the criminal and hiswhole family. Generally, crimes involved theeriminal's family as well as his five neighbours.For these barbarous laws the Hans substitutedfirst the less severe " Three Laws " (for murder,death, and for woimding and robbery in proportionto the gravity of the offence) and later the stricler" Nine Laws," founded on the similar body oflaws made by the Ch'ins but devoid of those of aigro-ssly vindictive nature.tIn 187 B.C. the " three stock " law was'abolished, and eight years later sons were nolonger involved in their fathers' crimes. The:author of this lenient decree, the Emperor HsiaoWen Ti (179-156 B.C.), also abolished the punish-nient of mutilation and reduced the severity of [other punishments, but the substitution of flogging ifor mutilation was found frequently to cause theIdeath of the criminals, and had itself to bejmitigated. Castration was still inflicted, the \etc., allowed commutation of the death penaltyfor fines, purchase of official rank, or (179 B.C.)Icontributions of grain. Sons concealing their|parents' crimes, or robbers killing robbers, werepardoned.Various fresh codes were issued, and by'A.D. 89-105 the number of punishable crimes havingincreased to 4,989, of which 610 were punishablewith death, an attempt was made to reduce thetotal to the orthodox 3,000 of ancient times.Crimes now punishable with death were rebellion,illegal acts towards parents, etc., selling peopleinto slavery, wearing embroidered silk by merchants; with shaving the head or compressing thefeet, housebreaking, wounding, adultery, receivingbribes, etc. ; with tattooing, adulteration of coiningmetal ;—with fetters, casting implements or boilingsalt illegally, etc. Extreme cruelty still characterizedthe punishments, though only three of theFive Punishments of the " First Emperor " werein force, namely, branding the face, cutting offthe nose, and amputating the feet (or toes). Thelatter was applicable to 500 offences. Driving acart over a criminal's legs, or beating them witha cudgel was the prototype of the modern Manchupunishment of bruising the legs with a stickforcibly held down by two lictoi's. Criminalssometimes had their legs pierced with a gimlet,or were allowed to die of cold or hunger.The general character of Chinese law aboveindicated remained practically unchanged for thenext 1,000 years, the principal alterations andenlargements noted by Chinese writers havingtaken place in the Wei, Chin, Ch'i, Sui, T'ang,Sung, Yiian, and Ming dynasties (220 B.C. to1644 A.D.), and it will be unnecessary to followout in detail the increasing or decreasing of theseverity of punishments or the modification of oldlaws and the making of new ones. It will besufficient to pass to the laws of the later Monarchicalperiods. Following on several previouscodes, notably that of Kao Tsu of the T'angdynasty which was, however, more of a guide forjudicial officers than a set of laws for the informationof the public), the great Emperor Yung IvO(a.d. 1403-25) drew up what was a code in themodern Western sense of the word, -and upon thiswas based the well-known Ta Ch'ing Lii Li, theLaws and Statutes of the Great Ch'ing Dynasty,which remained in force during the whole of thatperiod (a.d. 1644-1912). The lii Avere the laws orhistorian Ssu-ma Ch'ien being thus punished in cardinal principles {jus strictum) based largely;98 B.C. for extenuating the conduct of a defeated upon the Yung Lo code, which were promulgatediwarrior. Further steps in the direction of leniency when the dynasty had become firmly established,between 148 and 6 B.C. being supposed to have led and which remained unaltered. The li wereto increase in crime, the throne was memorialized supplementary statutes (though not to be describedto revert to the former standard. The Hans, as exactly .equivalent to our body of equity) whichbesides the usual exemptions on account of age, modified and extended the original law, adaptingit to the time and circumstances. These were continuallyadded to, and revised every five years.The Ta Ch'ing Lii Li were thus the laws of theMings, founded on the Yung Lo code, modified soas to include the Manchu customary law, andadapted to meet necessary changes. They wereissued in the 5th moon of the 3rd year ofShun Chih (.June, 1647).The Penal Code [lii) was divided into sevenmain sections comprising General, Civil, Fiscal,Ritual, Military, and Criminal Laws, and thoserelating to Public Works. The punishments prescribed,which were not confined to criminal cases,were :— beating with the light bamboo ^ ch'ih,with the heavy bamboo fj^ chang, transportation toa short distance for a few years ^ t'u, banishmentto a long distance for life p^ h'v, and death292

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCALAW^ 8SU by strangling or decapitation. Originallythe Manchu code sanctioned only two kinds ofpunishment—death and flogging. The latter wasalso applicable to women, but in practice thisbarbarous section of the Code soon fell into disuse.The barbarous punishments of ^ jg ling ch'ih," lingering death," or " slicing to pieces," forhigh treason,, parricide, for women who killed theirhusbands, and murderers who killed three personsot one family, and of the "stomach-cutter,*" appliedon the overthrow of the Mings to those who refusedto adopt the Manchu coiffure, were inventions ofthe Chinese emperor Jen Tstjng (a.d. 1023-64).The instruments to be used in punishment werealso carefully defined in the code : a flat, polishedpiece of bamboo of stated shape, weight, anddimensions ; the cangue (chia), a frame or collarof dry wood 3 feet square and 30 lbs. in weight,which whilst worn prevented the criminal fromsleeping or feeding himself ; iron chains, handcuffs,fetters, and two instruments of torture for compressingthe anklebones (generally for men) andsqueezing the fingers (generally for women). Thetwo latter were used when necessary, in cases ofrobbery or homicide, to extort confession, withoutwhich no criminal could be punished. Besidesthese forms, legally sanctioned by the Code (sect.404) and by an edict of the Emperor K'ang Hsi,various other forms of torture were freely practisedin all the yamens and prisons throughout theempire, being, as a rule, more general and morecruel in the south than in the north, practicallythe only check on their use being the fear that,if used in excess, the official responsible might bereported, and replaced in office by a favourite ofhis superior.Capital crimes, besides high treason and parricide,included serving a foreign state, practisingmagic, stealing sacrificial implements, imperial orofficial seals, or 120 ounces of silver, counterfeitingcoin, robbery and kidnapping by violence, openinga coffin, homicide, etc. Banishment was thepunishment for kidnapping by stratagem, attemjjtingto murder, charging with killing, striking anofficer, beating a disobedient son or grandson todeath, adultery, abduction, etc. Transportationwas for indecent assault, criminal intercourse witha relative, procuring abortion, etc. Bambooingwas for Iheft, entering a house at night, quarrellingand fighting, a wife striking her husband,abusive language, fornication, accidentally settingfire to one's own house, making false weights andmeasures, gambling, etc. There were also theusual exemptions on account of age, imperial relationship,etc., and redemptions by means of fines.r » This pnuisliment of cnttlug in two at the waist arose out ofWk Bolomoiilc decision in a case of bigamy, In which the man was- ordereii to be cut in two and each claim:int told to m irry one half !Besides this codified king-made law, edictswere issued by the high provincial authorities, incase of public matters requiring regulation. These,which revived some old law or modified it to suitthe case in question, had the force of law, providedthey were reported to the proper Board at Peking,and they gave rise to a sort of common and unwrittenlaw, to which in country districts compliancewould be enforced by the councils of elders.The first part of the code (the lii) was translatedinto English by Sir George Staunton. Writingin 1810 he refers to the estimation in whichthe code is held by the people :— "All they seemto desire is its just and impartial execution, independentof caprice and uninfluenced by corruption."And as to the code itself :— " By farthe most remarkable thing in this code is its greatreasonableness, clearness, and consistency, thebusiness-like brevity and directness of the variousprovisions, and the plainness and moderation inwhich they are expressed. There is nothing hereof the monstrous verbiage of most other Asiaticproductions, none of the superstitious deliberation,the miserable incoherence, the tremendous no7isequitursand eternal repetitions of those oracularperformances—nothing even of the turgid adulation,accumulated epithets, and fatiguing self-praise ofother Eastern despotisms—but a calm, concise, anddistinct series of enactments, savouring throughoutof practical judgment and European good sense,and if not always conformable to our improvednotions of expediency, in general approaching tothem more nearly than the codes of most othernations. ... In everything relating to politicalfreedom or individual independence it is indeedwoefully defective ; but for the repression of disorder,and the gentle coercion of a vast population,itappears to be equally mild and efl&cacious."In forming a just estimate it must also beremembered that the object of this body of laws,like that of its predecessors, was primarily themaintenance of authority and secondarily the protectionof individual rights ; and that, in theabsence of a knowledge of sociology, a science notthen existing, it was probably as nearly as possibleunder the circumstances adapted to the state ofsociety it was intended to deal with. And thesmall advance of that society in sympathy and thehigher sentiments is seen in the embodiment in theCode of the barbaric clause providing for theimprisonment of an innocent child or grandchildof a rebel with a view to future punishment byemasculation and slavery on attainment of theprescribed age. " Nor will the law allow anoctogenarian and bedridden mother of a rebel tocommute by fine her sentence of slavery. Relativesmay be kept in prison for twenty years awaitingconfrontation with escaped rebels—although them-298

LAYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINlCAselves guiltless." We here see brought out oncemore the main characteristic of Chinese law referredto at the beginning of this article.Towards the end of the Monarchical Period,as a result of the " Eeform Movement " arisingout of the fear that China would be unable longerto resist foreign aggression, a code of laws, basedon Western systems, was drawn up. It was namedChan Hsing 11sing Fa Lii, or " ProvisionalCriminal Code," and contained about 300 articles.It substituted hanging or strangling for decapitationand imprisonment for bambooing. It remainedin force until the end of the Ch'ingDynasty, was adopted in large measure by theRepublican regime, and has continued to be therecognized legal instrument to this day, thoughignored at will by YiiAN Shih-k'ai (who had plannedto supplant it by a code of his own) during thesuspension of Parliament (1913-6). Before itssuspension the Parliament had passed only onemeasure, the Presidential Election Law, and sinceits reassembling has been chiefly occupied inframing the Constitution.[E.T.C.W.]LAY, the name of a family which, for severalgenerations, has played an honourable part in thestory of British intercourse with China. The firstof his line, as far as China is concerned, was GeorgeTradescant Lax, who married Mary Nelson, aniece of the naval hero. He was attached toBeechey's expedition in 1825-28 and, with hisfellow-naturalist Collie, sent a collection of plantsfrom the Loochoo and Bonin Islands,—the first toreach Europe. He made further collections atMacao and Canton.In 1836 he reached China again, as agent ofthe British and Foreign Bible Society, went on thetrip of the Himvialeh (q.v.), and wrote an account'of the journey.He then entered the British Consular Serviceand acted as interpreter to Sir HE>fRY Pottinger'sexpedition (1840-42). He was made Consul atCanton in 1842, at Foochow in 1844, and at Amoyin 1845, and died there the same year.He wrote a number of papers in the ChineseRepository, and also published The Chinese as theyare.His children were Horatio Nelson, WilliamHyde, W.\lter Thurlow, and Amoy. Of these thefirst is the best-known. He was appointed studentinterpreterin the Consular Service, September 5,1849, but resigned on June 8, 1855 to becomeInspector of Customs at Shanghai. He accompaniedLord Elgin as assistant Chinese Secretary and,according to Morse, was very hectoring andtruculent in his meetings with the Chinese envoys,and especially with the hapless Kiying. The tariffand trade rules of the 1858 treaty are recognized asbeing Lay's work.He was made Inspector-General of Customs inMay, 1859. Three years later he obtained theQueen's licence to enter temporarily the militaryservice of the Chinese Government. The miscarriageof the project known as the Lay-OsbornFlotilla is described under that heading. It led tohis dismissal in 1864.In Japan, in 1869, he arranged a loan of twelvemillions sterling at twelve per cent., repayable intwelve years. The money was to build a line fromOsaka to Tokyo with a branch to Yokohama. Heseems, however to have misunderstood the Englishfinanciers on whom he had depended : the loan wasplaced on the Stork Exchange, and his connectionwith the Government and with the railway came toan end. {Yoxing Japan, 1883). His wife was adaughter of Dr. Legge, the sinologue; of his ninechildren only his youngest daughter seems to havebeen connected with the Far East.G. T. Lay's second son, William Hyde Lay,born in England, 1836, became student-interpreterDecember 5, 1853 ; he served at Shanghai as Vice-Consul, at Kiukiang and at Tientsin, where he wasConsul at the time of the massacre.He died at Chefoo, where he was Consul, in 1876at the age of 40. Of his children, William Georgeis Commissioner of Customs at Swatow, and ArthttrHyde is H.B.M. Consul-General at Seoul.G. T. Lay's third son, Walter Thurlow, isthe only one surviving ; he became student-interpreterin 1861 but resigned in the following year.He has since been Commissioner of Customs, andhas one daughter living in Shanghai.The fourth son, Amoy, was also Commissionerof Customs.LAY-OSBORN FLEET. In 1862 HoratioNelson Lay, the Inspector-General of Customs, wasinstructed by Prince Kung to obtain arid fit out afleet of steam-vessels, to arm them and enlistforeigners for them. Lay was then in England onfurlough, and the written instructions were sentthrough Mr. Robert Hart. Mr. Lay was authorizedby an Order in Council to enlist men and equipvessels for the Chinese service. He purchased eightships and engaged Captain Sherard Osborn asCommander of the fleet. According to the contractbetween thesd two, Osborn was to be under thedirect orders of the supreme authority, transmittedto him only through Mr. Lay.When Osborn, however, reached China with hisfleet, he found the intentions of the governmentwere far different ; it was hardly to be expected thatChinese officials would consent to be 'hands off' insuch an affair as a fleet, and Osborn found that bewas to be placed under the orders of Chinese. Heobjected, but Prince Kung refused to ratify hisformer arrangement and Cajitain Osborn resigned.Experience had shewn the Chinese that without294

LaENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICALEGGEdeparting too much from their old ways of misruleit wa^ always possible to raise a European force bypaying for it; and they were therefore not readyfor such a great change as to keep a fleet of their oweand yet leave it under foreign management. Thequestion then arose as to the disposal of the ships;it was important that fully armed vessels shouldnot be sold to any power engaged in war ; they weresent to England and India and there disposed of.Mr. Lay was considered to have acted throughoutin a perfectly honourable and dignified way, buthe seems to have entirely misunderstood the Chinesecharacter and to have thought that he could becomemore of a dictator than of an agent. With the bestof motives and aiming only at China's progress, hegrasped at more power and higher considerationthan could be given him. He was liberally treatedby the government as far as payment was concerned,but was dismissed from the Customs service inNovember, 1864, and Mr. Hart was appointed inhis place.Blue Book : China. No. 2. (1864).LAZARISTS, properly The Congregation ofthe Mission, founded in 1625 by S. Vincent dePaul. Lazarists were sent to China by the Propagandain the 18th century. In 1780 they were sentby the Pope to carry on the work of the Jesuits,whose Order had been suppressed. In 1839 Mongoliawas made a Vicariat and entrusted to the Lazarists.They now have ten Vicars-apostolic, 189 Europeanpiiests, 529,000 Christians and about 35,000 scholars.See Concfieriatiom; Vicariate.LEAD.See Mine rah.LEATHER. The manufacture of Chineseleather differs widely from European methods, thegelatinous hide being cured by heat and not bytanning. The process is described in Hosie'sSfdch'uan, p. 79. The hides of horses, mules, andasses are treated in a different manner. They aresuperior to those of the ox, buffalo and yak. Theformer are used for binding and decoratingChinese shoes, the latter for shoes, straps, scabbards,etc. Leather is coloured black and green by pinesoot and foreign paint respectively. The idea ofstall-fed o.xen for producing superior leather, aspi'actised in Europe, has not penetrated into China.There are now large leather factories at Canton (2) ;Shanghai (2) ; Tientsin (2) ; Harbin and Hongkongwhile the Government controls three factories, atYiinnan-fu, Wuchang and Chengtu, for militarypurposes. Nanning is another centre, but theleather is not tanned by modern methods. The"original" export of leather is about 70,000 piculs,of which 60 per cent, is from Canton. Exportationnil, as that which goes to Hongkong is returnedLeather manufactures imported only constitutea small item at present : Tls. 731,000 worth ofleather boots and shoes were imported in 1912 (therecord year).The figures for 1916 are. Leather imported,Hk.Tls. 7,541,505; Exports, (original^ Leather,Hk. Tls. 1,247,933; Leatherware, Hk. Tls. 266,452.LEATHER PAPER, afamous tough kind ofpaper made in Kueichou province. The name isdue to the translation of p'i ^ as leather, whereasit also means bark; the paper should be called barkpaper, being made from -the inner bark of theBrousso?ietia 2J02iyrifera.HosiE : Three Years in Western China.LECHLER, RUDOLF, a missionary of theBasel Missionary Society. He was born in Wiirtembergin 1824, came to China in 1846, and after52 years' work in this country went home toGermany and died there in 1908. He was one ofthe founders of Basel Mission work in S. China,and its director for forty years. See Basel Mission.Hager : Chinese Recorder, vol. xxxix.LE COMTE, LOUIS, ^M TA Ming, a Jesuitfather, born at Bordeaux in 1655. He was one ofthe six missionaries sent in 1685 to reinforce theFrench mission in China. He arrived in 1687, andworked in Peking, Shansi and Shen^i. He was senthome in 1692 to represent to the Superiors the stateof affairs, and died in Bordeaux 36 years later.Havret : Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fou,II, p. 44, note.LEEBOO, CAPTAIN.See Lu Wenching.LEES, JONATHAN, a missionary of theLondon Missionary Society. He was born atManchester in 1835, reached China and Tientsin in•in 1862, and died in 1902.LEGATIONS, APOSTOLIC.There have beenthree legations sent by the Pope to China : 1,Cardinal de Tournon in 1702; 2, The PatriarchJohn Ambrose Mezzabarba, in 1719; 3, TwoCarmelite Fathers, Gothard and Ildefonse, in1725. These last had no great success and weresoon back again. See Tournon; Mezzabarba.De Moidrey : La Hierarchie Catholique enChine, p. 41. (J^fe^J^^^ ii^ 'Jft^x^J?: ^- ti.J.^LEGGE, JAMES, M.A. LLD., one of the mostfamous of Sinologues. He was born at Huntley,Aberdeenshire in 1814, and graduated in AberdeenUniversity, In 1839 he proceeded to Malacca as amissionary of the London Missionary Society. In1843 the Anglo-Chinese College there, of which hewas Principal, was removed to the newly-acquiredColony of Hongkong, where he remained during thewhole of his missionary life. He removed toEngland in 1873. A chair of Chinese was constit-29^

jbutLEI SHUENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAuted in Oxford University in 1876, and Dr. Legge|became the first Professor. He died in 1897.His fame rests chiefly on his sane, scholarlycritical translations of the Chinese classical andwritings; but he wrote and translated a good dealbesides. For the complete list of his works seeT'oumj Pao, vol. ix, supplement, {Henri Cordier;Les Etudes chinoises).H. E. Legge : James Legge, 1905.LEi SHU,!j^^,or works of reference arrangedunder categories, and generally called in Englishof an alphabet the arrangement is according to\subjects ; and the articles are not newly writtenbut are extracts from earlier authors. The moreimportant of these works are given in more or lesschronological order below.Erh Ya |g ^. This is rather a dictionary ofterms, probably dating from the fifth century B.C.The classification is into 19 categories, as follows :Ukit, Explanations. |lj shan, Mountains.Terms.7jC shui, Waters.hsiln, Instructions.gUI ^ ts'ao, Plants.j^ ch'in, Relationships. pfc mu, Trees.huriff. Buildings.ch'img, Insects.^ ^ chH, Utensils.yii, Fishes.Ijl yiieh, Music.J^ niuo. Birds,y^ t'ien, Heaven.gjt skou, Animals.J| ti, Earth. ^ ch'u, DomesticS:ch'iu, Hills.T'u7ig Tien, jg, &Animals,was compiled by Tu Yui^f^ about 800 A.D. It deals with the variousdepartments of governmental administration, andhas 9 divisions :^^shih huo, Food and goods, (Economics).Geography,ig ^ hsiian chu, Choosing Candidates.^ *^ rhih kuan, Government Ofiices.IfIt, Ceremonies.*g yiieh, Music.& -ping, Army.Jf\\hsing, Punishments.JWSB cAoM chiin.j^ g§ yien fang. Defences,The work has since been continued down toabout 1736.Wen Hsien T'xmg K'ao, ^ )Dc jfi #,byMa Tuan-lin, published in 1319. This is based onthe T'nng Tien, but the 9 sections are expandedinto 24, and 5 new categories are added, some ofwhich are outside of the scope of the earlier work,viz. official administration. The new categories are15 Bibliography. H J| Uranography.^ Imperial Lineage, t^ M Phenomena.a ^ Appointments.This work has been extended by supplementsdown to the eighteenth century.These last two works, together with the historyby Ssu-MA KuANG called T'vng chien ji, j^, areoften called the Three T'ung, H ii. ««" Vung.Tiai P'ing Yu Lan, :Jts;ip '^ ^, Ihis is thefirst of the works that should have the title ofEncyclopaedia, as it deals with the whole range ofhuman knowledge. It quotes on every imaginablesubject from 1,690 works of which it gives a list.It was made by order of T'ai Tsung, secondemperor of the Sung dynasty, was finished in sixiI'Jncydupaedias. The .Chinese have many suchworks, some dating from very early times. The lei years, (a.d. 987), and called 2"ai PHng Pien Lei'}»hu differ in two respects from the western works :^^MM, after the emperor had read the\iith which they must be compared : in the absence whole of it in one year the title was changed to\T'ai P'ing Yil Lan (Yu lan meaning imperial insjiection).It was divided into 55 sections. Aftersix centuries, when perfect copies were not to begot, it was reprinted (1572), and again in 1812.Yu Hai,^^, the work of Wang Ying-lin, wasin 21 sections and 240 sub-sections. The authordied in 1296, but the book was not publishedtill 1351.It was not properly a lei shu, that is, it wasnot arranged under categories but on the basis ofa Rhyming Syllabary. Four odd volumes are inthe Chinese Library of the British Museum andthere are a few elsewhere.Yiian Chien Let Han, jljij^*;^®, the mostaccessible and most generally useful of the compilationsof K'ang Hsi. It was based on an eavlierwork, the T'ang Lei Han J|f^S, of Yu An-ch'iof the Ming dynasty ; which again was drawn fromfour T'ang dynasty compilations.The work took nine years to complete, andappeared in 1710. It is divided into 45 categoriesand is very much on the same plan as the Yii Lan,,but it contains half as much pgain of matter.The Ynng Lo Ta Tien W^X^ does not strictlybelong to Lei shu, since its arrangement was notaccording to categories of subjects, but followedHtNG Wr's Syllabary of lihymes ^ ;jj^5!£ Yiin fuch'iin yii. This enormous work contained 22,937chiian. It was finished in 1407. The interest isless in the structure and contents of the book thanin the history of the copies, prepared. The originalwas kept at Nanking, but two copies of it weremade in 1557, and preserved in Peking. At thefall of the Ming dynasty the original and one copyperished. The other copy, nearly complete, waskept, but not cared for, in the Han-lin College till1900, when the Boxers fired the Library, whichadjoined the British Legation, and the last copy ofthe woi'k was destroyed ; though a few score volumeswere afterwards picked up by foreigners.'^'^^^^JSLKu Chin T'u Shu Chi Ch'engK'ang Hsi appointed Ch'Iin MKNC-tEi, a pardoned296

'ofChinaENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA LEONTIEFF, MAXIMUSrebel, to execute this great work ; but Yunq Chengno sooner came to the throne, (1723) than he sentCh'kn inl^o banishment. It is probable, however,that the work was by that time finished, though itdid not appear till 1726. The best idea of the scaleon which the work was done is given by comparingit with the Enei/dopaedia Britannica : it containsbetween three and four times as much matter asthe English work.There are six main divisions, but the actualcategories are 32 in number. They are as follows :I^H^ ijjFjg ^ch'ien hsiang, Celestial Signs.sui hung, Seasons.li fa, Astronomy, Mathematics,^g[ shu cheng, Various Manifestations.*p ^ k'un yii, The Earth.^J^ chih fang,ill )llGovernmental Departments.shan ch'uan, Topography.iSW V^^^ hForeign Countries.^ f^ huang chi. Imperial Court.§• ^ hung wei. Palace Doors.1" ^ kuan ch'ang. Officials.^ ^ chia fan,^Htchiao i,Natural Kinship,Social Intercourse.J^ "S^ shih tsu, Genealogy and Biography.A^ 7en shih. Human Affairs.fin 1^ i shu. Skilled Occupations.If shen i, Religion.^ ^ ch'in ch'ung, Animal Kingdom.M^ ts'ao mu. Vegetable Kingdom.f

LEOPARDSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAoffered for the Chinese Emperor. This was theactual, though not the formal, beginning of theRussian Orthodox Mission in China. FatherLeontieff died in Peking in 1712. His grave isunknown. Chinese Recokder, vol. xlvii, p. 678.LEOPARDS. The leopard is plentiful in thehills of Chihli, Shansi, Shensi, and Kansu, thespecies being the Manchurian leopard, Felis villosa.The true Chinese leopard, F. fontanieri, has itshabitat in Ssuch'uan, extending into S. Shensi. TheSnow leopard, F. uncia, is a Tibetan animal, but itmay perhaps occur on the borders of Kansu; itsskin is plentiful in the market. Swinhoe says theleopard (f. parrlus) is found in various parts ofS. China; this is probably F. fontankri. SeeFelidoe.SowERBY : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii;Swinhoe : Cataloyue of Mavimals of China, P.Z.S.,1870.LEPORID/E, the Hare Family.Eight speciesare known from N. China and neighbourhood, theirnames and distribution being as follows :Lepus swinhoei, Shantung, Chihli; L. swinhoeisublvteus, Shensi, Ordos ; L. swinhoei sowerbycs,N. Shansi; L. tolai, Mongolia; L. mandshuricusManchuria; L. timidus subsp., Saghalien; L.sechuenensis, S.W. Kansu; L. coreanus, Corea.Sowerby : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii.LEPROSY, "the most ancient and persistentof diseases," has been known in China from veryearly times. The symptoms are described in ancientChinese works on medicine, and curative treatmentoutlined. According to the highest authority ontropical diseases, China has probably more lepersthan any other country ; estimates vary from150,000 to 300,000, but are not worth much.The disease is very unequally distributed, beingsomewhat rare in the dry north and north-west.In S.W., Central and S. China, it is common,especially in Fukien, Xuangsi and Kuangtung withtheir damp heat. It is very prevalent round Cantoncity. The sufferers are congregated in so-called" leper villages," but nothing systematic is doneto treat them or to stamp out the disease. Sometimesa generous official may make a grant-in-aidbut in some places lepers are regarded as "accursedof Heaven" for some wrong-doing in this or aprevious existence, and even stamping out thedisease by murdering the diseased has beenadvocated in some quarters. In the meantimelepers marry lepers, and the disease is said to wearitself out in three or four generations. In spiteof ignorance, filth, poor food, etc., leprosy does notseem to be on the increase in China.The Mission to Lepers (a British Society) assiststo i^oiae extent various Protestant Missions in workfor their relief. Homes have been opened wherethey are housed, clothed, fed, taught Christianity,and reverently buried at last in the graveyard ofthe "Home."The Church Missionary Society has a numberof Leper Homes, those at Hangchow, Foochow,Pakhoi and Hok chiang being the chief; theRhenish Mission has a large asylum at Tungkun;at Wuchow there is a small leper home underChristian supervision.The one Home for Lepers in the interior is thatbelonging to the London Missionary Society atSiaokan, 40 miles from Hankow. It was opened in1899, and can accommodate 160.The American Presbyterian Mission (N.) isbuilding a Home at T'eng hsien in Shantung for70 lepers.Ball : Things Chinese; Fowler : Leprosy inChina, in Chinese Recorder, vol. xlvi.LETTRES EDIFIANTES ET CURIEUSES;a famous Jesuit missionary publication. The bibliographyof this work is most confusing ; it takes up nofewer than 30 columns in Cordier's BibliothecaSinica. It was begun in 1702, and the first fewvolumes are very rare in the original edition. Theywere reprinted and the series continued by Le Clerc,the collection extending down to vol. xxxiv in1776. Another edition has been issued by Le Clercof the earlier volumes, down to vol. xii, 1741. Anew edition in 26 volumes divided the Letters, thevolumes being entitled (in French) Memoirs ofAmerica, Memoirs of the Levant, etc. The volumesxvi to xxvi inclusive are concerned with China.There are also many translations of the series, inwhole or in part, in various languages. In 1808there was published Choix des Lettres Edifiantes,in 8 volumes, of which the first three deal withChina.Nouvelles Lettres edifiantes, concerned withthe Missions of China and the East Indies, is in8 volumes, the first being published in 1818 andthe last in 1823.LEXICOGRAPHY. NATIVE WORKS.-Native Chinese dictionaries may be divided intothree categories ; i. Analogical dictionaries, arrangedby categories of subjects; ii. Graphic dictionaries,arranged by radicals, iii. Phonetic dictionaries,arranged by rhymesi. This triple division is concernedonly with the mode of classification of thewords contained in the dictionary. Besides these,however, it is necessary to make a place for theglossaries of a particular work or a series of works,and also to say something about polyglot lexiconsand dictionaries.Analogical Dictionaries.—It would seem thatthe most ancient works of Chinese lexicographymust be placed in this category.29a

.ChiTheENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICALEXICOGRAPHYTraditionally, the first Chinese lexicon is the^ li 1^'h ya, the original compilation of which isoften attributed to the Duke of Chou (12th centuryB.C.); it is included in tlje "Thirteen Classics."But there cannot be any doubt that the work ismuch more recent; its publication cannot be placedearlier than the second century before our era.It then comprised three chapters. At present theEih i/a is generally divided into ten chapters ; it isaccompanied by a commentary by fp ^ Kuo P'o(276-324), and a sub-ccmmentary hv Jf^ ^ HsiKGPing (932-1010).The & H jliShih chou pHen however, must beplaced before the Erh ya, though there is no reasontc attribute it to a supposed Shih Chou who wouldhave lived about 800 b.c. ; the work was doubtlessof circa 300 B.C. ; there remains nothing of it exceptscattered citations.The same is true of the "^^^ Ts'ang hsieh[/ien, of which a fragment has, I believe, beenidentified by Mr. Lo Chen yii in a tablet of SirAuREL Stein's.On the other hand we still possess the ^ ^Jt @chiu chang, edited by |t \^ Shih Yu in48-32 B.C. and a portion of which has been foundby M. Chavannes in some tablets; of the Han Periodexhumed by Sir Atjrel Stein. It is a shortanalogical vocabulary, without any gloss. Almostall these ancient lexicons were more or less inrhythm or in rhyme.A place apart must be made for the -^ gFang yen, at the present time divided into thirteenchapters..attribution (which is very doubtful)of this work to ig i| Yang Hsiung (b.c. 53—a.d. IS)is met with for the first time at the end of thesecond century of our era. It is a collection ofdialect words from different parts of Northern andCentral China. Although the work has come downto us with many alterations, and although theChinese script lends itself badly to precise phoneticnotations, the Fang yen will be a very valuablesource of information about ancient Chinese speechwhen the study of early Chinese phonetics is moreadvanced.The Ji^ ig Shih ming of flj ^ Liu Hsi (2ndcentury of our era), in eight chapters, defines theChinese words as a rule by homophones, which givesto the work somewhat of the appearance of a collectionof puns : it is not, however, to be disregarded.The J^ H Kuang ya of jg J| Chang I, whichdates from the middle of the 3rd century of ourera, and is divided into ten chapters, is a vocabularyarranged by categories, with occasional brief explanations.The pronunciations shown were addedin the Sui period.There is no room here to continue this enumerationof analogical dictionaries down to recent timesit is a class fallen into desuetude : their utility tous ceasing when they can no longer be invoked asancient sources of Chinese in the days when theother lexicographical types did not yet exist.Graphic Dictionaries.—In these the arrangementis according to the system of radicals; but thenumber of these radicals has varied.The earliest dictionary arranged by radicals isthe M'X^^ Shuo wen chieh tzu,generally calledfor short The Shuo wen. It was the work of g^ tftHsii Shen, and was presented to the throne ina.d. 121 by his son fjp }tfi Hsii Ch'ung. (Contraryto the commonly received opinion Hsii Shen, whowas then ill, survived as late as, perhaps, neara.d. 150).The Shuo wen contains 10,600 characters arrangedunder 540 classifiers; these characters are given inthe seal form (4^^ hsiao chuan) with the correspondingforms in the Han script; Hsii Shen |f fftexplains the graphic origin of each character. TheShuo wen has come down to us not withoutalterations and additions, generally improvements,due to the brothers ^ gg Hsii Ch'ieh (920-974) and^, ^ Hsii HsiiAN (916-991). The pronunciationsgiven do not belong to the original Shuo wen; it isusually said that they were added when alterationswere made in the tenth century, but a manuscriptcopy fragment of the Shuo wen which is supposedto date from the T'ang dynasty and which has beenreproduced several times during the last halfcentury, already contains them. Modern Chinesescholars have worked a good deal on the Shuo wen;for Europeans its use has been facilitated byChalmers' Phonetic Shuo wen.Between the Shuo wen and the Graphic orPhonetic Dictionaries of the sixth century, of whichwe shall soon have to speak, progress was made intwo matters, both of advantage to the lexicographer.The first was the invention of the J^ -^ fan ch'iehwhich, by the use of two characters, one giving thesound of the initial and the other the sound of thefinal, allows the graphic representation of eachcharacter. (For example, ^ In g§ wu, in fan-ch'iehl(u-fw)u or lu, serves to mark the pronunciationof J^ lu). The paternity of this system, inventedunder the influence of Sanskrit scholars is ascribed tojgg ^ Sun Yen (3rd century of our era). The otheradvance was the systematization of the four tones,established by vjfc ^ Shen Yd (441-513), in his pg gSsu sheng, a treatise which is now lost, but thedata of which passed into all later dictionaries.Among the Graphic Dictionaries to which theseinnovations were applied, the most ancient that wepossess except in scattered citations is the ^ ^Yii p'ieh of ^S^X Ku Yeh-wang (519-581), finishedin 543. This work is divided into thirty chapters,and the characters are arranged under 542 radicals,299

isubstituted'jandIIthereLEXICOGRAPHYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAwhich is almost exactly the system of the Shuo wCn.The Yii p'ien has not come down to us, however,in its original state. It has been revised, in 674 by3SS£ Sun Ch'iang, and again in 1013 by ^ ^ ^Ch'kn P'kng-nien. The modern editions arederived from this last revision. Some years agohowever, two fragmentary manuscripts of the T'angrecension were reproduced in Japan and in China."^^^ ^ i^ ^ IS Zwngr kan shou chien in fourchapters, finished by the Buddhist monk fj %HsiNG Chun in 997, has this interest, that it is oneof the very rare works composed in North Chinain the Liao period and still existing. It gives26,000 characters, of which many are vulgar formsnot noted in other dictionaries.AVithout delaying over intermediate works ofless importance we may pass at once to the greatdictionary compiled by imperial order under theManchu dynasty, the j^^^'^'^ K'ang Hsi tzu tien,completed in 1716. It gives 49,000 characters,arranged under 214 radicals. In spite of its greatpopularity this dictionary contains a good numberof mi-stakes, which the ^^^jE Tzu tien k'ao•vhvng of 3E g( 2. Wang Yin-chih (1766-1814) hasnot completely corrected.A new dictionary, which is a sort of revised andcorrected K'ang Hsi tzu tien, has been compiledrecently by 8^ ^ Jg ^[^ Ou-tang P'u-ts'tjn, ^ |§Hsii K'AO and J£ :g ^ Wang Ch'ang-lu ; it waspublished at Shanghai at the end of 1915 under thetitle tfj^;^!^:^ Ckutig hua ta tzu tien. The orderof the 214 radicals has been altered ; some neologismshave been introduced ; the meanings are betterclassified and distinguished than in the K'ang Hsitzu tien; but there are still a good few faultsinherited from preceding dictionaries.There also apjjeared at the Commercial Pressin Shanghai in 1915 a work of the first rank, thel^jg Tz'u yiian. It is an encyclopaedic dictionary,arranged according to the 214 radicals, and full ofvaluable information. The definitions and explanationsare clear and precise. There had previouslybeen no work of this kind in China.Phonetic Dictionaries.—These are arrangedaccording to rhymes. This system of classificationonly began to be adopted in the sixth century, andthen in works which have not come down to us.The first such dictionary of which we have morethan occasional citations is the -tJdH Ch'ieh yiin of^ iS 1" Lu Fa-yen, in five chapters, finished in 60.1,the characters being classed under 204 rhymes.The Ch'ieh yun was amended for the first time in677 by :g^^W Chang-sun No-yen, then a secondtime in 751 under the direction of ^j >t® Sxjn Mien :from the time of this second revision the title waschanged to g^ T'ang yiin. Revised yet once moreunder the direction of |^ j^ ifi Cn'feH P'eng-nienand others in 1011, the 2"ang yiin became then the300^ 5^ fi ^ J^ Si^" Sung ch'ung hsiu kuang yiin,or 'Kuang yiin revised under the Sung ;' it seemsin fact that the name of Kuang yiin had beenfor T'ang yiin between 751 and 1011, inan intermediate revision about which we have butlittle information. This Kuang yiin of the Sungperiod includes about 28,000 characters, arrangedunder 206 rhymes. All the modern editions arederived from the 1011 recension. Sir Aitkel Steinmyself, however, have recovered from Tunhuangseveral specimens of the T'ang recensionis especially, in the Stein collections' at theBritish Museum, an almost complete example ofthe work, printed apparently in the tenth century.It would be in vain to attempt a detailed historyof the work of Lu Fa-yen until this new materialhas been studied in detail.Along with the Kuang yiin must be noted, inthe Sung period, the compilation of the ^ mChi yiin, by t;^ ff Sung Ch'i, T ^ Ting Tu andothers, finished in 1039 and containing 53,523characters ; and that of a work of smaller extent butvery popular, the iS nU 1^ § J^t fu yiin lio ofTing Tu, completed in 1038 and giving only 10,000^characters.The Li pu yiin lio of Ting Tu was re-cast in1252 by gl) 5^ Liu Yuan, who reduced the 206rhymes to 107.The r^iJg^ig Chung yiian yln yun of ^ liigChou Tk-ch'ing dates from the twelfth centuryfor the history of the Chinese vocal sounds it is aninteresting work : the ju-sheng, which had alreadydisappeared in northern China, is suppressed in thebook, but Chou Te-ch'ing still distinguishes thethree nasal finals, -n, —m,— ng, reduced to-day to— n and—«y by the passing of ni into—n. This isthe system, moreover, which is certified to us in thefourteenth century in the transcriiDtions of Chinesewords intb the 'qjhags-pa script.Directly after the establishment of _ the Mingdynasty, a new dictionary was made by imperialorder, the ^^ jE Si Hung Wu cheng yiin, completein 1375. It contains about 12,000 words, and thephonetic wear and tear of the language has broughtabout a great reduction in the number of rhymesthere are only 76 of them.However, in the seventeenth century the youngManchu dynasty gave up the classification of theHung Wu cheng yiin and returned to the number(less one) of Lru Yiian ; from that time there were106 rhymes ; it is the system which flourishes to-day.The best-known lexicographical work whichappeared under the Manchu dynasty and is classifiedby rhymes, is the enormous "Gradus ad Parnassum"entitled ^'^^M ^'^» '''^" V^^ /" compiled byimperial orders in 1704, with a supplement, the5^ ^ ^ jg Yiin fu shih i, compiled by imperialorders in 1720. There is in it an enormous immber

ENCYCLOPAEDIA StNtCALEXlCOGRAf»HYof expressions of two or three characters, arrangedunder the rhyme of the last character; each ofthese expressions is illustrated by quotations, withthe sources indicated ; but the quotations are notalways correct, and often, are hardly intelligible,because they are not accompanied by any explanation.Glossaries.—There have appeared in China manyglossaries of a particular writer or of a particularseries of works. The expressions of which theglosses are given are not classified, but they arenimibered and explained in the order of theirappearance in the original text.The most celebrated work in this category, sofar as concerns the classical literature, is the ^^^ % Ching tien shih wen of ^ ^. 59 LtJ Te-ming,in 30 chapters; the preliminary matter is dated 583,but the work was no doubt not finished till a goodfew years later. The Ching tien shih wen is aglossary of the Classics (not including Mencius butincluding Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu) as much fromthe point of view of the form of the characters asof their pronunciation and their meaning. It wasvery much altered in 972 and even since that dateit has not been very well preserved ; two fnaniascriptsfrom Tun-huang, now in the NationalLibrary in Paris, give us in part the originalwording of the work for the portions which relateto the Shu ching and to the / ching. Especiallyby that which refers to the Shu ching one sees fromthese manuscripts that the recension which has beenhanded down has retained not more than half theoriginal text.The principal Glossaries besides the Ching tien"hih wen are those which relate to Buddhist works.The earlie.st is the — -^ilSI gf SI ^ ch'ieh ching yin iby ^ J^ HsiiAN-YiNG (middle of seventh century).There are several others, not less valuable, alsodating from the T'ang dynasty and relating eitherto the whole Buddhist " Canon " or to someparticular work in it.In imitation of the Buddhists the Taoists intheir turn compiled a general Glossary of their" Canon," but this work has not come down to us.Vocabularies of Foreign Tongues.— By their contactwith neighbouring peoples, then because ofBuddhism, and finally through the establishment inNorth Clhina of non-Chinese dynasties, the Chinesewere early led to study foreign tongues and tofacilitate that study by Lexicons. The biographicalchapters of the Sui History shew us the existencefrom the fourth to the sixth century of quite aliterature relating to the language of the Hsien-piand to that of the Wei of the To-pa family ; but ofallthese works none have survived to our day.The most ancient works of this class which,thanks to Buddhism, have come down to us, areconcerned with the Indian writing and lexicographymost of them were lost in China, but have beenrecovered in Japan.A Manual, with glossary, for the study of thehsi-hsia language has been unearthed by ColonelKozLOV at Khara-khoto.But, for the period previous to the Manchu,and apart from Sanskrit lexicons, the most numerousseries of the works of this nature consists of theVocabularies made for the Bureau of Interpretersduring the first half of the Ming dynasty. It isby these Vocabularies that we know of the languageof the Jucen or ^ Chin (12th century), thanks toa manuscript in Berlin, to which must now be addeda manuscript at Hanoi. There are some series ofthese Vocabularies of the Bureau of Interpreters,more or less complete and of various dates, in theprincipal Libraries of Europe.Under the Manchu dynasty there appeared agood number of Chinese-Manchu dictionaries,Chinese-Mongol, etc. One of the best-known is theE9 H fit ^ ®'S'S" *'* ch'ing wen chien, a tetragi otdictionary (Chinese, Manchu, Mongol, Tibetan),which even becomes pentaglot by the addition of aTurkish version, not published, it is true, butrepresented by a beautiful manuscript in the BritishMuseum.Bibliography :Watters, : Essays on theChinese Language, Shanghai, 1889, pp. 20-101.[P.P., translated by Editori].FOREIGN WORKS.—The early Roman Catholicmissionaries prepared a large number of dictionariesfor their own use; but such remained as a rule inmanuscript; a goodly number of these manuscriptsare scattered among the great libraries of Europeor in private collections ; but many have perished.Some of the more important may be mentioned.Pere J. Cobo ; Lingua sinica ad certam revocatamethodum, quattuor distinctis characterum ordinibus,generalissimis, generalibus, sjjecificis et dualibus,sen vocabularium sinense. This may be theearliest of such dictionaries, but no copy of it wasbrought to Europe.Ricci wrote a dictionary, and it may be thathis was the earliest. Kircher, in his China Illustrata,(p. 118) states that he had a copy of it, andthat he would have published it if any one wouldhave borne the expense. No copy is known toexist to-day.Pere Collado is said by Leo Allatius to havemade a dictionary of Chinese, with Latin andSpanish explanations, in Chinese and Latin characters,printed at Rome in 1632. No such book wasever printed, though it is always possible that thedictionary was actually made and sent to thePropaganda to be printed. A Japanese dictionaryappeared in that year, without Chinese characters,and perhaps this has caused Allatius to make hismistake.801

LEXICOGRAPHYENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAPere Trigatjlt printed a work in China entitled?5 fi5 B ^ ^*i /w crA JHU tzu. This is mentionedas a dictionary and in fact in Cordier's BibliothecaSinica it leads the list; but according to Remusatit- ismerely a syllabary, of no use except to Chinesewishing to learn a little Latin. Copies of this areto be found in various European libraries.Pere Gabriel Magalhaens or Magatllans wrotea Traite. des lettres et de la langue chinoise, pourceux qui viennent precher dans cet empire; but fromwhat he himself tells us of it one cannot tell whetherit was a vocabulary or a grammar. It was printedin 1626.P. Alvarez Semedo, according to P. Coxiplet,prepared a dictionary both Chinese-Portuguese andPortuguese-Chinese, but death prevented him fromfinishing it and it was never printed.P. Chr. Herdtrich is also said by Couplet tohave made a large Chinese-Latin Vocabulary, whichwas put to press ; but nothing more is known of it.P. BouvET made a small Chinese-French vocabulary,which was discovered early last century inthe Library at Mans.Fra Juan Fernandez. Dr. G. E. Morrisonhas a copy in manuscript of a Vocabxdarium Siniceet Latine, on the fly-leaf of which has been written,"Ce dictionnaire Chinois-Latin a ete redige par lemissionaire Espagnol Fra Juan Fernandez Serrano,et termine le 29 Novbre 1724 a Chang-Te."Fernandez is known as a Franciscan missionary,but the addition of Serrano to his name is unexplained.PP. Dominique de Nieva, who died in 1606,Michel de Benavides, who died in 1607, J. B.MoRALEZ, who died in 1664 and Fra Gon§alez deSan Pedro, who died in 1712, are all credited withhaving written vocabularies, but no copies of theworks are known to exist now.Other dictionaries mentioned by Remusat areone by P. Parrenin, one by PP. Premare andHervieu, to be seen in the National Library atParis, a Chinese translation of the Vocabulario dellaCrusca in three folio volumes, a fine Latin -Chinese-Manchu dictionary, also in three folio volumes, andone by P. Diaz of which a copy is kept in theBerlin Library. The last-named work has 7,160characters in alphabetic order and with Spanishtranslations.Some of these references it will be observed arevague and useless.The most noteworthy of these early dictionariesis that by Basile de Gemona (see Brolio). Thereare various manuscript copies, from 1714 onwards,with the title ^ ^ H |? ha7i tzu hsi i.It was first printed in 1813, as Dictionnairechinois, franqaia et latin par M. de Guignee. It waspublished by order of Napoleon the Great. It ishowever nothing else than Basile de Gemona'sDictionary, now first printed, after lying in manuscriptfor more than a century.De Guignes alteredthe work in some slight respects not to its advantage,and published it as his own work, though he saysin the preface it is on the model of Basile ofGemona. In 1819 Klaproth published a supplement[v. infra), in which there is a critical examinationof de Guignes' work by Remusat, (not byKlaproth, as is generally supposed). Remusatexposes the pii'acy very effectively.The dictionary is in folio, and has Ivi -1-1114pages of very thick paper, and is therefore mostunwieldy. It was republished without the Frenchat Hongkong in 1853.Supplement an Dictionnaire Chinois-Latin duP. Basile de Glemona [sic) (imprime en 1813 parles soins de M. de Guignes), public d'apres I'ordrede sa majeste le roi de Prusse, Fredkric-GuillameIII, par Jules Klaproth. A Paris, de I'imprimerieRoyale, M.DCCC.XIX.This supplement has a preface by Klaprothand a Critical Examination by Remusat of dbGuignes' book, in both of which the piracy of deGuignes is forcibly pointed out.With Dr. Morrison the Protestant Churchbegan its work in this direction. His great workwas printed at the expense of the East India Company,Morrison himself receiving 500 copies. Thework is entitled A Dictionary of the ChineseLanguage. (6 vols. 4to., Macao). It is in threeParts ; the first is the Tzu-tien ^ ^ in threevolumes, published as follows ; vol. i in 1815(pp. xviii, 930); vol. ii in 1822 (pp. 884); vol. iiiin 1823 (pp. 908). The second Part, Wu chii yun fu>^M^M^^ i" ^'^^ volumes : vol. i giving Chineseand English arranged alphabetically, appeared in1819 (pp. XX, 1090) ; vol. ii, containing variousindexes and Tables, a synopsis of ancient forms ofcharacters, etc., was published in 1820 (pp. vi, 178,305). The third Part is English-Chinese and itappeared in 1822 (pp. 480). The second part wasreprinted at Shanghai in 1865.Klaproth made violent attacks on the dictionary,with absurd charges which reveal both anevil temper and ignorance. This pretty quarrel maybe enjoyed by those having access to the AsiaticJournal and the Journal Asiatique for the yearsabout 1830-32. See also Morrison's letter givenin his Memoirs, vol. ii, p. 452.A singular controversy arose through Galleryin the Introduction to his Systema Phoneticnniasserting that the dictionary (Part II) was nothingbut a translation of one compiled by Roman Catholicmissionaries, of which he possessed a copy.Morrison in his preface says that Part II wasfounded on the Wu chii yiin fu of Ch'kn. Strangeto say, however, the book by Ch'kn was so rarethat Julien tried from 1828 to 1844 before he couldobtain a copy, when Morrison was at oncevindicated.302

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICALEXICOGRAPHYMorrison also wrote a dictionary of the CantonDialect, printed at Macao in 1828 ; a second editionof it appeared at Calcutta in 1840.G0N5ALVES prepared several Dictionaries, buttheir usefulness was much limited through theirbeing in Portuguese or Latin. They are DictionarioChina-Portuguez et Portuguez-China, Macao, 1831-33; Vocahulario latino -sinicum, Macao, 1836; Lexiconmanuale Latino-Sinicum, Macao, 1841; Lexiconmagnum Latino-Sinicum, Macao, 1841.W. H. Medhxjrst produced A Dictionary of theHohketn Dialect, with 12,000 characters, in 1832,the printing not being actually finished howeverbefore 1837. The Translation of a ComparativeVocabulary of the Chinese, Corean and JapaneseLanguages (1835), by Philo-Sinensis, is also hiswork. He also published a Chinese and EnglishDictionary, 1842-3; and an English and ChineseDictionary, 1847-8 ; each in 2 volumes.Callery's important work Systema PhoneticumScripturae Sinicae appeared in 1841 at Macao. Thisdictionary gives 12,753 characters arranged undertheir primitives or phonetics instead of under theirradicals. This was followed by the DictionnaireEncyclopedique de la langue chinoise, of which onlythe first volume appeared (1844).S. W. Williams issued an English-ChineseVocabulary in the Court Dialect in 1844. It wasproduced by the Office of the Chinese Bepository inMacao. The work has an Introduction one fourthas long a/s the Vocabulary and an index to assistspeakers of the Canton and Foochow dialects.He also made a Tonic Dictionary of the Chines-.Language in the Canton Dialect; it was printed atthe office of the Chinese Repository in Cantonin 1856.The Syllabic Dictionary, by the same scholar,was issued first in June, 1874. It was founded onthe Wu Fang Yuan Yin 'S.'^^Tbm^ {i-'V-)> a vocabularyof the year 1700, and it contains 12,527characters. The romanization was his own, but ithas not been used much by other writers and in1909 a new edition was published arranged accordingto Wade's system. This was prepared by aconmiittee of the N. China Mission of the AmericanBoard, to the College of which Mission Williamshad presented the property right in the Dictionary.The original work was published by the AmericanPresbyterian Mission Press in Shanghai; the otherissue is in a reduced size by the N. China UnionCollege at Tung Chow near Peking.An index to the dictionary, arranged accordingto Wade's orthography, had already been issuedby James Aciieson in 1879.John Chalmers of Hongkong, besides dictionariesof Cantonese, issued in 1878 the very usefulConcise Dictionary of Chinese, often called theConcise K'ang Hsi. Lobscheid published anEnglish and Chinese Dictionary in 1866 and aChinese and English Dictionary in 1871.One of the most widely used Vocabularies wasthat of George Carter Stent, first published in1871. Its popularity was largely due to its cleararrangement of two-character and three-characterphrases. The 3rd edition (1898) was revised byMacGillivray ; it then became MacGillivray'sVocabulary "on the same principle as Stent'sVocabulary."Doolittle's Vocabulary and Handbooh must bementioned, though the dictionary portion was notprobably much used.The great Chinese-English Dictionary by Gilesfirst appeared in 1892. It contained 10,859 characters,and used Wade's system of romanization. Itbecame very popular among sericus students asbeing the most complete so far, and a second editionimproved and enlarged' it.In 1895 Poletti published a Chinese-EnglishDictionary with 12,650 characters.An Analytical Chinese-English Dictionary byBaller contains 6,089 characters which are analyzedand illustrated by 40,000 examples of their usage.Soothill's Students' Four Thousand ^ andGeneral Pocket Dictionary is a small work arrangedon the phonetic system with some new features. Ithas had great popularity and several editions haveappeared since its issue in 1899. Goodrich's isanother well-known and handy Pocket Dictionary.A number of small works must remain unnoticed; and it is impossible to enumerate thedictionaries of dialects. Dyer Ball, Eitel,Macgowan, Edkins, Chalmers and many othershave produced dictionaries other than mandarin.So far most of the works named have been inEnglish, because such are more numerous thanothers and of more interest to the majority ofreaders. It must not be supposed however thatthere are not equally valuable works in othertongues. It would be strange if the French, whohave taken such a lead in sinological work, and theRussians, whose connection with China was so early,should not have done important work in lexicographyof Chinese. Pauthier and Remusat are names ofearly note. Recently Couvreur has prepareddictionaries French-Chinese and Chinese-French ofmandarin, and also a Classical Dictionary ; and thereare various other smaller French works by Rochet,Lemaire and Giquel and others. Many dictionaries,etc., by French authors are in Latin. In Russianthe Dictionary of Palladius and Popov has runto several editions. Other Russian lexicographerswere Vasiliev and Petchotjrov. Schlegel publisheda very fine Dutch-Chinese Dictionary in fourvolumes in 1882-91. There are various such worksin German, but none which it seems necessary toname.303'

LIENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICALIAO CHAI CHIH ^ coUectionI Of English- Chinese dictionaries there have beenLIANG, STATE OF. See Wei, State of. T'u Shu Chi Ch'iiig M^^lS, will be found here.several of late years, prepared by Chinese in Hongkongm'^^^^>01 tales completed in 1679, by P'u Sxjng-ling {q.v.),or Shanghai. That published by the Com-but first printed by his grandson in 1740. Themercial Press in Shanghai has been very popular. title has been rendered Pastimes of the StuBy,The most modern is that by Hemeling, published (Williams), and Becord of Marvels or Tales of thefor the Customs in 1917.Genii, (Mayebs). It is literally Liao library recordsRemusat : Melanges Asiatiq^ies ; Cobdieb strange, the word liao:J^J] being a fanciful andBibliotheca Sinica, col. 1588.untranslateable term for the author's private library.From a 16-volume edition Giles has translated 164LI M> The Chinese unit of road measurement,of the best tales under the title given below. Theequal to 1894.12 feet English. Biit like all Chinesestories include tales of genii, of Taoist magic, ofmeasures it varies in different localities.imaginary lands and of everyday life. The styleLI A I TANG, a general who always worked is considered perfect, but its terseness makes itloyally with Wabd and Gobdon, and did good extremely difficult to read.service. He was a native of Kiangsu, and he Giles : Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio.accumulated great wealth during the struggle withthe rebels. The Fab East : 1877, p. 105.LIAO DYNASTY. See ICitai and Kara K'itai.LIAMPO, the name of either Ningpo or the LIAO DYNASTY, WESTERN. See Karasuburb of it occupied by Portuguese colonists in the K'itai.^sixteenth century. See Portuguese Relations.LIAO RIVER CONSERVANCY. See Conservancy.LIANG DYNASTY ^ |a (a.d. 502-557) wasfounded by Hsiao Yen, who took the dynastic titleLIBRARIES. There are libraries of Chineseof VVu Ti, and was a great patron of learning. He books abroad and libraries of foreign works onis noted for his attempt to take Hsiang Yang, as BiChinese matters. Both these subjects should bestep in the conquest of Wei, by the building of an fully treated in this article, but circumstances makeenormous dam, which led however to great destructionit necessary to mainly confine these notes to onein his own army instead of drowning thelibrary in each class.city. During his reign Bodhidhabma settled at The account of the British Museum ChineseLo-yang. Wu Ti ended his life as a Buddhist Library, only to be regarded as rough notes, hasmonk.been contributed and concludes with the writer'sDyn. Title Accession Reign Title Adopted initials.^ ^Wu Ti 502 5^ g T'ien Chien 502British Museum Chinese Library.—The Chinese^ ^ P'u T'ung 520 works in the Oriental Department of the British;^ JfiTa T'ung 527 Museum total upwards of 50,000 fen. Owing to thetp;A:ia ChungTaT'ung 529 fact that the collection was allowed to grow up in;^ ^ Ta T'ung 535 a haphazard manner through purchase or presentation,tpitM ChungTaT'ung 546there are numerous imperfections and dupli-;*: ?f T'aiCh'ing 547 cates. The major portion of the books have beenll!3fc*Cbien Wen Ti 549 ;^ ^ Ta Pao 550 bound in European style, but an effort is now beingai$3EYu-changWang 551 5c jE T'ien Cheng 551 made to retain, wherever possible, the originalyt #Yuan Ti 552 :ft ^ Ch'eng Sheng 552 Chinese cases {t'ao).^^gftCheng-yangHou555 ^ jjg T'ien Ch'eng 555 The Confucian Classics ai'e well represented in^ ^Ching Ti 55518 ^ Shao T'ai 555 various editions, and there is also a fair collection ofi 2p T'ai P'ing 556 standard historical works, including a completemodern edition of the 24 dynastic histories. AmongLIANG DYNASTY, LATER. See Fivethe works on topography may be mentioned theDynasties.Ta Ming I T'ung Chih i^V^ — Wf^^, or DescriptionLIANG KIANG MH, the two Chiang or of the Empire, as well as the later Ta Ch'ing IKiang; formerly the two provinces Kiangnan and T'ung Chih i^^ — Wi it- The section devoted toKiangsi ; now that Kiangnan has been divided into heterodox philosophers is noteworthy for the veryKiangsu and Anhui, the term stands for the three large number of different commentaries on Lao Tzu'sprovinces.2'flo Te Ching 3E ^, (S5 • There are also severalLIANG KUANG mM> theeditions of Chuang Tzu and other philosophers oftwo Kuang, thethe Chou, Ch'in and Han dynasties. The libraryname used for the two provinces together, Kuangtungand Kuangsi.is rich in encyclopaedias : all the more importantones, from the T'ai P'ing Yu Lan is.^ '^^ to \he>304

,TheIIjInot'ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICALIBRARIESOf the latter work, the Museum is fortunate inpossessing a copy of the original edition of 1726,printed on yellow paper and bound up into 745stout volumes. It also gives shelter to 5 volumesof the still greater manuscript encyclopaedia Yung'Lu Ta Tien 7^^^^^^ which was almost entirelydestroyed at Peking in 1900. Among the indispensabledictionaries and similar works of referenceare included good editions of the P'ei Wen Yiin Fum^MM *"d P'ien Tzu Lei Pien m^UM, K'angHsi's standard dictionary and the Shuo Wen U^jSC-Poetry and belles-lettres generally occupy a considerablespace en the shelves, while fiction and thedrama are also adequately represented. Practicallythe whole of Buddhist literature is comprised in the•two great collections Ta Tsavg Ching ;A:^i^ andthe even more extensive supplement printed atKyoto in 1905 and 1912 respectively.In old and rare editions the British Museum isnot particularly rich. It includes, however, afolding volume printed from blocks in 1099 a.d.,containing part of a Buddhist sutra; three similarvolumes printed in Japan in the 12th and 13thcenturies ; a few books of_ the Yiian dynasty, andsome beautiful specimens of Ming printing, moreespecially a Palace edition of the HsU Tzu ChihT'ung Chien Rang Mu lt^f&M^)^@ dated1476. Early illustrated books are a Life of Buddha(1486) and a moral treatise in Chinese and Korean(1518). Besides the last-named, there are severalvery fine Korean editions of" Chinese works.Various Jesuit works in Chinese include a treatiseon "The True Conception of God," by Matted,Kicci, printftd in 1603. Among those most usefulproductions of the class known as ts'ung shu, orcollections of reprints, the Museum has recentlyacquired the following : Chih pu tsu chai ts'ung shu$n '^ £. ^ ^ ^, Shih wan chUian lou ts'ung shu~h^ # ^M^' ^^ " ^'"!7 ^*^" c^" cAert pan ts'ung-hu 5

LIBRARIESENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA« la Chine conserves au Cabinet des Estampes.(See Journal Asiatique, 1900; also MauriceCouRANT, Catalogue des Livres chinois, coreens,japonais, etc., 1900).Leyden University has a collection of Chineseworks ; the catalogue was published by Schlegel atthe time of the 6th Congress of Orientalists atLeyden, 1883, with a supplement in 1886.The last to mention is the Newberry Libraryin Chicago. For this Library Latjfer collected 1216works in 21,403 volumes. They are Tibetan,Chinese, Japanese, Mongolian and Manchu, but thegreat majority are Chinese. A descriptive accountwas published in 1913.Other libraries which deserve an extendednotice are those at Hanoi (Ecole frangaise deI'Extreme-Orient) and at Zi ka wei, (Jesuits,Kiangnan Mission).Of foreign books on Chinese matters we mentiononly one collection.The library of Dr. G. E. Morrison at Pekingis the most complete collection of works on Chinaever made. It was begun some five and twentyyears ago, before the owner had any idea ofresidence in China; and as far as a liberal expenditureof money combined with a keen andaffectionate interest could make it so, the attemptto form a comprehensive collection of works inevery language and every subject on China and*it.s dependencies past and present has been remarkablysuccessful.Among the treasures of this Collection are acopy of the first Latin edition of Marco Polo,printed at Antwerp in 1485 ; and the first Italianedition, Venice 1496 ; fifteen different editionsearlier than the year 1700 ; and many later editionsin various languages. Sir John Mandeville is alsowell represented, the earliest editions being theLatin one of 1485 and the Italian of 1486. Thefirst Portuguese edition of Mendez Pinto (1614)is in the library, as well as the first Spanish andthe first English editions. The dictionaries andgrammars number over four hundred. There areseveral early MS. dictionaries including a MS.Chinese-Latin dictionary by the missionary PadreJuan Fernandez, finished at Chang-te fu, 1724.Other dictionaries there are of Mongol, Manchu,Tibetan, Turki, etc., and the smallest pocketdictionaryof most recent date finds its place withthe rest.There are some books to which a personalinterest, is given by the marginal notes of someformer owner or otherwise. Thus there are anumber of books from the library of Beckford,the author of Vatlieh; and from the Duke ofNorfolk's, the Duke of Cambridge's and the Dukeof Hamilton's libraries. There is a copy ofDe Guiones' Voyage a I'tlin with the accompanyingatlas of plates coloured by the author himself,specially bound with an adulatory letter forpresentation to Prince Talleyrand. Among otherinteresting rarities there is the log-book of theEarl of Ashburnham, written by the fifth officerand illustrated by him with exquisite pen-and-inksketches of Canton, Macao, etc., as they were atthat early date, 1757. There is also the originallog-book of the Lion frigate which brought out theMacartney Embassy in 1792-4, besides Macartney'sDiary and Letter-book, a Common-place Book inMacartney's own hand and several volumes of theMacartney manuscripts.The library possesses a complete and handsomelybound copy of the Chinese Repository, aswell as complete sets of Blue Books, Customs,publications, Journal Asiatique and other reviewsand journals dealing with China : with such raresets as the China Punch, The Indo-Chinese Gleaner,etc.There is an unusually large collection of bookson the Ornithology of China ; rare works on variousdepartments of Natural History; a collection ofthe works on Chinese Art, many very costly andsome hardly now to be obtained at all ; suchas W. T. Walter's Collection of Porcelain,Thompson's Catalogue of Blue and White Porcelainwith Whistler's illustrations, etc.The library also includes a large collection ofmaps and engravings, etc., connected with China,many of unique interest ; such as the twenty-fourengi'avings by Helman, both coloured and uncoloured,Faits Meinorables des Emperevrs de la Chine;the Victories of Ch'ien Lung ; two volumes oforiginal drawings and watercolours by Chinnery ;the Costumes of China, original watercolour paintingsby Alexander, the artist who accompaniedMacartney's Embassy, etc., and the collection ofmanuscripts in three volumes dealing with theJesuit-Dominican controversy over the question ofAncestral Worship in China, formed by the learnedCanonico Ghiselli.A valuable part of the library is the extraordinarycollection of pamphlets dealing withChina ; many of these by their very insignificanceof appearance have become exceedingly scarce, butevery one that can be found is brought to enrich thisunique library. Magazine articles dealing withChina published in various European languages findtheir proper places in this collection.It might have been hoped that the Librarycould have become a permanent attraction toPeking, where it is naturally 'at home.' In August,1917, however, Baron Iwasaki bought it for£35,000. By the conditions of sale it will be housedin Tokyo, will always be available for the use ofstudents, and will always be called The MorrisonLibrary.h^

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNICA LI HUNG-CHANGLI CHEE {Litchi sinemiis) ^1^, one of themost popular fruits of S. China. The plant isstrictly semi-tropical, and is found on the coast asfar north as Foochow, but not beyond.It requiresa rich soil and plenty of moisture, and is not easyto propagate.The fruit is eaten fresh, dried, or canned ; somepeople even think it is improved by being canned.There are many varieties, differing in size,colour and flavour.Meyer : ,Ar/rictiltural Explorations, etc.LI CHI i^lG, th^ Book of Rites, one of theFive (Jhing or Classics. There are two other workswith Li, ritual, in their titles ; the / Li and theChou Li; the three are often called the ThreeRituals, Scm Li.The Li Chi as a collection in its present formbelongs to the second century of our era. Thenucleus of it, according to Chu Hsi, is in 'Treatisescomposed by disciples of the seventy disciples,'which were recovered after the destruction of booksby Shih Huang Ti. These were added to, collated,commented on and condensed, until about a.d. 200,when they had the form in which we know the worktoday, in forty-nine books.Legge's translation is under the title The LiKi or Collection of Treatises on the Rules ofProjiriety or Ceremonial Usages.Callbry in 1853 published a French translation,but it was not of the complete work. This incompletenessis indicated in the Introduction, but noton the title-page. Alexander Wylie translatedthe whole, but did not publish it. Legge's is thereforethe first complete translation into any Europeanlanguage. It was published in 1885 in the seriesThe Sacred Bools of the East.LI CI US, the Latinized form of Lieh Tzu(

LIKANENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAand for his services was made Governor of Kiangsuin 1862. He killed the rebel leaders, vfho hadsurrendered Soochow on condition that their livesshould be spared. After the rebellion was suppressedhe was made Earl. In 1867 he was Viceroyof Hu-kuang, and in 1870 of Chihli. In 1874, by'a forced march from Tientsin to Peking, he ruineda foi'midable conspiracy and enabled Kuang Hsiito be proclaimed Emperor. He signed the ChefooAgreement, started the China Merchants' SteamNavigation Company, and in the settlement of theTonkin question accused the French of a breach offaith, which led to 'reprisals' and the partial destructionof the Chinese fleet at Foochow. The warwith Japan broke out in 1894; at its close he wassent, shorn of honours, to sue for peace, and owingto his attempted assassination by a Japanese gotbetter terms than he might otherwise have done.In 1896 he made a long tour of western lancjs, beinggreatly feted everywhere. He died in 1901.He seemed generally in favour of progressivemeasures, but probably had little love for foreignersas such.LIKAN.SeeTaTs'in.LI K I EN. SeeTaTsUn.LI KIN H^, an inland tax on the transit ofgoods. The first mention of it in its present formwas in 1852, when the Governor of Shantung institutedit in ressponse to demand made on the provincefor funds to suppress the T'ai P'ing rebellion. Theidea of the tax is, however, said to have originatedwith the Tao-t'ai Yao some years earlier. It wasextended throughout China about 1863. Tlie barriersfor collection of the tax are very numerouswhere the population i* thick and trade large.There is a tariff, but it is practically ignored, thelocal collectors having very large powers especiallyin fixing rates of exchange. The tax was originallyone tenth of one per cent, on the value of the goodsit is now estimated that goods passing through oneprovince pay five per cent., and passing throughseveralprovinces as much as twenty per cent, oftheir value. The total collected is probably somethirty million taels per annum.By treaty stipulation foreigners importing andexporting goods pay to the Maritime Customs sevenand a half instead of the regulation five per cent,duty and are then exempt from the likin tax ; butthis has never been adhered to. The foreign Powershave long tried to get the tax abolished, in theinterests of all trade, both local and foreign, payingextra duty to the Maritime Customs : but thedifficulty lies in the Customs being State while thelikin is Provincial. Two treaties have been signeddealing with the matter, the British known as theMackay Treaty in 1902, and the Commercial Treatybetween the United States and China in 1903 : butboth have proved abortive.Wagel : Finance in China, p. 380.LI LIEN YING ^^|^, the favourite eunuch ofthe Empress-dowager Tz'u Hsi for forty years untilher death. Before becoming a eunuch at the age ofsixteen, he was a shoemaker's apprentice at Hochienfu, and the common people therefore gavehim the nickname Cobblers'-wax Li, as Backhousetranslates it,^:5f $ P'i-hsiao Li, or Li the tanner.He seems to have had the virtue of loyalty tohis mistress, but there is not much else to his credit.By squeezing on a scale without precedent, hebecame immensely rich; his hoard is said to havefallen into the hands of the French troops in 1900,but after the return of the Court in 1902 he had time,before the Empress-dowager's death in 1908, tomake another fortune estimated at two millionssterling. By his advice, the funds supposed to befor the use of the rmvy, were diverted to the rebuildingof the Summer Palace. This contributedto China's defeat by Japan in 1894. His powerfulinfluence was, of course, used entirely against reform;both the coup d'etat and the Boxer rebellionwere largely due to his advice. While at Hsi-an fu,he and his fellow-eunuchs impoverished the wholeprovince by their depredations. On the Court'sreturn to the capital his influence was e\'«en greaterthan ever, though he wisely used it then in favourof a certain amount of reform. He died in 1911.LILYFLOWERS, chin chtn ts'ai^ij-^;Hemerocallis fiavu. A staple article of export fromChinkiang, growing along a narrow belt runningalong the 34th parallel of latitude, through Kiangsu,Anhui and Honan, and between the 115th and 119thparallels of longitude, where the land lies severalfeet higher than the plain of the Yangtze atShanghai, and the soil is poor and sandy. Theflower has not been an important article of diet formore than a few decades; it is now, however, somuch sought after that it is regularly cultivatedbetween potatoes and cabbage. The young bulbsare replanted, seed being apparently never used.The flowers are plucked in spring, dried in the sun,steamed, trodden down in a hang, and packed forconveyance to the nearest mart, where they areredried and packed in large bales. The originalprice is about $3.00 per picul.The flower alone is eaten, as a vegetable relishwith pork, etc. It is 4 or 6 inches long, lightbrown in colour, with yellow petals. The bestkinds come from Ch'enchou-fu in Honan. Theexport for 1916 amounted to Tls. 453,177.China Review, vol. xix.LI MA-T'OU. See Ricci.308

ENCYCLOt'AfiDiA SINlCALING NAML I Ml CO LA E, an Order including Plovers,Snipes, Curlews, etc. The following are metwith in China. Vanellus vulgaris, the Lapwing orPeewit, all over China in the winter, but it retiresto the north in the summer. Microsarcops cinereus,in China, Manchuria and Mongolia; it breeds onthe Yangtze and probably in many other parts ofChina. Ho'plo2)terus vcntraUs, the Indian SpurwingedPlover, in Hainan and Yiinnan. Sarcogrammusatrinuchalis, in Yunnan. Squatarola helvetica,the Grey Plover, passes up and down the coast,and winters in S.E. China. Charadrius fulvus,the Eastern Golden Plover, in China and Mongoliain passage. Ochthodromus verediis, the EasternDotterel, in E. China and Mongolia. O. geoffroyi,the Large Sand -Plover, on the coasts of China, inpassage. O. mongolicus, the Lesser Sand-Plover,Mongolia, and at certain seasons in eastern andsouthern China and in Hainan. /Egialitis jilacida,the Long-billed Ringed Plover, all over China,though not in great numbers. /E. dubia, the LittleRinged Plover, in Mongolia and the whole of China.J'J. ulexandrina, China coast. yffJ. dealbata, S.E.(Jhina. Glareola brientalis, the Large IndianPratincole or Swallow-Plover, in China generally,Mongolia, Manchuria. Ilaematopiis osculans, theSea-pie or Oystercatcher, on China coast; breeds,near Che too. Strepsilas interpres, the Turnstone,common on the coasts. Ibidorhynchiis struthcrsii,the Ibis-bill, in the mountains of the north andwest, and in Mu-p'in. Numenius variegatus.Eastern Whimljrel, in all parts of China. A'^.arquata, the Curlew, in passage, in China andMongolia. N. cyanopus, in great numbers inChina, in migration. N. minutus, also common inmigration. Limosa novae-zelandiae, China coastand from the Ordos to S. China. L. melanuroides,China coast. Terekia cinerea, the Terek Sandpiperor Avocet Sandpiper, on the coast of China.Recnrvirostra avocetta, the Avocet, China coast;in summer in the river-mouths of N. China, on theYellow River, and in Mongolia. Himantopuscftndidus, the Black-winged Stilt, China coast.Totamis glottis, the Greenshauk, very common inall parts. T. stagnatilis, the Marsh Sandpiper orLittle Greenshank, in Manchuria and in China, butrare. T. fvscw, the Spotted Redshank, fromMongolia to Canton. ?'. calidris the Redshank,very common in all parts at the times of migration.2'. ochropu.^, the Green Sandpiper, abundantmigrant and possibly resident; by the watercourseseverywhere. T. glareola, the Wood Sandpiper,China generally. T. brevipes, China coast,in migration. T. hypoleucus, the common Sandpiper,throughout China. Calidris arenaria, theSanderling, on the coast, in winter and in migration.Tringa crassirostris, the Eastern Knot, on the coast,at the times of passage. 2'. acuminata, the AsiaticPectoral Sandpiper, China coast; common in theseasons. T. platyrhyncha, the Broad-billed Stint,in Formosa, and in small numbers in China, attimes of migration. T. americana, the PacificDunlin. T. ruficoUis, the Eastern Little Stint. T.temmtnchii, Temminck's Stint; these three arecommon on the coasts. T. subarquata, the CurlewStint or Pigmy Curlew, common on the coastsand in Mongolia. Eurynorhynchus pigmaeus, theSpoon-billed Stint, China coast. Macrorhamphustaczanoioskii, the Snipe-billed Godwit, in Mongoliaand China, but not wide-spread. Scolopax rusticula,the Woodcock, Mongolia, China generally. Gallinagosolitaria, the Himalayan Solitary Snipe,Mongolia, Chihli, Lower Yangtze, Shensi andMu-p'in. G. stenura, the Pintail Snipe, in migration.G. coelestis, the Common Snipe, common inall parts. G. gallinula, the Jack Snipe, Fukien,liower Yangtze, Chihli. Bostratnla capensis, thePainted Snipe, as far as N. Chihli in summer;resident in S. China. Lobipes hyperboreus, theRed-necked Snipe, and Phalaropus fvlicarius, arewinter visitors.David et Oxtstalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine,(Charadrides, Glareolides, Scolopacides, etc.).LI MIN |^:^.a term used in the Great Ijearningwith reference to the Chinese people, and explainedin K'anu Hsi's dictionary as 'black-haired.' The309passage in the Great Learning is(ft ^ -J- fil 3K .S(x. 14), and Legge's translation is 'preserve mysons and grandsons and black-haired people.'Some doubt has been thrown on this renderingof the term. One suggestion is that since thecomposition of the character in its earlier form isgrain + man -I- millet or water, it points not to thecolour of the hair, but to the distinctive mark ofthe first Chinese immigrants, viz., that they werealready an agricultural people.Little : T'he Far East, p. 196LING CH'lH^ig, the punishment translated'cutting into ten thousand pieces.* It was notquite so bad as that, but did include the horror ofcutting away portions of flesh from the living victimbefore the coup de grace was given. No doubt it wasat some times more brutally and completely carriedout than at others, and these extreme cases havetwice, at lea,st, been photographed to adorn andassist the sale of foreign books :• in one case theillustration was mercifully perforated to facilitatewithdrawal. The punishment, with other barbarousaccompaniments of the death-penalty, was abolishedby an edict of the Empress-dowager in 1905.LING NAM^I^, ling nan, south of the range.This means south ' of the Plum Range,' Mei Ling{q.v.), and is used to denote the Kuangtung and

iLINGUISTSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAKuangsi provinces. There is a book with this titleconcerning these provinces, written by the Rev.B. C. Henry.LINGUISTS, the term always used for theinterpreters in early days of trade with China. Itwas forbidden to any Chinese to teach Chinese toa barbarian. Lloyd (q.v.) in 1699 and Flint (q.v.)in 1747 seen to have been the only servants of theEast India Company to acquire the language up tothat time. The linguist therefore became an importantinstitution, and between Hong Merchants,linguists and compradores, the difficulties of foreigntrade were enormous.In 1685 is the first record of the charges forlinguists, which were at that time one per cent,on the transactions for the ship on whose behalfthey acted. They were naturally extremely incompetentin translation, even if they had wished ordared to be honest in the case of petitions presentedto officials ; they originated pidgin-English, and inits early day.s> it was worse than now.In 1814, Sir George Staunton gained for theCompany the privilege of addressing Chinese officialsin the Chinese language,—and by that time therewere e.xcellent Chinese scholars among the Company'sservants.The interpreter of the British Consul is stillcalled his linrjvist in the Treaty of Nanking, 1942.Eames : The English in China.LINGYIN ^ ^, souVs retreat; a group offamous temples in a beautiful glen amongst theHangchow hills. The monastery is reputed to havebeen founded by an Indian monk named Htri Li inA.D. 326. There are many rock-sculptures and aseven-storied " Pagoda of the Classics." K'angHsi paid many visits to the Temples. The placewas sacked and burned by the T'ai P'ing rebels.Cloud : Hawjchow.LIN NGAN 1^^, the name given to Hangchowby Kao Tsung, when, having been defeated by theChin ^ Tartars he transferred the Sung Capitalthere in a.d. 1127. It is the Kinsay ;^ g$ (capital)of Marco Polo. See Hangchow.LINSEED, the product of Linum usitatissivium,is exported from Kalgan, but is grown alsoin Ssuch'uan. In 1911 it was predicted that itwould become one of the staple exports if the toocommon practice of adulteration were not indulgedin ; and this prediction seems correct, since theexportation in 1912 reached 442,000 piculs, worthover Hk. Tls. 2,000,000. This has sdnce been reduced,but only on account of the war. Linen isnot at present manufactured in China.The export for 1916 was Pels. 202,499, valueTls. 559,995.LINTIN fj^fr ling ting, meaning 'lonely,'not, as one writer gives it, 'the solitary nail' ; anisland at the mouth of the Canton river and northeastof Macao. From 1821 to 1839 it was the centreof the contraband trade in opium ;permanent storeshipswere kept there during the winter months.The trade was carried on quite openly, and net till1836 wais any attempt made to check it.In May 1858 a large fleet of pirates was destroyedthere by H.M.S. Surprise.LIN TSE HSU $tcfl!l^, generally known toforeigners as Commissioner Lin, a native of Fukien,born in 1785. At the age of 55 he was Viceroy ofHu-Kuang (Wuchang), which proves that he wasa man of unusual ability. In December 1838 hewas appointed High Commissioner to deal with thesituation at Canton and to carry out the EmperorTao Kuang's anti-opium policy. His powers weresuch as had only thrice before been given to anysubject during the rule of the Manchu dynasty.Eight days after his arrival in Canton, onMarch 18, 1839, he issued an order to the foreignmerchants to surrender every particle of opium intiieir possession that it might be burnt, and furtherto give a bond, in a foreign language and in Chinese,declaring they would never again bring opium intheir .ships. An order was also given to the HongMerchants to see the foreign merchants wereobedient to the law, with a threat that otherwiseone or two Hong Merchants would be executed.Onjly three days' grace was allowed. The nextday the Hoppo issued an order that no foreignresidents should leave ; they were prisoners at largein their factories till the surrender of the opium.On March 27 Captain Elltot, Chief Superintendentof Trade, found it necessary for the preservationof foreign lives and property to order that theopium should be given up, making himselfresponsible for the delivery of 20,291 chests. Tothis fateful tran.saction a touch of humour is givenby the fact that two Parsee firms having by accidentduplicated their lists the total amount actually inCanton was short of the promised figure by 523chests ; this amount had to be bought from a .«hipfrom India in order to surrender the stipulatednumber of chests, and it was not paid for till theindemnity had been received !Other difl[iculties naturally followed; Lin gaveorders on January 5, 1840 to close Canton foreverto British ships ; shortly after he issued a graduatedscale of rewards for th« capture and destruction ofBritish ships and the capture or killing of Britons :the scale was raised considerably in February, 1841,Thus Lin brought on the First War, wrongly calledthe Opium War. He was, of course, both ignorantand arrogant, but he served the Emperor faithfullyand was a sincere patriot. He was degraded forhis failure and in 1843 banished to Hi. After twoyears there he was recalled and made Acting-Viceroy of Shensi and Kansu, then Governor of310

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICALITTLE SISTERSShensi, then Viceroy of Yunnan and Kueichou.died in 1850.HeDr. (Sir John) Bowring wrote a very fullaccount of him, including his earlier life, in the'Transactions of the China Branch of the RoyalAsiatic Society (not to be confused with the NorthChina Branch), in Part iii, 1851-62.Morse : International Relations of the ChineseEmjnre; Chinese Repository, passitn.LIOTRICHINAE, a. Subfamily of theCrateropodidue. The following are found inChina. Liothrix lutea, Scop. ; South China toChekiang. Liocichla steeri, Swinhoe; Formosa.Pteruthius richetti, 0. Grant; Fukien, Yunnan.P. nifiventris, Blyth ; Yunnan. Allotrius pallidas,A. Dav. ; Fukien, Ssuch'uan. Cutia nipalensis,HoDGS. ; Yiinnan. Minla jerdoni, J. Verr. ;S.«uch'uan.LIPING ^ja

jj|LI TZU CH'^NG ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAShanghai in February, 1904.They busy themselvesonly over the aged poor, of whom they support threehundred. The number of Sisters is twenty.LI TZU CH'ENG $g;S,born in Shensi inA.D. 1606. In 1627 he got into trouble over theland-tax, and two years later he became a brigand,calling himself General Ch'tjang gg. After fleeinginto Ssuch'uan for some years he appeared at thehead of a band of desperadoes in 1640, overran partsof Hupei and Honan, and was soon at the head ofa considerable army. Iq 1642 he took K'ai-feng fu,losing his left eye in the assault ; two years later hehad conquered the whole of Shensi, proclaimedhimself first Emperor of the Great Shun :^ J®dynasty, with Yung Ch'ang ^ g as his reign title,and marched towards Peking. The Ming Emperorsent for Wu San-kuei, who was fighting in the Eastagainst the Manchus, but before his arrival a gatewas treacherously opened to the rebel and the lastMing Emperor hanged himself. Wu then attackedthe conqueror in Peking ; Li was obliged to retreatwestward, and after two defeats his army beganto melt away; for a time he held Wuch'ang, thenfled down the Yangtze and was killed in Hupei in1645.iHe was a great leader ; his army was welldisciplined and cared for, and though in tiie earlierpart of his career he terrified the Empire by hisjatrocities, he put such methods aside as soon as he|saw that his purposes could succeed without them.LIU AN g!l$.See Huai Nan Tzu.LIU HSIANG Sgljlnj, a celebrated author andphilosopher, born in 80 B.C. He was a leadingmember of the Imperial Commission appointed byHsuAN Ti of the Han dynasty to edit and annotatethe ancient classics after their reinstatement. Hewas much inclined towards Taoist speculations, andwrote a treatise on the Five Elements from materialwhich is said to have been supplied him by a supernaturalvisitant. He developed the ideas cf Tsot»Yen (q.v.). Two of his books are considered modelsof style, viz., the History of the Han dynasty, anda collection of stories to illustrate womanly virtues.He died in B.C. 9.LIU KUNG TAO.See Wei hai wei.LIU MING-CH'UAN gij^fi, a native ofAnhui, born in 1838. He fought as a volunteeragainst the T'ai P'ing rebels and received theYellow Jacket in 1864. In 1884 he was MilitaryCommissioner in Formosa, and made a valiantdefence against the French in the north of theisland. When Formosa was made a Province hebecame first Governor; he made a railway, andlaid a submarine cable from Tamsui to Foochow,introduced the telegraph and opened coal-mines. In1890 he was made President of the Board of War.He retired in ill health,—the result of wounds andlong residence in Formosa, and died in 1896.LIU PANG g!l?K, was born in the modernKiangsu, B.C. 247. When a rebellion arose againstthe First Emperor he became a leader of rebels andlater was made Duke of P'ei, his birth place. Aftervarious fighting on behalf of the resuscitated Ch'ustate he was made Prince of Han. He then foughtwith his rival Hsiang Chi, losing in the battle ofP'eng Ch'eng over a hundred thousand men.Ultimately he gained the upper hand and wasproclaimed as first Emperor of the Han dynastyin B.C. 202. He died in B.C. 195.LIU PEI mi, a native of Chihli, born a.d. 162of royal blood, but extremely poor. At first hewas opposed to the encroachments of Ts'ao Ts'ao,(q.v.), but later became very friendly with him.Then he conspired against him and henceforth theywere rivals. He had the assistance of Chuko Liang,and when the Han dynasty came to an end, heassumed the title of Emperor of Shu. Though Shuwas only one of the Three Kingdoms, yet hisdynasty, called Shu Han -^^,18 regarded as thelegitimate successor of the Han dynasty. He diedtwo years later, a.d. 223.LIU PU. See Six Classes of Characters.LIU PU.LIU SHU.See Six Boards.See Six Classes of Character.LIU T'l. See Six Forms of Writiiig.LIU SUNG DYNASTY.See Sung (Liu).LIU YUNG-FU '^hk%^ oi' Li^ ^^H, known asleader of the Black' Flags. He was born in Kuangsi,1836. He and his men were a band of outlaws, buton trouble arising with the French in Annam he wasengaged by the Chinese and given official rank.See Black Flags.LIVADIA, TREATY OF,See Treaties.LJUNGSTEDT, ANDREW J., Sir,knight ofthe Swedish Royal Order Waza, President of theSwedish Factory at Macao. He died at Macao,November, 1835, aged 76. He was the author ofContribution to an Historical Sketch of the PortugueseSettlements in China; Contribution to aHistorical Sketch of the Roman Catholic Church atMacao; Description of the City of Canton; etc.assistin 1699.LLOYD, one of the Council of five chosen tothe East India Company's President in ChinaHe was eelectegl because of his knowledgeof Chinese, and he is said to have been the firstBriton to learn the language.LOANS, CHINESE EXTERNAL. See Hongkongand Shanghai Bank.312

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICALONDON MISSIONLOB NOR, a lake of Chinese Turkestan, aboutlat. 40° N. and long, 90° E. It lies on theeastern edge of the Tarim basin, at the foot ofthe Altj'n range. It is a sandy swamp, receivingthe drainage of the basin, and in it the Tarimriver itself disappears. There seems to have beena town called Lob near the lake. Marco Polohas Lop.LOCH, HENRY BROUGHAM, companion ofSir Harry Parkes when they were made prisonersat T'ung-chou. He was then secretary to LordElgin, and wrote the account of the Mission(Personal Narrative of Occurrences . . , 1860).He was born in 1827, was created baron in 1895and died in 1900.LOCKHART, JAMES HALDANE STEWART,Sir, was born in Scotland, May 26, 1858, and waseducated in Edinburgh. He was appointed aHongkong cadet in 1878, and later filled variousoffices in that colony, twice receiving the thanks ofH.M. Government for services done. He was madeC.M.G. in 1898, and K.C.M.G. in 1908. In 1902he was appointed Commissioner of Weihaiwei andstillholds that post in 1917.His published works are .4 Manual of ChineseQuotatiuns; The Currency/ of the Farther East;The Stewart Lockhart Collection of Chinese CofferCoins, 1915.LOCKHART, WILLIAM, of the LondonMissionary Society, was born at Liverpool in 1811,and died in London, 1896. He was the secondmedical missionary to China, Dr. Peter Parkerbeing the first. He reached Canton in 1838, workedthere, at Macao, till expelled with the other English,and at Batavia, then went to Chusan during Britishoccupation and made a hospital there. When theevacuation took place he went to Shanghai, arrivingthere the day the port was opened, and in 1844opened a Chinese hospital which he managed till1857. The next year he went to England, but returnedin 1861 to found a hospital in- Peking. Heretired in 1864. Besides medical reports, etc., heproduced a Notice of Chusan, in the Chinese Befository,vol. x, and in 1861 a book. The MedicalMissionary in China. His own library of Chinesebooks he presented to the London Mission Houteein London, where it is kept as the LockhartLibrary.Wylie : Memorials of Protestant Missionaries.LOESS, (LOSS), a deposit of yellowish earthfound in Asia from the Caspian to Shantung. It isin some regions a hundred and fifty feet in thickness,and is very fertile. It is abundant in North China,especially in Shansi. There has been much discussionamong geologists as to its origin, but it is nowgenerally accepted that it is the last great marinealluvial deposit scattered and laid down again bythe action of winds. This theory is due to vonlliCHTHOFENy the portion of his great work in whichhe discusses it has been translated by Edkins inThe Chinese liecorder for 1882. See Geology.LO FOU MOUNTAINS li??|ll, sixty mileseast of Canton, and seventy north of Hongkongthe highest point is given as 4,150 feet. Mr.Bourne's book describes an excursion to them in1892. F. S. A. Bourne : The Lo-Fou Mountains.LO'HAN H^, in Sanskrit Arahan (q.v.).The proper meaning of the Chinese is given asworthy, excellent, etc. According to Buddhists theLo-han have penetrated the mysteries of heavenand earth. Dore speaks of them as 'bonzes of theWest who have made a reputation by their originalityand remarkable ugliness.' Others describethem as saints. They are generally spoken of asthe eighteen Lo-han, -j-A M^shih fa Lo han, andthis is the usual number found in temples and inBuddhist books ; but the number of them is sometimesraised to five hundred.In Indian and in early Chinese Buddhist worksthey appear as sixteen only, and they are called thepatrons and guardians of Sakyamuni Buddha'sreligious system and of its adherents.When they were first introduced into Buddhisttemples, or when the number was raised fromsixteen to eighteen in Chinese temples, is notknown.Pictures of the Eighteen Lo-han and specimensof the extravagant stories of them will be found inDoRF.'s work, together with a list of their names.Dore : Becherches sur les Suferstitions enChine, tome vii, p. 214; Waiters : The EighteenLo-han of Chinese Buddhist Tenifles.LOI. See Aborigines.LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY, THE.Headquarters :—London, England.Entered China, 1807.Works in Hongkong, and in Canton, Fukien,Chekiang, Kiangsu, Chihli, and Hupei. Thoughinter-denominational by constitution, this Society ischiefly manned and supported by the CongregationalChurches of Great Britain and Australia. It wasthe firstProtestant Mission to enter China, and itsfirst representative was Egbert Morrison (q.v.),a Scotch Presbyterian, who after studying ,theChinese language for three years with a Cantonesein London, was sent out via America, and waskindly received by the residents in the East IndiaCompany's factory at Canton. As it was impossiblefor foreigners to undertake direct mission work atthat time, Morrison was glad to get the post oftranslator to the Company in 1809, which gave hima secure footing in the place. In 1813, Eev. WilliamMilne (q.v.) arrived; and in the same year,40313

'LONDON MISSIONENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMorrison finished his version of the New Testament.Six years later, the two colleagues hadprepared the whole Bible; and in 1821, Morrisoncompleted his Dictionary. The first convert hadbeen baptized in 1814, but the difficulties of the workwere so great that only ten persons were won forChristianity in the first 25 years. Seeing the impossibilityof reaching the Chinese in China, Milneearly made a long tour in the Malay Archipelago, tovisit the chief Chinese settlements, distributingliterature and seeking suitable headquarters formission work ; and as the result, centres were openedin Batavia, Penang and Singapore. In 1821, anAnglo-Chinese College was founded at Malaccaunder Milne, who also had charge of a printingpress. (See Mission Presses). The Rev. W. H.Medhubst, who had arrived in 1816, took chargeof a second press in Java, with an orphanage and a.school for Chinese children.As early as 1830, two of the Canton convertsitinei'ated in the interior, travelling 250 miles, and^distributed 7,000 tracts among students at examinationcentres. This is the earliest attempt made byProtestants to reach the literati. Amongst otherworkers sent out before the opening of Hongkong,may be mentioned Dr. William Lockhart (q.v.),the first medical missionary from Europe, who camein the year 1838, S. Dyer {q.v.) Dr.B.HoBSON, JamesLegge, (1840) (q.v.) and Samuel Kidd [q.v.). Assoon as Hongkong was ceded to the British theAnglo-Chinese College was transferred thither ; andin 1843 it was decided to open a TheologicalSeminary in Hongkong; to begin medical workthere ; and to occupy the five newly-opened Treatyports.In pursuance of this scheme. Canton was reoccupied; Dr. Lockhart and Mr. Medhurst proceededto Shanghai ; a mission was started in Amoyin 1844; Dr. Milne's son, the Rev. W. C. Milnealso went to Ningpo, but this port was soonabandoned ; and in 1861, the Rev. Joseph Edkinsiq.v.) who had joined the Shanghai staff in 1845settled in Tientsin, thus founding the North ChinaMission ; and from this port as a base Dr. Lockhartwent to Peking and opened work there. In 1861,another member of the Shanghai staff began workin Central China, when the Rev. Griffith John,following up a tour taken by the Rev. WilliamMcirhead, moved to Hankow,As at present constituted the L.M.S. has fivedistricts in China :1. The South China District, with its chiefcentre at Hongkong, and stations on the mainlandat Canton (1807) and Poklo f^ i| (1850).2. The Shanghai District.3. The North China District, with strong staffsof missionaries at Peking (1861) Tientsin (1861) andSiao Chang IKJI, (1888), Ts'angchou jf ^H , (1896),and representatives at T'ungchow in union work.4. The Central China District, where theprincipal centre is Hankow (1861), with otherstations at Wuchang (1867), Siaokan^^, (1880),Huangpei Hg^, (1898) and Tsaoshih .^ 1^, (1899).5. The Fukien District, with Amoy as theoldest station, (1844), in addition to Changchow^^, (1862), Huian hsien M^B (1866) and Tingchowiff -M (1892).With the changed conditions under whichmissionaries now work, the day of missionarysinologues would appear to be over, but any listof them consists very largely of L.M.S. namesLegge, Morrison, Milne, Medhurst, Edkins,Wxlib, and Chalmers, being the most outstanding.The Mission has also been famous for itspreachers ; the kings of them all being the Rev.William Muirhead, D.D. of Shanghai, who for53 years preached the Gospel constantly, and Dr.Griffith John of Hankow; and others toonumerous to mention have adorned the evangelisticside of the work.The Medical and educational sides were alsoinsisted on from the beginning, both being startedin the early days, one at Macao, and the other atSingapore.There are to-day, hospitals at Hongkong,(where a hostel connects with the University) ; atthree of the four centres in the Fukien District; atfour of the five stations in Central China; atShanghai, (from which city the L.M.S. works bothin N. Chekiang and S. Kiangsu) ; also at Peking,Tientsin, Siaochang, and Ts'angchou in NorthChina. (See Medical Missions).The principal educational institutions are inShanghai, Tientsin, and Hongkong. The UnionMedfcal College in Peking, taken over in 1916 bythe China Medical Board, was in the first place thecontribution of the L.M.S. to the North ChinaEducational Union.r^^During the last 10 years, 1907-17, the principal Vdevelopments have proceeded along the followinglines.1. Concentration.—Work in Ssuch'uan (ChungkingDistrict) Hunan and parts of Chihli has beengiven up—so that more thorough intensive workmay be effected.2. histitutional Work.—The Mission has beenmaking successful efforts to develop this side ofits work and institutions such as the Anglo-ChineseCollege, Tientsin, the Griffith John College, Hankow,and the Medhurst College, Shanghai, etc., haveeither been started or largely developed.3. Co-operative Union Work.—The Missionhas wherever possible welcomed union movementsespecially in Institutional Work. In Canton theMission is affiliated with the Union Theological314

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICALO P'ANCollege—a union of eight Missions, and also withthe Union Theological College, Amoy. The Missionhas also its share in Union Medical training inCentral and N. China. In North China also it issharing in Theological and General EducationalUnion work.4. An important development, of the Society'swork is the formation of an Advisory Council on theField, consisting of nine representatives from eachof the five centres and others specially co-opted,with a permanent Secretary. A similar ChineseCouncil, advisory and representative, has also beenformed. Both Councils meet annually at the sametime and place.5. The Chinese Church is being formed intoLocal and District Councils, the D. C.'s appointingtheir own representative to the Chinese AdvisoryCouncil.6. In each centre developments are takingplace in the matter of self-support and self-government—purchaseof land and erection of buildingsworthy of the Church.7. Strong efforts are now being made to carryon a forward movement in the Missions' evangelisticand church work.Statistics for the year ending Dec. 31, 1916.Foreign Force 158Chinese Staff 248Communicants 11,403LONGANS, Euphoria longan, H |g lung yen,'dragon's eye,' a near relative of the lichee. Thefruit is smaller than the lichee and not so pleasantto eat when raw, but when canned it has a flavoursuperior to the lichee. It also is semi-tropical,having its northern limit about Foochow, but itis hardier than the lichee. The fruit is naturallybrown but is artificially changed to a chromeyellow. It is eaten fresh, canned or dried. Thereare several varieties.Meyer : Agricultural Explorations, etc.LONGOBARDI, NICOLAS ^^M LungUua-min, a Jesuit Missionary, born in Sicily in1559. He reached China in 1597. He laboured firstat Chao chow where he suffered from persecutionand slander, but in 1609 he was called to Peking andthere received the last instructions of Ricci. Hewas opposed to Ricci in his view of the Chinese rites,yet Eicci appointed him his successor as Superiorof the Jesuit Missions in China. When T'ien Ch'irecalled the missionaries to Peking Longobardi wasone of the first to return. In 1636 he went toTsi-nan fu in Shantung and made some convertsamong the mandarins, but was driven out by theBuddhist monks. Up to the age of 79, however,he used to go every year on foot to Tsi-nan fu toinstruct the converts. After apostolic labours rededwith apostolic success he died in 1654. TheEmperor Shun Chih who admired him contributedto the expenses of his funeral.Havbet : La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fou,II, p. 22, note.LONG WHITE MOUNTAIN, the title of awell-known book by H. E. James describing ajourney in Manchuria. For the mountain seeCh'ang-pai shan.LOO CHOO ISLANDS ^^liu ch'iu,a chainof islands stretching between Japan and Formosa,171 square miles in area having 170,000 inhabitants.They were formerly independent but paid tributeand homage to both China and Japan. In 1874 adispute arose between these two countries concerningthe islands. The people are manifestly of Japaneseorigin, and the dispute ended in a treaty by whichChina acknowledged Japan's right to their possession.LO P'AN ^ ^ ," reticulated plate."astrological compass, litei-allyThis instrument is largely employed by professorsof Fcng-Shui (q.v.) and Astrology (q.v.).It consists of a baked clay disc, six or more inchesin diameter, with a magnetic compass about oneinch diameter in the centre. The disc is coveredwith yellow lacquer and is inscribed with sixteenor more concentric circles, subdivided by radialdivisions, with appropriate lettering.It synthesizes all the accepted Chinese theoriesas to the cosmic harmonies between the quasi-livingenergies of nature (see Yin and Yang and FiveElements), time-relations as indicated by the sunand moon and the directions in space from anypoint on the earth.The arrangement of the circles varies slightly,but the following system is common :(1) The Eight Diagrams (Pa Kua, q.v.).(2) The eight numbers of the magic square,(not including 5, which is understood to be in thecentre).(3) Twelve sectors, named after the Pa Kuaand by four pairs of "sexagenary cycle" characters.(4) The twenty-four celestial mansions or" heavens."(5) The twenty-four characters: i.e., fourof the Pa Kua, eight of the "stems" and the twelveof the "branches."(6) The twenty-four fortnightly climaticperiods of the solar cycle.(7) Seventy-two sectors, of which sixty arenamed by pairs of sexagenary cycle characters.(8) One hundred and twenty sectors, of whichforty-eight are named by pairs of cyclic characters.(9) The twenty-four characters as in (5) butshifted 7i degrees anti-clockwise,(10) Similar to (8) but with different pairs ofcyclic characters.I315

.MeyerLOQUATSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA(11) Sixty sectors with jjairs of cycliccharacters.(12) Same as (9) but with the radii shifted7^ degrees clockwise from those in (5).(14) Sixty unequal sectors with cyclic characters.(13) Similar to (8) but with different characters.(15) Allocation of the five elements to (14).(16) Three hundred and sixty divisions alternatelynumbered with odd numbers correspondingto the extent of the Lunar Asterisms.(17) Same as (16) with marks referring tosignificance.(18) The names of the twenty-eight (unequal)lunar asterisms.(19) The jjlanets (with sun and moon) correspondingto the asterisms.Carus : Chinese Occtiltism, Monist, vol. xv,pp. 500-554; Dore : Chinese Superstitions.[H.C.]LOQUATS, from lu Jcwat, the Cantonese pronunciationof fj^j^ III chii, rush-orange ; Eriobotryajaponica, the medlar; also called fitffi p'i p'a,bi wa, etc. This fruit is probably indigenous inCentral-eastern China. A region noted for itscultivation is the Tang-hsi district in Chekiang,where loquat orchards stretch to the horizon.The finest of the many varieties cultivated isthe pai p'i p'a or white loquat. The differentvarieties are allgrafted on seedling stock.It is considei'ed a very profitable fruit to grow,though apparently a good crop is only expected everysecond or third year. The village of Tang-hsi aloneexported in one good year some twenty thousanddollars' worth of the fruit.: Agricultural Exjjlorativns , etc. ; Yule :Hobson-Jobson.LORCHA. The word is from the Portuguese.The name given to a small vessel whose hull is ofwestern build but whose masts and *ails are Chinese.LORD AMHERST, THE, a private shipsentin 1832 by the East India Company from Cantonto the North-eastern coasts of China, with a viewto opening up m.ore extended intercourse with thecountry instead of being confined to the port ofCanton. The voyage was projected by Mr.Marjoribanks, President of the Committee ofSupercargoes, without any authorization from theCourt of Directors. Mr. Lindsay, a Member ofthe Factory in China, was in charge of the mission,and GiiTZLAFF the missionary went as the interpreter.The object as stated was "to ascertain howfar the Northern Ports of China might be graduallyopened to British commerce; which of them wasmost eligible, and to what extent the dispositionof the natives and the local governments would befavourable to it." Since Mr. Lindsay was instructedto avoid giving the Chinese any intimationthat he was acting in the employ of the East IndiaCompany, he z*eported himself in writing to Chineseauthorities as the Commander of the vessel, whichhe was not, and moreover under a false name,(Hugh Hamilton, his Christian names), and statedthe ship was from Bengal : after which it is interestingto note the frequent references in the Reportto the bad faith of the Chinese. In the Reportprinted by the Government it is good to see thatthe Company severely blamed Mr. Lindsay, andindeed disapproved of the whole unauthorized proceeding.The expedition occupied 192 days, went as farnorth as Weihaiwei, visited Korea and the LoochooIslands, and cost 16,942 taels net "at 6s. 3d. thetale."Report of Proceedings on a Voyage to theNorthern Ports of China in the Ship Lord Amherst,London, 1834 ; Papers relating to the Ship Amherst,[sic'], Ordered, by the House of Commons, to beprinted, 9th June, 1833. GiixzLAFF : Journal ofThree Voyages along the Coast of China.LO SSO MA, j^SfHj a name which Schlegeltook to mean the narwhal and to be of unknownorigin. According to Laufer, however, the wordis a regular transcription of rosmarus, signifyingthe walrus.Laufer : Arabic and Chinese Trade in Walrusand Narwhal Ivory, T'oung Pao, vol. xiv.LOTS, CASTING, h J|»pu hua, a commonmethod of divination with Chinese, though thephrase 'ca.sting lots' is not a suitable one. Twooyster shells or much more commonly two pieces ofbamboo root are used, which are "thrice thrown enthe ground. At each throw the concave sides maybe both down, both up, or one facing down and oneup. The various combinations have their meaningsalready printed in a book, on referring to whichone knows what the answer of the gods is to thequestion asked.Dore : Becherches sur les Superstitions, p. 243.LOTUS SCHOOL. See Pure Land School.LOUREIRO, PEDRO, the author of an .4 /iy?o-Chinese Calendar, 1776-1876, published in 1872 atShanghai. He was also the originator of theShanghai paper The Celestial Emjnre on July 4,1874, with F. H. Balfour as editor.LOWDAH, or LAODAH ^;^, old great one,a term used by foreigners in Shanghai and up theYangtze to denote their head boatman. AmongChinese it is used to mean the skipper of a junk.LOWRIE, WALTER MACON, was bornPennsylvania on February 18, 1819, and was sent toChina by the Presbyterian Board of ForeignMissions, sailing on January 14, 1842, and reachingin316

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICALU, STATE OFMacao on May 27. He then proceeded to Singapore,but contrary winds made it necessary to enterManila. After a month there he went on in anothership and was wrecked 400 miles from land. Eeturningto Manila he went back to Macao in a leakyboat which made the port with difficulty.In 1845 he removed to Ningpo, having in theinterval been twice in danger at sea. In May, 1847,he went to Shanghai as one of the Delegates,appointed to translate the New Testament.Recalled suddenly to Ningpo, he went to Chapooand, in spite of contrary winds, took ship forNingpo on August 19, 1847. Eight cr ten miles out,the boat was attacked by pirates, and Lowrie wasthrown overboard and drowned.Chinese Repository : vol: xvi, pp. 462, 638vol. xix, p. 491.LUCERNE. See Aljalfa.LU CHIU YiJANI^;^!^, 1140-92. A famousConfucianist, a fellow-student, as were his fourbrothers also, of Chu Hsi. He founded a schoolwhich opposed the latt^r's interpretation of theclassics and is therefore considered heterodox. Hewas canonized as ^ ^ Wen An.Suzuki : History of Chinese. Philosophy.LUGARD, FREDERICK DEALTRY, Sir,was born on January 22, 1858. After a good dealof military service in the Afghan War and inAfrica, he became Governor of Hongkong fromJuly 28, 1907 to 1912.During his administration, and largely throughhis efforts, the Hongkong University (^.i'.) wasfounded. He afterwards became Governor-Generalof Nigeria. He was made C.B. in 1895, K.C.M.G.in 1901, and G.C.M.G. in 1911.He has published Our East Africa Empire,(1893).LU HOU SJg, the wife of Liu Pei, founderof the Han dynasty, who owed much of his successto her. On his death she became regent for heryoung son. She destroyed one of the Emperor'ssons by a concubine, and also put the concubine todeath with dreadful torture, making her own son,the young emperor, look on the woman's agony.This sight drove the boy mad, and the mother thenusurped all authority till she died in B.C. 180.LUNGCHINGTSUN t| j^^,is in Kirin province,and Ji^one of the four marts in the Yenkidistrict of East Manchuria opened by the Chino-Korean Frontier Agreement of 1909. The trade isalmost entirely in imports. The population is 670.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports ... 351,533 284,549Net Chinese ,, — —Exports 91,532 112,577Total Hk.Tls. 443,065 397,126LUNGCHOWfljMi a town opened toforeigntrade by the Convention with France of 1887. It isin Kuangsi, near the Tonkin frontier, on the Tsoriver ;£ 7X above Nanning. The trade is insignificant,the railway from Haiphong and Hanoi toLangson or Namkuam having diverted business fromLungchow ; and no improvement is to be looked fortill the line isi continued 60 kilometres further toLungchcw itself. There is also some prospect ofthe line being continued northeastwards ;(see FarEastern lievicw, November, 1915); The populationis 13,000. 1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 95,481 66,958Net Chinese ,,— —Exports 15,510 11,866Total Hk.Tls. 110,991 78,824LUNG CH'UAN YAO fl^^, the Sung porcelaincommonly known as Celadon, made in Chekiang.It is distinguished by its bright grass-greenhue, likened by Chinese to that of fresh onionsprouts. BusHELL : Chinese Art, vol. ii.LUNGKOWmn, a small port on the northcoast of Shantung, opened to international tradein 1915. 1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 145,091 470,899Net Chinese „ 278,117 2,930,739Exports 204,440 456,240Total Hk.Tls. ... 627,648 3,857,878LUNG MEN tlH, a defile 30 li south ofHonan-fu, containing cave temples and rock sculpturesrepresenting Buddhist deities. The defile iscalled Lung Men, "Gate of the Dragon," because ofa tradition that it was cut by Yii with the help ofa dragon, in order to drain off the inundations of theYellow Rivef . The oldest grottos are those carvedout by the orders of the Wei Emperor Che Tsung(500-515) in honour of his father and the Empressdowager.Later carvings were made in the T'angdynasty. The figures number some thousands andvary in height from two feet to sixty feet, which isthe height of one colossal Buddha. Traces ofIndian art are very evident. At the time of theT'ang dynasty there were ten temples at Lung Men.Chavannes : Le Journal Asiatique, vol. xx,p. 133; and Mission Archiologique dans la ChineSeptentrionule.LUNG WANG 113^.LUN YU.^QQ. Analects.See Dragon-Icings.LU SHUN K'OU, JglKP, the Chinese nameof Port Arthur, [q.v.].LU, STATE OF^, a principality of the feudaldays, founded by the brother of the founder of theChou dynasty (12th century B.C.), his title beingMarquis ; he is better known as Chou Kung. The817

LUTESENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAfief was situat-ed in south-west Shantung, south ofthe Ch'i State. Politically it always remained apetty State, but it was the most highly cultivatedand may be considered as almost equal to theimperial capital in matters of ritual, sacrifice, music,deportment, etc. This was largely due to the factthat the founder, Confucius' great model, had atthe beginning modified the local manners insteadof partly adopting them as Ch'i had done, and hadintroduced the customs of three years' mourning,etc. The State had special privileges, such as theright to use the imperial music of all past dynasties,and it had the custody of ancient objects,—the bow,sceptre, etc., presented by Wu Wang and hissuccessors. The earlier rulers of Lu were advisersat the imperial court and ruled the fief from adistance.Confucius was born in Lu in 551 B.C. InB.C. 517 the reigning Marquis was driven out bythe intrigues of the great families and died in exileten years later. Confucius became chief councillorto his successor and drove into exile one of the mostpowerful agitators. For many years Lu was a kindof henchman to Ch'i, and it was extinguished byCh'u in B.C. 249.Parker : Ancient China Sirri'plifi.cd.LUTES. See Musical Instruments.LUTHERAN FREE CHURCH MISSION.Headquorters :—Minneapolis, Minn., U.S.A.PJntercd China, 1908.Works in Honan in two stations, viz., Suichowand Kuei-te fu (opened 1916). There are fiveworkers in 1917.LUTHERAN MISSIONS. In January, 1917,there were seventeen Lutheran Missions working inChina, exclusive of those associated with the C.I.M.Of these, three are the long-established Basel, Berlinand Rhenish Missions, whose combined membershipin Kuangtung forms the largest Christian communityin the province. These three Missions werefounded, and are still maintained, by the Lutheranand Reformed (Calvinistic) churches of Germanyand Switzerland, thus anticipating later "union"movements. They hold a united Conference everythree years.Thirteen Lutheran Missions work in CentralChina, i.e. in Hunan, Hupei and Honan. Most ofthem are at present small, and only five of themante-date the Boxer year, four of these latter beingEuropean in origin. Since 1900, eight AmericanLutheran communities have begun work in CentralChina. Four of these have united to build andsupport a Union Lutheran Theological Seminary atShe-kow, near Hankow, and discussions are beingcarried on with a view to the corporate union ofsome of these central Missions of the same order.The three American denominations known asthe Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran Synod in theU.S.A., Hauge's Synod, and the United LutheranChurch of America (itself formed in 1890 by theunion of three bodies) will celebrate the 400thanniversary of the Reformation in 1917 by amalgamating,when their three Missions in China willalso become one, probably under the name of the"American Lutheran Mission."In April, 1915, a Union Lutheran Conferencewas held at the She-kow Theological Seminary, whendelegates from eight of the Lutheran Missions ofCentral China were present. The questions ofChurch organization, of a Union liturgy and' literature,and of a Union College were discussed andcommittees formed to deal with them.In October,1916, a second meeting was held, reporting progress,and in August, 1917 a further Conference will beheld in which it is expected other Lutheran Missionsbesides the eight above-mentioned will take part.The names of the seventeen Lutheran Missionsare :1.—American Lutheran Brethren Mission.2.—Augustana Synod Mission.3.—Basel Missionary Society.4.—Berlin Missionary Society.5.—Danish Missionary Society.6.—Evangelical Lutheran Missionary Society.7.—Finnish Missionary Society.8.—Hauge'g Synod Mission.9.—Independent Lutheran Mission.10.—Lutheran Free Church Mission.11.—Lutheran Synod Mission.12.—Norwegian Lutheran Mission.13.—Norwegian Missionary Society.14.—Rhenish Missionary Society.15.—Swedish American Missionary Convenant.16.—Swedish Missionary Society.17.—United Norwegian Evangelical Mission.LUTHERAN SYNOD MISSION.Headquarters :—Chicago, 111., U.S.A.Entered China, 1912.Works in Honan, at Kuang chou ^^, Kuangshan 3tUl, and Hsi hsien ,@, S|, all opened in 1913and at Kikungshan. In 1917 the Mission reports13 foreign workers.LU TSUNG, #^, an important School o:Chinese Buddhism. Lii is law and is the translation of Vinaya. It was founded by'TAO HsiiAN(595-667), and, like the T'ien-t'ai School, had itsorigin in China. It is based on Indian authoritiesbut does not imitate any Indian sect. The founderas seen in his writings, had his bent towards thepractical rather than the mystical, and wrote biography and on literary history and church governnient rather than on subtleties of doctrine. Probably in consequence of his own observation o:318

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMACARTNEY, EARLmonasteries lie insisted that morality and disciplinemust lie at the base of the truly religious life.The chief monastery of the School is at Pao-huashan in Kiangsu, where there is more strictness and,it is said, more learning than in other monasteries.Only two meals a day are permitted and no drinkbut tea ; while much time is spent in learning andreciting the sacred te.xts. See Buddhist Schools.Hackjiann : Buddhism as a Religion.LU WEN-CHING Sj%m, commonly knownamong foreigners as Captain Leeboo. He was aFukien man and was once table boy in the BritishConsulate at Shanghai. The Consul sent him toScotland to be educated. Having learned someFrench and some navigation, he became commanderof a Chinese gunboat, and saved his ship at Foochowin 1884 when the French destroyed part of the fleet.For this act he was banished. Returning in 1889,he was again in command of a gunboat whenWei hai wei was taken by the Japanese, and he wasagain degraded.LYNX. The lynx is found in Manchuria andalso in Kansu on the Tibetan border, but whetherin both cases it is Felis isabellina is not certain.The Kansu form has a finer fur and is larger.SowERBY : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii.LYONS MISSION. See Mi.^ LyoMMACACUS TIBETANUS. See Monkeys.MACANAYA, a brave and intelligent Manilaman,who heljDed Ward to capture Sung-kiang inI860, and afterwards was Ward's aide-de-camp.MACAO iHP^ Ao mm, situated on a rockypeninsula of the island Hsiang shan in 22° 11'30"N. lat. and 113° 32' 30" E. long., occupied by thePortuguese since 1557. Nothing can be producedto show on what terms the place was occupied.The Portuguese were either allowed to settle therefor purposes of trade because it was a barren rock,or they were granted the place as a reward for theirfighting against pirates. They had already been inthe neighbourhood for some decades and occupiedor frequented several islandsi, notably St. John's(San Ch'iian) -where St. Francis Xavier died andwas buried in 1552. At first a kind of tribute wassent to the Emperor, but later a ground rent of500 taels per annum was paid. The place wasdependent on Goa, and was administered by aPortuguese Governor and by a resident mandarin.It had its share in all the troubles connected withthe rivalries of Dutch, Spanish and Portuguese,but as trade increased the difficulties of residenceat Canton made Macao prosperous. The East India(Company had an establishment there, and up to1843 it was the only residence for the families ofmerchants and missionaries working in Canton.In 1845 the Governor FERRfeiRA do Amaral refusedto pay ground rent any longer, declared Macao afree port, and turned out the Chinese Customs.For this he was barbarously murdered in 1849.After long difficulty a treaty was made in 1887,rmally recognizing the Portuguese sovereignty.Macao has a long splendid history in connectionboth with trade and with missions. In the firstBritish War with China it maintained neutralitybut suffered much from Chinese for such assistanceas it could give the British.It provided a footholdfor Morrison and other Protestant missionaries,though it hampered them sadly in their religiouswork. The chief Portuguese poet Luis de Camoes(Camoens q.v.) lived here for some years and herewrote part of his Lusiad. With the rise of Hongkongthe commercial importance of Macao declined,and its fame was tarnished later by the infamouscoolie traffic {q.v.). Its harbour is silting up, andits position now is only that of a quiet retreat andsanatorium. It lives chiefly on itai fan fangambling houses.. There was a military revolt infavour of the Republic after the revolution inPortugal, and the religious orders were expelled.In 1901, 1904 and 1909 attempts were made todelimitate the Colony, but without success, and theactual possessions of Portugal in China are stillunknown in extent. A concession was made for arailway to Canton, but work has not been begun.The population is about 4,000 Portuguese and80,000 Chinese. The net totals of the trade (fromLappa) in 1916 was 14,000,000 Taels, agains,t17,000,000 for 1915.Thomson : Historical Landmarks of Macao,Chinese Recorder, vol. xviii ; Ljungstedt : HistoricalSketch of Portuguese Settlements; de Jesus :Historic Macao.MACARTNEY, EARL.cartney was born in Ireland,in England, March 31, 1806.George, Earl Ma-Mav, 1737 and diedI319

MACARTNEYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAHe was sent oat to China in 1792 as a specialAmbassador, with a large staff of persons qualified,in one way or another, to make the mission asuccess and to impress the Chinese, Mr. Barrowwas the surgeon and Sir George Staxjnton, theSecretary; both wrote standard accounts of theEmbassy. Staunton's son, eleven years old, wentas page to the ambassador.Lord Macartney reached Taku on August 5,1793. On their journey up the Pei ho the junkswhich carried them had flags flying, on which werethe words "Ambassador bringing tribute fromEngland."On reaching Peking the mission was lodged ina house close to the Yiian Ming Yiian. The ambassadorwas here advised to spend time in practisingthe K'o-t'ou, but he refused to perform that ceremonyunless a Chinese or Manchu of equal rankwith himself should k'o-t'ou to a portrait of KingGeorge III. To make this clear beforehand itwas decided to put it in writing, which was donewith the aid of young Staunton, who had learnt agood deal of Chinese on the voyage. The Emperoragreed to forego the K'o-t'ou and the Mission proceededto Jehol and was very well received by him.After being entertained there for some days, LordMacartney returned to Peking; and the Emperorfollowed a few days later, received the offeredpresents, gave a return letter for King George anddismissed the Mission. The Embassy had been verywell treated, but it cannot be considered to havedone any good : the only impression made on theChinese was, it is said, that England was a tributarystate.Lord Macartney left Peking on October 7,1793, and travelled by the Grand Canal to Hangchow,then after visiting Chusan he went up theCh'ien-t'ang river and by other waterways all theway to Canton, arriving there December 16.Barrow : Travels in China; Staunton : AnAccount of an Embassy from the King of GreatBritain to the Emperor of China.MACARTNEY, SAMUEL HALLIDAY, Sir,was born in Scotland on May 24, 1833, graduatedin medicine at Edinburgh University, and enteredthe Army Medical Department in 1858. He servedin the Second War, then resigned his commissionand for two months was secretary to Burge.vine,and was afterwards attached to Li Hung-chang insuppressing the T'ai P'ing rebellion. It was throughhis advice and efforts that the first modern arsenalin China was established. He had been doing hisbest to provide improved arms with incompetentChinese workmen, when the Lay-Osborne Flotillawas sold, and he persuaded Li to buy the floatingarsenal attached to it. This was first set up inSoochow, and later moved to Nanking. Macaktneywas Director of it till 1875 when he was dismissedthrough the usual Chinese intrigues. He was,however, re-engaged almost at once to accompanyKuo SuNGTAO, the first Chinese ambassador toEngland. He became Councillor and EnglishSecretary to the Chinese Legation in London, andheld that post till December, 1905, when he resigned,some six months before his death. The arrest andimprisonment of Sun Yat-sen in the ChineseLegation was one important episode in Macartney'soflicial life.In 1864, expecting to remain in China all hisdays, he married a relative of one of the T'ai P'ingleaders. She died in 1878, and in 1884 he marrieda French lady.He had a Chinese decoration and he was madeK.C.M.G. in 1885. He died on June 8, 1906.Most critics review his official work veryharshly, and he was said to have been "moreChinese than the Chinese."BouLGER : The Life of Sir HalUday Macartney,London, 1908.MACDONALD, CLAUDE MAXWELL, Rt.Hon. Sir, was born on June 12, 1852. He enteredthe army, and served in the Egyptian Campaign of1882 and the Suakim Expedition of 1884; he alsoheld appointments at Zanzibar and in Nigeria. Hewas H.B.M. Minister at Peking from 1896 to 1900,and when the Boxers besieged the Legations he' wasput in command of the Legation quarters by theforeign representatives.In 1900, he was appointedas Minister to Tokyo.He has received the honours G.C.V.O. (1906),K.C.M.G. (1892), G.C.M.G. (1900), K.C.B. (civil1898; military 1901), and was made a Privy Councillorin 1906.MacDONNELL, RICHARD GRAVES, Sir,C.B., Governor of Hongkong in succession to SirHercules Eobinson, from March 15, 1865, to April22, 1872. He was a scholarly man, and he hadhad experience as Governor of Gambia, of SouthAustralia and of Nova Scotia. In Hongkong hefound an empty treasury and many public worksunfinished. He became a determined reformer andhad great success. The Blockade of Hongkong[q.v.) began during his administration. He revisedthe constitution of the Legislative Council. He soregulated the finances of the Colony, in spite ofunusual commercial depression, as to bring it froma state of insolvency to a condition of financialstability; this was done chiefly by a Stamp Act.He succeeded in getting the Government to sanctionan Ordinance to license the gaming houses, with aview to suppressing them. He incurred by thiswhichaction a good deal of obloquy from the classwould rather ignore evil than regulate it, but whatwrecked his scheme was the anger of the Government,at his apparent disobedience in raisingrevenue from vice.320

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMAGICDuring his term of office,the Mint, establishedthree years before, was closed and sold because itdid not pay.He was a very energetic and severe disciplinarianand very much reduced crime in the Colony, besidesbeing very successful in the repressing of piracy.He understood the needs of the Colony better thanmost Governors, and was one of the ablest to hold theoffice. After leaving Hongkong, he retired fromthe service and died on February 6, 1881.EiTEL : Europe in China.MACE, from Hindoo masha; the foreign wordused for Chinese ch'ien^, the tenth part of a liamj,ounce, or tael.MACGOWAN, DANIEL JEROME, was bornin Massachusetts in 1814. He came to Ningpo asa medical missionary under the American BaptistBoard of Foreign Missions in 1843, and opened ahospital for Chinese, but closed it three monthslater. After a trip to Bengal, where he married,he returned to Ningpo and re-opened the hospitalbut as the agent of another Society. After shortresidences in several ports he went to Paris andLondon, and delivered lectures on China and Japanin the United Kingdom ; then in 1862 went to theUnited States and served as a surgeon in the CivilWar. He returned to China as agent of a syndicatethat proposed to carry a telegraph line to China bythe Behring Straits, and henceforth he lived inShanghai. In 1879, Sir Robert Hart gave him anappointment in the Customs Service. He died inShanghai on July 20, 1893. He was a gifted manwith wide knowledge, and w^ote a good manyarticles on China which are of value. Some are onbotanical subjects ; a list of these is given byBretschneideu. Others are in the Chinese Becorder,the Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., etc.Wylie : Memorials of Protestant Missionaries;BuETSCHNEiDER : History of European BotanicalDi-

MAGPIEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAto disclose future probabilities. At the same timethere is a parallel line of thought which indicatesbelief in the theory that a special psychic state isnecessary before correct prophecy is possible. Thiscondition may be produced by prayer and fastingand ritual. See Astrology.(4) Control of the elements. All things areregarded as possessing a form of pulsating life,(Se« Yin and Yang; Five Elements; Alchemy;Astrology) which if properly studied enables thestudent to find points d'apjmi by means of whichgreat natural changes can be produced. The soulsof the dead influence climatic conditions in a mannerdependent on the physical setting of the tomb, theancestral temple, etc.See Feng Shui.(5) Miscellaneous Minor Practices. The useof charms and talismans is widespread. They havemedical and spiritual application and are in nearlyallcases based on theories as to the spiritual efficacyof the classical scriptures of the three cults and asto cosmic "sympathy."As to the genuine occurrence of "magical"phenomena, see Psychic Phenomena in China.There seems little doubt that various forms ofabnormal psychic activity occur as frequently inChina as in other countries, if not more so; but itwould appear that undue importance has beenattached to their significance and that empiricalmethods of dealing with them have, as usual, ledto an immense amount of charlatanry and siuperstition.DoRF. : Researches into Chinese SuperstitionsDe Groot : Religion in China; Chatley : MagicalPractice in China, N.C.B.R.A.S. Journal, 1917.[H.C]MAGPIE, The, is held sacred by the Manchusbecause according to their legend some generationsafter Aisin Gioro {q.v.), his family was almostexterminated by a rebellion ; one young man.Fun Cha-chin, was left; he fled, and as he waspursued, a magpie settled on his head so that hispursuers took him for the decayed limb of a treeand passed him by. An annual feast is held atthat place. See also Corvinae.HowARTH : Northern Frontagers.MAHASTHAMAPRAPTA, the Bodhisattvawho is named in China Ta Shih Chih ;^^ H mostmighty. Chapter xix of the Lotus Sutra is givenup to him, but it gives no very clear idea of hispersonality. He is one of the trio which rules theWestern Paradise, and is often represented on theright of Amjtabha, while Avalokita (Kuan Yin) ison the left in the place of honour.MAHAYANA, a school or sect of Buddhismwhich became important in India about the beginningof our era.The word means great vehicle; inChinese the translation is :^% ta ch'eng; vehicleor conveyance meaning the means of arriving atsalvation. It is contrasted with Hinayana, smallvehicle, /]•> ( fg hsiao ch'eng), which name has beenimposed on the earlier, more conservative school.The Chinese pilgrim I Ching, who saw both schoolsin India, says "Those who worship Bodhisattvas andread Mahayana sutras are called Mahayanists, whilethose who do not this, are called Hinayanists'."It was less monastic than the older Buddhism,mere emotional, more ornate, more disposied todevelopment. The two schools are sometimes spokenof as Northern and Southern Buddhism; but thisnot correct, except in the sense that the Mahayanaiswas developed by influences which were prevalentin the north and not so prevalent in the south.The system is characterised by transcendentalspeculation, and fanciful degrees of meditationreplacing the practical asceticism of the Hinayana(q.v.). Among its special features are a belief inBodhisattvas, and in the power of human beingsto become Bodhisattvas ; the altruism which makesone work for the world's good, giving over to otherswhatever merit one may acquire by virtue, the aimbeing to become a Bodhisattva, not an Arhat; andthe doctrine of salvation by faith in a Buddha—usually Amitabha— and the invocation of hisi name.Mahayanist doctrines are expounded in works muchlater in date than the Pali Canon and apparentlyall were composed in Sanskrit. See Buddhism,.MAIGROT, CHARLES, a missionary of theMissions Etrangeres de Paris. He sailed for Chinaon March 25, 1681. In 1684, he became pro-vicarof Fukien ; the same year he was made Administrator-Generalof the Missions of China. In 1687and 1696 he was Vicar-Apostolic of Fukien, and in1695 was appointed Bishop of Conon, being consecratedat Kia-t'ing in Chekiang on March' 14, 1700.He was charged by the Popes Innocent XI andInnocent XII to examine the question of theChinese Rites. (See Rites Controversy). In 1693he published a Mandate condemning them. Thismade the controversy intense. After thirteen yearsof it he found himself with the Legate de Tournonin Peking ; his ignorance of Chinese was sadly exposed; with several others of the Legate's suite, hewas loaded with chains and narrowly escapedsentence of death. He was banished and returnedto Rome, where he died in 1730.Favier : Peking, p. 170-2; Launay : Memorialde la Societe de Missions-Etrangeres.MAILLA. See Z}e Mailla.MAITREYA, called in China Mi Lei^%; tliemo-t important of the Bodhisattvas after Avalokita(Kuan Yin) and Manju'sri (Wijn Shu). He is theonly Bodhisattva recognized by the Hinayana,because he, like Gautama, is a human being who,in innumerable existences, has made himself worthy322

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMANCHU LANGUAGEof Buddhahood, while the others are superhuman intheir origin. Yet he is very little mentioned in thePali Canon. In the Lotus Sutra he is prominentbut still subordinate to Manju'sri, and after a timehe became entirely secondary in importance to bothManju'sri and Avalokita.He now waits in the Tushita heaven till thetime comes for his appearance as a Buddha enearth, the fifth of the series. The appointed timeis said to be 5,000 years after the entrance ofS'akyamuni into Nirvana.His images are very common. He is generallyrepresented either as standing or as sitting inwestern fashion, not cross-legged. But in China heis most often found as an indecently fat priest witha large smile. It seems that in the Liang dynastythere was a priest named Pu Tai who was regardedas an incarnation of Maitreya, and who was muclicaricatured. This cheerful priest has supersededthe Bodhisattva. He is generally known byforeignei's as The Laughing Buddha, or theBuddhist Messi.\h.MAIZE, Zea Mais; ^^ pao mi or 3^ :^ ^yii-shu-shu. Cultivated in all the hilly districts ofChina and in the north generally, often betweenother crops such as beans. It occupies the groundfrom April to June. 17 lbs. of seed are required tosow an acre, which yields from 900 to 1,100 lbs.An autumn crop can be grown on the same soil.The grains are separated from the cob by stonerollers, and coarsely ground by millstones. Theroots, stalks and empty cobs are used for fuel,and spirits are made from the grain. In 1915,pels. 580,000, worth a million taels^ were exported toJapan from Manchuria.MALAN, SOLOMON CAESAR, born in 1812,died in 1893. He spent some years in India, wasa prebendary of the Church of England after hisreturn, and wrote several works en Chinese subjects,including one on the "term question," and sometranslations.CoRDiER :MA LOO, H l^T'ounrj Pao, vol. v, p. 411.horse road; properly any highroad, but chiefly known to foreigners as the Chineseterm for the Nanking Road in Shanghai. This isalso called Ta Maloo or Great Maloo, the streetsparallel being called first, second, third Maloo, andso on.MAMMOTH. The SMn I Chiiuj jif M i?-a work attributed to Tung-fang ^o ^iJj fJl (2ndcentury B.C.), but, as now extant^ dating from the4th or 5th century of our era, has, in a dissertationon the "Northern Regions," a detailed descriptionof the Gh'i Shu gg Jg^, which is considered byforeigners to refer unquestionably to the mammoth.In the Cyclopaedia of K'anghsi published in 1710there is another passage of some length relating to,this "monstrous animal of the rat kind," which isalso called fen shu |g JK. (mole) by the Emperor inone of his recorded addresses.From the fact of the mammoth remains beingfound embedded in ice or frozen ground, the ideamay have obtained that it was of burrowing habits.The name is borrowed from the ancient Erh Ya,where fen shu is defined as J| t{i^^, "that whichmoves in the soil," and a reference is made to someimmense creature of the rat tribe.Mayeks : China Review, vol. vi, pp. 275-6.MANCHOULI gSii^a. in Heilungkiang province,Lat. N. 49^' 50' ; Long. E. 117° 28', is tliewestern terminus of the Chihese Eastern Railway,some sixteen versts east from the Russo-Chinesefrontier. It was opened as a trade mart in 1905,apd made into a fu in 1908. It is a centre ofMongolian wool and "marmot" or tarabagan skins.There are 2 breweries, 4 distilleries and a soapmill. The pneumonic plague epidemic of 1910-1911entered Manchuria through this place. The populationis 4,500.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 4,497,316 2,985,916Net Chinese „ 86,334 316,225Exports 1,874,433 16,123,946Total Hk.Tls. 6,458,083 19,426,087MANCHU LANGUAGE, THE, iscomparatively easy to acquire; and for this reason, theAmerican Commissioner in China in 1844 seriouslysuggested its adoption as the language of diplomacybetween the Western and Chinese governments. Itis an agglutinative tongue with a well-developedgrammar; for example, there are eight parts of•speech, and the moods and tenses of the verb areexpressed by as many as 23 different affixes to theroot. Manchu is alphabetical in its elements, butin practice, syllables are regarded as the units ofthe written language, thus following the Mongolian,from which it is derived. Six vowel sounds arerepresented and eighteen consonants, all of whichvary in form, according to their position in theword, or the letters which follow, etc. Ten specialmarks have been introduced to assist in transcribingChinese words ; while two vowel sounds are withoutspecial form.The foreign elements in Manchu are chieflyMongol and Chinese. One-third of the dictionaryconsists of words taken over without alteration fromthe latter, and there are other forms of borrowing.The Manchu literature was said in 1892 to containabout 250 works, nearly all translations from theChinese, prepared under the patronage of theearlier Ch'ing emperors. It is improbable thatmuch has been added since.323

MANCHU LANGUAGEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAThe ancestors of the present Manchus whoconquered the north of China in the 12th centuryand founded the Chin {^ ) dynasty—the Nii-chenTartars—were without any written language, butAkuta, the first Emperor, decreed in 1119 that oneshould be provided for them ; and a later Chin ruleradded a second set of letters in 1145. When theChins were driven out by the Mongols, they graduallylost this script, which was however studiedin China even under the Mings. "Eighteen books inthis Nii-chen character are still preserved in theImperial Cabinet Library at Peking," wrote Wyliein 1855, and various stone tablets in the script stillexist.Nttkhachtt, (q.v.), the real founder of theManchu power, finding his people in need of awritten language, decreed in 1599 that one shouldbe made, based on Mongolian, which for diplomaticreasons had already been studied by selectedManchu youths.The script thus obtained was revised in 1632by a Manchu in high office named Ta Hai ^ ^.He added a number of characters, and divided thewhole syllabary (of more than 1,.300' syllables) intotwelve classes.In 1629 he was commanded to translateinto Manchu various standard Chinese treatises ;and in 1639-44 the histories of the Liao, Chin andYiian dynasties were added by another minister.From this time great pains were taken to promotethe knowledge of Manchu by the Manchus. Thestudy was made compulsory and frequent examinationswere insisted upon. K'ang Hsi and Ch'ienLung Jwere exceedingly active in translation anddictionary work; and books were compiled inChinese for the use of Chinese students of Manchu,among them the Ch'ing Wen Ch'i Menrj, "^^1^^a standard work published in 1729.The Russians were the first Europeans to studythe language seriously. As one consequence of atreaty made in 1728, a number of young Russiansbegan to be sent from time to time to Peking tostudy. They learned both Manchu and Chinese,but all the official business between the two countrieswas transacted in Manchu ; and grammars, dictionariesand translations from Manchu into Rusisiansoon began to appear.The Roman Catholic missionaries who workedin Peking in the 18th century eagerly acquired theManchu tongue, both as a way to Imperial favourand as a means of improving their knowledge ofChinese writings through the Manchu- translations.Such men as Geubillon, De Mailla, Verbiest andAmiot were expert Manchu scholars, translatingEuropean scientific works for the throne, makingManchu grammars and dictionaries for Europeans,and giving much valuable information on the subjectin the Le.ttres Edifcantes, etc. They also translatedsome Christian literature into Manchu, but an edictof Chia Ch'ing, published in 1805, prohibited thisbeing read. From this time, the Government beganto show jealousy of foreigners acquiring thelanguage, and Protestant missionaries did not asa rule attempt it. The B. & F. Bible Society,however, issued the New Testament in Manchu,from St. Petersburg in 1836, George Borrow beingin charge of the work; and Wylie translated theCh'ing Wen Ch'i Mhig in 1855.The first separate work in English on thesubject was by Meadows, {v. infra). VonMollendorkf wrote the first Manchu grammar inEnglish as late as 1892. A long list of theRussian, Roman Catholic, and other works relatingto Manchu is given by Cordiee.Meadows : Translations from the Manchu, with,an Essay on the Language, 1849 ; Wylie : Translationof the Ts'ing Wan K'e Mung with Introductorynotes, etc., 1855; Von Mollendorff :Manchu Grammar, 1892; Essay on Manchu Literature,C.B.R.A.S. Journal, vol. xxiv ; Cordier :Bibliotheca Sini'ca, cols. 2752-2760.MANCHURIA, called by the Chinese ^3.^tung san shtng, the Three Eastern Provinces, andother names, has been part of the Chinese dominionssince the latter were conquered by the Manchus in1644. It lies between 38° & 56° N. Lat., and 116° &143°. E. Long., and it is bounded on the N.E., N.,and N.W. by Siberia, on the S.E. by Korea, on theS.W. by Mongolia and Chihli, and on the S. by theGulf of Liaotung and the Yellow Sea. Its area is363,700 square miles, and following the census of1910, (which however was reckoned by households),the population is estimated at about 15,000,000. Ofthese, the Manchus are only a small proportion.There are millions of Chinese, chiefly emigrantsfrom Shantung, besides Tunguses, Buriats, Koreans,etc.Geographically, Manchuria is divided into twodistinct parts ; the northern, which is chiefly wateredby the Sungari, the Ussuri and the Nonni ; and thesouthern, which is drained by the Liao and theYalu rivers. Both divisions are for the most partmountainous, with an exceedingly rich plain in each.Manchuria has a very fertile soil, and great mineralwealth ; and many of the mountains are covered withforests. The highest of the great ranges, thoughleast in extent, is the Ch'ang Pai Shan {q.v.).Politically, Manchuria is divided into threeprovinces, Shengking ^ :^ in the south, Kirin * ^in the middle, and Heilungkiang |ft t| ?I in thenorth. Until 1907, the country was governed fromPeking as a separate possession, but in that year,the three provinces were made a vice-royalty, withthe Viceroy's seat at Mukden (also called Fengtienfu ^Ji^ and Shengking), the ancestral home of theManchu dynasty. This administration was however324

ThereENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMANICHAEISMaltered after the Revolution of 1911, in common withthat of the rest of the country.There are two railway-lines in the province.That from Manchouli to Dalny is in two parts :the northern, known as the Chinese Eastern Railway,under Russian control, runs from Manchouli toChangchun ; the second, from Changchun to Dalny,is under Japanese control. There is also the Shanhaikuan-Mukden railway, an extension of theGovernment North-China line, which runs fromPeking to Tientsin and Shanhai kuan. (SeeIlailwciy>i).For the leasing by China of the LiaotungPeninsula, first to Russia and then to Japan, seeItussian Itdations and JajKinese Relations.The chief ports are Newchwang, Port Arthur,Dalny or Dairen, and Antung ; the chief inlandinternational marts are Aigun, Sansing, Harbin,Manchouli, Suifen ho, Hun chun, Lungchingtsun,and Tatungkow (see under each name). . aresixteen other jjlaces (including Mukden) which havebeen declared "open," but they are undevelopedand Customs dues are not as yet collected.See Kuantung.MANCHUS. The word means Pure. It isthe name of a clan of Nii-chen Tartars, who livednorth of Liaotung in what is now called Manchuria.The Manchus' heme was in the district some30 miles east of Mukden ; under a chief namedNuRHACHU, it became the head of all the clans.The Emperor Wan Li had assisted Nurhachu'sopponents ; this led to an invasion of Liaotung in1618 by a force of 40,000 Manchus. Mukden andLiaoyang were captured and the inhabitants weremade to shave the head,—the first mention cf thissign of submission. The Manchus failed in theirattack on Ning yiian, because cannon, some borrowedfrom the Portuguese at Macao, some madeby the Jesuit fathers in Peking, were used againstthem. NtruHACHU made Mukden his capital, and in1629 the Manchus, having conquered Korea, invadedChina. Rebellion broke out in China at the sametime ; Li Tzu-ch'eng assumed the title of Emperorand invested Peking, whereon the Ming Emperorcommitted s-uicide. Wtr San-kuei, the Chinesegeneral appointed to resist the Manchus, enteredinto an alliance with them, so as to destroy therebel Li. A great battle was fought near Shan-haikuan, and it was the appearance of a large forceof Manchus which decided the day against therebels. Durgan, (or Dorgun), the Manchu Regent,then entered Peking and established the dynastycalled Ch'ing ^ (which has the same meaning asthe word Manchu, 'pure'), in a.d. 1644. (SeeChHruj).MANDARIN, from the Portuguese mandar tocommand. A Chinese official, civil or military.having the right to wear a button {q.v.).Also thelanguage spoken in official intercourse throughoutthe land, which has become the vernacular oftwo-thirds of China. See Dialects.MANDARIN DUCK, yuan yang ^^ andf§ ^ hsi cli'ili, Aix galericulata. Termed mandarina.~ being considered superior to other kinds. Theemblem, among Chinese, of conjugal fidelity;loose-skinned orange, theMANDARIN ORANGE, m l^an. The Chinesecommon kind being sometimescalled the coolie orange. (See Oranges).MANDEVILLE, JOHN, Sir, the ostensibleauthor of the book cf travels passing under hisname, composed in French soon after 1350. Asfar as the travels in Asia are concerned the workseems to be plagiarized from Odor;[C, John dePlano Carpini and others. Even his name is nowsupposed to be fictitious.The book was remarkably popular and has beentranslated into many languages.Warner : Dictionary of National Biography.MANGANESE. See Minerals.MANGROVE BARK, Rhizo-phera mangle;^ &. k'ao j/i, is imported from Siam and Singaporefor the sake of the extract got from it which isused for the purpose of dyeing the nets, sails andcordage of native fishing and other craft, and sopreserving them from the action of mildew anddamp. The bark of the mimosa is sometimes usedfor the same purpose, but it does not give the sameburnt-umber dye, and is said to be comparativelyineffective. For tanning, mangrove bark is littlecared for ; for although it contains a large proportionof tannic acid, it is said to fail in filling upthe pores of the hide. It does not appear to beused medicinally, though both the bark and fruitsare excellent astringents. Average annual importfor last 10 years, 136,000 piculs valued at 227,000taels—one-third going to Ningpo, where the fishingindustry is important.MANGU ^ ^ meng ho, a Khan of theMongols, grandson of Chenghis and brother ofKiiUBiLAi, A.D. 1253. He, with his brother, beganthe conquest of all China, but he died before thestruggle ended.MAN I, ^/S) ^'so Manes, the founder of theManichaean sect. See Manichaeism.MAMUi++A*+&f/l. The first Manichaeanpilgrim seems to have come from Ta Ch'in in594, and' Manichaeism is mentioned in Chineseliterature for the first time by HsiiAN Tsanoin his Memoirs ; a Manichaean astronomer2 Harrived in China in 719, anid greatly affectedChinese astronomy. In 732 HsiiAN Tsang byimperial edict declared the religion of Mo-ni ^ /g325

MANJU'SRIENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAa perverse doctrine taking falsely the name ofBuddhism. In the troubles which arose in the nextreign, the Uighurs entered the capital (Lo-yang),and their chief, meeting Manichaeans there, was converted,and took four Manichaean priests with himwhen he withdrew. Between 768 and 771 an imperialedict ordered Uighurs of the Manichaeanfaith to build temples called Ta yiin kuang mingfzM9c^ Great cloud bright temples; There seemto have been monasteries at Yangchow, T'ai-yiianfu, Ho-nan f u, Hsi-an f u and elsewhere ; but thepower of the Uighurs declined, and Manichaeismwith it. After their fall, a decree of 843 orderedthe confiscation of the Manichaeans' property andthe closing of their temples. The sect did nothowever disappear in China, but flourished, especiallyin Fukien, even to the end of the Ming dynasty.It also continued among the Uighurs and lasted inChinese Turkestan till the thirteenth century.Manichaean works in Chinese have come tolight within the last few years ; Chavannes andPelliot have given in the Journal Asiatique for1911 and 1913 both text and translation into Frenchof an important MS. found in Kansu.Yule : Cathay and the Way TUthitr; Parker :China and Beligion.MANJU'SRI, one of the most important ofthe Bcdhisattvas, called in China Wkn Shu % ^.He has the same literary history as Avalokita, thatis to say, he is not mentioned in the Pali Canon norin the earlier Sanskrit books. In most of theLotus Sutra he appears as the chief Bodhisattva,and instructs Maitreya. As a rule, he is notrepresented with any consort. Though full ofbenevolence he does not labour to save men, whichis Avalokita's work, but he is the personificationof thought and knowledge, and is therefore oftenseen holding a sword and a book. He may alsosometimes be recognized by his having a blue lotus,and riding on a lion.Fa Hsien and Hsuan Tsang both speak of hisworship in India, and the latter saw at Mathura(Muttra) a stupa supposed to contain relics of him. -But I Chtng first tells the interesting fact that theHindus believed Manju'sri to have come fromChina. This belief probably arose about 650, bywhich time his temples on Wu-t'ai shan would havebecome famous. That mountain is sacred to him,the principal temple there having been erectedbetween 471 and 500. It is probable that his cultwas brought from Central Asia.MANTZU ^^ and Man Chia ^ ^, a termof uncertain origin and of different application atdifferent periods. It may be the Chinese imitationof a non-Chinese word. In the earlier part ofChinese history it was the name used for thebarbarians of the south, as Jung, Ti and I denotedthose of the west, north, and east, respectively.In the Shu Ching, the Man tribes are spoken of aseight in number; their land is called the WildRegion 3^ BH h,uang fu, and it was a place of exilefor Chinese criminals. They would be the populationof the Ch'u State, and those who did notsubmit to Chinese rule would migrate southward,into Tonkin and the Malay peninsula. But it isaIs,o possible that the races of the Man type nowfound there were there from time immemorial, andnot as the result of Chinese pressure.At a later period, the name was still used forthe people of the south, though it then included aChinese population. Thus, to Marco Polo, theMongol empire was Cathay, while the Sung empirewith its capital at Hangchow was the country ofthe Manzi.Again, we find the name restricted to nativeraces, but without clear distinction. Thus atTa chien lu, Man is used for Tibetans;, thoughMan chia is used instead of Man tzu.To-day, modern scientific usage inclines torestrict the term to the Lolo race.Only one example of Man culture remains, inthe shape of ornamented bronze drums. See BronzeDrums.Legge : Chinese Classics, vol. v., {proleg.);HiRTH : Ancient History of China; Johnston :From Peking to Mandaloy; Kingsmill : N.C.B.R. A.S. Journal, vols, xxxv and xxxvii ; Vial :Les IjoIos.MANUAL OF CHINESE BIBLIOGRAPHY,by P. G. and 0. F. von Mollendorff, waspublished in Shanghai in 1876. It was practicallythe first attempt at such a work, and being madein China, without libraries to use, it was necessarilyvery incomplete. Cordier's far more seriousBihliotheca Sinica (q.v.) was in the presis a yearlater.MANUL, Ftlis manul, a fine animal striped onflanks and legs, spotted on the face, with long-hairedfur. Its habitat is Central Asia and Mongolia, butMollendorff says it is found in N. Chihli. SeeFelidae.Sowerby : Journal, N.C.B.B.A.S., vol. xlvii.(q.v.).MANZI, Marco Polo's spelling of Man-tzuMAPS. The Chinese map is crude and incorrect.China itself is drawn of a shape to suitthe map, the provincial boundaries are most roughlygiven, mountains and rivers seem added fromfancy. Near the edge cf the map, round the'Middle Kingdom,' will be found the foreigncountries, to be known by the added name, not bytile form or position.The Jesuit missionaries of three centuries agomade some trigonometrical surveys and pi-oduced326

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCA MAfliTIME CUSTOM^many maps, which have been the foundation of allforeign maps of China issued sinca In recentyears, as foreigners have travelled more freely andcommercial interest in the country also has increased,there has been much activity in map-drawing bothlocal and general. See Jesuits; Martini; Catalan;D'AnviUe.MARBLE.MARCO POLO.See Minerals.MARCO POLO BRIDGE.See Polo, Marco.See Bridr/es.MARGARY, AUGUSTUS RAYMOND, wasthe son of Major-General Margary and was bornin India in 1846. He came to China in the ConsularService in 1867 and was Consul in Formosaand at Chefoo, being transferred to Shanghai in1874. In this year he was appointed interpreterand guide to Colonel Browne's Mission fromBurma, whom he was to meet at the Yiinnanfrontier. After a difficult journey of five monthshe reached Bhamo, January 17, 1875, and theMission started early in February. Owing torumours of trouble Margary crossed the frontier inadvance and was murdered two days later, February21, at Manwyne, Yiinnan.His murder gave rise to the Chefoo Agreement.Th

introducingMARITIME CUSTOMSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAmunication with the Custom House and conformto the Kegulations in such manner as the Inspectorsof Customs may require."The occupation of the native city of Shanghaiby the Triad rebels; the flight of the Chineseofficials into the foreign settlements ; the disorganisedcondition of the foreign trade resulting fromthe absence of any regular revenue authority; andthe failure of the Consuls or Chinese, aiter repeatedattempts, to introduce any practicable method ofcollection were the immediate causes of this step.But behind it stood the secular dissatisfaction,going far back into the old Canton days, withChinese ways of taxing trade. The farming of therevenue to. the Superintendent of Customs and thebargain system of paying duties—with the unjustexactions, the inequality of treatment, the rapacityof underlings, and the Custom House squalor andcorruption which resulted—were among the grievanceswhich had culminated in the war of 1840. Withthe signing of the treaties and the opening of thenew ports it was clear that the extension of thetrade had not done away with the old difficulties.The Chinese, even if willing to do so, were incapableof fulfilling their treaty obligation of establishingat the five ports open to foreign trade a fairand reasonable tariff of export and import dues.For some time past it had been seen in responsibleforeign circles that the remedy was a system ofCustoms administration preser\|ing the Chineseauthority but .foreign methods anddiscipline,—which could only be brought aboutby the employment of foreigners in the Chineseservice. The disease and the remedy were wellknown; the course of events at Shanghai gavethe needed opportunity to put the cure intoopertition.The Board of Inspectors—appointed with theconcurrence of and under the author-The Board j^y ^f j^j^g Chinese government, and. , thus Chinese officials from the startconsisted of M.M. Thomas FrancisWade (British), Lewis Caur (American), andArthur Smith (French), each of whom took thefollowing oath in the presence of his own Consul :"I swear truly and honestly to dischargeall the duties of my office as Inspector ofAlaritime Customs and faithfully to observe allthe conditions of such appointment as theseare clearly set forth in the Minute of Conferencesigned by H. E. Woo, Taotai, and the Consulsof the three treaty Powers. So help me God."The conference referred to was held at Shanghaion the 29th June, 1854. The three treaty PowerConsuls were present and Woo Chien-chang (betterknown as "Samqua"), Shanghai Taotai and superintendentof Customs. At this meeting was drawnup a code of eight articles defining the basis uponwhich the new system was to work. The principleunderlying them was the reorganization, not thesupersession, of the Chinese Custom House. TheConsuls gave their aid in finding suitable foreignersfor the work ; but the authority and the responsibilityremained ultimately vested in Chinese hands.The principle of a dual control in revenue matters—the foreign Commissioner having a Chinese colleaguein the shape of the Superintendent ofCustoms who, until the troubles of 1911 rendereda change in this respect necessary, actually received,banked, and took charge of the money paid in asrevenue, has been maintained to this day.In June, 1855, Mr. Wade resigned and returnedto the consular service. He was succeeded by Mr.Horatio Nelson Lay, Interpreter in the BritishConsulate. Mr. Edan succeeded Mr. Smith, andDr. Fish replaced Captain Carr. The Inspectorateas thus constituted carried on the foi'eign businessoe the Shanghai Customs from 1854 to 1858. Thebenefits of the new system became quickly obvious.Honest and efficient administration was established.Trade was freed from underhand arrangements.Accurate statistics were provided. Honest merchantswere protected. The Chinese governmentreceived a valuable revenue which vastly imnrovedits financial position. Foreign help enabled theChinese to carry out treaty obligations which theyhad undertaken and which unaided they were notcompetent to meet. As Mr. Hart remarked in his1864 memorandum on the subject of the Customs(British Blue Book No. 1 of 1865),"Under the treaties and having in view thefuture therein maarked out for trade, an honestrevenue administration became a matter of thefirst importance, and such an administrationthe Chinese unaided could not supply."In 1858 the treaties of Tientsin provided forthe adoption of a uniform Customs system at everyport, and for 'the engagement of subjects of theTreaty Powers by the Chinese government toassist in the collection of the revenue, that is tosay, for the extension of the Shanghai system. Mr.(afterwards. Sir) Robert Hart left the BritishConsular Service in June, 1859, to fill the postof Deputy Commissioner of Customs at Canton.Meanwhile the Inspectorate at Shang-The Office of ^^-^ ^^^ changed its character. Thep Jig1 French and American Inspectors hadwithdrawn, and Mr. Lay had beenappointed Inspector General of Customs byHo Kuei-ching, the Imperial Commissioner ofForeign Affairs. Early in 1861 Mr. Lay was•re-appointed Inspector General by the newly constitutedForeign Board (Tsung-li Yamen), andthe Inspectorate headquarters were established atPeking, where, with some intermissions between1861-64, they have since remained. In April of328

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMARITfME CUSTOMSthat year Mr. Lay went to England on leave, theduties of Inspector General during his absencebeing performed by M.M. Fitzroy (the ShanghaiCommissioner) and Hart conjointly. These gentlemenheld their commissions from the ImperialCommissioners for the southern and northern ports,but these were replaced soon after by a formalcommission from Prince Kung, the head of theTsung-li Yamen. Mr. Lay did not return to Chinatill 1863, and while he was away offices had beenestablished at all the other treaty ports. On hisreturn Mr. Hart was appointed Commissioner atShanghai, and charged with the direction of theYangtze ports and Ningpo. In November, 1863,Mr. Lay was dismissed, owing to a difference ofopinion with the Chinese government on the questionof the so-called Lay-Osborne flotilla, and Mr. Hartwas appointed Inspector. General. The name ofSir Robert H.^^rt (he was made C.M.G. in 1879,K.C.M.G. in 1882, G.C.M.G. in 1889, and a baronetin 1893) is one with which the Chinese CustomsService must always be associated. He presidedover its ,'destinies, with only one or two shortintervals of leave, from 1863 to 1908, when hishealth beginning to fail he returned to England,and held the substantive post until his death inSeptember, 1911. In 1885 he had resigned in orderto take up the post of British Minister at Peking,but had withdrawn his resignation on finding thatthe Chinese government did not agree with hisviews as to his successor. In April, 1908, SirRobert E. Bredon, K.C.M.G., the Deputy InspectorGeneral, assumed charge as Acting InspectorGeneral. In March, 1910, Sir Robert Bredonwithdrew from the Service and was replaced byMr. Francis Arthur Aglen, Commissioner atHankow, who was appointed Deputy InspectorGeneral and Officiating Inspector General adinterim. After the death of Sir Robert Hart,Mr. Aglen received the substantive post by ImperialRescript of 25th October, 1911.While in a sense Sir Robert Hart was, if notthe originator, at any rate the foster-parent of theCustoms Service, it must be remembered that sucha Service could not be the work of any one man.Much must be ascribed to his subordinates, whooften working obscurely in remote places did thespade work by which the foundations were laid.Initiative had largely to be left to the Commissionersat the ports, and much of the development, not ofthe Customs only, but * of the ports and Chinagenerally must be credited to the wise use of thepower and influence of the men on the spot. Theprospects offered by the new service were invitingenough to attract young men of good standing andability, and among its early Commissioners theCustoms had the good fortune to enlist a numberof men of unusual capacity. The names of manyof these pioneers are still remembered at the ports,42329and as a few among the many who did good workmay be mentioned M.M. T, Dick, Baron deMeritens, a. Huber, C. Hannen, E. C. Bowra,G Detring, E. B. Drew, W. C.-oitwright, H. E.HoBSON, J, A. Man, E. C. Taintor, A. Macpher-SON, H. KopscH, and F. E. Woodrtjpf.By 1864 the Service was operating at 14 ports,Customs the opening of the offices at theEstablish- various places having generally beenmerits. effected without difficulty. Sincethose days political and commercial developmentsin China have caused the opening of many moreports and frontier stations and a great growth inthe functions of the Service. The tonnage ofvessels dealt with had grown from 6,635,485 tons in1864 to 97,984,213 tons in 1914, and the value ofthe Foreign Trade has swelled from Hk. Tls.105,300,087 in 1864 to a gross value of about athousand million taels at the present time.The list of places at which there are now (1917)Foreign Customs establishments is as follows :Port. Sub-office. Port. Sub-office.Harbin. Fuchiatien. Kiukiang.Manchouli. Wuhu.Suifenho. Nanking. Pukow.Sansing. Chinkiang.Lahasusu. Shanghai. Woosung.Aiguft.Tungchow.Hunchun. liUrigching- Soochow.ts'un. Hangchow. Kashing.Antung. Tatungkow. Ningpo. Chinhai.Dairen (by Port Arthur VVenchow.arrangement Pitzuwo. Santuao.with the Chinchow. Foochow. Pagoda (Ma-Japanese Pulantien. Amoy. moi).Government).Swatow.Moukden. (no Canton. Whampoa.duties collected). Kowloon. Taishan.Newchwang.Lintin.Tientsin. Tangku. Samun.Sub-port:Shumchun.Chinwangtao.Shaiichung.Chefoo.Shatowkok.Sicb-port: Lappa, Malowchow.Lungkow.Chienshan.Kiaochow (Tsingtau) (byTungho.arrangement first with Kongmoon.the German and later Samshui.with the Japanese Go- Wuchow.vernment).Nanning.Chungking.Kiungchow.Sub -port:Pakhoi.Wanhsien.Lungchow.Ichang. Mengtsz. Hokow.Shasi.Changsha.Yochow.Hankow.Szemao.Tengyueh.Pishihchai.Yiinnanfu.

MARITIME CUSTOMSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICANative Customs establishments {i.e. those col--. . lecting duties from Chinese vessels°^ native type) were putCustomsunder theMaritime Customs at the followingports by the Peace Protocol of 1901 ; Newchwang,Tientsin, Chefoo, Ichang, Shasi, Kiukiang, Wuhu,Shanghai, Ningpo, Wenchow, Santuao, Foochow,Amoy, Swatow, Canton, Kongmoon, Wuchow,Kiungchow, and Pakhoi. The arrangement wasthat all Native Customs stations within 50 li ofthe treaty-ports should come under the controlof the Commissioners of Maritime Customs, Investigationshowed that Native Customs affairswere immensely complicated and that the systemof administration required radical reform. Aftersome years of difficulty—all the stations not beingfinally taken over till 1915—the treaty provisionshave been complied with ; the Native Customs administrationhas been got under control as far as ispossible on Maritime Customs lines, and greatimprovements have been effected. A large increasein revenue has resulted. In 1902 the collection atall the ports amounted to Hk. Tls. 2,304,312; in1916 it was Hk. Tls 3,746,645. Tientsin, Wuhu,Kiukiang, Shanghai, Canton, and Foochow arethe most important centres for the collection ofNative Customs revenue.The Inspector General's Staff at Peking con-Service sists of four Secretaries of Commis-Organisa- sioner's rank—Chief, Chinese, Audit,*'". and Staff—each of whom has anAssistant Secretary of Deputy Commissioner's rankand an appropriate staff. Of the same standing arethe other two Inspector General's Secretaries—theStatistical Secretary at Shanghai and the Non-Resident-Secretary in London. The StatisticalSecretary is the head of a large printing andpublishing establishment at Shanghai in which allthe printing and publishing work of the Serviceis carried on, as well as the production of a largenumber of forms, etc., for the Chinese Post Office.The Statistical Secretary is in general charge ofall statistical matters, writes the annual tradereport on China, and is responsible for the publicationof all reports, trade statistics, and other worksissued by the Service. The Non-Resident-Secretaryis stationed in London. He examines Europeancandidates for the Indoor Staff (after nominationby the Inspector General), procures stores as required,and acts generally as the Inspector General'sagent in Europe.The Service is organized into three departments(1) Revenue (2) Marine (3) Works. TheRevenue Department is sub-divided into Indoor,Outdoor and Coast Staffs ; the Marine Departmentinto Coast Inspector's, Harbours, Lights, andMarine Staffs; the Works Department into Engineers,Office, and Outdoor Staffs.The Indoor Staff consists of Commissioners,Deputy Commissioners, Foreign As-'

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAJ\iARITIME CUSTOMSconstruction, buildings and machinery, has beenextended to all Service buildings, both as regardsconstruction and upkeep. Administratively, vis-avisInspector General and Commissioners, theEngineer in- Chief is in the same position as theCoast Inspector.In 1864 the Customs Service employed about 400_,foreigners and 1000 Chinese. Therersonnei.

,RecentMARITIME CUSTOMSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINIUABeacons, with a total personnel of 56 foreignersand 467 Chinese.The T'ung-wen Kwan, a college inEducational. Peking with a branch in Canton forKwan mthe instruction of Manchu youths inforeign languages and sciences, wasPeking. established with the advice of theInspector General in 1863, and Dr.W. A. P. Martin was appointed its head in Peking.It was supplied with funds through the Customs;the Inspector General nominated the professors andfrequently detached men from the Customs to teachin the School. The Peking college disappeared inthe general chaos of 1900, by which time growthin education in China had rendered its continuanceunnecessary, and it was merged in the PekingUniversity by Imperial Decree of 11th January,. _ 1902. The Canton school was on a'smaller scale. Appointments to itsstaff were made by the Inspector General, and itwas under the control of the Canton Commissioneras the quasi colleague of the Tartar General. Itsconnection with the Customs ceased in 1906 whenit was merged in a provincial school.Postal work, from very small beginnings in 1878,took formal shape in 1896 when anImperial Decree put the creation ofChinesePost Office.* Postal Service in the hands of SirRobert Hart, and a great Servicehad already developed when the Chinese PostOffice set out upon' its independent career afterthe separation of 1911.In 1898, the revenues from six CoUectoratesof Likin in the Yangtze Basin wereLlkin.pledged as security for the 4^%£16,000,000 Gold Loan to the extent of Tls.5,000,000 annually and placed under the supervisionof the Inspectorate of Customs.After the Boxer troubles the Native CustomsCustoms.at the Treaty Ports, as has been !^^''^^'^y mentioned, were put under 1j!'the Maritime Customs; and in theircapacityHwangpuasRiverex-officioConservancymembersBoardsof thethePeiho andCommis-River sioners of Customs at Tientsin andConservancy Shanghai have been intimately conandHarbour nected with the important worksimprovement, undertaken on these two waterways.developments, on the same lines, are tobe seen in the Harbour works at Chefoo, and inthe bar and Liao River work at Newchwang.The preparation of exhibits for Exhibitions inorological work, storm-signalling,Exhibitions. !.*"°"' P^'^^ o^ the world, and theCommfssions to represent China atthem, were part of Customs activities formany years until the time came when a ChineseMinistry could itself undertake such work Mete-^"*'^*"'^^"«' surveying, chart-making,^slirv^y^ng^'quasi-consular functionschart-and notarialmaking, etc. ^^^^ ^°^ Non-treaty Powers still formpart of the miscellanea of Customswork, to which may be added in some small portspolice and Municipal functions.The Service issues a number of publicationsd-ealing with the statistics of andPubH^cSns. ^^P°^*^ "P°^ *^^^^6 passing throughthe Customs and also publishes forService use books and papers written by membersof the Service on various subjects. These publicationsare published by the Statistical Department,Shanghai, and are arranged in the following series :I. Statistical Series.II. Special Series.Ill* Miscellaneous Series.IV. Service Series.V. Office Series.VI. Inspectorate Series.The Statistical Series, which is the one ofchief public interest, comprises the Shanghai DailyReturns, the Customs Quarterly Gazette, the AnnualReports and Returns of Trade (in English andChinese), and the Decennial Reports.The Statistical, Special, and MiscellaneousSeries are available for public use and may bepurchased; the other series (Office Series—"ServiceList" excepted) are of a confidential nature andare intended for use within the Service. A largenumber of publicatiois dealing with a variety ofquestions and including some books of special valuehave been produced in the course of years. Acatalogue showing which of them are available forpurchase by the public may be obtained from theselling agents for the Statistical Department,Messrs. Kelly and Walsh, Ltd., Shanghai.The issue of a comprehensive series ofReports"^^

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMARRIAGEFor almost the first 60 years of its existence_ , . , the Customs Service did not handleBanking of ^. . , . _.,money paid m as revenue. Thethe Revenue.*goods were examined, duty assessed,and a "Duty Memo" issued. The merchant paidthe amount into the "Customs Bank," an institutionentirely under the control of the Commissioner'scolleague, the Superintendent of Customs. TheBank issued a receipt which was handed in to theCustoms as a proof of payment and there Customsresponsibility stopped. The arrangements for meetingtheir Loan and Indemnity obligations weremade by the Chinese Government through theShanghai Taotai. (From the time of the Chino-Japanese War on, the loans and indemnities incurredby China in her various troubles were secured onthe Foreign Customs Revenue—this regular sourceof income being invariably fallen back upon intimes of difficulty—until the whole collection wasmortgaged.) In November, 1911, at the time ofthe Revolution, the revenue in certain provinceswhich had declared independence was removed fromthe control of the Central Government. In orderto protect the interests of the bondholders theInspector General undertook the custody of thoserevenues and the responsibility for meeting thecharges due on the foreign loan.s. A month later,with a view to facilitating the due observance byChina of her loan obligations, the Governmentdecided also to place the Customs revenues at allth'ose other ports which still owned allegiance tothe Imperial Government in the control of theInspector General. This arrangement, subsequentlyconfirmed by agreement between the Wai Chiao Puand the Diplomatic Body, has since continued. Itis in many ways an economy and convenience tothe Chinese Government, as well as offering bettersecurity in troubled times to the bondholders.MARMOT.MARQUESS.See Sciuridce; Tarbagan.See Nobility.MARRIAGE. The Book of History statesthat ancient Chinese lived promiscuously, knowingtheir mothers but not their fathers. This state ofpromiscuous intercourse must have been followed bya stateman, resulting in parental authority. According,of submission of a woman or women to oneto a decree of a.d. 484, the Hsia and Yin dynastiespermitted marriage between members of the sameelan, but the Chou dynasty was the first to forbidmarriage between those of the same surname.During the feudal period a law was passed forbiddingmarriage with five kinds of women : (a) thedaughter of a rebellious house (b) the daughter ofa disorderly house (c) the daughter of a house producingcriminals {d) the daughter of a leproushouse (e) the daughter who had lost her father andIelder brother. Marriage was also forbidden duringthe three years of mourning. Widows were obligedto remain single. During the Sung period campfollowerswere forbidden to marry. Under theMing dynasty unborn children were sometimesbetrothe.d, but this custom was forbidden by theCh'ing dynasty.The following are some of the laws regardingbetrothal and marriage that were observed underthe Manchu dynasty.The legal contractors of a betrothal may be(1) the paternal grandparents of the couple, (2) theparents of the couple, (3) the paternal uncle of thefather, and his wife, (4) the paternal aunt, sisterof the father, (5) the eldest brother, (6) the eldestsister, (7) the maternal grandparents. Failing thesenear relatives, those of more remote kin may arrangethe contract. A married daughter may make acontract for female relatives of her father's family.If the contract be illegal or fraudulent, the partiesarranging the contract are the ones punished. Theconsent of the couple to the contract is not required.If a widow wishes to remarry, her father-in-law,mother-in-law or other relative of her husband'sfamily, signs the contract ; failing these, a member ofher father's family. If a widow has a daughterby her first marriage who has become an inmate of333her second husband's home, the widow can sign herdaughter's betrothal contract.In the contract, the signatories must declarei, any blemishes or physical infirmities of the brideor bridegroom, ii, their ages, iii, if either has beenborn of a concubine, iv, if either has been aidopted.The full consent of the two families is required.Fraudulent betrothals sometimes take place, as whena healthy brother or sister is described in the contractinstead of an unhealthy bridegroom or bride, andso on. If the fraud is discovered before marriage,the contract can be annulled, the presents returnedand the fraudulent signatory punished. If thedeception is discovered after marriage, the marriageis dissolved and the fraudulent signatory ispunished. The betrothal contract may also beannulled if the bridegroom or bride commit somecrime before marriage; or, if the bridegroom forsome political reason be sentenced to life-long exile,the bride may either follow him or be set free tomarry another.A marriage celebrated without the requisiteformalities, i.e. without signatories to the contract,without a go-between, without giving of presents,without a public celebration, is considered fornicationand the couple must be separated.If a son or daughter marry during the period ofmourning for his or her father or mother, he or sheis punished for committing a great offence againstfilial piety, and the wife is separated from thehusband.

MARRIAGEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAThere are three essential conditions to amarriage :—first,the contract signed by the parentsor guardians as explained above ; secondly, theacceptance of the wedding gifts by the bride'sfamily; thirdly, the bringing of the bride to thegroom's house. Marriage customs vary in differentprovinces, but the following usage is more or lessobserved all over China.The preliminaries to a betrothal are arrangedby go-betweens, generally women, who approacheach family and consult the horoscopes of the youngcouple.If these are favourable, the groom's parentsor guardians make a formal offer of marriage, which,when assented to in writing by the bride's parents,constitutes the marriage contract. A lucky day isthen chosen for the event.A month before the wedding, the groom'sfamily send to the bride's family the material forthe bridal dress, presents of money, silks, wine, andcakes of ceremony, etc, A few days before thewedding, the bride's dowry, trousseau and furniture,together with gifts from relatives and friends, arecarried to the bridegroom's house. On the eve ofthe wedding the bride puts up her hair, tries on thebridal garments, lights incense before her family'sancestral tablets and kneels before her parents,grandparents and senior relatives.The wedding-day is celebrated by musicianswho play while the bride bathes and dons hermarriage clothes, the outer garments of red beingembroidered with dragons. A veil completely concealsher features. A friend of the groom, bearinga formal letter, then arrives to escort the bride toher new home. This letter is sometimes regardedin the light of a marriage certificate, and is carefullypreserved by the bride. She then steps withweeping into the red marriage chair, her mother,sisters and other relatives also weeping, whilefire-crackers are let off, and music is played. Thechair, a heavy structure covered with red embroideriesand rich carving, is borne by four men.Two men carry lanterns in the bridal processionbearing the groom's family name in red characters,followed by two other men similarly displaying thebride's family name. A red umbrella is borne inthe procession, which is accompanied by musicians.The bride's brothers walk near her chair.Fire-crackers are. let off on arrival at thegroom'«i house. The chair is carried into a receptionroom, and the bride is invited to descend by a littleboy who holds a brass mirror towards her. Amatron and bridesmaids uttering felicitous sentenceshelp her out of the chair. A sieve is sometimesheld over her head or placed so that she stepsinto it from the chair. She is then led to her roomwhere she sits by the groom's side on the edge ofthe bed. Later they go separately to the receptionroom,where, in front of a table spread with twosugar cocks, dried fruit and symbolical articles,they do obeisance before the gods, then to the bridegroom'sancestral tablets, then to each other.Afterthis they drink a mixture of wine and honey out ofgoblets tied together by red thread, exchanging cupsand drinking again. They are given pieces of thesugar cocks and a few dried fruits to eat. Thebridegroom then pretends to lift the bride's veilafter which she is led to her room and divested ofher heavy outer garments. The couple then havedinner wuth their guests, the bride eating nothing.She is gazed at by friends and by the public, whocriticize her appearance and make all sorts of jokes.On the third day, the couple visit the bride'sfamily, when they worship her ancestral tablets.On the tenth day the bride often goes alone to visither parents.Posthumous marriages ^ ^ ming Jiun arenot uncommon among better-class families. If ason dies unmarried and before adult age, the parentsseek by go-betweens a family that has lost a daughterof about the same age and at about the same time.Betrothal and wedding ceremonies are duly carriedout, the tablets taking the places of the pair. Thebride's coffin is then laid in the grave side by sidewith the bridegroom's, and she is thenceforwarda deceased daughter-in-law in the family.Such marriages are prohibited in the Chou Li,yet have been common from the earliest historydown to modern times.There is also marriage which is posthumous) foronly one of the pair.If one of a betrothed coupledies before marriage, the wedding may still takeplace, the tablet representing the dead. Or if agirl dies unbetrothed a living husband may still befound for her ; both betrothal and wedding ceremoniesbeing performed with her tablet.Though the above account has been written inthe present tense it is probable that much of it hasbeen altered since the Revolution, both with regardto the laws and to the ceremonies. After theestablishment of the Republic a new Provisional]Code made various alterations in the laws. Marriageis forbidden before the ages of 18 and 16 forthe man and woman respectively. The couple musthave the consent of their parents, and the marriageis not recognized before its announcement to theproper magistrate. The parts of this new Codewhich relate to marriage, etc., are given in the newedition of P. Hoang's work.Von Mollendorff : Family Law of China;Parker : Comparative Chinese Law; Werner :Descriptive Sociology; Hoang : Le Mariage chinois,2nd ed., 1916; Doolittle : Social Life of theChinese; Gray : China.MAR SARGHIS, or Mar SERGiTjs,«||mW JSMa Hsieh-li-chi-seu, a Nestorian Christian, Governor334

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMARTYRSof Chinkiang, 1278-81. He built two churchesthere. See Nestorian Christians.Palladius : Traces of Christianity, etc.Chinese Recorder, vol. vi, p. 108.MARSHMAN, JOSHUA, D.D.A memberof the English Baptist Misision at Serampore, India,who produced the first complete translation of theBible into Chinese and printed it at Serampore in1822. See Bihle.Life and Times of Carey, Marshman and Ward,London, 1859; Chinese Recorder, vol. i, p. 145.MARTIN DE RADA or HERRADA. SeeDe Rada.MARTINEZ, FRANCOIS, a Brother of theSociety of Jesus, was borri at Macao in 1573. In1606, travelling when the accusations againstCattaneo {q-v.) were agitating the Chinese, he wasaccused of espionage and tortured so severely thathe died in prison.Havret : La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fou,II, p. 14, note.MARTINI, MARTI N,@T^®Wei K'uang-huo,a Jesuit Father, born at Trente (Tyrol) in 1614.He reached China in 1643. He travelled muchduring the troublous days which followed, and withthe exception of one visit to Rome to justify theJesuits against the Dominicans in the matter ofChinese Rites, spent most of the rest of his life inHangchow, where he died in 1661. He publishedan Atlas of China in 1655; {Novus Atlas Sinensisa Martino Martini Soc. Jesu descriptus, Amsterdam,1655). It was the first serious geographical workever published on China. He also wrote a HistoryofChina.Havret : La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fou,II, p. 41, note.MARTIN, ROBERT MONTGOMERY, colonialTreasurer at Hongkong, appointed January20, 1844. He considered the policy being pursuedby the Government was injurious to the nation,and he conditionally resigned his commission inorder to explain to the ministers at home the truestate of affairs and the utter worthlesssess of Hongkong.Unhappily for him his resignation wasaccepted as final, and his public career was ended.He is the author of China Political, Commercial,and Social, London, 1847. In an appendix to thiswork he prints his correspondence with the governmentas to his action.MARTINS.See Hirundinidae.MARTIN, WILLIAM ALEXANDER PAR-SONS, was born in Indiana, U.S.A., April 10, 1827.After spending some time in the teaching profession,he was accepted by the Presbyterian AmericanMission (North) for work in China, and reachedNingpo in 1850. After some years of missionarywork, he became interpreter to the U.S.A. Legationin Peking, and afterwards Professor of InternationalLaw at the T'ung Wen College ; and onthe establishment of Peking Imperial University[q.v.) was chosen as its first President.In 1900 he returned to U.S.A., but was recalledalmost immediately to assist Chang Chih-tung inestablishing a university at Wuchang. Owing tolack of funds and the removal of the Viceroy, theunivei'sity was not founded, and his position wasonly a sort of lectureship.He subsequently returned to Peking, where hedied on December 13, 1916.Besides being Adviser to the Government onmatters touching International Law, he was made aMandarin of the 3rd class in 1885; of the2nd classin 1898; and was also Membra de I'lnstitut de DroitInternational, etc.He wrote in Chinese, inter alia, a very popular"Evidences of Christianity" and a book on InternationalLaw ; and in English, The Lore of Cathay,A Cycle of Cathay, The Siege in Peking, TheAwakening of China, etc.MARTYRS. Applying this term first to theProtestant foreign missionaries killed in China bythe fury or hatred of Chinese mobs, the followinglist includes all such between 1847 and 1902, classedunder their respective Societies, as given by theChinese Becorder; but there is a discrepancy in thefigures.American Presbyterian Mission (North) 9China Inland Mission 81English Baptist Mission 16Missionary Society of Sweden 1American Baptist Mission (South) 1London- Missionary Society 2Wesleyan Missionary Society 1Swedish Missionary Society 1United Free Church of Scotland 1Scandinavian Mongolian Mission 5Church Missionary Society 10Society for the Propagation of the Gospel... 3Christian and Missionary Alliance 56American Board of Commissioners forForeign Missions 18Shou-yang Mission, (Shansi) 13British and Foreign Bible Society 5American Protestant Episcopal 1Swedish Mongolian Mission 4Total number of Martyrs ... 208 {sic)Societies 18The great majority of these missionaries weremurdered in 1900, the year of the Boxer Rebellion.The Martyrs' Memorial Hall in the Young Men'sChristian Association Building in Shanghai commemoratesthose Protestant missionaries and ChinessChristians who were killed in the century from 1807385

MASCARENHASENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAto 1907. A complete list of the foreigners' names isgiven in A Century of Missions in China. Theynumber 221.Of Chinese Martyrs who suffered in the BoxerRebellion alone, a list according to ProtestantSocieties is given in the Chinese Recorder for 1907,the total number being 1909. It is unfortunately notpossible to give the totals of Roman Catholics whohave died for the faith in China. The list is avery long one. See Boxerism.Chinese Recorder, vol. xxxiv, p. 596; ACentury of Missions in China, ibid., 1907, p. 611,MASCARENHAS, GEORGE, voyaged toTamao with de Andrade, but in his own ship, in1517, and probably went on to Fukien and Chekiang,thus preparing the way for the later Portuguesesettlement at Liampo (Ningpo).MASKEE. The pidgin-English word for'never mind,' 'no matter,' etc.MASONRY IN CHINA. Freemasons claimthe creation of the world as the starting point oftheir practical craft. But an immediately followingadmission tells of the founding of the OriginalGrand Lodge of England, to which so much ofmodern Masonry may be traced, and places theorigin of that at no earlier date than a.d. 1717.Ireland, Scotland, and Massachusetts followed inorder with like institutions of their own, the lastnamed forming its Grand Lodge in 1792. Twoclasses of detractors base their criticisms on thesefacts, one ridiculing the claim to the ancient lineage,the other running down the institution on accountof its modernity. Both are wrong. The claim thatthe first Mason was the Creator of the Universeneed not be discussed, but historic research showsplainly enough that "a peculiar system of morality,veiled in allegory, and illustrated by symbols,"has existed from time immemorial.China's own records,—the finest, best, andmost complete in the world in some respects, — provethat within her borders there was such a systemknown before the days of Confucius, hundreds ofyears B.C., and what is more interesting is the factthat the square and compasses were used then asemblems of morality much as they are being usednow. We need not feel surprised that this shouldbe so. The early connexion of the Chinese withour own Western ancestors is being slowly butinevitably traced. Similarity in words alone issufficient to satisfy those who have gone into thematter that there must have been similarity, if notidentity, in origin.When Chinese classics, therefore, speak interms masonic, as, for example, when Menciusurges those in " pursuit of wisdom " to " makeuse of the compasses and square," we may wellsurmise that the germ of the idea was commonto the progenitors of those who came east on theone side and went west on the other. Confuciusat seventy congratulated himself that he could then" venture to follow the inclinations of his heartwithout fear of transgressing the limits of thesquare."That the Chinese Triad Society should have aritual and practice in many respects almost identicalwith that of Freemasonry need not surpriseus, for just as China has for many generations beenthe happy home of secret societies opposed to thegovernment, so was it—and to some extent isstill—in Continental Europe, where only here andthere were governments and rulers wise enoughto place themselves at the head of such movements.Nine out of ten of the many rebellions in Chinahave been the work of secret societies connectedmore or less intimately with religious beliefs.When the first Freemasons of Shanghai builtfor themselves a home in which to meet, theyapplied to the then Consul for his advice as to theChinese name which should be given to their Hall.Mr. Medhurst had no great difficulty in meetingthe request. He knew what has been said aboverespecting the use by the (^^hinese of the squareand compasses, and advised accordingly. He suggested"Kwci-keu-t'ang" ^f^Mt or "Compass andSquare Hall"—the Chinese reverse the order of theimplements—as a fitting title, and the designationbeing accepted, has continued till the present timeto suggest to our native fellow-residents, and tothe few amongst them who have been accepted as"brethren," that the practices to which the buildingis dedicated are of that moral and reputableorder known from of old, and practised by theirGreat Sage himself.Western Freemasonry on the China coast,however, found its first home, not in Shanghai,but in Hongkong, where the Royal Sussex Lodge,named after the Duke of that title, received itswarrant in 1844, and opened its meetings on the3rd of April, 1845. In 1848 it removed to Canton,where it remained for ten years, and was thendormant until its resuscitation in Shanghai in 1863.The original number of the Royal Sussex Lodgewas 735. It is now 501, and it is thus senior tothe Northern Lodge of China, the first to be formedin Shanghai, whose number is 570. Both are underthe English Constitution.The Northern Lodge warrant is dated December27, 1849, the lodge at first being No. 832. Its firstplace of meeting was in the Kiangsi Road (thenChurch Street), where it occupied a Chinese building,much as one of the Weihaiwei Lodges didrecently. Thence it migrated to a building of itsown in the Nanking Road {then Park Lane).Outgrowing its accommodation, it was compelled tomake a fresh move, and for some time used a336

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA - WASONRYbuilding in the Foochow Road. Meanwhile itssecond Hall was being built in the Canton Roadwhere it still stands. But, once again, developmentsnecessitated a change, this time to the Bund,where the foundation stone of the new buildingwas laid on the 3rd of July, 1865. Most unfortunateas to the circumstances which immediatelyfollowed, the new Masonic Hall found itself oneof two " white elephants " which the Shanghaicommunity had on its hands. The other wasTrinity Church, now the Cathedral. Shanghai hadhad its fat years during the late fifties and .earlysixties when the Taiping rebels were over-runningthe province. Its lean ones dated from the overthrowof those pests at Nanking in 1864, and foryears the cost of the two big buildings was feltvery severely by the small and comparatively impoverishedcommunity. The Northern Lodge,however, bore half the burden of the Hall, theother half being carried by the Royal Sussex andthe Tuscan Lodges, in the ratio of 3 to 1.The Tuscan Lodge warrant dates from August18, 1864. As a working lodge it has had its upsand downs, but during the course of its existenceit has provided three District Grand IMasters, Bros.Miller, Moore, and HotrcH, for Freemasonry inthe Far East, and is now reported to be in ahighly flourishing financial condition.Royal Arch Freemasonry began in Shanghai in1861 with the charter of the Zion Chapter, workingunder the Northern Lodge, No. 570, E.C. It continuedalone till 1869, when the Rising Sun R.A.Chapter, under the Scottish Constitution, wasformed. The Zion Chapter has ever been one ofthe most successful of Far Eastern Masonic Bodies,and its list of Past First Principals contains manynames of men who made their mark in Shanghaihistory in other than Masonic circles.But it is now time to turn to constitutions otherthan the English. All these made their debut hiShanghai. The year 1864, the last of the fat years,was prolific of Masonic growth. We have seen thatthe Royal Sussex was re-constituted in Shanghaiin 1863. On the very same day the Lodge cfAssiduity was formed. It was on Che 7th ofMarch, 1864, that the Lodge Cosmopolitan, workingunder the Scottish Constitution, was granted itswarrant. The Tuscan immediately followed as wehave seen, and on the 14th of December, it wasthe turn of the American Constitution to c«me inwith a warrant for the formation of the AncientLandmark Lodge.It is not necessary here to dilate on the slightdifferences existing between , the English, Scotch,and Massachusetts Constitutions. They are allin the realm of detail, not of principle, and theconsequences have almost without exception beenvery happy, for while unitjr in principle securessolidarity in essentials, diversity in working isalways attractive to visiting brethren who delightin tracing similarities and contrasts in the differingrituals.The Cosmopolitan Lodge, No. 428, S.C, beganworking in 1864 under the mastership of one ofthe best known of the older Shanghai Masons,VV, Bro. C. M. Donaldson. It has always beena strong lodge, and was long distinguished for itscharitable work. The Saltoun Lodge, No. 936,S.C, dates from December 23rd, 1902.The Ancient Landmark Lodge, acting underthe Constitution of Massachusetts, begaii work onthe 9th of May, 1864, and sprang rapidly intocomplete success. It was the outcome of themeeting of a few friends at the house of Dr. H. W.Boone, who, with Bro. Hill—afterwards wellknownfor his connexion with Gen. Ward of the"Ever Victorious Army,"—and Bro. Blanch.\rd,was one of the leading lights in Masonic circlesfor years after. Bro. Eamjes, learned in the law,and father of the great singer, Madame EmmaFames, was another of the little fraternity, as wasthe learned gentlemen who in later years becameBishop of the American Episcopal Church in China,Bishop ScHERESCHEWSKY. Amougst the list of PastMasters of this lodge will be found W. Bros. Hill,Fames, Jansen, the Rev. J. R. Hykes, D.D., andE. T. Williams, some time Charge d'affaires forthe United States in Peking.The Keystone Royal Arch Chapter may belooked on as an offshoot of the Ancient LandmarkLodge, as its mainstays were found amongst thestalwarts of that body. Its charter dates from the20th of September, 1871.Other Masonic Bodies founded in the earlydays of the settlement should be noted here, thefirst of which was the " Celestial Encampment,"embodying Knight Templar and other degrees notofficially recognised by the English Constitucion.Its charter dates back to Occober 3, 1852. In 1877its name was changed do that of the " CelestialPreceptory " under which it was the only body inChina conferring degrees of Masonic Knighthood.In 1900 it ceased to exist, but has since beenresuscitated. The Cathay Rose Croix was another.It came into existence under a warrant dated May18, 1869, and conferred degrees following the RoyalArch to the 18th. It has long been extinct.The warrant for the construction of a ProvincialGrand Lodge of the Royal Order of Scotlandis dated August 10, 1865, and W. Bro. C. M.Donaldson was appointed first P. G. M., an officeheld for life. This post he continued to fill till1892, when, after his death, his mantle fell uponP. G. M. Bro. J. H. Osborne, who held it until1916, when he resigned and was succeeded by Bro.337

MASONRYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAM. E. H. Wells. The Royal Order differs fromthe degrees that precede it in being purely ChristianIn tendency.It embraces two parts, the secondof which is a degree of Knighchood.A few other interesting occurrences in theolden days may be recorded. The first, MasonicBall was held in 1865, but it was not till 1874 thatanother provided a small surplus and so formedthe nucleus of the Masonic Charity Fund, whichhas done so much good in Shanghai and elsewhere.In 1866, the foundation stone of the presentCathedral was laid with fitting Masonic ceremonial.In 1867 the Masonic Hall on the Bund was dedicated.It has since been rebuilt and adapted tomodern requirements. In 1868, Ningpo joined thefraternity by forming the "Star of Peace" Lodge,No. 1217, E.C. It lasted but two years, however.During the year following, Shanghai Scotsmenformed a new lodge, St. Andrew in the Far East,No. 493, S.C. Dr. Coghill was it^ first Master,and it had every promise of a lohg and successfulcareer. But its hopes were shattered and thelodge came to an end in 1874.Hankow was next to try its hand with " TheStar of Central China," No. 511, S.C. This wasm 1871. The Hankow Lodge might have beenknown as the Tea Lodge, for its founders weremainly engaged in the great tea trade of the portas it then was. When that fell off, and regularresidents became fewer, the lodge lapsed. Since1901, however, its place has been supplied by theFar Cathay Lodge, No. 2,855 E.C.The year 1872 saw the inauguration of theLodge Germania, which had a chequered career forsome ten years, and was then closed. Dr. Zachariaewas one of its Masters, and the lodge was revivedin 1895 by no less a celebrity than W. Bro. P. G.von MoLLENDORFF, since which time it has beenin regular working order. In this, as in all othercases, members of the English Constitution freelygave their aid wherever it was possible andnecessary.In 1909 an effort has made to start a lodgeunder the Dutch Constitution, and the EnglishDistrict Grand Lodge had the pleasure of performingthe Consecration ceremony, but the experienceof the following year proved that an insufficientnumber of resident members was forthcoming, andthe warrant was returned to the Hague.The story of the development of District GrandLodges in China is one of considerable interest.The first W. M. of the Royal Sussex Lodge, Bro.J. H. Muhray, was also the first Provincial GrandMaster of the whole Masonic Province of China,and the W. M. who succeeded him in the Chairof the Royal Sussex also succeeded to the honourof. the Prov. Grand Mastership. This was Bro.S. Rawson. It was not till 1877 that this immense" Province " was divided into the two" Districts " of North and South China. Bro.CoKNELius Thorne was the first D. G. M. of theNorthern section, and held the post for eightyears. Leaving for home in 1885, he was succeededby Bro. J. I. Miller, who in turn resigned in1896, and was followed by Bro. L.. Moore, whoheld the office till his death in 1903. Bro. W. H.Anderson was the next incumbent, and remainedin office till his departure for home in 1908, Bro.R. S. IvY filling the vacancy in the following year,and still remaining in office, thus surpassing inlength of service all his predecessors.A D. G. M. is entitled to Past Rank only aftera service of three years. His office is by no meansa sinecure. He has the ajjpointment annually ofa score or more of officers to serve under him inthe District Grand Lodge, and he is in undisputedcontrol of all the Lodges—be they few or many—of his own Constitution in the district over whichhe rules. Territorially in China, he may h'ave toshare his sway with D.G.Ms, of other Constitutionswho, of course, rule only over Lodges usingtheir own ritual and having warrants granted bytheir own Grand Lodges. As matters stand atpresent, the Lodges under the District GrandLodge of Northern China, E.C. are as follow :Date ofName of Lodge. No. Warrant. Situation.Royal Sussex 501 18-9-1844 Shanghai.Northern Lodgeof China 570 27-12-1849,,Tuscan 1,027 18-8-1864,,Doric 1,433 5-4-1873 Chinkiang.Union Lodgeof Tientsin 1,951 16-11-1881 Tientsin.Northern Starof China 2,673 7-9-1897 NewchwanFar Cathay 2.855 1-5-1901 Hankow.Coronation 2,931 13-5-1902 Tientsin.Daintree 2,938 1-9-1901 WeihaiweiTongshan Lodge 3,001 153-1904 Tongshan.The Kiukiang Lodge in consequence of constantremovals from the port and an insufficient numberof permanent residents found itself unable in 1914to carry on its regular meetings and so lapsed.The date given for the warrant of the TongshanLodge is actually the date of its consecration.This Lodge has had the peculiar experience oflosing its warrant by theft, and of being compelledin consequence to go into recess until a new onehad been obtained. Some years ago the presentwriter paid a flying visit to this remarkable littlecommunity which was then the proud possessorof a racecourse, a club, a rifle association, a church,538

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAMASONRYand a Masonic Hall, with what other social centresis not recorded, while the census showed a total,including the last baby, of seventy-five souls only.This fact jjoints to one of the causes of thespread of Masonry in the Treaty Ports of China.As it is now in such a place as Tongshan, so itonce was in Shanghai, Tientsin, etc. Men formedlodges for companionship. Now, when socialamenities in the larger settlements are multiplied,that particular attraction is not only lost, but isantagonised by endless other facilities provided byclubs of every description. It is only in the outportsthat the earlier conditions are repeated.From the earliest days the American Lodgeshave had the advantage of a District DeputyGrand Master, the following being the list ofworthy Brethren who have held the post :—Bros.C. E. Hill, first W. M. of the Ancient LandmarkLodge, W., C. BlanchaRd, J. B. Eames, D. C.Jansen, a. W. Danforth, J. R. Hykes, GeorgeA. Derby, and Dr. Stacey A. Ransom, the presentincumbent. But it was not till 1915 that thenumber of American Lodges was sufficient to callfor the formation of a regularly organised DistrictGrand Lodge. Application then made to the GrandMaster of the State of Massachusetts resulted inthe issue of a charter, and the ceremony ofin.stallation of R. W. Bro. Dr. Ransom wasconducted by the D. G. M. of the English Constitution,R. W. Bro. R. S. Ivy, assisted by theOfficers of the English D. G. Lodge. This interestingceremony occurred on the 24th of November,1915, and the new District Grand Lodge held itsfirst annual meeting on the 27th of December, 1916.For many years the Ancient Landmark was theonly lodge under the rule of the American DistrictDeputy Grand Masters, but on the 28th of January,1904, the Sinira Lodge was organised, at first underthe name of the Cathay Lodge, its first Master beingClinton, son of the late R. W. Bro. D. C. Jansen.Another, the Shanghai Lodge, has its charter datedSeptember 14, 1904. A provisional warrant wasgiven to the Peiho Lodge of Tientsin, but the onlyoccupant of the Chair was W. Bro. L. C. Emery,the lodge finding itself incapable of carrying on.China's capital, curiously enough, held outlonger against Masonic influences than any of theTreaty Ports of importance. It was not till the2nd of October 1915 that an International Lodgewas established in Peking, which has since receivedits warrant from the Grand Lodge of Massachusetts,and is thus under the control of the AmericanD. G. Lodge. On the 4th of November, 1916 a'Lodge of Perfection—14th degree—of the Ancientand Accepted Scottish Rite was also opened byIllustrious C. S. Lobingier, holding an Honorary33rd Degree. No fewer than 17 Master Masonsreceived higher degrees at the temporary MasonicHall on the Austrian Glacis on that date, but themost intei'esting portion of the ceremony was anadjournment to the Temple of Heaven and theworking of several degrees in the Emperor's RobingChamber. W. Bro. Pettxjs was installed as firstV. M., and amongst the officers was Bro. C. C. Wu,son of the wellknown Chinese diplomatist andstatesman. Dr. Wu Ting-fang.The higher degrees just mentioned form partof the complete system known as the Ancient andAccepted Rite of Freemasonry, (U.S.A.), whichwas established more than a century ago inCharleston, South Carolina. Its Shanghai memberswere consolidated on the 19th of September, 1901into the following bodies :The Yangtze Lodge of Perfection, No. 4, underBro. G. A. Derby.The Shanghai Chapter Rose Croix, No. 3, underBro. G. A. Derby.The Cathay Council of Kadosh, No. 2, underBro. John Goodnow.The Orient Consistory, No. 1, under Bro.John Goodnow.The Ancient and Accepted Rite under the" Supreme Council of England " is thought tohave originated in France about the middle of the18th century. As has already been remarked, theGrand Lodge of England concerns itself with nonebut the first three degrees with the Royal Arch,but it will be of interest to the Craft as well ,asto the general reader to have a list of the thirtythreedegrees as recognised under the Ancient andAccepted Rite. They are the following :1. Entered Apprentice.2. Fellow-craft.3. Master Mason.4. "Secret Master.5. Perfect Master.6. Intimate Secretary.7. Provost and Judge.8. Superintendent of the Buildings.9. Elected Knights of the Nine.10. Illustrious Elect of Fifteen.11. Sublime Knights Elected.12. Grand Master Architect.13. Knight of the Ninth Arch.14. Grand Elect, Perfect, and Sublime Mason.15. Knight of the Sword of the East.16. Prince of Jerusalem.17. Knight of the East and West.18. Sovereign Prince of Rose Croix.19. Grand Pontiff.20. Grand Master of all Symbolic Lodges.21. Noachite or Prussian Knight.22. Knight of the Royal Axe, or Prince ofLibanus.23. Chief of the Tabernacle.24. Prince of the Tabernacle.339

crowningMasonryEncyclopaedia sinica25. Knight of the Brazen Serpent.26. Prince of Mercy, or Scotch Trinitarian.27. Sovereign Commander of the Temple.28. Knight of the Sun.29. Grand Scotch Knight of St. Andrew.30. Grand Elect Knight of Kadosh.31. Grand Inspector, Inquisitor Commander.32. Sublime Prince of the Royal Secret.33. Sovereign Grand Inspector General.One form of Masonic Activity, the working ofthe Mark Degree in a separate lodge, has so farbeen left unnoticed. The District of N. Chinapossesses but two of these lodges, the Orient MarkLodge, No. 482, E.C., at Shanghai, and theNorthern Lodge of China of Mark Masons,No. 583, E.C. at Weihaiwei The former wasestablished in 1894, its first Master being Bro.F. M. Gratton. The latter first saw the light in1906. The Mark degree is conferred under otherconstitutions without the formation of separatelodges.Freemasonry has many claims to the honourand respect of the world, but none based on surerfoundation than its first and foremost practice, thepractice of charity. We have shown that theBrotherhood dates its beginning on the China coastfrom the year 1844, but when we find that the firstCharity Fund was not founded till thirty yearsafterwards, in 1874, we must not jump to theconclusion that Craft benevolence slumbered allthat time.' It was not so. Whatever was requiredto minister to the needs of those in distress camefieely from the pockets of individual brethren orthe treasury of individual lodges. In 1874,however, a Masonic Ball surplus of $529 formedthe nest-egg of the first combined fund in whichall Shanghai Lodges of whatever constitution couldfind membership. At first a rather haphazardundertaking, the Fund made but slow progress,working so to speak from hand to mouth. Bro.Gratton re-organized it under Bye-laws in 1888,and since then its progress has been ever onwardand upward. Its present invested funds amountto Tls. 32,500.00 and are supported by all Lodgesin the District.Tientsin and District has followed Shanghai'sexample and now has a thriving Charity Fund ofits own. In times gone by it subscribed freely tothe Shanghai Fund. Newchwang has done thelike, and the volume of its fund is a telling tributeto the generosity of its small community.Much might be said of the high standing ofprominent Masons in China in other walks of life.The list includes at least one Bishop, many highChurch dignitaries, many Consular officials, variousKnights, a large body of representatives from theliberal professions, many heads of firms, and avast body of " just and upright " men who havecarried on the traditions of the craft after themanner which, in all ages, has led monarchs themselvesto become " promoters of the art." One ofthe most prominent of Masonic historians wasBro. R. F. Gould, once Secretary to the ShanghaiMunicipal Council, and a member of the NorthernLodge.The two Public Schools of Shanghai, for boysanl girls, owe their origin to that founded by theMasonic Fraternity in 1886. For years the Lodgesprovided a liberal prize fund which has now beenconsolidated and forms three valuable scholarshipstenable for three years. The Craft hold inperpetuitythe right to nominate four free scholars,boys or girls, in the Municipal Schools, in returnfor their outlay on the original institution.As a further outgrowth from the ranks of theFraternity may be mentioned the Masonic Club atShanghai. This institution dates from the 1st ofApril, 1882, has its quarters in the Masonic Buildingon what is one of the very best sites in theModel Settlement, and has always filled a wellrecognisedposition in Shanghai clubdom. It ianot likely that there exist many cities whereMasonry is stronger, in proportion to its Westernpopulation, than it is in Shanghai.[G. L.]MASTER OF HEAVEN, ^ gj^ or HeavenlyPreceptor, a title given by T'ai Wu Ti (N. Weidynasty, a.d. 424) to K'ou Ch'ien-chih ^^"^head of the Taoists. In a.d. 748 HsiiAN Tsung ofthe T'ang dynasty confirmed the hereditary privilegesof the descendants of Chang Tao-ling {q.v.)with this title, which they bear to-day. In theMing dynasty the title was taken away by the firstemperor as being disrespectful to heaven, chen jen^ /^ , Hero being substituted ; but the higher titleis persisted in.DoE,E : Reclierches stir hs Superstitions, tomeix, p. 540.MATEER, CALVIN WILSON, D.D., LL.D.,a missionary of the American Presbyterian Missionwho was born in Pennsylvania in January, 1836,and arrived in China at the end of 1863. Hebecame a thorough master of the mandarin speech,and his Mandarin Lessons are very widely used.His life-work was education ; he founded a schoolat Tengchow fu. Shantung, and developed it intoa very successful college, which in conjunction withthe schools of other Missions is now absorbed in theShantung Christian University. He prepared agood many very popular and useful text-books, andwas himself very gifted in mathematical and•physical science. The work of hisstrenuous life was Bible translation. It has beensaid that with his labours in teaching, in scientificand Bible translation, and in study of mandarin340

'ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMAUSOLEAcolloquial, he did the work of three ordinary men.He died in Tsingtao, September, 1908.Chinese Recorder, 1908-9.MATS and MATTING.—Mats, }f Hsi, aremade from rattan, from bamboo {Chu-lien -ft SI) ^^^from reeds. The most durable of the last are wovenfrom a species of Juncus near Lientan, Ningpo,and are in pieces 6 ft. long by 4 ft. wide.In Sui-fu, Ssuch'uan, Ju7icus effusus is culti-\ated for mat-weaving, and is a source of greatprofit to the peasantry. From the same rush lampwicksare made, more especially in the Min Valley,the pith being used for the purpose. For an accountof this industry see Hosie's Ssuch'uan, p. 39.From the three-sided rush, Leperonia mucronata,mats of a slightly better quality are made. Theserushes are also used as string in Ssuch'uan.Matting, ifM ^'* ^'*'*- A'rundo mitis, fromwhich matting is woven, is cultivated in the lowlands in allthe south of Kuangtung, but the peoplein other parts of China use other gras;ses, such asEriocaulon quad rangulare, Scirpus capsularis orCyperus elatus. The Arundo culms are sometimesfive feet high, but the matting is seldom more thanfour feet wide. The loom used about Canton is anupright framework, with a cylinder above andbelow, over which the warp of hempen threads runsthe woof is plaited on without a shuttle, and thestraw dyed before weaving.The thin matting used for sails and box coveringsis woven from Coix lacryma. A coarse whitishkind of matting suitable for awning and floor coveringsis woven in the northern provinces from a watergrass allied to the Arundo; it supplies the place offelt on tile(d floors, and serves many "useful endsin the farmyard and shop.The export in 1916 amounted to—Matting,Tls. 1,313,230 ; Mats, Tls. 1,834,067.MA TUAN-LIN .dig Eg, a native of Shansi inthe 13th century. On the fall of the Sung dynastyhe retired from official life and taught in his nativetown. He is famous as the authoi: of Wen hsienVung k'ao 52 Jgit jS, # and other works. See Lei Shu.MAUSOLEA, IMPERIAL. The only examplesof these are the tombs of the Ming and(Jh'ing dynasties, earlier ones having been entirelydestroyed or reduced to insignificance; even of theMing imperial tombs the first has not escaped semiruin.But it is highly probable that we &ee in theMing mausolea the plan on which all imperial tombshave been built for two thousand years; while theCh'ing dynasty simply accepted the model of itspredecessor.I. The Mausolea (^ ling, tombs), of the MingDynasty. These are at Nanking, where T'ai Tsui: IH, (Hung Wu), the founder of the dynasty, isbui'ied, and near Peking, where thirteen Emperorslie.The tomb of Hung Wu is outside the Ch'aoYang gate of Nanking, and is in a very dilapidatedstate. Nanking was the capital of the Empire whilehe reigned.The second Emperor of the dynasty, Hui Ti^ ^, has had no mausoleum built for him, sincesubsequent rulers have not regarded hini as lawfulheir when he took the throne.In 1406 Ch'eng Tsu ^j^ M (Yung Lo) began theremoval of the capital to Peking, and when it wascompleted by his own arrival there three years later,he began work on a mausoleum for his alreadydeparted consort and for himself.The Ming tombs are in Ch'ang-ping chow, somethirty miles north-west of Peking. There arethirteen graves ; the names given to them, with thereign-titlas of their occupants, and the dates ofburial are as follows :1 Ch'ang ling ^^, Yung Lo y^ *f*, 1425.2 Hsien ling git ^, Hung Hsi |B, 1425.3 Ching ling ^ |^, HsiiAN Te ^

MAUSOLEAENC5YCL0PAEDU SlNtCAto Deveria and Cordier, the bodies of Tsk Wangand Ching Wang, the two remotest ancestors of thefamily ; and according to De Groot and Chavannes(t-. inf.), the next two rulers, Ch'ang Wang andFu Wang are there also,2. Tung Ching ling ^]r|^, 120 li S.E. ofMukaen. The bodies of (Jh'ang Wang and FuWang are here according to Cordier and Deveria ;but this is incorrect ; the royal remains weretransferred to Yung ling in 1658.3. Fu ling la 1^ is 20 li N.E. of Mukden, andT'ai Tsu, (Nurhachxj), the builder of the mausolea,reposes there.4. Chao-ling ^ ^, 10 li N.W. of Mukden, isthe tomb of T'ai Tsung.The three mausolea, excluding the now emptyTung Ching ling, are called San Ling 3 ^ ; theyare built in the Ming style of architecture, thoughon a more modest scale than the Mijag tombs. Thisshews how early and how readily the Manchusadopted the Chinese civilization.Thus the first six chiefs of the clan and the firsttwo Emperors of the Manchu dynasty are in theSan Ling or 'Three Tombs' in Manchuria. Fromthe next Emperor Shun Chih )|g f^ onwards, theManchu rulers were all buried inChihli province.Their tombs are in two groups, the EasternTombs ;^ ^ Tung ling, and the Western Tombs'^^ Hsi ling.The Eastern Tombs are about 80 miles to theeast of Peking, in Tsun-hua chou ^ ?£ jHI j and theGreat Wall makes the northern boundary of thecemetery.The names of the mausolea in this group aregiven below, with the reign-titles of the Emperorsburied in each and the year of burial.1. Hsiao ling ^ ^, Shun Chih, first emperor 1663.2. Ching ling i^, K'ang Hsi, second „ 1723.3. Yii ling |^g|, Ch'ien Lung, fourth „ 1799.4. Ting ling ^^, Hsien Feng, seventh „ 1865.5. Hui ling |S®, T'ung Chih, eighth ,, ?There are three other tombs containing theremains of the empresses. As it is a rigid rule thatthe tomb of an emperor may not be re-opened, theempresses have all to lie alone, or with otherempresses.The Western Tomlss are about as far fromPeking as, the Eastern, but south-west of the capital.The following are the names of the mausolea inthis group, with the reign-titles and dates ofsepulture.1. T'ai ling ^^, Yung Chkng, third emperor 1737.2. Ch'ang ling g^, Chia Ch'ing, fifth „ 1821.3. Mu ling Sl^, Tao Kuang, sixth „ 1852.There are two tombs of empresses here besides.The reason for the making of the Westerntombs was that the most eminent geomancersreported to Shih Tsung (Yung Cheng) against thesuitability of any available ground in the EasternTombs; this however does not seem to have preventedseveral later emperors being buried there.De Groot : The lieligious System of China,vol. iii, p. 1177, 1282 ; Cordier : Histoire desRelations de Chine, etc., vol. ii, p, 17, note;Deveria : T'oung Pao, vol. iii ; Imbault-Huart iibid., vol. iv; Fonssagrive : Si-Ling, (Annales duMus^e Guimet, 1907).De Groot gives very full accounts of theMausolea, drawn from the Chinese records.[In response to an enquiry as to some difficultiesin the above account Prof. Edouard Chavanneskindly sent a "Note," which the compiler has translatedfrom the French, and is glad to print in itsentirety below].theNote on the sepultures of the firstEmjjerurs ofCh'ing Dynasty in Manchuria.There are actually in the province of Shengking& B, three imperial .sepultures H ^ 5 they are enumeratedbelow in inverse order to that of thesuccession of the persons there interred,1. The Chao ling Bg |^, commonly called, thePei ling -^Wi, because it is ten li to the north-eastof Mukden ; the grave is called the Lung yeh shan^^ll|. The emperor T'ai Tsung Wen Huang-ti:fe ^ 35c g ^ who reigned from 1627 to 1643 isburied there. There are several photographs of thistomb in M. Gisbert Combaz' book entitled Sepulturesimperiales de la Chine, fig. 16-33 and pi. viiand viii, and also in Chavannes' Mission Archeologiquedans la Chine septentrionale, figs. 781-789.2. The Fu ling fg ^, which is twenty li to theeast of Mukden and which, for that reason, is oftendesignated the Tung ling ^ |^, is built on a fairlysteep slope of the T'ien chu shan 5^:^ lU. It' isthe burial-place of T'ai Tsu Kao Huang-ti ;j^ gjM Mi^! who was born in 1559 and reigned from1616 to 1628. The photographs of this grave whichM. Combaz has published {op. cit. pi. ix andfigs. 34-37) were given him, like the preceding ones,by the Russian Minister of Finances, and were takenby agents of the trans-Manchurian Railway,3. The Yung ling /jc^, the mound of whichis called the Ch'i yun shan ^^^iS U]> is 250 li to theeast of Mukden, and ten li north-east of Hsing ching.j^;jg This Mausoleum was originally that of thetwo Manchu chiefs who in 1648 were retrospectivelyintroduced into the line of Emperors under thenames Chad Tsu Yiian Huang-ti^ IB, ^. ^ ^ andHsing Tsu Chih Huang-ti ® M E ^ ^ 5 before theedict of 1648, these two ancestors of the dynastywere known under the titles of Prince Tse ^ Hand Prince Ch'ing ^ 3E. The Prince Ts£ (t.e,Chad Tsu) must have lived towards the middle ofthe fifteenth century. In 1658, were reunited in342

Encyclopaedia sinicaMcCARTEEthe Yung ling the remains of the two successors ofCi^AO Tsu and Hsing Tsu, namely, Prince Ch'angg 5E and Prince Fu |@ ^, whom the edict of 1648had named retrospectively Ching Tsu I Huang-ti:g:MII^^ and Hsien Tsu Hsiian Huang-ti j^JHM. §s.^- Previously to 1658, these two ancestors ofthe dynasty were buried at Tung Ching y^'^, whichwas eight U north-east of the city of Liaoyang chouLiaoyangi^ ^M and east of T'ai Tzu ho jfc -^ M >is Itself 120 U south of Mukden. After 1658 therewas no further case of imperial sepulture at Tungching and what was called 'Tung ching ling' ceasedto exist.I visited the Chao ling (or Pei ling) on April16, 1902; on April 23, I was at Fu ling (or Tungling) ; on April 25, I visited the Yung ling ; thislast tomb is particularly interesting ; in the firstcourt are arranged four pavilions sheltering stelesdedicated respectively to Chad Tsu, Hsing Tsu,Ching Tsu and Hsien Tsu; each st«le is inscribedin Mongol, in Manchu and in Chinese ; the Chinesetext is reproduced in the Shenghing T'nng Chih^ ]^ M rut, c. iii, p. la—3a. Behind this courtopens another, which encloses the funeral temple(cf. Missioncalled the Ch'i Yiin Tien ^ ig ^ArcMologique, etc., fig. 290); behind the buildingone reaches by a small stairway an enclosure inwhich are five tortoises', each surmounted by a staif,the top of which is surrounded with red and whiteKorean paper (cf. Missions Archeologique, etc.,figs. 291, 292) ; the Maff is almost the height of aman. This tomb is especially interesting becauseit is the only example which has preserved for usthe memory of what Manchu tombs were like priorto all Chinese influence.Who are the persons buried under the fivetortoises ? Two among them are certainly Chao Tsuand Hsing Tsu, who have been interred each withhis wife ; as to Ching Tsu and Hsien Tsu, traditionstates that they were brought together under asingle mound (cf. Ta Ch'ing I T'ung Chih :^ ^— ^jg, lithographed ed. c. 36, p. 2a) ;what are thetwo remaining tortoises? They are probably thetombs of two Manchu nobles, whose names, withvariants, are indicated to us in the Shengking T'ungChih (c. 28, p. 62, 63a :^ MMU^m^M^7jt E^ 3£ ; m-^ m ^ m m n n r^ ^ m ^ y^P^ ;fi- ); and in the Ta Ch'ing I T'ung Chih (c. 36,P- 4a: ^M^=5^^3:^liEI^S«7jc^^;[Ed. C]MAY, FRANCIS HENRY, Sir, was born atublin in 1860. He was appointed to a HongkongCadetship in 1881, and filled many offices in theColony from that date till 1910. He was thenappointed Governor of Fiji, and High Commissionerof the Western Pacific. In 1912, he becameGovernor of Hongkong, which post he holds still in1917. He was made K.C.M.G. in 1909.He has published A Guide to CantoneseColloquial; Yachting in Hongkong.MAYA, or MAHAMAYA, the mother ofGautama. The Hinayana scriptures speak of heras a human mother of a human son, and the virginbirth of Buddha is not canonical. But she hasalways been held in reverence, and in manyMahayana siitras she holds a high place amongcelestial beings, and she is called the eternal motherof all the BuDDHAS. Chun-t'i J|| |g, whose image(usually with eighteen arms and sometimes a thirdeye) is often seen in Buddhist temples, may perhapsbe the deified Maya. The Chinese call Chun-t'iholy mother, andby the names Shhig mu ^ ^,Fo mu ^"g -Q:, Buddha's mother.Johnston : Buddhist China, p. 277.MAYERS, WILLIAM FREDERICK, wasborn in 1839 at Hobart, Tasmania, where his fatherwas chaplain and private secretary to the Governor,Sir John Franklin. In 1842, the family returnedto England and Mayers was educated at Woolwichand Liverpool. He spent a year in America injournalistic work and then came to China as studentinterpreterin 1860, and died in March, 1878 inShanghai, when on his way from Peking to Englandon leave of absence. At the time of his death hewas Chinese Secretary to the British Legation.During the T'ai P'ing rebellion he had beenintimately associated with General Gordon in theoperations at and near Soochow.Some of his works have been of the greatestusefulness ; they are Chinese Reader's Manual, 1874The Chinese Government, 1877; Maize in China(Notes and Queries on China and Japan, 1867)Tobacco in China (ibid., 1867); Henna (Lawsoniainermis) in China (ibid., 1868); Introduction ofCotton into China (ibid., 1868) ; Utampa Flower(ibid., 1869).MAZARIN BLUE, a porcelain glaze introducedlate in the K'ang Hsi period.McCARTEE, DIVIE BETHUNE, a medicalmissionary of the American Presbyterian Boai'd.He was born at Philadelphia, January 13, 1820.In June, 1844, he reached Ningpo, and appears tohave spent most of his life there, returnhig toAmerica in 1883. He wrote several papers onNatural History subjects as follows : On some-Wild Silkworms and the Trees, etc., (Journal,N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. iii); The Tallow Tree, and TheChinese Pine, (Notes and Queries on China andJapan, 1868). The Chinese works he published arenamed in the Memorials; they number thirty-three.Wylie : Memorials of Protestant Missionaries;Buetschneider : History of European BotanicalDiscoveries.343

McCLARYENCYCLOPAEDIA filNICAMcCLARY,— , captain of a country ship fromBengal who in 1781 stopped a sloop going to Manila,thinking she was from Spain, with which countrywe were then at war. Landing at Macao, he toldthe Portuguese the vessel was being brought intoport for examination. The Portuguese imprisonedhim till he sent his mate to release the prize, which,however, was wrecked before release. McClarywas then kept in prison two months' longer till hepaid §70,000, the value of the ship, into their hands.Later, while he lay alongside a Dutch ship atWhampoa, news came of war between England andHolland, and he seized the Dutch vessel as a prizeof war. The Chinese protested, and on his droppingdown the river opposed his passage. A compromisewas made : the Chinese boarded the shipwith shouts of triumph, whilst McClary wasallowed to appropriate a quantity of gold and pearlsamong the cargo, belonging to Armenian merchants.Thus the Chinese saved their face and McClarxmade good profit.The East India Company had no power to preventsuch disgraceful doings of Englishmen, yet wasblamed for all the foreigners' misdeeds.Eames : The, English in China; Davis : Chinaand the Chinese; Atjber : China.McC LATCH IE, THOMAS, Canon, one of thefirst missionaries of the Church Missionary Societywho arrived in Shanghai in 1845, and got a housein the city. He worked there with some intervalstill his retirement in 1882. He was Canon of St.John's Cathedral, Hongkong and later of HolyTrinity Cathedral, Shanghai. He wrote a bookentitled Chinese Cosmogony which has not commendeditself to sinologues in general, but he isconsidered by Balfour to have made out a verystrong case from the study of comparative mythologyto prove that the whole system of Chinese Heavenand-Earthworship is based on ancient obscenetheories of incestuous intercourse between the two.He also left an unpublished translation of theLi Chi or Book of Rites. He died^in England,June 4, 1885.MED HURST, WALTER HENRY, an earlymissionary of the London Missionary Society. Hewas born in London, 1796. He joined Morrisonand Milne in 1817, acting as superintendent of theprinting work in Malacca, whence he removed toPenang and later to Batavia, travelling a great deal,and in 1835 reaching Shanghai for the first time.When the Treaty Ports were opened he settled inShanghai, 1843, and set up the first printing press.Two years later the present premises of the Societyin Shanghai were occupied, in Shantung Road, atthat time far in the country. He was one of thetranslators of the Delegates' version of the NewTestament. His works include 59 Chinese, 6 Malayand 27 English books.He went home on furloughin a very weak state and died two days after reachingEngland, 1857.MEDHURST, WALTER HENRY, son ofDr. Medhurst the missionary, was born in 1823and, when sixteen years old, accompanied his father .to China, arriving in 1839, and within two years wasemployed by Captain Elliot in the Chinese secretary'soffice. He was later attached to Sir H.Pottinger's suite, was present at the taking ofAmoy and Chusan, and was left as interpreter atChusan. In 1843 he was appointed Interpreter totheConsulate at Shanghai, and in 1848 becameActing-Consul at Amoy. He then went to Hongkongas Chinese Interpreter to the Superintendencyof Trade, and was made Consul at Foochow in 1854.He acted as Consul at Shanghai in 1860, wasappointed to Hankow in 1865, again in 1868 officiatedat Shanghai, at which time he had to settle theYangchow missionary difficulties, and in 1870 wasappointed permanently as Shanghai Consul. Heretired from the service in December, 1876.He wrote The Foreigner in Far Cathay.MEDICAL EDUCATION.Christian Missionscould not work long in China without feeling theneed to do medical work, and such work could notbe done without native assistants. Many missionstherefore for many years have trained and taughtstudents in medicine; but such training was nevertill recent years up to the Western standard. Thisarose partly from the lack of sufficient equipmentand teaching staff; partly from the pressing needwhich made even incomplete training very useful.The Missions, however, did the pioneer work, andin recent years they are also attempting to providecomplete mediciil education such as is given in theWest ; while the Government has also been awakenedto the need, and both Central and Provincial authoritieshave established Medical Schools of variousstandards, the instructors being almost all Chinese.At the end of 1916 the number of MedicalColleges in China was 26, of which 13 weremissionary institutions. The students numbered1,940, including 129 women, half being in missionaryColleges. A full list of the Institutions will befound in Dr. Merrins' paper. See Medical EducationScheme; Medical Missions.Merrins : Educational Directory of China, 1917.MEDICAL EDUCATION SCHEME, 'to provethe feasibility of educating and passing nativesurgeons in their own country in similar mannerand up to the average standard required for medicalqualifications in western lands.' This first experimentin the complete medical education of Chinesewas 'due to W; Wykeham Myers, M.B., Hon.Surgeon of the David Manson Memorial Hospital144

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMEDICAL MISSIONSat Takow in Formosa, (now of H.B.M. ConsularService). Three students took full courses andreceived diplomas in 1888, after thorough examinationsby Examining Boards in Hongkong and Shanghai,the Boards being composed of the leadingMedical men of different nationalities in the twoplaces. The experiment was a remarkable success,as may be seen by reference to the press noticesof the time; but the Government, in the person ofLi Hung-chang, seems to have confined itself tofair promises and empty praise : the new doctorshad to find employment in the Straits Settlements,where the Colonial Government recognized theirdiplomas.W. Wykeham Myers : Ee^ort to Subscribers,etc., Shanghai, 1889.MEDICAL MISSIONARY SOCIETY INChina, The, the first Society of the kind inexistence, was organized in Canton in 1838, at ameeting called by Dr. Peter Parker and Rev.E C. Beidgman, both of the A.B.C.F.M. and Dr.T. R. Colledge, a surgeon of the E. I. Co. Dr.Parker had founded in 1835 an Opthalmic Hospitalin Canton, and the. M.M. Society was formed todevelop and finance this.Dr. Parker presided over the hospital for20 years, and was followed in 1855 by Dr. J. G.Kerr (A.P.M.) who held the position for forty-fouryears. In 1856, the hospital was closed because ofthe war between China and England, and it wasburned down, but rebuilt in 1858, in a betterposition. In 1870, the first class of medical studentswas organized ; the translation of text books wasbegun ; and in 1879, two women joined the class,the first Chinese lady physicians to practise Westernmedicine. In 1866, the Hospital was rebuilt whereit now stands.Though the work began under the auspices ofthe A.B.C.F.M., the A.P.M. took charge of it in1854, and it is now undenominational. In December,1916, a plan for the re-organization of the oldMedical Missionary Society in China under the nameof the Canton Medical Missionary Union wasbrought forward ; and is in a fair way of beingrealised. In 1916, there were three foreign physiciansworking at the Hospital, two of whom re-whichpresented the Canton Christian College (q.v.)is expected to take a prominent part in the neworganization.In addition to the Canton Hospital, the Societyin its early days established four others, viz. atHongkong, (Dr. Hobson) ; at Amoy, (Dr.Hepburn) ; at Ningpo, (Dr. Macgowan) ;and atShanghai, (Dr. Lockhart) ; which afterwards passedunder the control oE the several Missions who nowwork them.MEDICAL MISSIONS. It has been foundimpossible to obtain up-to-date and complete accountsand statistics of Roman Catholic Medical MissionWork, which is, however, much more important thanis generally known. This article deals only withProtestant activities.In 1805 the senior surgeon of the E. I. Co. atCanton, Dr. Alexander Pearson, introduced vaccinationinto China, and Sir George Stauntontranslated into Chinese a treatise on the subjectwhich had been prepared by Dr. Pearson, who alsotaught several Chinese the art. The chief of thesewas Hequa, who rose to great distinction inconsequence. He vaccinated over a million personsin thirty years and handed his skill down to hisson ; other Chinese establishments for vaccinationarising from his efforts. Dr. Livingstone, anothersurgeon of the E. I. Co. opened a dispensary forpoor Chinese at Macao in 1820, in conjunction withDr. Morrison. Native doctors did the work underthe superintendence of the foreigners who alsostudied native therapeutics. Dr. Giitzlaff in hisjourneys up and down the China Coast practisedmedicine among the Chinese with considerablesuccess. Dr. T. R. Colledge of the E. I. Co.opened a voluntary work in Macao in 1827 for poorChinese, principally for those with diseases of theeyes. A small infirmary (40 patients) was foundedin 1828, with the help of Colledge' s friends. Infive years there were 4,000 patients; the rich hongmerchants subscribed as did the E. I. Co. itself,with many of its employes, and others. This wasthe first institution of the kind in China. In 1828,Dr. Colledge also opened a dispensary in Canton,for foreigners and natives, with the co-operationof two other physicians. Dr. J. H. Bradford andCox. Dr. Colledge wrote in 1836 an articleSuggestions with regard to Employing MedicalPractitioners as Missionaries to China, (ChinaRepository :Vol. ix, p. 386), in which he "rejoicesthat the same ideas had suggested themselves tothe pious and benevolent in the U. S. A. as appearsfrom the fact of the Rev. Dr. Parker havingqualified himself both as a physician and ministerof the gospel."The history of Medical Missions really beginswith J'>r. Peter Parker {q.v.) who opened ahospital for the Chinese in Singapore in 1834,which v/as removed to Canton in the following year.In 1838 he, with his colleague in the A.B.C.F.M.,Rev. E. C. Bridgman, and Dr. Colledge, hadformed the "Canton Medical Missionary Society"(q.v.^. The first English Medical Missionary wasDr. William Lockhart (q.v.) of the L.M.S. wholanded at Canton in 1838. In 1839, he took chargeof the Macao hospital, opened by Dr. P. Parkerin 1838, and after one or two removals arrived atShanghai in 1843, and opened the Shantung Road44345

MEDICAL MISSIONSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAHospital there; and in 1861 another at Peking.1839 Dr. Benjamin Hobson of the L.M.S. arrived atCanton. He took over the medical work at Macao,but afterwards went to the L.M.S. Hospital inHongkong, and from 1857, took charge of the onein Shanghai.At the first Missionary Conference held atHongkong in 1843, fifteen missionaries were present,of whom one was a medical man, the Dr. B. Hobsonabove-mentioned.In 1859, a book called China Mission, by theRev. William Dean, published in New York, gavea listt of 214 male missionaries working under 24Societies in China. Of these 28 were physicians,eleven of whom were also clergymen.The China Medical Missionary Assic

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMENCIUSof the RocKFELLER Foundation in 1915, the wholequestion was transformed (see China MedicalBoard), the general effects being greatly to raisethe standard of medical education, to lessen thenumber of teaching centres, and to close up suchas for any reason could not hope to reach the newstandard set by the wealthy Rockfeller Commission,For the seventy-odd years that ProtestantMedical Missionaries have been at work, they havenot only been able to relieve an immense amount ofphysical suffering, but to offer an invaluable apologeticfor Christianity, and to gain a great opportunityfor evangelization. They have trained agreat number of helpers, and have translated alarge number of medical works into Chinese ; havegradually opened a way for the practice of Westernmedicine in China by the Chinese themselves, andstarted a wide movement in the matter of PublicHealth and Hygiene, which is greatly strengtheningthe hands of Western-trained Chinese physicians,and while opportunity and time have been lackingfor scientific discovery, a considerable amount oflight has been thrown by them on existing problems.Medical Missions (Protestant) statistics for yearending December 31, 1915.Foreign Physicians (Men) 277(Women) 106,, Nurses 142Chinese Physicians 119,, Medical Assistants 509,, Nurses ... 734Hospitals, Buildings 330No. of beds 13,465In-patients 104,418Major Operations 23,920Dispensaries, Buildings 223Individuals treated ...1,636,841Itinerating Circuits 90Total of individuals treated 3,065,514Medical Schools or Classes 23„ Students (Men) 238,, ,,(Women) 67Schools for Nurses 36„ Students 272Other philanthropic Institutions such asleper asylums, opium refuges, ischoolsfor the blind and for deaf mutes,asylums for insane, etc 76do. Inmates 2,545Chinese contributions 1502,743.90MEDLAR. See Loquat.MEI LING PASS m^V'^um ramie pass, sometimescalled Plum-tree Pass ; the most important ofthe passes in the Plum Range, between Kuangtungand Kiangsi. It is about one thousand feet high, andis broad and well-paved. North of it are the headwaters of the Kan river, the chief artery of Kiangsi,discharging into the Po-yang Lake ; south of it arethe head waters of the North River. Thus witli aportage of only twenty-four miles over the Passthere is water communication between Canton andthe Yangtze valley. (See Siang River). It was bythis route that Earl Macartney in 1793 and LordAmherst in 1816 returned to Canton from Peking.MELON-SEEDS, JDJi^ hua tzu, are those ofthe ordinary water-melon, Citrullus^ vulgaris. Anaccompaniment of all Chinese feasts, these seedsare eaten with tea after being salted and parched,the shells being cracked with the teeth and thekernels extracted. Materia Medica says "The melongrown to produce these seeds is of a special variety,evidently the result of a long period of selectivedevelopment." These melons are produced in theplains of S. Manchuria, Chihli, Shantung and theYangtze valley. The annual shipments average170,000 piculs, valued at Hk.Tls. one and a quarterto one and a half millions. From a third to aquarter of this is sent abroad, mostly to Hongkong.MELTERS, a term used by the Chinese for thenative brokers of smuggled opium.E\mes : The English in China, p. 243.MEMORIAL, ARCH. See P'ai Fang.MEMORIALS OF PROTESTANT MISSIONariesto the Chinese, a work from which a gooddeal of information has been drawn for these pages.It was published at the American Mission Press,Shanghai, in 1867, and, since missionaries at thattime were comparatively few, the particulars givenare fairly full, information being recorded as towives and children, the names of ships in whichtheir voyages were made, etc., etc. The bookspublished by each missionary, in Chinese and inWestern languages, are given under each biography.Though Mr. Alexander Wylie, through modesty,never allowed his name on the title-page it is knownthat the material was amassed by him.MENCIUS.— i The Man. Mencius is theLatinized form of jg ^ the "philosopher Mkng"who was born in the state of % Tsou, in the modernShantung in B.C. 372, about a century after thedeath of Confucius. He came of a noble familyhis father died while he was quite young, and hismother brought him up so carefully that her nameis known and revered for it all over China to thepresent day. Out of her poverty she contrived tosend her boy to school, and he eventually becamea pupil of Confucius' grandson, K'ung Chi, theauthor of the Doctrine of the Mean. Mencius wasa teacher by profession and did not obtain officetill he was about forty-five, when he served underthe Prince of the ^ Ch'i State, but as the latterwould not listen to his precepts, Mencius gave up347

MENCIUSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMENDOZA, JUAN GONZALEZ DE, anhis position. Like his Master Confucius he thenClasHcs; Suzuki : History of Chinese Philosophy;Faber : The Mind of Mencius. Total Hk.Tls. ... 15,191,358 14,973,275wandered from State to State, but with the same Augustinian priest, sent on an embassy from Spainresult. Prince ^ Hui of |% Liang was more promisingto China, via the Philippines, in consequence of thethan the other rulers, but on his death in representations of the Augustinians there. On hisB.C. 319 Mencius had to leave the State. Eight return he was made Bishop of Lipari for his services.years later, he finally retired, and spent the rest The mission was a complete failure ; but he collectedof his life in teaching his disciples, and in committingthe narratives of Herrada (de Rada, q.v.)his principles to writing. He died B.C. 289. and others and thus became the author of theHis tomb is at Tsou hsien g5 J|g in Yen-chou fu, earliest detailed account of China that was everShantung. He has numerous descendants to-day. published in the English language. The work wasIn 1083 A.D. he was made Duke of Tsou j^ ® ^ written in Spanish, and published in Rome inand was admitted into the Confucian Temple in 1685, in small octavo, with the title Historia de1088, where he is one of the "Four Associates (or mas notables, ritos y costumbres del gran reyno deAssessors) of the Master," the other three being la China, etc., etc. The following year two editionsConfucius' grandson, and his two disciples, Yen were issued, at Madrid and at Barcelona ; anHui, and Tseng Tzu. The first great commentary Italian translation was published at Venice in 1586on his works was made by Chad Chi jg *J (died and English and French versions in 1588. TheA.D. 201) who gave him the title of gg ^ or Second English translation was by R. Parke and wasHoly One, a title he still retains. His personal published in 1588. This was reprinted in thename like that of Confucius, must not be uttered. Hahluyt Society's series, in 1853.ii The Book. The works of Mencius form the This work was the first book printed' in Europefourth of the Four Books. Ssu-ma Ch'ien b] ^ ^ which contained Chinese characters. They arespeaks of seven books by Mencius, but a century found in Chapter xiii, and it is certainly difficult,later eleven books were catalogued. The four have even with the description, to recognise them.since been lost and it may be accepted that they Mendoza died about 1620.were forgeries.Mencius was not at once regarded as a classic :MENG CHI A LA SJpfi], the Chinese nameit was not till the Sung dynasty that Mencius andthe Confucian Analects were authoritatively rankedfor Bengal.together. The authorship has been disputed, some MENG MAI S'Kj the Chinese name forgiving the work to the philosopher himself, others Bombay.asserting it was composed by his disciples. Thereis good evidence for either view. Ssu-ma Ch'ien MENG T'lEN ^^, was a man of the Ch'istates that Mencius along with some of his disciplescomposed the work.State who became in B.c.221,the Commander-in-Chiefof Shih Huang Ti's army, and in B.C. 214 was sentIt consists of the Master's conversations with against the Hsiung Nu. He built the Great Wall,his disciples,, and arguments with his opponents, all and is the reported inventor of the pen or writingbrush,of whom are considered to have been effectuallystill in use. He committed suicide in B.C. 210defeated by him (see Yang Tzu; Mo Tzu; Kao on the death of his master, and the murder of theTzu, etc.). The state of the Empire had gone from heir-apparent.bad to worse since the time of Confucius, andGiles : Biographical Dictionary,Mencius advocated more drastic measures than hisMaster's. He had decided learnings towards democracyand his defence of revolution was widely Yiinnan opened by the Additional Convention toMENG TSZ ^ g 1^, a treaty port in South-eastquoted in 1911. His one original contribution to the French Treaty of Tientsin, 1886. It is associatedConfucian teaching is his doctrine of human nature, as a treaty port with ManhacgJ fjjgon the Red River,which approaches very nearly to that of Bishop two days' journey away, and is itself about 7 days'Butler ; but his influence settled the question as journey from the frontier of Tonkin. After theto whether Confucianism or some other of the suppression of opium and the opening of the railwayvarious schools then existing should hold the field to Yiinnan fu the trade of Mengtsz progressed;in China. His theory of virtue recalls that of tin, the leading staple, has increased very largely.Shaftesbury and Hutchinson.Cotton yarn is the chief import. The populationIt was translated into French by Julien, into is 11 000. 1915 1916English by Legge, into German by Wilhelm Net Foreign Imports 5,382,230 5,571,488- 13.874(1915), etc.Net ChineseGiles : Biographical Dictionary; Legge : Exports9,809^28J^387^3848

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMETEOROLOGYMENG TZU. See Mencius.MENNONITES OF NORTH AMERICA,General Conference of.Headquarters :—Goessell, Kansas, U.S.A.Works in Chihli, at the two centres of K'ai chouggjH1> and Tung-ming hsien ]^9^J^, with fiveforeign workers in 1917.MENTZEL, CHRISTIAN, physician to theElector of Brandenburg. He was born at Fiirstenwald,June 15, 1622, and died at Berlin on January17, 1701. He induced the Elector to call P. Coupletto the Court that the doctor might learn Chinese.The result was not very important. He publisheda small Vocabulary, of no value, entitled SyllogeMinutiarum Lexici Latino-sinico-characteristici, etc.He also issued a Chronology of Chinese Rulers,Kurtze Chinesische Chronologia oder Zeit-Registeraller chinesischen Kayser, etc., in which the namesof the emperors are for the first time given inChinese characters.He was a great worker, amongst other of hislabours being a Clavis sinica, a completed work in124 manuscript tables with a printed title andpreface. It is preserved in the Imperial Libraryat Berlin. He further planned a Lexicon sinicum.It also is in the Berlin Library and consists of ninebound folio volumes, each with a printed title-pagethe dictionary is a mere skeleton.Remusat : Milanges Asiatiques, vol. ii, p. 68CoRDiEU : Nouveaux Melanges Orientaux, p. 415.MESNY, WILLIAM, was born in Jersey, 1842,and arrived in China in 1860. He travelled widely,did good work for the Chinese and was given therank of Brevet Lieutenant-General, besides beinghonour,ed with Pa t'u lu distinction. He haspublished Mesrufs Chinese Miscellany.M ESS I A H , B U D D H I ST. See Maitreya.METALS. See Mining; Minerals.METEMPSYCHOSIS If^miun hui, a Buddhistdoctrine though earlier in origih than Buddhism.It teaches that the dead are re-incarnated in aform dependent on the past life. According to theYen Wang Citing, the king of the tenth districtof Hades has the duty of weighing the merits anddemerits of the dead and appointing a new birthfor them accordingly, whether as men or as loweranimals.Gautama taught that this weary round ofrenewed suffering might be escaped by the extinctionof all craving. This is therefore what Buddhistsaim at : it is called the attainment of Nirvana.METEOROLOGY. Meteorology is that partof the Physical Sciences which is specially concernedwith the physical phenomena to be observed in theatmosphere. The study is at first one of simpleobservation, and it was no more for a long time,even in Europe—well into the 19th century. Towards1830, through stricter methods and moresynthetic theories it became a real science in themaking. And in spite of real progress all over theworld, the work is far from being complete : thereis still "much to be done," as M. Angot putsit in his Treatise on Meteorology.China, both through her own observers, andthrough the help of the foreigners who liave enjoyedher hospitality, has followed a similar path in thestages of her progress in Meteorology, and it seemsonly fair to recognize that, if not in quantity, atleast in quality and as regards the wise concentrationof her energies, she has let herself be less outdistancedby other countries than in most of theother branches of the Physical and Natural Sciences.Meteorology is often divided into two parts :in (fiimatology the subjects of study are the way inwhich the various meteorological phenomena areproduced at each place, the influence of geographicaland topographical conditions, the relations of thesephenomena to plant-development, animal-life, andthe conditions of the life of the community.Dynamical Meteorology seeks especially to find outthe general laws of the movements of the atmosphere,and the mode of the formation and of thepropagation of storms. It is evident that thesetwo divisions overlap. But, in China as elsewhere,one must not be surprised to find that early effortswere concentrated specially on the first phenomenamentioned in climatological observations.I. METEOROLOGICAL ATTAINMENTSOF ANCIENT TIMES.A.—CLIMATOLOGY.—China - is a countrywhose most numerous class of inhabitants seemsindisputably to be the agricultural. Her long lineof coast and vast net-work of water-ways makesher class of skilful n-vigators also of importance.Add to this double circumstance the fact thatthe class of most power, the literati, had for along time required of the chroniclers and historiansof prefectures and sub-prefectures monthly reportson the daily facts touching civil life : and it is easyto see thatold records spread over 4,000 years containmany data concerning the physical conditionsof this country. Putting aside those which haveto do with earthquakes (Seismology), let us restrictour attention to those on Meteorology. A remnantof the truths learnt by the ancients and bequeathedto posterity is to be found preserved (as in othercountries) in popular sayings. The Calendar of theObservatory of Zi-ka-wei for 1905 gives a hundredof them, known especially over the provinces of theLower Yangtze, (Anhui and Kiangsu).349

IVIETEOROLOGYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATwo examples follow, referring to the 1st and3rd moons respectively :A New Year's Day with blackened sky brings luck without a doubt,But if there comes a snow-storm, it means a year of droughtIf at Li-ch^un the lifelong day, the sky is clear and bright.Light work and bounteous recompense the farmer will delight.""If on the 1st come wind and rain,'Twill bring us pestilence and pain;If at Ch'ing Ming a south wind come,It means a plenteous harvest-home."As a number of special terms occur in all thesepopular sayings, they require a knowledge of theCalendar which follows, to make them intelligible.CHINESE METEOROLOGICAL CALENDAR.Harmonization of the Four Seasons and the Twenty-four Solar Periods.With examples for the year 1918.Entrance of the Sun into ?heSigns of the Zodiac.II.Dates of Seasons and of the24 Solar Periods.No.Signs of the ZodiacLong,of theSunDates,(Coast time)No.Seasons and Solar PeriodsDates,(Peking time)1 Aquarius ^f^ Tzfl kung 300O315«2 Pisces ^g'Haikung 330P3 Aries(SPRING)345°-^^ Hsu kung 0«IS"4 Taurus M^ Tu kung 30"4506 Gemini ^gShenkung 60"To"Jan. 21, 4.25 a.m.Feb. 20, 6.53 p.m.Mar. 21, 6.26 p.m.Apr. 21, 5.06 p.m.M.y 22, 5.46 a.m.6 Cancer ^© Wei kuug 90" June 22, 2.00 p.m.(SUMMER; 105°7 Leo ^g Wu kung 120°135°8 Virgo B^Ssakuns 150°Libra(AUTUMN)165°S© Ch'en kung 180°195°July 24, 0.52 a.m.Aug. 24, 7.38 a.m.Sept. 24, 4.46 a.m.la Scorpio ^^ Mao kung 210° Oct. 24, 1.33 p.m.225°11 SagittariusK^ Yin kung 240° Not. 23, 10.39 a.m.255°12 Caprlcornus 2.^ Ch'ou kung 270° Dec. 22, 11.42 p.m.fWINTER) 286°1 Great cold :k.^ Ta-han XU 9 4 11 a.m.2 Spring (beginning) i# Li-ch'un 23 10 39 p.m.3 Uain fM7X TU-shui I 9 6 39 p.m.4 Awakening of insect? M^ Ching-che 24 5 7 p.m.fiEQUINOX #'B- Ch'nn-fen il 9 6 12 p.m.6 Pure brightness ^M Ch'iug-mlng 24 10 31 p.m.7 Corn rain '^PS Ku-yii III 11 5 52 a.m.8 Summer(beglnning) ^rg; Li-hsia 26 4 24 p.m.9 Grain full 'hj^ Hsiao-man IV 13 5 31 a.m.10 Graiu in the ear ^3 Mang-chung 28 8 57 p.m.11 SOLSTICE X.^ Hsia-chih V 14 1 46 p.m.12 Slight heat

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMETEOROLQGYB.—WHAT CAN BE OBTAINED FROMTHE OLD ANNALS FOR THE STUDY OFDYNAMICAL METEOROLOGY.In the preceding we have seen the traces of anoral tradition of popular meteorology, in the proverbson the weather which past generations handeddown to one another and of which we have onlybeen able to give two extracts. This oral traditioncrystallised itself, so to speak, in a written officialmonument, the agricultural calendar, which is stillpublished every year according to a well-knownregulation.It would be possible, with these two sources ofinformation—controlled by friendly, but strigt criticism—toarrive at a determination of the principalfeatures of the climate of China. But the "chronicles"give more : they furnish useful data forMeteorology. Thus, from Mongolia to Kueichowand to Kiangsu, the people know perfectly when toexpect, not only the periods of damp, of great heatand great cold mentioned by the Calendar, butalso passing phenomena, such as the sandstorms{huang feng), which on certain days in the northtotally obscure the sun, and which in that part ofthe world permit the largest spots on its surface tobe distinguished by the naked eye.Whether it is for the sake of historical accuracyor through superstition that these phenomena arepreserved in the records of the prefectures and thesub-prefectures is of little importance—the factremains that the permanent records of considerableatmospheric disturbance with an exact and oftenquite correct date have been handed down to us.The modern meteorologist naturally longs to havethe whole of the Chronicles ransacked, in order toget from them monthly statistics and valuable comparisons.Unfortunately, conscientious Chinesescholars like Pere HoANG are averse to anyone'sentering upon this gigantic labour. "The higherofficials," they say, "generally knew how this workwas done,, and did not judge it worthy of anycredit, so they often put it into the waste-paperbasket without reading it or passing it on to thekeeper of the archives. Lower ones did them justto ensure themselves not getting into trouble withtheir superiors; but," they added, "the emfloyecharged with drawing them up was not watched,and in the majority of cases he drew up a wholesheet at the end of the month with a stroke of thepen, his imagination serving him quite as much ashs memory."However this may be, some control is perfectlypossible, and Pere Hoang ended by consenting todo for the Observatory of Zikawei some of thiswork, which involved criticism as much as translation.Let us quote this example, which was given byPere Frog in the Bevue des Questions Scientifiques.The province chosen was Fukien, one of the coastprovincesmost exposed to the ravages of typhoons.Thanks to a collection of annals spread over theyears 978 to 1811 a.d. he was able to draw up alist of 119 storms, most of them carefully dated, andrecording damage judged worthy of being handeddown to posterity. If we put on one side the galesor storms, and note only the typhoons properlyso-called, it becomes easy to obtain a curve of theannual frequency of the appearance of thesecyclones in Fukien, Here is the result :§52 £.«g-3 = &-8o S^Number of TyphoonsinFukien 0.. 0... 0... 0... 2... 6...U...23...23... 7... 3...tDltto In TenYears iu rukieu...O... 0... 2... 0... 4... 7...11... i... 4 2 ..Ditto iu the FarEast 5.. 5 ..3... 2...12...15 . 33...30...31...3G'According to the Chronicles of Fnkien..15... 7fAccordiiig to modern methods of reckoning.Now these figures show a clear parallel betweenthe compilations of the old Chinese annals andthose of modern observatories. The little differencesto be observed are easily explained if one noticesthat the annalists have inserted in their recordsonly phenomena of unusual violence :" trees andhouses overtui-ned, ships thrown up on the shoreor swallowed up, tidal bores, mountainous seas,"etc.,—while our statistics of the present day keepaccount of all typhoons, even when their force isfairly moderate.Again, do not fail to notice the point broughtout in all three tables that before July and afterOctober, typhoons rarely approach the then tooquickly cooled mainland.II. METEOROLOGICAL ATTAINMENTSOF THE LAST 50 YEARS.1.—ORGANIZATION.Voluntary Observers.—The first records knownto us and drawn up according to modern methodsdate from 1844. They were compiled at Pekingby the Russian Observatory connected with theLegation of that country. It was a German, Dr.Fritsche, who had charge of the Observatory.We are indebted to him for a work which hepublished in 1877 : "The Climate of Eastern Asia,"in which he gathered together the observations ofabout 15 stations in China made by observers ofdifferent nationalities, but all foreign.• He mentions under the date of 1869 the firstofficial decisions of the Inspector-General of Customsrelative to the meteorological stations of China andto the telegraphic exchange of meteorological messages.Let us hasten to add that this fine project851

METEOROLOGYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAof Sir EoBEUT Haet's was not destined to be seton foot till 1880, when the first stations, such asIchang, Chinkiang, Pakhoi, etc., could be suppliedwith instruments, and still more important, withobservers worthy of confidence. In the meanwhile,missionaries and residents who were private meteorologists—asat Siwantse, Shanghai (1873),—andGovernments—as at Macao and Hongkong (1833)begun to create the system which the Inspector-General of Customs had had in view. Later, theGerman Government at Tsingtao [1899) established ameteorological station, which it gradually transformedinto an Observatory commanding a smallfield of observations extending over a part of•Shantung.. Not to mention Korea, the JapaneseGovernment also, in the different provinces whereit had interest and official representatives, wascareful to establish meteorological stations, whenceobservations were cabled daily to Tokyo.The Role of the Telegraph Companies.—Among the voluntary collaborators in the organizationof the meteorological service, the importantrole of the Telegraph Companies must not beforgotten, and the generosity with which four ofthe large Companies having their offices at Shanghaigraciously took on themselves the expense of allmessages. The Chinese Telegraph Administration,the Great Northern Telegraph Co., the EasternExtension Australasia and China Telegraph Co.,and the German Telegraph Co. thus guaranteed adaily service which amounted to not less than 200telegrams a day. Such a contribution is a realbenefaction, and at the same time a good exampleof lasting disinterestedness for the public good.The Maritivie Customs.—At the same time,the powerful organization of the Maritime Customshad succeeded in setting up its splendidsystem of 49 stations, where remarkably welltrainedobservers added to their functions ofsurveillance that of the reading of instrumentsevery three hours, day and night, the reading ofthe barometer, the thermometers (dry bulb, wetbulb, maximum and minimum), and of the raingaugetakes place, and observation of the clouds(quantity and kind), of the state of the weatherand of the wind (force and direction). The peculiaritiesand index errors of the instruments, thealtitude of the stations, and general remarks arelikewise furnished under the directions of theHarbourmaster. This is a service of quite the firstorder given voluntarily to science and to navigation.Finally, China, humiliated at having left toforeigners the glorious privilege of these disinterestedactivities, hastened in 1912 to organizealso her meteorological service. From the veryfirst this was done on two lines : while the Ministerof Education founded on the site of the ancientObservatory of Peking an Institute consisting ofyoung savants trained according to the Europeanmethod, the Minister of Agriculture was establishingin his Bureaux a Meteorological Section similarto the Weather Bureau of Washington, with a stafftaught by American teachers, and ready to promoteintensive agriculture according to all the methodsof the New World.2.—BESVLTS.Under this heading it will be sufficient ifwe sum up and give some of the -results publishedby the Observatory of Zikawei.A.—CLIMATOLOGY.—The normal conditionsof the meteorological elements in China are closelydependent on those in the Far East in general.These conditions are summed up briefly and separatelybelow; for pressure, temperature, humidity,precipitation and circulation of winds.In each of the following paragraphs we shalltry to retain some features of local particulars.Pressure.—In January and February, veryhigh pressures prevail near Lake Baikal. TheBarometers read as an average 30.71. Isobariclines are drawn around this region all over theAsiatic continent and a regular slope leads to threeareas of low pressures : in the east of the AleutianIslands there is a minimum of 29.61 ; in the south,a belt of 29.92 between the Bay of Bengal and theMarianas ; in the north-west a low pressure extendingto the valley of the Yenesei. Gradually, duringFebruary, the centre of high pressures becomesnarrower near to Lake Baikal and advances towardsTschita, while the pressures decrease on our coasts,north of the 30th parallel and increase a little onthe Pacific, east of Japan. A well marked maximumadvances from the east towards the line of theMarianas.In March, considerable changes take place inthe arrangement of the isobars, foreboding the endof the winter system. The northern anti-cyclonedecreases in intensity. A well-marked minimum isgetting hollowed upon the centre and the north ofthe great Indian peninsula.In April, the pressures incline to become equalbetween the continent and the ocean and all overthe Far East, so that sailors must expect to see thebarometer keeping rather steady ; between the Pratasand Wladivostock the glass oscillates normallybetween 29.92 and 30.04.In May, the action of the northern anti-cyclonebecomes very weak, as regards the coasts of EasternAsia and the seas which bathe them. On the contrary,the area of high pressures of the Pacificasserts itself more and more, and shoots out a pointwestward across the Loochoos, as far as the centre352

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMETEOROLOGYof the Eastern Sea. Two areas of minimum pressureshave developed at the same time at the extremenorth-east and south-west of our field of observation,and these are to have a preponderating influenceduring the summer system ; both are preparing themonsoon currents in the Indian peninsula and onthe shores of China and Japan. As regards thefour great sea basins extending in uninterruptedsuccession along our coasts, they* form a kind ofimmense atmospheric low plain at the foot of twomountainous ranges, and offer a field to the evolutionsof the elements.In June, the minimum of Northern India progressivelyinvades Southern Siberia, Mongolia andeven Manchuria, while the slope starting from thePacific anti-cyclone continues uninterruptedly up toThibet and the chain of the Himalayas; this is acharacteristic highly favourable to the developmentof the summer monsoon along our coasts.In July, the difference between the winter andthe summer systems appear very striking, if wecompare the isobars with those of January. Highpressures prevail on the Pacific and the low pressureswhose centre is over India extend their sphere ofinfluence over the whole of China, up to the bordersof Mongolia and western Manchuria.The consequence of this state of things is thatwe enter upon the period of the dreaded typhoons.Their birthplace is between latitude 8° and 20°- N.and longitude 120° and 140° E. They are as likelyto lay waste the coasts of Annam as those ofJapan, and may visit any point of the coast betweenthose two extremes.In August, the atmospheric conditions are substantiallythe same as in July ; but the continent iswarmer. It is the rule for the typhoons to maketheir way along already sufficiently warmed paths(for instance, hot oceanic currents, tropical regions,etc.), before recurving towards the Kuro-Siwo anddisappearing again on the ocean. Consequently,during the whole of August the China coasts arenormally exposed to the visits of these cyclones.In September, the summer system begins todecrease in intensity ;• it is a transition seasonhowever, during the first two decades of the month,especially if the fine weather has moderately protractedthe summer conditions, the typhoons maystillvisit the mouth of the Yangtze before recurvingnorth-east.In October, although the grand barometricmaximum is not yet perfectly settled in Siberia,an increasing anti-cyclone is extending its influenceall around Lake Baikal, which is wrapped in a centrewhere the pressure reaches 30.31. The oceanicanti-cyclone, which during August began recedingeastwards continues shifting away with decreasing45353intensity (30.08). On the other hand, there is awell-defined minimum over the Behring Sea and theAleutian Islands near Alaska, while in the south,there is also a vast minimum area, running from theeast of Mindanao to the Bay of Bengal and coveringthe greater part of the Indian peninsula.In November, the winter monsoon is gainingmore and more strength on the eastern shores andseas of the Asiatic continent. In the Siberiananti-cyclone the pressure has risen from 30.31 to30.47. The gradient is still easy along our CentralChina coast, and a little more pronounced on thenorth of the China Sea; but on the coasts ofManchuria, the slope becomes steeper and steeper,very liable to bring about squalls from the northwest;more and more violent upon the North-westPacific, the Strait of Tartary and the north partof the Sea of Japan. The number of typhoons israpidly decreasing even on the China Sea.In December, very little change takes place inthe distribution of the barometric means ; the maximumof Lake Baikal increases to 30.55 (and evento 30.67 at the south of the Lake). The minimumof the Aleutian Islands keeps, its value, (29.61), butadvances westward and comes in much nearer contactwith the great centre of activity of the continent.The result is an important increase of thegradient and of the squalls from the north-west,which at intervals sweep tfte sea north of the 40th,and even the 35th, parallel.If we have insisted so much upon the annualdistribution of the pressures, it is because from it,taken as an independent variable, we more easilyfind an explanation of the variation of the weatherconditions, which are intimately connected with thepressures.Following are appended for further illustrationtwo tables showing this distribution. The formergives in inches the monthly means at five placesalong the coast, Hongkong, Foochow, Shanghai,Chefoo and Newchwang.H'kong Foochow S'hai ChefooNewch.

METEOROLOGYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICADIURNAL VARIATION OF THE BAROMETRIC PRESSURE AT SHANGHAI.January February JIurcU April May June July August September October November December Mtanaiidn. 30.328 30.288 S0.184 30.017 29.885 29.740 29.692 29.728 29.916 30.113 30.25030.03830.325 30.286 30.178 30.007 29.876 29.730 29.683 29.719 29.908 30.108 30.24830.03230.324 £0.281 30.171 29.098 29.867 29.721 29.675 29.712 29.901 30.101 30.243 30.314 30.02630.319 30.272 30.159 29.988 29.861 29.716 29.670 29.706 29.891 30.094 30.237 30.310 30.01830.312 30.265 30.152 29.985 29.860 29.716 29.688 29.704 29.891 30.092 80.233 30.303 30.01730.310 30.266 30.156 29.989 29.806 29.720 29.673 29.707 29.895 30.097 30.236 30.303 30.01830.318 30.274 30.165 30.000 29.876 29.729 29.682 29.718 29.904. 30.106 30.244 30.311 30.02730.329 30.287 30.18030.1213(1.32430 015 29.888 29.741 29.694 29 728 29.91830.26930.04030.342 30.300 30 196 30.026 29.897 29.748 29.699 29.735 29.927 :i0.134 30.273 30.336 30.06130.356 30.309 30.202 30.033 29.902 29.760 29.702 29.741 29.935 30.140 30.281 30.350 30.06830.360 30.311 30.203 30.035 29 900 29.750 29.702 29.741 29.935 30.137 30.278 30.351 30.05830.343 30.303 30.195 30.029 29.896 29.747 29.699 29.7S5 29.926 30.126 30.263 30.335 30.049Xoou 30.31630.28230.18030.01429.88429.73829.69129.72429.91230.10830.24230.30730.03330.29230.2.5830.15930.001)29.87229.726i9.G8029.71229.89730.08630.22130.28530.01030.28230.24430.14129.98429.86929.71729.6G929.70129.88430.073.TO.2123U.27530.00430.28330.23930.133 .29.97229.84929.71029.66129.69329.87830.07430.21130.27529.99830.29030.24330.13229.96829.84429.70329.65529.69029.87930.07830.21730.28329.99830.30130,2.i230.13729.97229.84429.70229.65329.88430.08430.22530.29230.00330.31230.26130.14329.98129.86229.71029.65929.69429.89130.09330.23730.30430.01230.32130.27130.15829.99229.86129.72029.66929 70429.90030.10430.24630.31430.02230.32830.28130.17230.00629.87729.73229.68129.71829.91530.11630.25430.32030.03330.33330.28930.18430.02129.89429.74629.69429.73329.92530.12230.25830.32430.0441030.33430.29130 18830.C2329.89129.76229.69929.73629.92530.12330.25930.32630.04611 30.3323U.29030.18730.02129.89429.74829.69629.73329.92130.11830.2.>730.32430.043Midn. 30.32830.28S30.18430.01729.88529.74029.69229.72829.91630.11330.250.30.31930.038Jlen 0.32U30.27730.1G930.00329.875 29.730Temperature. -In Meteorology there aredifferent kinds of temperature observations whichare of great importance; viz., those of the ground,of the higher layers of the atmosphere ; the temperatureof the subsoil, and of the waters (oceans, waterways,pools, etc) ; the temperature of black substancespreserved from the air convection, and thatof white, polished and reflecting surfaces, both inthe vacuum and exposed to the direct action of thesun, etc., etc., but, climatology gives its attentionfirst of all to the temperature shown by a drybulb placed under a shelter with a free aircirculation at a height of four to five feet aboveth.3 earth; the temperature of a wet bulb placedunder the same conditions of exposiure, is also ofgreat interest for all questions concerning comfortand discomfort arising from climatic conditions.For the sake of brevity in these notes on theclimate of China, we shall insist more especially onthe temperature fhown under shelter by a dry bulbindicating the thermometric conditions of the airwhich enters our lungs ; it is this we designatetemperature in this article.It will be easily observed by comparing thefollowing tables with those given under Pressure,that thermometers have generally a range exactlyinverse to the barometers' variations.There is one department of climatology whichin China—owing to the damp heat of the summermonths—is of great practical interest to the public.This is the one which deals with the subjeotivte29.71629.90730.106 30.24530.31330.029effect of such a climate, which supplies a notationfor degrees of discomfort, and which gives a meansof comparison—in a readily intelligible form—of theclimate of different places.For particulars concerning this interestingsubject the reader is referred to the pamphlets byMr. W. F. Tyler, who is one of the most competentpioneers in this field of investigation. (See Bibliographyof this article).Under his scheme the degree of discomfort dueto heat and moisture is denoted on a scale of"Hyther" degrees. This scale is based on a comparison,or rather synthesis, of the recorded sensationsof a considerable number of observers withthe instrumental observations of temperature andhumidity. The result of the investigation confirmeda previously existing surmise among AmericanMeteorologists that discomfort marches approximately—butnot exactly—with the reading of the wetbulb thermometer.In general discomfort^-within fairly wide limits—marches approximately with the absolute humidityregardless of temperature. One practical use towhich this principle can be put is in the creation ofa pleasant in-door climate by the supply of air, fromwhich excess of moisture has been abstracted. Weare told that this method of artificial climate hasbeen adopted for the operating theatre of theVictoria Nursing Home at Shanghai with notablesuccess.354

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMETEOROLOGYDIURNAL VARIATION OF THE TEMPERATURE AT SHANGHAI.Jan.MarchApril:MnyJulyAugustMidn.34.936.742.4.>2.060.669.376.669.359.448.455.4lA.34.536.342.151.8fiO.368.976.568.959.048.055.12h.34.336.041.751.468.776.368.758.647.754.83A.34.0Si.S41.551.359.768.6-h.968.537.464 54/1.33.835.441.460.959.568.475.768.454.35h.33.63.^.241.050.759.268.275.668.258.1S6.954.133.435.241.051.160.369.376.668.458.146.854.433.335.241.753.163.071.679.670.559.547.155.834.737.044.455.96.-i.573.881.173.863.050.758.49A.37.639.646.967.675.482.87.3.766.654.042.460.910^.40.141.748.969.477.084.477.268.4.66.845.762.941.743.050.270.985.578.369.458.347.364.1Xoon42.844.151.471.879.286.078.870.258.848.41h.43.244.452.072.379.587.179.070.369.048.72h.43.344.852.172.379.786.979.070.259.048.765.53A.43.044.451.662.271.879.286.078.369.458.348.464.94/1.42.343.750.761.270.978.384.977.457.047.363.95A.40.542.349.359.769.176.883.57.^.666.0.04.544.862.26A.38.740.647.357.667.175.081.373.263.562.342.860.3Ih.37639.445.555.461.673.271.462.161.141.058.4Sh.36.738.744.654.163.371.678.170.761.240.657.49A.36.138.143.953.462.270.777.570.060.439.956.6lOA.35.637.443.553.161.470.2 77.477.063.659,939.256.111/i.35.437.243.162.561.377.076.669.359.456.7Jlidn.34.936.942.661.076.876.568.959.065.4Range10.011.311.710.8Daily Range.—Every day, except under abnormalcircumstances, the lowest temperature takesplace shortly after sunrise.It rises then until about2 p.m., then falls again until the next morning.The difference or range between the coldest andwarmest temperature, which is of paramount importancefor hygiene, varies considerably withseasons, latitude, altitude and many other circumstances.The preceding table gives, for each • of thetwelve months, the mean daily variation of thetemperature of the air at Zikawei. It is given inFahrenheit units. The last line contains the meandaily range, that is, the change we daily experienceIt will be seen that this feature, which is of considerable importance, has also a regular variationThe difference between the early hours and middayis greater in April, Hay, June—October, November and December and smaller in January, FebruaryMarch,—July, August and September, that iS;itis .smaller during the coldest and warmest months.Annual Change.—In the temperate zone, thegreatest cold occurs about the middle of Januaryand- the hottest days in the middle of July. Butthis variation is largely affected by geographical orlocal conditions. In the neighbourhood of the greatoceans the range is smoothed down, the minimumand maximum both take place later, say in Februaryand August. On the great continents, winters arecolder, summers hotter, whilst the date of the lowestand highest temperature is nearer the solstices.Northern China has a continejital climate.Computing the difference between the highestand lowest monthly mean for each month in differentyears, we obtain the following results.JanuaryFebruaryJlnrchAprilMayJuneJuly.\ngnstSeptemberOctoberNovember ...DecemberVARIABILITY OF TEMPERATURE.lIo^ JKOXG9°.4ZtK.\WEIIt appears that there is less difference betweenthe same summer month in different years thanbetween the same winter month. A similar comparisonshows also that 8ucces.sive years differ morein the North than in the South. So at Hongkong,the monthly mean for July is always the .samebetween the narrow limits of 1° 8, whilst at Pekingthe mean for February may vary by 14° 8.F.11^.7I'EKIXOF.10°.40.4 10.4 14.85.K 0.0 10.43.0 8.6 10.84.3 5.9 7.62.9 7.6 8.51.8 7.6 7.23.1 7.0 4.53.1 0.8 7.04.7 7.4 6.84.1 9.5 11.06.7 10.4 12.1355

Lat.Long,I"FebrnaryMarchAprilJuneAugustSeptemberOctoberNovemberAb:.oli.temnximnmMETEOROLOGYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAVARIATION OF TEMPERATURES.Xame DecemberN.G.E.

fiNCYCLOPAEDJA SINtCAMETEOROLOGYThis table is taken from Pere Froc's notes onfog along the China coast, which shows, to navigatorsfor instance, that in ten years, for January,fogs are to be expected thirteen times during thefirst watch and eleven times during the last watchof the day.The other table gives the daily occurrence offog at different places ; for instance in t-en years,four days of fog are to be expected at Howki inJanuary and 33 at Hongkong.16* 11up5^111 3Pi1 1January ... 3.3 1.4 1.6 27 2.2 3.4 2.9 3.6 0.2 0.4February ... 3.9 2.0 2.3 2.9 3.1 4.1 4.3 4.1 1.8 1.1:MarcU ... 7.5 2.7 6.7 8.1 7.7 8.6 8.6 4.1 3.9 3.4April ... 7.2 2.1 9.0 9.6 12.7 12.9 12.2 9.9 7.9 4.4May ... 1.3 2.1 3.0 7.0 9.7 11.6 10.6 9.8 8.0 4.3June ... 0.7 1.3 2.0 1.9 3.3 5.0 4.3 7.7 14.7 7.2July ... 1.1 0..5 0.8 2.1 1.1 0.7 1.3 2.5 10.0 9.6August . ... 4.1 0.7 1.0 1.3 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.3 8.2 3.9September .. ... 3.7 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.0 .0.1 0.1 0.4October ... 0.9 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.2 0.7 00 0.1November ... 1.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.5 1.4 0.9 1.8 0.0 •0.5December ... 2.6 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.7 0.8 1.0 2.0 0.2 0.5Precipitation.—The Rainfall in China was amatter of important consideration to such great.scientists as Supan, Passerat, Woeikoff, etc. Itis a very difficult study, requiring long periodsof accurate statistics, and we must add that suchlong registers are not yet to hand.Yet we might state that it would seem childishto divide China into three sections—Northern,Central and Southern China—and to promulgate,according to such a distribution, general laws onthe rainfall in the Far East.1The reality is not so simple. The meteorologistin his study has to deal with every kind ofrainfall system : there are places where rain fallsduring the whole year, as is the case in thesouth-east districts of China; again, there areplaces where long periods of drought are the rule,say in the steppes of Inner Mongolia. Betweenthese two extremes prevails the system of thesouth-east monsoon blowing from the Pacific ; it istherefore necessary to distinguish under this generalheading four quite different sub-divisions : one,(in which the rainfall season lasts more than eightmonths), spreads from Annam to Japan throughsouth-east China; another, (where rainfall is recordedas lasting from eight to five months),extends from Cochin China to Saghalien andcovers part of Ssuch'uan and Shantung ; the third,(with a rainfall of four months), runs from WesternSsuch'uan to the Sea of Okhotsk ; and the last,(with three months or less of rainfall), include*Eastern Tibet, Kansu and the Ortos. Yet thesepolitical sub-divisions although convenient for thesake of brevity are not at all physical limits : thenorthern and western parts of Ssuch'uan are quitedifferent from the southern and eastern districts;the Ta siang ling and the Tsing ling shan sufficeto establish a line of demarcation betweem thepluviometric zones.Moreover, it is gradually and town by town,that the climatic local conditions are observed. andthe results recorded. This work is now proceedingsteadily, but many years must pass before correctconclusions can be deduced from them. For thepresent let us be satisfied with the results drawnfrom a few registers. Other particulars may bedrawn from Pere Frog's pamphlet on the Pluieen Chine.•AMOUNT OF RAINFALL (IN INCHES)Hongkong Swatow Anioy Foochow Wenchow Ningpo Shanghai Peking Chefoo TientsinNewchwangJanuary ... 1.42 1.23 0.83 1.73 1.89 3.07 2.17 0.11 0.55 0.15 0.11February ... 1.14 1.75 2.60 4.13 3.46 3.07 2.04 0.20 0.27 0.15 0.08March ... 2.64 3.78 4..')7 5.28 4.59 4.37 3.P0- 0.28 0.59 0.51 0.39April ... 5.47 7.87 5.12 4.41 6.53 5.74 4.41 0.55 0.83 0.47 1.27May ... 10.21 8.12 6.77 5.67 6.39 3.71 3:30 1.66 1.73 0.95 2.01June ... 15.08 9.78 5.14 8.10 9.36 6.65 6.58 3.63 2.04 2.40 2.97July... 1138 6.93 5.71 6.65 7.05 5.04 7.44 9.33 6.85 5.87 5.67August ... 13.98 6.61 5.91 7.48 9.09 6.69 4.69 5.99 5.61 6.71 7.48September ... 11.50 6.26 3.82 9.21 6.22 6.22 3.94 2.87 1.61 1.65 2.60October ... 4.49 ;.15 2.72 2.75 3.82 4.13 3.66. 0.69 1.38 O.i.8 1.60November ... 1.57 1.81 1.14 2.09 1.97 2.13 1.69 0.34 0.95 0.23 0.90December... 1.26 2.28 1.54 2.20 1.301..54 1.30 0.11 0.87 0.11 0,15R, Year ... .. 8U.14 59.55 45.87 59.60 61.37 52.36 45.12 25.66 23.18 19.18 26.13357

15METEOROLOGYENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCANUMBER OF RAINY DAYSJanuaryFebruaryngkong Swatow Amoy Foocliow Wenchow Ningpo Shanghai Peking Chefoo Tientsin6 7 7 9 11 12 12 9 4 68 10 9 13 13 11 9 4 2 3XewchwangMarch13 14,16 18 15 13 4 3 5April ...14 13 13 18 20 18 15 6 5 6May ...16 14 13 15 18 12 11 6 6 10June ...July ...AugustSeptemberOctoberNovemberDecember19 16 12 13 18 15 14 11 6 11 1220 14 11 10 15 12 13 14 12 13 1316 11 10 12 15 11 11 11 11 11 1516 10 8 11 14 11 11 6 8 99 5 4 11 12 12 11 5 8 87 6 6 8 8 8 7 7 6 57 8 7 8 7 7 6 2 9 4 3Snowfall. -As snowfalls are not entered inthis article separately from rain, we add only datesshewing the earliest and latest snowfalls at variousplaces :Earliest Date.Latest DateAigiin October 4 ... .... April 29Harbin „ 30 ... ... March 28Kirin 6 ... ... April 20Wii hao (Mongolia) September 19 ... ... June 4Newchwang 26 ... ... April 28Antniig November 6 ... ... 5Tangku 26 ... ... March 7Howkl 3 ... ... April 2Chefoo October 23 ... 10N.E. Promontory (Shantung) November 2 ... ... 10S.E. „ 16 ... 3Tamingfu September 6 ... i.. 3Wuhu ' November 8 ... „ 1Zikawei „ 2 ... ... May 24North Saddle December 18 ... ... March 16GutzlaH 27 ... ... 16Ichang „ 2 ... 20Hankow October 1 ... „ 22Steep Island December 28 ... „ 20Ningpo „ 2 ... 20Kiukiiing November 9 ... ... 22Yochow 9 ... 15Peiyushan December 27 ... „ 15Atmospheric Electricity.—Relative frequencyof Thtjnderstorms throughout the year (includingonly the number of days on which thunder (notlightning alone) was observed.CentralMongoliaNewchwaugPekingShanghai^ ^ < ^'.^ < 3^ & y, a '^0.2 2.6 6.0 7.0 2.6 3.4 12 11.01.6 3.4 4.6 3.2 0.8 0.2 0.2 ... 14.00.7 3.0 6.6 6.9 5.6 3.7 0.4 26.90.3 0.6 2.1 1.3 1.7 3.6 3.5 1.1 0.6 0.1 ... 14.8Hongkong 0.2 0.4 2.8 5.1 6.5 8.6 8.2 10.1 5.3 1.0 1 0.2 4S.bWind.— Monsoons are periodical winds ofconsiderable steadiness during several months. InChina and the adjoining seas, there are the summerand winter monsoons.The summer monsoon is caused by the hightemperature and low atmospheric pressure whichprevail over the continent. The wind rushes fromsea to land, but is deviated to the right, on accountof the rotary motion of the earth. So that it turns,almost anticlockwise, as in the case of cyclonesaround the China Coast, blowing, from south orsouth-west in Kuangtung, from south-west in theFormosa Channel, from south-east at Shanghaiand from south-west in Shantung.The monsoon sets in progressively : the changebeginning in March or April in the North, and inMay in the Formosa Channel. In June the summersystem prevails along the whole coast. In Shanghai,it lasts from April to August, i.e. about fourmonths.The winter monsoon is caused by the lowtemperature and high pressure prevalent in Asia.Winds blow from land to sea, always deviatingto the right, and so form an anti-cyclonic orclockwise system. The direction is north in Shantung,north-west at Shanghai, north-east in theFormosa Channel, east at Hongkong.Contrary to what happens in India, the wintermonsoon is the steadier, at least in the FormosaChannel. A north-east gale may be said to blowwith short interruptions at the Pescadores, duringthe whole season. The same may be said of theStrait of Tartary, putting north for north-east.The winter monsoon sets in by September, andsometimes, but seldom, at the end of August. InShanghai, it lasts nearly seven months.358

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMETEOROLOGYWIND -Percentage of the Different Winds at the Mouth of the Yangtse (N. Saddle).^ „. COLU WIXDS. WAIiJI WINDS. COLD WINDS.MonLh= 3!SIN. N.X.E. K.E. E.V.E. E. E.S.E. S.E. S.S.E. s. S.S.W. s.w. v.s.w. N.Mr. N.N.WJanuary ... 0.6 13.2 8.1 12.6 3.7 4.3 2.2 7.1 1.4 3.2 1.5 4.4 l.l 3.5 2.2 18.0 12.9February ...12.8 13.0 9.2 14.4 5.0 7.8 4.6 7.8 1.2 2.6 0.6 3.7 0.5 2.1 1.2 13.2 0.3March .. 0.7 11.2 7.4 14.2 5.3 9.4 4.0 12.9 2.4 6.2 2.7 5.3 0.9 2.0 0.7 7.7 7.0April ... 0.1 7.0 4.0 10.8 7.0 8.8 6.0 16.7 5.2 11.0 4.6 6.6 1.6 2.5 0.7 5.5 3.1^fny ... 0.5 5.0 4.4 8.9 3.2 7.3 6.2 21.5 6.1 12.5 4.9 8.7 1.0 2.1 0.5 3.9 3.3June ... ... 1.6 28 2.4 5.2 2.3 7.1 6.1 26.3 5.1 16.4 8.8 10.3 0.9 1.5 0.6 1.9 0.7July ... 0.4 1.3 0.8 3.6 2.3 5.7 .5.9 25.4 8.8 24.9 9.8 8.0 0.5 0.7 0.1 1.2 0.6Ailgu>t ... 1.4 4,4 3.6 6.4 3.1 7.4 6.1 24.8 7.3 15.8 6.2 5.9 0.9 1.6 0.6 2.3 2.2September ... 0.4 11.3 9.0 18.7 7.2 12.5 5.0 14.2 3.1 4.6 1.8 2.6 0.6 1.1 0.2 3.5 4.2October ... 1.1 11.8 10.3 20.3 7.2 11.6 5.7 11.4 1.1 1.4 1.1 2.2 0.6 1.3 1.1 6.8 5.0November ... 0.7 13.1 7.8 14.9 3..-. 7.7 3.6 8.1 1.1 2.7 1.1 4.6 0.6 2.4 3.4 16.4 8.3December ... 0..j 11.9 7.6 8.9 1.8 4.6 1.3 7.6 1.5 3.4 1.5 4.9 1.3 2.4 2.6 26.3 11.9Year ... .. 18.3 106.1 74.8 139.2 51.7 94.4 56.8 J84.0 44.3 105.0 44.8 66.4 10.7 23.2 14.1 106.7 59.5Six months cold ..16.4 74.2 S0.4 85.3 26.5 45.4 21.4 54.9 8.7 19.5 8.5 25.1 5.0 13.7 11.2 88.4 45.4Six months warm .. 1.9 K1.9 24.4 83.9 25.2 49.0 35.4 129.1 35.6 85.5 36.3 41.3 5.7 9.5 2.9 18.3 14.1B.—DYNAMICAL METEOROLOGY.—Cyclones or whirling storms offer the followingcharacteristics. The barometric pressure is abnormallylow over a more or less restricted area. Allaround this depression or centre, oftentimes ratherirregular in form, the winds blow spirally inwards,in anticlockwise direction, that is contrariwise tothe movement of the hands of a watch, from rightto left, and with a sometimes disastrous violence.In the Southern hemisphere the movement is clockwise.Besides this whirling, the body of thevortex, moves about a.s a whole, with variabledirection and velocity. No general rate can begiven for the speed of this movement, and nouniversal rule concerning the track. The areacovered by the storm is sometimes very considerable :the "DE Witte" typhoon of 1901 made itself feltat the same time on the 3rd of August at Nagasakiby an east-south-east gale and at Macao by freshwest-south-west winds : which shows a diameter ofmore than 2200 km. (1350 nautical miles). Butother typhoons may not be 50 nautical miles broad.Two distinct classes of cyclones are experiencedover the seas of China.1. Landstorms.—Originating in Siberia orWestern China, they travel towards the sea, witha marked bend to north-east. After crossing thecoast line, they generally gain more strength andmay become very violent in reaching Japan or theSea of Japan. They are principally to be fearedin winter, during which season they have a considerableinfluence over our climate.Their passageis indeed generally followed by a north or northwestgale on the northern part of the China Coast,and in the south by a sometimes very severeincrease of the N.E. monsoon. Previously to theirpassing, when the glass is failing, the wind is as arule not very strong. The velocity of translationof the depression may reach 60 miles an hour, orfall to 8 miles. It averages from 25 to 30.2. Typhoons.—Hhe&Q are formed over thePacific, south of the 20th parallel. After travellingto north-west, some of them cross the ChinaSea towards Indo-China and the Gulf of Tonkin,whilst others bend to north, then to north-east tovisit Japan or the China coast. The velocity isgenerally low whilst recurving, but increases rapidlywhen they move away from our neighbourhood.The typhoon of September 8th, 1897, for instance,travelled at the rate first of 10 miles an hour, thenreached successively 27, 33, 37, 47 and 52. Thesetwo last figures are abnormal.Typhoons scarcely approach Shanghai exceptfrom July to September. They are ushered in bya fall of the glass with north-east winds.The following table shows the mean number oftyphoons (T) which have been observed in 13 years,and that of landstorms or continental depressions(L), observed during ten years over that part ofEastern Asia which is covered by the meteorologicalsystem of the Zikawei Observatory.T. L. T. L.January ... ... 0,5 3.7 July ... 3.3 1.2February ... 0.5 4.2 August ... ... 3.0 0.6March ... ... 0.3 5.7 September ... 3.1 1.1April ... 0.2 5.4 October ... 3.6 2.3May ... 1.2 4.8 November ... 1,5 3.6June ... 1.5 3.0 December ... 0.7 4.6Anti-cyclones may be considered as the complementaryphenomenon to the cyclonic formations.The constant mass of the atmospheric air, if rarefiedin some places, is condensed or accumulated inothers. But the arels covered by the high pressuresare not necessarily, and, as a matter of fact.359

METEOROLOGYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAare not generally of the same extent as the lowerreadings regions.Similar to the cyclones, the anti-cyclones areconstantly varying in their intensity and extent aswell as in the speed and direction of their shifting,but they are incomparably more steady. As in thecase of learning the climatological conditions ofthe Far East, it is. of great advantage to tabulatetha monthly averages of the meteorological elementsfor a good number of stations, and to draw upmonthly weather majis of Asia; indeed it may besaid that in order to face the daily problem offorecasting the weather, the first step is to constructdaily weather maps where the position of the anticyclonesand the cyclones are shown and fromwhich the previous and next move of these generalcentres of atmospheric activity may be deduced.From these maps it is easy to realise howreliable and regular the general laws of gyration(Buys -Ballot and Loomis laws) and of developmentand propagation (Guilbert laws and rules)are proved to ' be, especially during winter andsummer, in the Far East. But though, owingperhaps to the general W.-to-E. direction of thegreat rivers Amur and Sungari, Huangho, Peiho,Huaiho, Yangtzekiang, Minkiang and Sikiang,parallel to the movement of the Earth, and also tothe higher altitud'es of the northern and northwesternregions, the roughly approximate path ofthe continental depressions may have been foreshadowed; though the great highyvays of the oceaniccyclones may have been briefly described {p. 351)it remains that, in every particular case, the actualdii-ection of a storm has to be daily and sometimeshourly determined. In this determination the behaviourof the anticyclones is one of the mostimportant factors.During winter, when the Siberian anti-cyclonebecomes very heavy and gradually and steadilyspreads over Northern and Central China, it mayhinder on the continent the formation of landstormsfor weeks and in extreme cases, for months, withthe result of dry, fine and cold weather in ourregions. This was the case in 1892-93 and in1916-17. In January 1893, a powerful anti-cycloneprevailed in the vicinity of Irkutsk : during fivedays, from the 12th to the 17th, the barometerskept between 31.62 and 31.77 : the high pressurescovered the whole of the Chinese territory, where,during the month, 83% of the winds were from thenorthern quadrants ; the thermometers fell in Shantungto 7°, at Shanghai to 10°,4, at Breaker Pointto 28° and at Hongkong to the freezing point, whileit had reached —51" F. at Irkutsk.A similar calm possession of the continent bythe anti-cyclone occurred during the winter of1916-17 with the same result of preventing almostcompletely the formation of continental depressionsin the Far East. The consequence was also toprocure for China a splendidly dry but cold winterwith a percentage of 75% of northerly winds anda fall of temperature reaching 29°0 at Aigun, 8°0 inin Shantung, 12^0 in Chihli, 12°A at Shanghai, and38°8 at Hongkong.In summer, the anti-cyclone^', although theyhave not such a determining influence, neverthelessplay a leading part in the actual formation, developmentand direction of the most violent typhoons.In the transition season the influence of theanti-cyclones is not so clear as in the extreme casesabove-mentioned ; but again it is the task of theforecaiter to discern it, and using his bi- or tridailyweather maps asi bases, to discover from theactual variation of the meteorological elements theirprobable value for the immediate future.Forecasting Service in China.—It was in 1832at the repeated request of the International Chamberof Commerce of Shanghai, that the Observatory ofZikawei began to communicate every day to thenewspapers a bulletin on the ^itate of the atmosphereand its forecasts for the following day. It maybe of some interest to note that it wasi a greattyphoon very similar to that of July 28th, 1915,viz. the typhoon of July 31st, 1879, which led tothis decision. The particulars of this latter typhoonas recorded by Pere Dechevrens in his memoir onthe same, printed in 1879, shewed clearly its pathfrom the Meiaco-sima Group, to the Saddle Islands(Shaweishan) and to Liaotung, to which place thesteady anti-cyclone of Japan had pushed it hinderingits recurving to the N.N.E. exactly as occurred in1915. No less than six ships in the harbour ofShanghai, were swept into the central part of thevortex (where the glass fell to 28,43 on board theSS. "Genkai-Maru") with the greatest risk for thepassengers and vessels of a total loss. The pamphl'slof Pere Dechevrens produced a huge impressionamong the merchants of Shanghai. Fromthis the possibility dawned of organizing a typhoonsignal service for Shanghai and for allparts of thecoasit; but several difficulties, in spite of the unanimousvote of the Chamber of Commerce, postponedfor about three years the execution of theproject. The full scheme wasi indeed only completein 1884 when a signal mast, connected by telephonewith Zikawei, was at last erected on the bordersof the French and International concessions.Sincethen the information service for security at sea hasperformed its' duty without interruption under thecare and at the expense of the Municipalities, andthe Observatory has gladly given its time andattention to share in this work of universal benevolence,for the fact must not be overlooked, thatmany others participated and are still generouslyparticipating to secure its proper functioning. We360

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMETEOROLOGYhave already mentioned {pp. 351, 352) somethingof the important share taken in this work by theMaritime Customs, the Telegraph Companies, theother Observatories of the Far East (Hanoi, Hongkong,Irkutsk, Manila, Peking, Taihoku, Tokyo,Wladivostock) with whom Shanghai has a continuousexchange of meteorological mes'sages, and by voluntaryobservers, among whom it is only just to makemention of the numerous captains of 'the marineservice who through wirel&sB or in other ways contributeinformation.We shall conclude this long expose of themeteorological work done during the last fifty yearsin the Far East by indicating the method ofstorm .signalling successively adopted by the Mai'itimeCustoms, Japan, Indo-China, and the Russian,British and German observatories. The principleadopted ii' somewhat different from those which aregeneral in Europe. There, perhaps owing to therelatively great number of important central weatherbureaux, and of the rapid communication of theobservatories both with the observers and the signallingstations, it hais. been judged sufficient and finallymore advisable to give local warnings, e.g. informingof S. or S.W. storm winds expected and to sendfurther messages when these winds are foreseen tobe likely to veer to N.W. or N.E. In the Far East,which is under quite different conditions and wherethe captains of steamers have often to leave aharbour without any intention of calling at anysemaphores for a long time, the information givenis more general but not less exact. Elsewhere theweather bureaux, when knowing of the existenceof an atmospheric perturbation, draw from thisknowledge all that science and experience mayafford and the conclusions reached are signalledas probabilities. Here, it i® the actual existence ofthe perturbation at the time of the warning whichis announced together with the position and thedirection actually followed by the cyclone.One of the advantages of this method is that itis the most instructive for the sailor. The marineris told all that is actually known with certainty bythe Observatory, no more, no less; hence he feelsencouraged to think for himself. The master ofa vessel knowing the position of an approachingtyphoon and its present course, as he is also quiteaware of the course whidh it will be likely tofollow at that period of the year, is often even ableto use the cyclone for his own advantage. At anyrate he sails upon a known forecast, whetherfavourable or dangerous, which, with a less complete-ystem of information it would be impossiblefor him to acquire.Another advantage is that it is universal :allthe seamen from Wladivostock to South China areinformed of weather conditions that no warning ofa local semaphore would help them to guess. Forinstance, leaving Chefoo where the weather isexpected to be steadily fair for some days, helearns that a typhoon is developing east of thePhilippines which will interfere with his progress• further south after three days when he has enteredthe Formosa Channel; and if he has not to call atShanghai he will think it advisable to come insight of some of the semaphores on his way to getsupplementary news about the actual danger.All this information has up to now been givenday and night by means of signals hoisted at thesignalling stations, according to a code that all thesailors have in their pocket almanack and perhapsin their memory. If, as is indeed contemplated,an incidental improvement in the way of signallingthe position and direction of the perturbations isinaugurated in the very near future, it will not bedetrimental to the spirit of the method : insteadof using descriptive denominations for pointing outthe positions of the cyclones, the geographicaldeterminations of the places by longitude andlatitude may be adopted in order to enable thesailor to get rid of a second conventional code, butthe principle of the method will not be abandoned :i.e., to let the mariners know exactly what theObservatory knows with certainty, no more, no less.And again, the inauguration of this improvementpresupposes some hope of its being a step in thedirection of unifonnity for storm warnings, notonly in the Far East, but also in other parts of theworld,—at least, until all those concerned have beeneverywhere endowed with well-equipped and alwayswell-understood wireless receivers ! [G.]Bibliography :—H. Fritsche :The Climate ofEastern Asia, Shanghai, 1877; J. de Moidrey, s.j. :Notes on the Climate of Shanghai, Shanghai, 1904;P. Bergholz & R. H. Scott : The Hurricanes ofthe Far East, London, 1901; A. Angot : Traite deMeteorologie, Paris, 1899; L. Richard, s.j., andM. Kennelly, s.j. : Geography of the ChineseEmpire, T'usewei, 1908; W. F. Tyler : A Schemefor Comparison of Climates.— The Psycho -physicalAspect of Climate, with a Theory concerning Intensitiesof Sensation; On the Amelioration ofIndoor Climate Conditions during hot, dampWeather; L. Froc, s.j. : La Pluie en Chine a72 stations, T'usewei, 1912. Les Tempetes dans laProvince Maritime du Fouhien, Louvain, 1907.The Atmosphere in the Far East, Shanghai, 1900.Monthly Features of the Climate in the Far East,T'usewei, 1915; G. Guilbert : Nouvelle Methodede Prevision du Temps, (avec une preface deB. Brunhes), Paris, 1909; H. Gauthier, s.j. : LaTemperature en Chine et a Quelques StationsVoisines {50 stations au nord et 50 stations au sudde Changhai), T'usewei, 1916,4G361

METHODIST EPISCOPALENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMETHODIST EPISCOPAL MISSION.boarding-schools at Lung-t'ien, Ku-t'ien, and Mints'ing;and each of these four places has bothHeadquarters :—New York.Entered China, 1847.Girls' Boarding, and Women's Bible-trainingWorks in Fukien, Kiangsu, Anhui, Kiangsi, Schools.—Before the division of Foochow Conferencein 1916 {v. infra), there were also 2,043Chihli, Shantung arid Ssuch'uan, under SevenConferences.pupils in primary schools.Foochow Conference. The first missionaries A large Institutional Church was opened atwere the Revs. Judson D. Collins and Moses C. Foochow in 1915, largely staffed by highly-educatedWhite, who arrived in Foochow in September, 1847, Christian Chinese, several being graduates ofwhere members of the A.B.C.F.M. were already American colleges.working. As soon as possible schools were opened, About the same time a site was purchased inand a modest medical 'work was begun. In spite of Fu-ts'ing with money subscribed by the communityreinforcements, the first years were full of trial, as and the co-operation of the leading citizens tothe T'ai P'ing Rebellion closed the schools, and develop a large educational work, the property todeath and sickness scattered the missionaries. In belong to the M.E.M. which is responsible for all1857, ten years after the beginning of the mission, the instruction given.the first convert was baptized. A foundling Uing-Hwa Conference. This includes twoasylum was opened in 1858. The first "Annual districts in Fukien province, which were constitutedmeeting" was held in 1862, by which time the a separate field in 1896, because the people have amembership had increased to 87; and in the dialect of their own in one district, while in part«same year, a Mission Press was established, of the other the Amoy dialect is used. Thefrom which, in 1867 was issued the first number of Methodist missionaries began itinerating woi'k asthe Missionary Recorder (See Chinese Recorder). early as 1860, but Hing-hwa was not occupied byThis Press was exceptionally useful, because of the foreign resident missionaries till 1890. The wholenecessity for special printing in the Foochow Bible was early translated into the colloquial, indialect, and has done much useful work, both in addition to other literature, and issued from thegeneral colloquial literature and in printing the Hing-hwa Mission Press.Scriptures. In 1903 it was made a Branch of the The other centres in this district are Ing-chungUnion Methodist Publishing House in Shanghai. ^ ^ and Sien-yu filj ;J^ in both places work has(See Mission Presses). In 1863, the mission at last been going on since 1863. At Hing-hwa there aresecured a station inside the city of Foochow, but in Boys' and Girls' Schools, an orphanage, a Leper1864 the buildings were completely wrecked by a Rescue Home, as well as a Normal School andmob. In 1871, a "Biblical Institute" was opened, Women's Training School, and Industrial Missionwith a Boys' High School, now Foochow Academy. Press. Sien-yu has a Boys' Intermediate School,The Foochow Annual Conference was organized in with Boarding School for Girls and Training School1877. The Anglo-Chinese College was opened in for Women, and Ing-chung has a Training School1881, a Chinese gentleman, Mr. Diong A-Hok, for Men.giving $10,000 to found it. The Rev. F. Ohlinger The medical work of this Conference iswas the first Principal. In 1916 it was merged into chiefly at Sien-yu, where there is a good Women'sthe Union Christian College, the other missions Hospital.which contributed being the A.B.C.F.M. and the The Hing-hwa City Church has long beenC.M.S. (See Fukien Christian University). Besides entirely self-supporting, and several other circuitsFoochow this Conference occupies, Ku-t'ien -^ |I1, are now so; the tendency being towards financialopened 1889; Lung-t'ien j||[g, (1893); Hai-t'ang independence for church work, throughout them^, (1895), Min-ts'ing J^ ^, (1896).field.Medical work was begun again in 1893, after aYen-p'inrf Conference. The eastern part of thepause of nearly forty years, when a general hospital Foochow Conference (Yen-p'ing 3§ ^ prefecture)was built at "S" H Ku-t'ien (formerly Ku-ch'eng). was cut off in 1916 to form a fresh Conference.There are hospitals for women at Lung-t'ien, Lek-du This prefecture is full of settlers from Kiangsiand Foochow (The Wooeston Memorial). A Union who are mandarin-speaking, and it was decided toMedical College was opened in 1911 in Foochow, reach them by opening work in mandarin inthe aforesaid three missions co-operating ; who also addition to what was already being done. Twentysevenordained native pastors are working here.organized a Union Theological School in 1912. TheMethodists and the A.B.C.F.M. further united in Yen-p'ing is the chief centre, opened in 1902 ; thea Normal School in 1913. The new South China others are Yung-an 7^ ^College for Women (1910), and Yu-ki t^ )^is a Methodist enterprise, and (1914).there are a number of schools of high grade, There are boarding schools for boys and girlsincluding (for boys) the Academy at Foochow, and at Yen-p'ing, and a Women's Training School,362

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMETHODIST EPISCOPALbesides primary schools everywhere. There aregenei-al hosintals at Yen-p'ing and Yung-an, and agreat deal of itinerating medical work is carried onside by side with the evangelistic work.Central China Mission. The work was begunin 1857 when the Rev. V.C. and Mrs;. Hart arrivedin Kiukiang from Foochow. In 1869 the CentralChina Mission was formed ; and it wasi organizedinto a Conference in 1907. (In 1912 this CentralChina Conference was divided ; the old name beingretained by the stations in Kiangsu and Anhuiwhile those further up the Yangtze took the nameof the Kiangsi Conference). The chief station ofthe Central China Mission is Nanking. This workwas began in 1883 ; and of late years (1913) a largeinstitutional Church has been opened, with a streetchape), a reading room, a school for boys, etc. TheMethodists take a leading part in a number ofInstitutions for Higher Education, viz., theUniversity of Nanking; a Women's Bible School ;"aNurses' Training School; a Theological Seminaryand Bible Training School ; in addition to a Girls'Boarding School run by the Mission itself.The Philander Smith Memorial Hospital inNanking was opened in 1885, the first to be startedin that city. The building is now occupied by aBoys' Middle School. The medical work is nowdone at the Union Hospital (opened 1914), theproperty of the University of Nanking. Chinki'angwas occupied in 1881, and in 1884 a Girls' Schoolwas opened under Miss Mary C. Robinson whichbecame famous. There are also a new Woman'sHospital, and a Boys' Orphanage (132 boys), wherehalf the day is given to study and half to farmwork or learning of trades. The fine system ofwater-ways of which this city is the centre makesit an ideal district for evangelistic itinerations.Wuhu was opened in 1883, and is the centre ofa flourishing work. There is a fine church in thecity with Girls' and Boys' Schools adjoining, alarge general hospital and a flourishing work forwomen.At Shanghai, the M.E. missionaries are connectedwith the Methodist Press, and the Missionhas provided the China Medical Missionary Assiociationand the China Christian EducationalAssociation with their General Secretaries. Shanghaiis also the Episcopal residence of Bishop W. S.Lewis, one of the General Superintendents of theM.E.M.Kiangsi ConfeTence. Though the Missionintends to occupy the whole of Kiangsi, and thepart of Hupei north of the Yangtze, there are atpresent only two cities with resident missionaries.In 1867, shortly after the opening of Kiukiang asa treaty port. Dr. V. C. and Mrs. Hart and Rev.'Elbert S. Todd established themselves there, anumber of others joining them in the next sixyears. In 1881, the Fowler Institute, the mission'sfirst attempt at higher educational work, wasop&ned. This later developed into the WilliamNast College (the only school of college grade inKiangsi with its twenty-six millions), which forthe greater part of its history has been under thepresent Head, Rev, C. F. Kupfer, Ph.D.Nanch'ang, the capital of the province, wasnot occupied by foreigners till 1899, though thecity and neighbourhood had been worked for anumber of years. Both centres have Girls' HighSchools and Bible Training Schools for Women.There is a considerable number of primary schools.The Medical work is especially interesting, asin addition to Men's Hospitals at both centres, thereis a Hospital for Women and Children at Nanch'angunder the care of Dr. Mary Stone, and another atKiukiang under Dr. Ida Kahn. These two ladies aredaughters of the mission, who studied medicine inthe U.S.A.North China Conference. This embraces workin Peking, three other centres in Chihli, and one inShantung. Work was begun in 1869, when the Rev.and Mrs. L. N. Wheeler and Rev. and Mrs. H. H.LowRY were sent to Peking from Foochow. In 1872,Tientsin was occupied ; and Shanhaikuan in 1890,T'ai-an in Shantung, though worked from 1895,was not a foreign-manned station till 1898. In theBoxer year, one of the Mission's Peking churchessheltered both Chinese Christians and missionariestill they entered. the Legations, and one of its agentswas placed in charge of the fortificationiS. Anumber of Chinese converts suffei'ed martyrdom,and all the property was destroyed. After therebellion was over the mission did not rebuild atTsun-hua (opened 1873) but purchased propertyinstead at Ch'ang-li g ^ which was occupied in1903.Educational work. A Girls' School was openedin Peking in 1872; and in 1878 a Boys' BoardingSchool with 6 pupils. This latter was changed in1885 into the Wiley Institute, which again becamein 1888 Peking University, with 4 Departments, viz..Arts, Science, Theology and Medicine, the Rev.L. W. Pilcher being first President. The Universitywas incorporated by the Legislature or theState of New York in 1890. It was destroyed in1900 and re-erected in 1901. In 1915 ft becamepart of the federated Peking University. Pekingis the Episcopal residence of Bishop J. W.Bashford, one of the General Superintendents ofthe M. E. M.Extensive plans are on foot to (develop a greatinstitutional church in the South city of Pekingwith a system of day-schools grading up into amiddle school, and finally into the University. TheTientsin middle school is largely self-supporting,and when more dormitories are added will be363

METHODIST EPISCOPALENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAentirely so.There are also Boys' Boarding Schoolsat Ch'ang-li and T'ai-an. All these four centreshave Girls' Schools, and Peking, Ch'ang-li andT'ai-an have Women's Training Schools ; and thereare day schools everywhere.The M E. M. in Shantung recently made aplan for placing in every district city in theirterritory a church and an intermeHiate school, withday schools in the neighbourhood of each. It wasexpected that for five years the Church in Germanywould have supplied the funds for this, but theEuropean War has put an end to these hopes.Medical Work. In 1879 Dr. Howard (afterwardsMrs. King), was called to Tientsin to attendLady Li, the wife of Li Hung-chang ; while there,she was given the use of a theatre as a dispensarywhere she treated over 1700 patients in the year.A Women's Hospital was built in Tientsin by theMission, in which hi one year Dr. Howardprescribed for nearly 23,000 patients.There are also Women's Hospitals at Peking,T'ai-an, and Tientsin ; and the one for men atPeking has been recently enlarged and newlyequipped ; two more are planned for T'ai-an.West China Conference. Chungking was chosenas the headquarters of this mission, and wasoccupied in 1882, with the Rev. L. N. W^heeler,D.D., formerly of Peking, as Superintendent. In1883, a good property was bought, and evangelistic,educational and medical work all begun.In the anti-foreign riots of 1886, all the Missionproperty was looted and the houses burned. Themissionaries were obliged to shelter in the yamens,and finally went to the coast. In 1889, one or twoworkers returned, and the premises were rebuilt.In 1890 further reinforcements arrived, and Chengtuwas opened as a Station in 1891. Sui-ning -^ ^was worked from 1896, with foreign residence in1900. Tse chow ^ >H work dates from 1897; thelatest station is Ho chow, ^ ^j.Chengtu, as the capital of the province, is thecentre of the educational work, the mission beingone of the partners in the We^t China UnionUniversity {q.v.). There are also intermediate andprimary schools for boys in this city as well as aGirls' School and Women's Normal School. AtChungking there are Boys' and Girls' BoardingSchools, senior primary schools at all centre stations,with junior schools at all outstations.The medical work was begun in 1891 in Chengtii,v/hich has a fine general hospital, and there areboth Men's and Women's Hospitals at Chungkinganother is being planned for Tse chow to be a jointinstitution of the General Society and Women'sBoard {v. infra).The Women'fi Foreign Missionary Society ofthe M. E. church is entirely independent of theGeneral Society. Its first agents were sent to Northand South China in 1871 ; the next year, to CentralChina ; and ten years later to West China.The first Girls' Boarding School under theW.F.M.S. was opened in 1871; the first Biblewoman'sTraining School in 1879; the firstorphanage in 1861 ; all at Foochow. The firstmedical work was begun at Hing-hwa about 1896.In 1916, out of the 343 missionaries, 136 were agentsof the W.F.M.S., who have greatly multiplied theabove-mentioned activities in addition to doingevangelistic work.The M.E.M. has alw^ays believed in Christianeducation as an evangelizing opportunity, and allits eiducational system is evangelistic throughout.It has in all 600 places for regular preaching, andas many more regularly visited.In 1913, a Forward Movement began in theFoochow Conference, having as its chief aims (1)The development of the Churches' religious life bysystematic Bible study, with examinations in thesame, and (2) increasing the self-support of theChinese church.The Movement has now been taken up by allthe Conferences, and has become part of the Centennialprogramme (for 1919) of the M. E. M.throughout the world.Statistics for year ending December 31, 1916,including those of the Women's Board,Foreign Force 374Chinese Staff 2,959Communicants 29,709Non-communicant members 22,729METHODIST EPISCOPAL MISSION (South).Headquarters :—Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.A.Entered China, 1848.Works in Chekiang and Kiangsu, in fivedistricts.Shanghai District was opened in 1848 by thearrival of C. Taylor, M.D. who was followed in1849 by the Rev. J. Jenkins. Other reinforcementscontinued to arrive till 1860, among them theRevs. J. W. Lambttth and Young J. Allen {q.v.)."The Civil War in the U.S.A. stopped furtherworkers being sent for 15 years. Sungkiang Igt tLis the second foreign-manned station in this district,opened in 1888. The two churches in Shanghaihave long been entirely self-supp'orting.Soochow District was opened in 1858 by theRev. J. W. Lambttth, D.D. The evangelistic workchiefly centres round the educational and medicalinstitutions. There are a large number of outstationsin the country around.Huchow District JSJiHI lies mostly in N. Chekiangand was opened in 1898. Evangelistic,educational and medical work are all carried on.A large number of out-stations in the surroundingcountry are occupied by Chinese preachers and arevisited regularly by the missionaries in charge.36^

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAMETHODIST MlSSlOMCh'-angchow ^ '}\\ in Kiangsu was opened in1904. In the previous year a native preacher v?assent to this city to begin work. The gentry haddetermined that neither Protestant nor EomanCatholic Christians should ever be permitted tosettle there, but in a few months, the Chinesepreacher had secured a house and a chapel whereinstruction was regularly given, and when theforeign missionaries came on the scene, no oppositionwas shown.Throughout the whole field, evangelistic workis carried on by 30 ordained preachers, 60 unordainedevangelists, and a number of Bible women,in addition to the efforts of foreigners set apartentirely for that purpose.Educational Work. Like the sister mission ofthe Methodist Episcopal Church North, the SouthernMethodists have from the beginning believed ineducation as an evangelizing agency. As soon aspossible, day-schools were opened in every centrewhere a foreigner or responsible Chinese helpercould give oversight ; and middle schools exist inall the five centres; while Higher Education iscarried on in Shanghai and Soochow.(See SoochowUniversity ; also infra for the educational work ofthe Women's Foreign Mission Society).The Medical Work of the Mission was the firstto be inaugurated, the first worker being a medicalman. Begun in Shanghai in 1848, it met withseveral serious interruptions, and in 1882 it wasremoved to Soochow, where a hospital was builtin 1883. Since 1903 this has been self-supporting,and has been able, in addition to meeting runningexpenses and paying native assistants, to put upextra residences, etc., as required. The officialsand people of Soochow have contributed handsomelyto an institution which they have learned toappreciate. A Medical School was associated withthe Hospital from the start.There is also a hospital at Huchow, and in1915 the medical work there was amalgamated withthat of the American Baptist Mission (North).The Literary Work of the Mission has been veryconsiderable, and the list of Dr. Young J. Allen'sworks, some translated, for the Government, andsome original works and translations for missionarypurposes, is a noble one. Dr. Allen's translationof Dr. J. W. Lee's work The Making of a Manis said to be one of the very few Christian bookslikely to become a classic.Dr. J. W. Lambxtth, Dr. A. P. Parker andProfessor N. Gist Gee of Soochow University, areother well-known names in this connection. Dr.Parker edits the Chinese Christian Advocate,which has a weekly circulation of 2,500 among theChinese Methodist Christians.The Women's Society sent its first representativein 1875; and while doing evangelistic work,and working Bible Women's Schools at Sungkiangand Soochow, has specialized in educational workin the Shanghai centre and medical, industrial andeducational work in Soochow. The educationalwork includes day-schools for girls and boys, andboarding-schools for girls. The first girls' boardingschoolin Shanghai was begun in native quarters byMrs. J. W. Lambuth about 1874; but this schoolwas afterwards (1904) amalgamated with a similarone at Sungkiang ; the McTyeire School in Shanghaiwas opened by Miss Laura Haygood in 1902, toprovide a liberal education for the daughters ofwealthy and higher class Chinese. The study ofChristian books has always been compulsory, buthas never affected the patronage of the institution,which is entirely self-supporting, except for thesalaries of foreign teachers. The Sungkiang schoolis of lower grade, and prepares for the McTyeireSchool. In 1917, the latter which provides atwelve years' course, has about 300 pupils.In Soochow, besides a Bible Women's Institute,there is the Laura Haygood Boarding-School forgirls, the high school department of which has beenmade (1916) into a normal school, and a middle school(opened 1901) with 150 pupils. In West Soochow,there is a fine industrial work which supports 150women ; also a girls' preparatory school and aKindergarten Training School ; besides other schoolsin and near the city.In Huchow there is a Boys' Anglo-ChineseSchool with an enrollment of 132 in 1917, and agirls' school with 120 pupils ; besides a number ofday schools.The medical work of the Women's Board isall done at Soochow where the Mary Black Hospitalwas opened in 1388. A Medical School for Women,and a Nurses' Training School are carried on inconnection with it.At Ch'angchow, there are two flourishing dayschools for girls, and two strong centres for women'swork in the city, and several out-stations are workedfrom here.Statistics : Meth. Epis. Miss. South, 1917.Foreign Missionaries 110Chinese Staff about 500Communicants 7,325Non-communicant Members ... 10,977METHODIST MISSIONS. In addition to theAmerican Methodist Protestant Mission which isat present affiliated with the A.B.C.F.M. there areeight Societies of the Methodist faith and orderworking in China. Four ol these are from U.S.A.one from Canada, and two from England. Theyare : 1.American Free Methodist Mission.2. American Methodist Episcopal Mission.365

METHODIST PROTESTANTENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA3. American Methodist Episcopal (South)Mission.4. Canadian Methodist Mission.5. Evangelical Association of North America.6. United Evangelical Church Mission.7. United Methodist Missionary Society.8. Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society.(See under each).The two Methodist Episcopal Churches ofAmerica, are taking steps towards corporate unionin the home country, and the union of their workon the mission field will follow. One of the Englishsocieties, the United Methodist, is itself a unionof three bodies amalgamated in recent years, andworks the three fields established by the eariiercommunities. Two of the American Societies, theUnited Evangelical Church Mission and the EvangelicalAssociation of North America, representChristian bodies which have arisen among German-Americans, and are included among Methodists ashaving most affinity with them.METHODIST PROTESTANT MISSION.Headquarters :—Kansas City, Kansas, U.S.A.Entered China, 1909.Works in Kalgan, Chihli.The Methodist Protestant Church of Americamade its first attempt to establish a mission inChina by sendingvout two ladies about 1900; butone married, and the other retired.In 1909, the Society made a second attempt tosecure a footing in China, and as the station of theAmerican Boar,d at Kalgan was greatly in need ofreinforcements, it was decided to take over thework there. In the course of a few years, all thebuildings were purchased by the Methodist ProtestantSociety, which ranks as an AssociateMission of the A.B.C.F.M. The Home Church isin process of joining the union of the two MethodistEpiscopal Churches, North and South, which willprobably affect the grouping of its work in China.Statistics, January 1st, 1917.Foreign missionaries 4Chinese Staff 23Communicants 326Non-communicant members ... 16MEZZABARBA, JEAN AMBROISE, is sonamed by P. Bruckeh, but other writers give hisChristian name as Jean Antoine or CharlesMelchioe. He was Patriarch of Alexandria, andwas sent out as legate a latere to China in 1719 byPope Clement XI, to carry to K'ang Hsi the contributionEx ilia die and to settle the question ofthe Chinese Rites in the Church. He reachedMacao in September, 1730, and left Peking inMarch of the following year. He reached Romeagain in 1732, having accomplished very little. Hebrought back with him the body of Cardinal deTouENON, the previous legate, who had died inconfinement at Macao. See Bites Controversy.MIAO TAO, jgg ^ Miao islands, a group in theentrance to the Gulf of Chihli. They were held bythe British, as Chefoo was by the French, throughthe winter of 1860-61, after the signing of the Treatyof Tientsin.MIAO TZU. See Aborigines.MICHIE, ALEXANDER, was born inFifeshirein 1833. He came to China into a businessfirm in 1853, but in 1883 he settled in Tientsin,where he acted as the Times correspondent. Hedied in England on August 7, 1902. Besides manypapers, reports, etc., he published The Englishmanin China, 1900; dealing with the life of SirRl'THERFOBD AlCOCK.MIGIUS. See Mo Tzu.Ml CI US, the Latinized form of Mi Tzu,(alsocalled Mo Tzu) like Mencius for Meng Tzu, etc.,used first by Fabeh. See Mo I'zu.MIDDLE KINGDOM rjigj Chung hue, anexpression used in the Shih Ching several times.It may mean either the Imperial domain as surroundedby the vassal States, or the whole underimperial rule as surrounded by the barbarians. Ithas naturally come to be used as the common namefor China in spite of improved knowledge ofgeography.Ml LEI PUSA. See Maitreya.MILLET. Setaria italica, or Italian millet,Hsiao Mi (''J»;?fc) and Panicvm miliaceum, Huang Mi(^/fc) 3^e varieties of small millet largely grownin North China and especially in Manchuria. Theformer, spiked millet, is used only as a change ofdiet, or in many districts for feeding the pet birdswhich are such a feature of Chinese life. They aresummer crops ; their rapid development and highendurance of drought which they share with themore valuable tall millet, adapt them admirably tothe climate of N. China and Manchuria, where therains begin only after late June and where weathertoo cold for growth comes earlier in the fall than inthe south. Even there their quick maturity permitsthem to be used to great advantage in the systemsof multiple cropping so generally adopted, whiletheir great resistance to drought permits them to boused on the higher lands where water is not availablefor irrigation.King found the yield of small millet in Shantungto be 54 bushels of seeds (= 2,700 lbs.) and4,800 lbs. of straw per acre, worth $35. HosiEfound the yield in Manchuria to be from 2,000 to2,100 lbs. Another variety, Panicum crus-galli, isalso widely grown in China.King : Farmers of Forty Centuries; HosiE :Manchuria.366

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMINERALSMILNE, WILLIAM, was born in Aberdeenshirein 1785, and was sent by the London MissionarySociety in 1813 to join Morrison in Macao. Hewas forbidden by the Eoman Catholic authoritiesto remain there, and being also driven from Cantonafter a few months' residence, he travelled throughthe Malay archipelago distributing the New Testament,and at last settled in Malacca. Here aprinting press was put up and an Anglio-ChineseCollege founded, and one magazine in Chinese andone in English {Indo-Chinese Gleaner) were started.But his health was bad, the work was too heavy,and he died at Malacca in 1822, aged 37.MILNE, WILLhAM CHARLES, son of themissionary Dr. William Milne, was born at seabetween Canton and Malacca in 1815. Aftergraduating at Aberdeen he was sent to China bythe London Missionary Society in company withLegge, and he reached Macao in December, 1839.He travelled a great deal, and was one of thedelegates to prepare the Delegates' Version [q.v.).With Medhurst and Stronach he worked at atranslation of the Old Testament apart from thedelegat&s. He returned to England in 1854 and hisconnection with the Missionary Society ceased in1856. In 1858 ho returned to China as interpreterin the Consular service. He was at Foochow tillthe establishment of the British Legation in Pekingin 1851, when he removed there as teacher to thestudent-interpreters. He died there in 1853, andwas buried in the Russian cemetery.He was the author of various Chinese bookshis English works are Life in China, London, 1857,a work which went through several editions andhas been translated into French, and Narrative of aSeven-months Residence in Ningpo, in the ChineseBepository, vols, xiii and xvi.Wylie : Memorials of Protestant Missionaries.MINAS.See Sturnidae.MINERALS. ANTIMONY, ti ^, of whichChina produces a great deal more than any othercountry, is widely distributed throughout the westernprovinces, but is chiefly mined in three districts ofHunan; the best, containing 70 per cent of stibnite,being produced from the mines of Sinhua andAnhua on the Tzu River in the centre of theprovince. The mines are worked by the Hua ChangAntimony Refining Company, of Changsha, whohold a monopoly of refining in Hunan. Antimonyis worked also in Szechuen, and in West Kuangsi,whence the ore is sent to W^uchow for refining, workshaving been established there in 1905. Just acrossthe border in Yiinnan there are mines at Kaihua,worked by the Pao Hua Company; but antimonyis worked by native methods in several other partsof Kuangsi and Yunnan. Works have been recentlyerected at Samshui (Kuangtung) for refiningantimony regulus.An enormous appreciation in value was dueto the demand created by the war. In July 1914the price of regulus on the London market was £25per ton, at the end of the year £70, in 1916, £90.Later in 1916 the price dropped very heavily owingto Japan being overstocked.China is now the largest producer of Antimonyore, and from a time soon after the outbreak of thewar has practically controlled the market. Thealloy known as "hard lead" is of special interestat the present time (1917) as it is being employedin the manufacture of shrapnel bullets. Leadantimonyalloys are employed for the making ofacid-resisting valves. The principal use ©fAntimony in peace time is for the manufacture oftype-metal.The export in 1916 was (regulus and crude)pels. 371,102, value Hk. Tls. 11,823, 503; and theore to the value of Tls. 1, 383,243.ASBESTOS shih jung ^fj |fi is found in severaldi-trict.s, e.g. Yiinyang, Hupei and Yangshan, northwestcorner of Kuangtung, whence it is exported toHongkong and made into non-conducting coveringsfor steamship boilers ; at Kingkuoshan and Lautzushan,Shantung, and in parts of Manchuria. It isused for making stoves, crucibles, etc. The fibreis good and very feathery, and by the admixture ofcotton or hemp it has been woven into articles ofclothing. (W^illiamson, Journeys in North China,vol. i, p. 129).Three Asbestos mines are worked nearKuantien, South-east Manchuria, and deposits haverecently been discovered at Pa chow, Ssuch'uan.BISMUTH pi §^. Outcrops in the form ofnative Bismuth and ores of Bismuth glance have beenexamined in Likiang, Kochiu and Yungchang fu,Yiinnan and South-west of Poseh, Kuangsi ; but thenatives do not know its uses nor work it. (FauEastern Review, Sept. 1915).CINNABAR, Ji3c|^ cliu sha, or sulphide ofmercury, is mined in Kueichou and brought toHankow. It is mentioned in Yu Kung (b.c. 2,000)as an article of tribute sent to the Imperial Court.(See Quicksilver, inf.)COAL. The first mention of Coal in Chineseliterature is by Litr An gljg^ (Huai Nan tzu) whodied B.C. 122. He calls it ping t'an%'^ice-charccalit has also been termed t'u Jb fari earth-charcoal,Shih "5 fan, stone-charcoal and mei ^.Coal is very widely distributed in China,occurring in every single province; but the northeasternarea,—Shansi, Chihli, Honan, and Shantung,is the most important, where the depositsare of Permian or Upper Carboniferous age. Thecoals of China are as varied in quality as those of36:

MINERALSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAthe United States, but the proportion of lignite iscomparatively small, and that of anthracite tobituminous relatively larger than that in the UnitedStates.1. Anthracite. The resources of Shansi arepractically equal to those of Pennsylvania, andare the most striking in the country, as they are sothick, so little disturbed, so well exposed, and sowidely distributed, having an extent of nearly 200miles north and south, and from 25 to 30 miles eastand west. The field extends southward into Honan,where it is worked by the Fu-chung Corporationwho recorded an output of over one million tonsfor the year ending June 30, 1917, while the Shansifield is worked, but not very extensively as yet bythe Pao-Chin Mining Co.In Shantung anthracite is worked at Poshan.In Chihli three areas, that of the Kin-Han Railwaydistrict, and those of the Peking-Shanhaikwan andPeking-Kalgan railway districts, are well worked.Anthracite also occurs in W. Hupei and inHunan in thin seams ; the produce of Honan andShansi is gradually finding its way south.2. Bituminous. The most important ccalmines of China are those at Tongshan and Linsi,which, with those of Lanchow, in the same field(N.E. Chihli), are now worked by the KailanMining Administration, {q.v.). Their output fromJuly 1, 1916 to June 30, 1917 was 2,928,584 tons.The next mines in importance are those atFushun, near Moukden (sub-bituminous and ofTertiary age), where the workable coal has beenestimated at 800,000,000 tons. Their output fromJuly 1, 1916, to June 30, 1917, was 2,049,917 tons.Near-by are the Pensihu mines, also semibituminous; there are other areas in Manchuria,but so far they are not considered of much importance.In N. Chihli and Shansi there is also muchof this coal, and in Shensi are bituminous fields,whose extent was probably over-estimated by vonRiciiTHOFEN, but these Mesozoic basins of Shensiand also of Kansu will be tapped when theprojected Lanchow railway is opened. TheJurassic coal of Inner Western Mongolia is alsoregarded as of great importance.A vast, uniform, and continuous coal-fieldcovers nearly all the southern districts of Fukien,extending to Kiangsi, the Anki, Lungyen (anthracite),Tingchow, Shaowu, and Kienning prefectures,but this wealth is almost entirely neglected.In Ssuch'uan coal is widely diffused, anddiffers in quality, from lignite in the far west tobituminous in the north and anthracite in the east.Bituminous coal occurs nearly all over Yiinnan,(except in the S.E.), Kuangtung and Kueichou,(except in the eastern portion). At Koupouchen,in S. Yiinnan, the Tonkin Railway is supplied. InW. China, except in the districts mentioned, it isimpossible to travel 50 miles in any directionwithout finding either coal outcrops or workings.Outcrops are worked down to water level and thenabandoned.The great southern coal-field lies to the east ofthe Siang River, in Hunan and Kiangsi. Thegreater part of the field is in Hunan, but themost important producer, the collieries of theHan-Yeh-Ping Iron and Coal Co., are at Pingsiang,in Kiangsi. This coal is a bituminous cokingvariety with associated thin seams of anthracite.The field stretches E. N. E. to Fouliang, and thereare other smaller belts besides this immense one.3. Lignite. The amount, as stated above,is comparatively small. It occurs in Chihli nortliof the Great Wall (Jehol district), in Manchuria,and in considerable quantities in W. China, in thedried-up lake regions of Yiinnan and Kueichou andin W. Ssiich'uan.As far as present knowledge goes, there areprobably one thousand billion metric tons in China,enough to supply the whole world for the nextthousand years. (W. K. Ting, Director of GeologicalSurvey in China).The Export in 1916 was tons 1,314„822 valueHk. Tls. 5,737,691, and the import was tons 1,421,991, value Tls. 8,975,836. Far Eastern Review(passim).COPPER, ^ t'umj. The copper deposits ofYiinnan have yielded in the past practically all thecopper required for minting and other purposes inChina and Burma. The Tungchwan hills have beenthe chief source of supply ; the mines were organizedin 1697, and mining made a government monopolyin 1738, for the increased demand for brass coinage(the little copper produced in Hupei, Shansi, andChihli being insufficient). Four thousand tons weresent to Peking annually thenceforward, until theoutbreak of the great Mahommedan rebellion inYiinnan in 1858 put a stop to work for nearly 20years, since when the output has never reachedfigures approaching the 8,000 tons which wereaveraged at the close of the 18th century. Atpresent only ten thousand to thirteen thousandpiculs are mined yearly. Other mines in Yiinnanare those N. of Tali Lake, where the ores workedare chiefly oxides and carbonates ; here also greatdevelopment is possible. In the Shan State ofllswenli there are workings »t Malipa.The ores mined at Tungchwan are malachite,azurite, cuprite, pyrites, etc.In Yungchangfu on the extreme west thereare mines which before the rebellion produced10,000 piculs annually.In Ssuch'uan a little copper is mined in the richregion of Hweilichow.The export in 1916 was pels. 564,818, value Tls,9,066,681.3(i

£45,000.ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMINERALSCOPPERAS, ch'ing fan ^^, (sulphate ofiron), is found in combination with coal in somedistricts of Ssuch'uan. It is separated by boilingthe coal dust, drawing off the water, and re-boilingthe latter till it thickens, when it is poured intowooden moulds, where it solidifies. Copperas isemployed in tlie dyeing industry as an ingredient inblack-colour dyeing.GOLD chin ^. Little gold is mined in China;the most promising localities appear to be the Mo-homines on the river of that name, (an affluent of theAmur), and the neighbourhood, where prospectorshave worked since 1866. Attempts to mine goldhave also been made in many parts of Central andSouth Manchuria, especially near Hingking and onthe upper waters of the Hun River. There are alsomines near Jehol (Kouliang, etc.) and at-Chaoyang,Lanping, etc., further east in Chihli. On theRussian frontier, near Urga, and in E. Mongolia,gold is collected, and in Sining prefecture, etc.,Kansu, as well as in Hi.In S. China gold exists in Chao-ching fu andthere is placer gold in Lienchow (near Pakhoi)in Kuangsi it occurs in four districts, especially inPinglo; there is a little in Hunan and in Tsun-idi?trict of Kueichou.Another source of supply is the mines and riverbeds of the Tibetan borderland of Ssiich'uan.Here Viceroy Chad Enn-FeNG initiated the policyof official working, but a mining engineer reportedadversely on the prospects, even with the use ofmodern machinery, and the venture came to an end.However, private enterprise is still carried on in theTachienlu, Litang, Derge, and other districts.A rough official estimate of the annual yield is12,000 Chinese ounces, worth,Noncontinuousveins are said to exist, but theGovernment proposes to resume operation whenfunds are available.The best known mine in China is that ofChou-yuen, about 40 miles S. W. of Chefoo, wherea quartz vein from 40 to 90 feet wide has beenuncovered for more than a mile in length; 200,000tons of ore have been developed here, but the minehas been closed for some time. At P'ingtu, nearby, are other mines probably of considerable value.In Yiinnan the most notable mines are those atTalang where there is a considerable yield annually.T. T. Read, in his article on the Mineral Resourcesof China, comes to the conclusion that with theexception of Manchuria and the Ytinnan-Ssuch'uanregion the gold mining industry gives little promiseof growth.In the Amur region there are estimated to be5 million tons of high-grade ore (Fab, EasternReview, Oct. 1913) but how much of this is inChinese soil is not stated.Report on Tachienlu, etc. See Edkins :Chinese Currency; British Consular Reports.The alluvial gold of Manchuria has been welldescribed by C. W. Purington : Mining Magazine,vol. iv, 1911; the deposits in Chihli by H. C.Hoover : Transaction of the Institution of Miningand Metallurgy, vol. x, 1901-02, and the Liaotungpeninsula deposits by Bogdanovitch : Zeitschriftfur praktische Geologic, vol. vii p. 240.GRAPHITE, or PLUMBAGO, hei chHen fenoccurs in Hunan, in Yunnan on the Upper-Jfc $8f 'Mi ,Mekong, and was discovered in 1900 at Kaotzu, westof Chinkiang. In 1915 a deposit was discovered inthe Hengchowfui district of Hunan, and is existsalso near Wenchow. (Chekiang) and in Kuangtung.The Chinese call it "unripe coal", but it is inreality geologically at the other end of the scale.GYPSUM.—i^ shih hao. Large quantitiesof gypsum are dug in the Yingcheng district ofHupei, where there are extensive salt springs. Itwas discovered during the T'ai P'ing rebellion, whenthe province was cut off from its ordinary saltsupplies in Kiangsu by the advance of the rebels.The exportation from Hankow (practically the soleexporting port) was 432,000 piculs in 1913, and mostof this went to the Lower Yangtze ports, and toHangchow, Ningpo, and Canton. It has also beenworked a good deal in the Chih-chow district ofAnhui.Gypsum is also found in crystalline formationin the clay beds of central Yiinnan and S. E.Kueichou, and as anhydrite in many of the caves inthe limestone formation peculiar to the boundarycountry between Yiinnan, Kuangsi, and Kueichou,where it is used locally as medicine.It is used partly for manure, partly for themanufacture of the powder so much used by Chinesewomen as a foundation for rouge.The export in 1916 was pels. 169,163, value Tls.76,292.Far Eastern Review, November, 1915.IRON t'ieh ^ is the second in importance ofChina's mineral resources, and iron ore is found inevery province, but is only worked by native methodswhere coal is also present, owing to the largequantity of coal used in iron smelting. This is thecase in Shansi, where iron is particularly abundant.The chief producing districts are Pingtingchow,the neighbourhood of Taiyiianfu; Taiping-hsien inthe S. W., and especially Lu-an-fu, the wares fromwhich are famous all over China. T. T. Read [FarEastern Review, July, 1912), the leading authority,states that the iron ores of Shansi are limonite andhematite, occurring in shales and sandstones ofcarboniferous age, but owing to their distributionthere is no sufficient supply of uniform ore to formthe basis of blast-furnace work on a large scale, atleast so far as they have been explored up to the47369

MINERALSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICApresent. Shensi, the neighbouring province, islikely to be of importance as an iron field in thefuture.Iron also occurs in many widely scatteredparts of Chihli and in Manchuria, especially nearTiehling {"iron range") and on the Hun River.also occurs in Shantung, in magnetite, but thedeposit is not of a promising nature : one mine, thatof Chinlingchen, is worked. It is intended to worksome deposits in N. W. Honan.In the Yangtze "Valley the iron ores at Tayeh,owned by the Han-Yeh-Ping Iron and Coal Co.,with works at Hankow and Hanyang, areextensively worked, and the finished product isexported abroad. Hunan is at present unpromising,but further exploration may yield good results. InFukien iron exists in a large unexplored area fromAnkhoe up to Kiangsi. In Kuangtung mines havebeen worked for centuries at Pingyiian and Chengping,—theiron sugar pans and other wares ofChaochowfu are famous. In Western China ironexists everywhere S. of lat. 28°' and W. oflongitude 105 S ,, and in patches both N. and E. ofthese areas, being mined and worked in everyprefecture of Yunnan and in Kueichou. It is alsowell distributed over Ssuch'uan, especially on theKueichou border, from which comes much of theiron used in making the vast numbers of pans usedin salt-evaporating in the great salt districts.For full accounts of the industry see T. T.Read's paper, and A. J. Moore-Bennett, TheMineral Areas of W. China, Fab. Eastern Review^,Nov., 1915.The export of iron in 1916 was (pig) pels.2,392,122, value Hk. Tls. 5,174,974; (ore)- pels.4,679,734, Tls. 915,104.LEAD © ch'ien. The best known lead minesare those of Shuikoushan, on the Upper SiangRiver, S. Hunan. They have been worked for 200years, but it is only recently that foreign machineryhas been installed. They produce lead and zinc oreand by-products. In 1914, 53,000 tons of galena,22,000 tons of zinc-blende, and some sulphur wereproduced.MALACHITE. Green paint 3^ ^ is made bytriturating malachite to a powder, and mixing itwith white lead and oil. Malachite is also employedin painting and colouring porcelain and glass.Williams : Commercial Guide, p. 130.MANGANESE meng ^ ore has been foundnear Pakhoi, and a little has been exported.MARBLE.—The best marble workings inChina are those near Talifu, Y'iinnan, where thequantity in sight is enormous. It has a curiousstaining of dark green and reddish brown runningirregularly through the stone, which in the finishedpanels (used for screens and pedestals) bears astrong resemblance to trees and scenery. Exceptfor this staining the stone is of very high quality.Far Eastern Review, Nov. 1915.ItMOLYBDENUM, ^gmu used in pen-nib manufacture,is produced at Yungtaihsien, in Fukien, andhas been assayed in England with good results.NICKEL |g or |g Nickel ores, consisting ofglance, pyrites, and kupfernickel occur in thegneiss, slates, and quartz rocks of S.E. Yiinnan,but are not worked. Near Weining, N.W. Kueichou,ores containing nickel in conjunction withbismuth have been examined, and the metal seemsto exist associated wit-h cobalt in the Red Riverdistrict, W. of Kochiu, S. Yiinnan.ORPIMENT :5 ^ shih huang.—A naturallyoccurring compound of arsenic, is chiefly obtainedfrom mines near Chaochow and Menghwa (NorthwestYiinnan). It is mostly used as a pigment bypainters ; the Malays seem to use it in eye-washesand not a Jittle is employed in making depilatorysoap. It occurs in vein or-lode deposits as a softmineral, and is usually of deep lemon colour with aresinous or pearly lustre.Williams : Commercial Guide, p. 122TENGYiiEH Customs Report, 1909.PETROLEUM shih yu ;f? Jffi.On the S.of the Gobi desert, at the base of the NanshanMts. in Kansu, 20 miles from Shan-te-king-pu,are situated petroleum rocks, where a dozenwells are worked; the oil is here used as alubricant. In Shensi, about 100 miles S.W. ofNingtai Hang, rivulets of petroleum flow from therocks, the oil being of a greenish colour and veryfluid ; it is used as an illuminant. The crude oil isof various colours, the best is nearly as white aswater; only the worst, blackish, is used forlubricating. There are said to be fifty wells inShensi. The refined oil is sent to Hsi-an, whereitundersells foreign kerosene oil.Petroleum is not worked in Western China, butnatural gas has been seen in many places in thesouth and west of Ssuch'uan, and in the salt welldistrict is used in the reduction of salt. It has beennoted in the far north of Yiinnan, and in Burmathere are large workings. (Far Eastern Review,February, 1914).QUICKSILVER tJSc ^ shui yin. A broad beltof quicksilver exists in N. Kueichou, running intoHunan, in Fenghuangting, where the mines arecarried in dolomite ; it has been worked forcenturies. The ore is cinnabar (mercury sulphide)associated with stibnite (antimony sulphide). TheChinese crush it by hand and pan it down, while thepoorer ores and tailings are retorted in an ingeniousway for their contents. {Far Eastern Review,Sept. 1915).In W. and N. Yiinnan cinnabar is found in thedolomitic sandstones and in the beds of streamsentering the Salween, Mekong and Yangtze Rivers,and is washed for by the natives much as they washfor gold. The same methods are adopted in S. W.370

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMINERALSSsuch'uan, especially in the Tung basin. Unfortunately,where ores are smelted, half the mercuryis wasted, owing to the retorts not, being tight, thefurnaces being faulty, and the fuel poor. Bothcinnabar and quicksilver are used in the native arts,especially in the form of vermilion, in making redlacquer, etc (See Cinnabar, supra).The export in 1916 was to the value of Tls.982,061.SILVER ^ yin is widely distributed in WestChina, chiefly in the form of argentiferous galena,which is present in every prefecture of Yiinnan andWest Kueichou. The chief workings are in Yiinnan,at Tungchwan, Tali (in conjunction with arsenicand zinc), near Likiang (with copper) and atTalang and Weiyiian in the Shan States region. InKuangsi, Kueichou, and Kuangtung galeri-a existsover a Y-shaped area, the prong pointing aboutN. W., and the foot touching the coast near Swatow.Silver also occurs on the tributaries of the WestRiver; there is a rich mine at Yiinning, Kuangsi;in Lopingchou and North of Weining, Kueichou,and in the Hweilichou district of S.such'uan.SOAPSTONE, ^1^ hua shih. Steatite isquarried in the hills near Chingtien, 35 miles fromWenchow (Chekiang). From this fine compact stone,are manufactured at Wenchow, vases, images, andornaments, also tasteful plaques for which there isa considerable demand in Brazil and Mexico. Thesoapstone is, however, inferior to that fromFoochow. A quantity is also dug up near Lai choufu in Shantung, and in Kueichou.The exportation in 1913 was 8,000 piculs, almostall from Wenchow, of the value of Tls. 120,000.The export of Soapstone ware in 1916 amounted toTls. 44,108.SULPHUR.— :6k ^i", ^ SI«'^*^ huang, etc.It exists in its pure state in many parts of W.and N. Yiinnan as a deposit on the mouth of hotsprings, but is not exported, on account of theprohibitive cost of transportation.In the T'aiyiianfu plain, Shansi, there is much sulphur, and itoccurs also in Shantung, Manchuria and Kueichou.TIN.—^ hsi. The only important tin minesin China are situated at Kochiu, 20 miles S.E. ofMengtsz, where many veins are worked over asurface of 10 square miles. Development wasseverely handicapped by the use of rudimentarynative methods until 1911, when modern machinerywas set up, and the transport difficulty eliminatedby the use of an aerial ropeway. A purer metal isnow obtained by scientific smelting and refining.The opening of the Yiinnan railway also gave anenormous stimulus to the industry, which isdeveloping very fast. The tin used in the josspaperindustry in Chekiang is from the Straits : it isconsidered better than Yunnan tin, being moremalleable. Nearly all the tin produced inthe Yiinnan mines is sent to Hongkong, where itis refined in native establishments. It arrives inthree qualities in rectangular slabs measuring 2feet long, 1 foot wide, and 1 inch thick. The fir.sttwo qualities are fairly pure, but the third oftencontains as much as 20 per cent, of lead. The slabsare melted in concave iron pans, resting on brickfurnaces fed with wood fuel. In the centre of eachpan is placed an open iron cylinder surrounded nearits base on the outside with tin dross, throughwhich the molten metal filters into the cylinder,emerging when cooled as a block of refined tin,which is sent back to Chinese ports.Apart from the above, tin is found in theTungchwan district of Yiinnan where a lode wasopened up for some distance in 1910. Here the oreis stannite. Tin is also said to occur S. of Shihpingand is worked E. of Ilianghsien, as perhtung (whitecopper). In Kuangsi tin deposits have been workedfor 50 years at Fuchwan, and the government hasnow taken up the working, but only 100 tons areobtained in a year. It is found also in the Hohsiendistrict. In Hunan the Linwu mines are workedand at Kianghua an extensive tin field, little known,runs .south into Kuangsi. Here the tin is associatedwith tourmaline, iron, and arsenic. The Anyiianmines, on the Kuangtung border of Hunan, arebetter known. The native method is as follows :the clean arsenical ore is first stacked for separatetreatment, and the balance is roasted, the arseniousoxide being collected, by condensation and re-heated,when it is deposited as a "glass" and sold foragricultural purposes. The roasted ore is thencrushed by water-driven Chinese stamps andconcentrated, and smelted into ingots composed of99% tin.The Chinese use tin in many ways : alloyed withlead and a small proportion of other metals, it formspewter, and is wrought into many articles fordomestic and temple uses.Rolled into thin sheets,it becomes tin foil, and forms the paper cash strewnon graves. In combination with sulphur, it formsmosaic gold, used in female head-dresses and todecorate idols, etc. It is also employed, with theaddition of mercury, for mirrors, and with certainacids it gives brilliancy and permanency to severaldyes. The original export in 1915 was Pels. 134,817,value Hk.Tls. 9,330,456. The 1916 figures showsome decrease. Amoy Citstoms Report, 1872 andMengtsz C. R. (passim).TUNGSTEN; ^ or ^. Deposits of thisvaluable mineral have recently been discovered inChenchow fu, Hunan, by a Chinese engineer; workwas begun, but interrupted through labour troubles.{North China Daily News, 20 February, 1917).In the absence of traces of tin and copper, it iseasy to work and the export is likely to develop.371

discontentMING DYNASTYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATungsten is also found in the hills to the S. andS. E, of Puerhfu near the wild Wa States on theBurmese border. It is usually found in smallcrystalline masses or as laminae with semi-metalliclustre, and is washed out by the natives in theirsearch for gold and tin. It is not worked inYiinnan, but in S. Burma many Chinese work thedeposits systematically.Far Eastern Review, Nov. 1915.ZINC, ^ ^ fai ch'ien. The whole domesticsupply of zinc in China is derived from the S. W.provinces, chiefly Kueichou. Spelter has beenworked for years, for making the alloy from ^hichcash are manufactured. The largest mine is thatat Oyinshan near the Kueichou frontier of Yiinnan,where the mineral occurs as calamine and as blende.Also at Tungchwan, Minchiu, and Likiang inYiinnan, Hweilichow in S. W. Ssuch'uan, andWeiningchow in Kueichou. Large quantites of oreare also produced in Hengchow and Yangchow inHunan and exported to Belgium and Holland.Outcrops have also been observed at many places inKuangsi. ' Spelter is used in the large centres formaking cash, and for the "old" bronzes for sale tothe unwary tourist.The mines with the largest output of zinc, andthe only mines where modern methods are in use,are those of Shui-kou-shan, S. Hunan (see underLead).Zinc blende (sphalerite, a sulphide of zinc),galena, and pyrites are the chief minerals presentin the ore. Output (1914) of zinc ore, 23,000 tons.Far. Eastern Review, July, 1912 and Nov. 1915.[N.S.]MING DYNASTY, THE, m IE, was a Chineseone, founded by the Buddhist ex-monk Chtj Yiian-CHANG, better known by the reign titleHung Wu.After driving out the Mongols, he made a treatywith Korea and exacted tribute from Burma. Heestablished schools, codified the laws, and cared forthe welfare of his people, who numbered sixtymillions. He made Nanking and K'ai-feng fu hiscapitals. His grandson's throne was usurped byYung Lo {q.v.), under whom Tonkin was annexedand a Chinese admiral sailed to India, ^rabia, and.Africa. He made Peking the capital. The Mongolsinvaded China in 1449 and carried the EmperorYiNG TsuNG into captivity for eight years, afterwhich he was allowed to return and reigned againwith a new reign title. He forbade the killing ofslaves and concubines at his burial. The dynastyreached its height of glory under Hsien Tsung andHsiao Tsung, but a partial return to feudalism byterritorial grants to members of the imperial Housecaused . among the people. In 1516appeared the hrst Portuguese trader off Canton.Later a Portuguese raid along the coast was punishedby a massacre of Portuguese at Ningpo. UnderShih Tsung and his successors there were continuedconflicts v/ith the Mongols and the Japanese, thelatter being granted a settlement near Fusan. TheSpaniards and Dutch settled in the Philippines and"Formosa, and the Jesuit Ricci gained influence inPeking. Under Wan Li the Manchus invadedChina and set up a rival dynasty at Mukden in 1625.Later a rebellion broke out in Shansi, and the rebelleader captured Peking, the Emperor committingsuicide. The Manchus helped to crush the rebellionand established a Manchu dynasty in Peking.Under the rule of the Ming dynasty some celebratedworks were published, such as an EncyclopaediaHsing U ta ch'iian shu f4 3® :^ ^ S. of MentalPhilosophy, and a complete Geographical Record.The arts of poetry and painting flourished, togetherwith industries of pottery, cloisonne, textiles, etc.Dynastic Title.jJCm^^ T'aiTsuHui TifiJcM Ch'eng Tsuiz. m Jen TsungJg Hsuan Tsung% ^ Ying Tsung^ Tai Tsung^ Ying TsungHsien Tsung^ ^ Hsiao TsungK^ Wu TsungVt^ Shih TsungS Mu TsungW ^ Shen Tsung3fc a? Kuang Tsung=S ^ Hsi TsungIS -^ Huai Tsung or Chuangor^5?iS^ [Lieh Min TiPersonal name.7C 3^: Yiian Chang% ^ Yiin Wenm TiAccessiona.d.136813981402i«i ^ Kao Chih1424mmmuChan Chi1425Ch'i Chen1435Ch'i Yu1449(resumedt) 1457^ 5!g Chien Shen 1464Yu T'ang1487governmenmmHou Chao1505Hou Tsung15211566mm Yi Chiin1572Tsai Houft*?Ch'ang LoYu HsiaoYu Chien162016201627Title of Reign.mmm mjF.m5c MSJffi-fb^m mmm^Hung WuChien WenYung LeHung HsiHsiian TeCheng T'ungChing T'aiT'ien ShunCh'eng HuaHung ChihCheng TeChia ChingLung Ch'ingWan LiT'ai Ch'angT'ien Ch'iCh'ung ChengAdopteda.d.13681399140314251426143614501457146514881506152215671573162016211628372

TheENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMININGMING 10, a name found on the Catalan Atlas(Btjchon's Notice), standing for Ming chou §g >1'|.Odoric has many variants—Menzu, Mensy, Montu,Meugu, etc. Yule takes it for Ningpo.CoBDiER : L'Extrcvie Orient dans V AtlasCatalan, p, 33.MING T'ANG ^g ^ bright hall. The area infront of a tomb is so called, but the meaning ofthe term is a puzzle to Chinese as well as to westernsinologues,De Groot :vol. iii, p. 1362.MING TOMBS.Religious System of China,See Mausolea.MINING. METALS.* It has been suggestedthat by drawing upon all evidence available, Chinesemining and metallurgy may be proved the oldest inthe world. This suggestion is not confirmed byfact. Egyptian monument records depict goldwashing at a period approximately 4,000 years B.C.,and Egyptian hieroglyphics indicate from theirform a considerable knowledge of metallurgy ofdistinct metals and many metallic instruments atperiods which antedate, so far as is known, allChinese records. The Chinese race appears fromthe beginning to have been an agricultural one. Itsettled in the plain of the Yellow River wherepossible metalliferous deposits lie hidden beneatha thick stratum of loess.The Chinese use the same character ( ^ ) formetal and gold. It represents in the pseudo-scienceof Feng shui or Yin-yang the chief of the sacrediive-system of the elements which comprise alsowind, fire, water and earth. The fact of its beingidentified with the western of the five points of theFeng shvi and Chinese compass from the earliestdays may indicate that the Chinese originallyobtained their metals from the West. Feng shuiidivided its metal kingdom under five heads,known as the five metals among the Chineseto this day. They are gold, silver, copper, iron andItin. The Feng shui five-classification haid a strongitendency towards classification by colour, thus gold:was the yellow metal, silver was the white, copper ired, iron black, and tin ( ^^ ), a character variouslyjtranslated as azure, blue, etc. iA study of ancient Chinese writings indicatesjthat the Chinese have never had any clear knowledgejof the distinctions between the chief metals, f jUnlike the Egyptian hieroglyphics, the Chinesecharacters, which were modified and unified intostandard forms about 200 B.C., do not indicate bytheir grouping and clear reference of form todistinct metallic objects, that the early Chinese weremore advanced in the science of metallurgy at that^Forinfornintioii regarding Minerals, Mines and Hlniiig in Chinaunder existing conditions, see Cfiina Year Book, p 62.f Tbns tbe Chinese for "metallic" is iEl 5, ^ fiij.period than were the Egyptians two or threemilleniums before.The first mention of mining in Chinese recordsrefers to the mining of copper at Sung Shan jg ^J.a mountain near Hsiang Ch'eng hsien g ^^ !i^ inHonan Province. This was in the reign of themythical Emperor Huang Ti, who is said to haveruled between 2697 and 2597 B.C.Chinese regalian rights appear to have existedover mines and metals, with effects disastrous tomineral development, from the earliest days. Inthe reign of Shun, a legendary Emperor who gaveto the country a period of unexampled prosperityabout B.C. 2255 to 2205, "the working of gold(metal ?) mines in the rugged hills and mountainswas prohibited".The Book of History ^ ^ states that "silveroverflowed from the hills" during the Yin dynasty(B.C. 1765 to 1122). This silver was almost certainlyobtained through cupellation of lead, which mustalso have been plentiful.The same work, dealing with a period fromapproximately 2357 b.c. to 950 B.C. mentions lead,gold, silver, copper, iron and a kind of hard iron orsteel, as having been used as tribute by variousstates."~~""~---,^Lead is, considered to be a form of tin in Chinesemetallurgy. Copper appears to have been the metal"par excellence" at a very early period in Chinesehistory, and the character chin ( ^ ) was then usedfor it. The character t'ung( ^% ) is bettertranslated "coppery" than "copper" at the presenttime, for it is commonly used to indicate anycoppery metal such as copper, bronze, brass or anymetallic mixture of cupreous colour.The Chinese characters throw little light uponearly Chinese mining and metallurgy. The Chinesecommentators upon them were literary men, havingno practical knowledge of mining and metallQi-gy.Consequently their remarks lend little assistance tostudy of this subject.The character chin ( ^ gold or metal, is said)by the Shuo Wen to be made up of the characterschin ^, 'now' indicating the sound and tone of theword, and T'u ±_, 'earth', with two dots in earth.Classical scholars state that the two dots aresupposed to represent the mode of occurrence ofgold in the earth.)'Silver ( ^ is made up of the two characterschin ( ^) metal, and ( ^) obstinate or difficult,probably on account of the fact that is was the onlyore of the five metals whose production entailed theuse of two metallurgical processes.The character for copper ( ^) is made up ofthe character chin ( ^ ), gold, and t'ung ( ^ ).indicating, according to Chinese commentators,sound, harmony and assembling, possibly becausemetallic mixtures such as brass or bronze may have378

MININGENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAbeen known to the Chinese to be composite beforepure copper was known to them.T'ieh( Hg ), iron, Icang ( ^ ), a charactertranslated as steel, and a form of hard iron, lou(^ )> ^"^ steel for engraving, are mentioned in theShu Ching and contemporaneous books. Pliny,the Roman historian, mentions that in his dayC'hinese iron was the best iron,also that the nativesexported it with clothing and furs or hides.Tin, hsi ( ^), is a character which in earlyperiods seems to have indicated any white alloy.The second part of the character hsi means "easy".The Chinese commentators say that it indicates thesound of the whole character. It possibly alsoindicates the ease with which cassiterite is reducedto the metal.Zinc metal (fl|&) has been known in Europesince as early as the 15th century. Its systematicdistillation from calamine was not discovered inEurope until the 18th century. Slabs assaying 98%zinc, bearing a Chinese date corresponding to 1585A.D. have recently been found in KuangtungProvince. This was possibly the origin of the'tutenague' which was imported into Europe fromthe East in the 16th and 17th centuries.Early Chinese records throw little light onthe occurrence of ore and the methods adoptedin mining it. Fire-setting is mentioned as an oldmethod of mining copper ore at an early period,and a Chinese record, written between 960 and1126 A.D. speaks of the use of vinegar in conjunctionwith fire-setting, a practice which is said to havebeen adopted by Hannibal in his passage throughthe Alps.Coal appears to have been discovered contemporaneouslyin China and in Europe. Romanauthors refer to impure coal in the second centuryB.C. In China "a kind of stone which could beburnt like brushwood [ch'ai ho)" is mentioned ashaving been known during the Han Dynasty B.C.206—A.D. 23.The Chinese were probably the first to prospectand mine by means of boring or drilling. Between1023 and 1030 a.d. bamboo lining was used to protectthe sides of bore-holes in sinking borings for salt.Rope boring in connection with a lofty frame orwindlass is described in a book of either the Sungor Ming period.Gunpowder was used by the Chinese in themanufacture of a sort of Greek fire during the WeiDynasty, between 220 and 260 a.d., and in guns 300years before it was so used in England early in the14th century. There appears, however, to be norecord of its having been used in Chinese miningprior to its use in the Schemnitz mines in 1627.Pure copper is recorded as having been obtainedby precipitation- from copper solutions with iron intwo Chinese works as early as 1090 and 1099 a.d.They are recorded as having had outputs of 50,000and 380,000 catties of copper respectively. The ironconsumed was in the proportion of 2.4 iron to 1 ofcopper.Development of mining in China appears to havesuffered more from the fact that mines and themetals in the earth were considered to be Imperialperquisites, than from Feng shui or any otherinfluence. The Emperors looked upon metalssimply as a means for coinage, and consistentlydiscouraged mining of the metals and minerals otherthan coal and iron except as a means to this end,i.e. coinage, and sometimes the payment of troops.Chinese coinage has been based on copper for 25centuries, but the currency has frequently beenlargely non-metallic. During the early periods thecowrie shell constituted the only medium ofexchange. Since the beginning of the 9th centurypaper currency has been largely used.The rough and ready methods of the miner havesecured for him calumniators as plentiful in Chinaas elsewhere, and Chinese Emperors Were on manyoccasions in doubt as to whether it would be betteraltogether to prohibit mining, with its necessaryassembling of "bad characters" or not. On severaloccasions they actually did prohibit mining. About220 A.D. metallic currency was abolished by Imperialdecree. In 1227 a.d. the Mongol authoritiesprohibited the mining and smelting of gold, silver,copper, iron, cinnabar and tinstone. In 1023 a.d.officials were appointed in different localities toprohibit mining. K'ang Hsi prohibited mining bya decree issued in 1703 a.d., and until his deathcontinued to discourage it for fear of riots anddisturbances. As late as 1854 a Censor urged theEmperor to forbid mining, but the Empire being insevere financial straits, his suggestion was politelyrejected.Mining also suffered from the imposition ofexcessive taxes by the Emperors. In 1266 a.d.Khubilai Khan ordered that the miners in certainalluvial gold mines should give up the whole of Ihegold v/on. In 1680 a.d., under K'ang Hsi gold andsilver mines were ordered to pay 40% of theitproduction as royalty. The same tax was collectedfrom all copper mines in Yiinnan. Sixty yearslater certain mines had to pay 50% of theirproduction as royalty.Even heavier as an impediment to miningwas the hand of mi.smanagement and rapacity, laidon the mines by subordinate officials. This officialcontrol was stigmatised by a commission appointedunder the Emperor Ch'ien Lung as follows :—"Nature has provided us with excellent mineraldeposits. These were capable of producing muchprofit to the people. The officials, thinking thatthere was very much money in mining business,wished to take it for themselves, so that in every374

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNICAMIMTmining district corrupt practices grew up amongstthem, to the very great injury of the people. Forthis reason the rich refuse to devote their capitalto raining, and mining enterprises are graduallyruined.If a capitalist puts his money into mining,before he has gained much profit evil charactersraise complaints against him, with the result thatthe officials banish him to some distant country ortake possession of his belongings, in spite of hiscomplete innocence. It will thus be seen thatChinese mining affairs are exceedingly badlymanaged."*[WILLIAM F. COLLINS, M. Inst. M. & M.]MINI VETS. See Laniidne.MINOR or FRANCISCAN FRIARS. Thefounder of the Mission of the Minor Friars inChina was John of Monte Corvino who is mentionedby several contemporary writers but is chieflyknown to us by his own letters. He was bornabout the year 1247. In 1272 he was already aMinorite and employed in diplomatic service.About 1280 he seems to have gone as a missionaryCO Persia. In 1289 he left Europe as Papal envoyto Khubilai, and reached Khanbalig (Peking) in1294, after Kiiubilai's death. There he madefriends with and converted to the Catholic faith theNestorian king George (v. Nestorian Christians),and, perhaps in consequence 'of this, sufferedpersecution from the Nestorians until George'sdeath in 1298. When he wrote his first letter in1305 he had built one Church at Khanbalig andwas beginning a second. He had bought fortysmall boys whom he had baptized and trainedto sing the services, and had translated boththe Psalms and the New Testament into Mongolor, more probably, Uighur. His second letterwas written in 1306. About 1304 he had beenjoined by a German brother named Arnold.As a result of the reception of his letters sevenbishops were sent by the Pope in 1307 to consecrateJcHN and make him Archbishop and to help himin hie work. After immense hardships three ofthese—Gerard, Peregrine, and Andrev^ of Perugia—seemto have reached Khanbalig in the year1313. They consecrated John, and then we hearno more of them except as bishops successivelyof Zaitun or Ch'iian-chou ^i^H in Fukien, wheretwo or three Churches were built. From Zaitun,in 1326, Andrew wrote a most interesting letterwhich is preserved with John's two letters in acontemporary Chronicle (MS. Latin 5006 in theBibliotheque Nationale, Paris) which has not beenprinted in full. John of Monte Corvino died atKhanbalig about the year 1329, and was buriedthere. The Missions both at Khanbalig and atZaitun are mentioned by Odoeic, c, 1326, and by» Wen Hsicn T'ling K'ao.John de Marignolli, 1342-47, but nothing moreof importance is known of them. A successor toJohn, named Nicholas, was appointed in 1333,but died, c. 1339, before he reached KhanbaligJames of Florence, Archbishop of Zaitun, sufferedmartyrdom in central Asia in 1362 ; and themissions did not survive the Mongol dynasty.Near Ch'iian-chou three stones engraved withcrosses were found in the 17th century. Thewoodcuts of these published at Hang-chou in 1644,and the photograph of one which still survives{T'oung-pao, 1914) show very marked Buddhistfeatures combined with the crosses. The fruit ofthis heroic effort of the Minor Friars seems tohave been small. Numbers of heathen, Andrewtells us, were baptized, "but being baptized theywalk not rightly in the way of Christianity."Franciscan Missions are of three divisions(i) Spanish Missions. P. Pierre de Alfaro foundedthe Convent of N. D. des Anges in' Macaoin 1580. There was also a convent in Formosa from1636 till the taking of the island by the Dutch in1642. Spanish Franciscans came to Fukien in 1635and only left it finally in 1863. At Chi-nan fu inShantung the church of N. D. des Anges was builtin 1661. They had a chapel in Kuangtung in 1674.They worked also in Hainan, in Kiangsi (1687), inChekiang (1700). and in Kiangnan.(ii) Italian Missions. Italian missionaries weresent by the Propaganda, first in 1680, then in 1697.They penetrated as far as Lan-chou fu in Kansu.Many Vicars-apostolic of the north-west were drawnfrom their ranks. (iii) Portuguese Franciscans.They had an establishment at Macao, but littleis known of their missionary work. They furnisheda bishop to each of the three dioceses, Macao, Nankingand Peking. See Vicariats; Congregations.Wadding : Annates Minorum, 2nd ed., 1733,etc., and other collections of letters, etc., from thePapal Registers ; Ytjle : Cathay and the Waythither, new ed., London, 1913-16; Pelliot :Chretiens d'Asie Centrale et d' Extreme-Orient, inT'oung-pao, 1914 ; Moxjle : The Minor Friars inChina, in R.A.S. Journal, 1914, 1917.MINT. The first properly equipped mint wasproposed in 1887 in Canton by Chang Chih-tung,who tried to introduce a national currency. It wasready in 1890, the cost being about a million dollars.Within nine years it issued three millions of dollarcoins and forty-eight million dollars in subsidiarypieces.In 1895 Chang Chih-ttjng, transferred fromthe Two Kuang to the Hu Kuang viceroyalty,founded the Wuch'ang silver mint. In 1896 thePeiyang and Foochow mints were established ; thelatter has coined nothing but pieces of ten andtwenty cents. At the end of 1898 there were.875

MISSIONENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAbesidets the above named, mints at Nanking,Hangchow, Anking, Mukden, Kirin and Ch'engtu.Others were projected but not established.The dollars coined have had only a provincialcirculation ; the mints have issued an unlimitedquantity of smaller pieces but have not succeeded inreplacing the Mexican dollar by a national coin.MISSION, in Roman Catholic usage, meansterritory whose evangelization is entrusted to regularpriests under the authority of a Superior appointedby the Superior-general of the Order and removableby him. Such Missions may be outside of anydiocese, as 111, or may be part of a diocese, as thatof the Portuguese Jesuits at Chao k'ing.MISSION AMONG THE HIGHER CLASSESin China. See International Institute.DU COEUR IMMACULEMISSIONAIRESde Marie, 3® f Ij 55. ig 't» •#> Ma-li-ya sheng hsin hui,Missionaries of the Immaculate Heart of Mary ; aCongregation founded in 1861 at Scheut-lez-Bruxelles,and hence often called the Scheut Mission.Their first work was in Mongolia which the Lazaristshanded over to them, 1865. The priests take simplevows, at first for five years (after one year'snoviciate), and then make perpetual profession. Asa rule only Belgians and Dutch are admitted asmembers. The Congregation has a Superior-General,who lives at Scheut. The general agency is atShanghai.The Society has chai'ge of four Vicariats :Central Mongolia, E. Mongolia, W. Mongolia orOrtos, N. Kansu, also one Prefecture-Apostolic,S. Kansu, and one Mission, Hi ; in which there are95,360 Christians.MISSION ARCHEOLOGIQUE DANS LAChine septentrionale ; a mission by M. EdduardChavannes in 1907, subsidized by the FrenchMinistry of Public Instruction, the Academie desInscriptions and the Ecole franjaise de I'ExtremeOrient.The results were published in an album of 1179illustrations (1909) and two parts (up to the present)of volume i of the text (1913 and 1915) with moreillustrations reaching to the number 1739. The workis issued by I'Ecole fran5aise de I'Extreme Orient.Chavannes : Mission Archeologique, etc. 1909-15.MISSIONARY RECORDER, THE, a magazinewhich was first issued in March, 1867, by the Rev.N. L. Wheeler, Foochow. It came to an end after9 months. See Chinese Recorder.MISSION BOOK COMPANY, THE, is aunion of the merchandise and foreign periodicaldepartments of the Presbyterian Mission Press andthe Methodist Publishing House, in Shanghai, eachoC these organizations having equal shares in thecapital of the new company.It was organized earlyin April, 1915, and began business on the first ofMay of that year.MISSION LYONNAISE, LA, was a missionof commercial exploration, sent out in 1895 by theChamber of Commerce of Lyons, in conjuncbiouwith five other Chambers, It embarked at Mar-'seilles on September 15, 1895, and returned inSeptember, 1897. The chief of the Mission wasConsul E. RocHER until his health compelled himto return to France; he was succeeded by H.Brenier on May 3, 1896. The Mission travelled,in different groups, from Tonkin to Hankow andfrom the Tibetan border to Canton, covering in all20,895 kilometres. The results of the Mission werepublished in a handsome volume.La Mission Lyonnaise, Lyon, 1898.MISSION PRESSES. The earliest (Protestant)Press for the Chinese was set up at Malaccaby the London Missionary Society, and was workedin connection with its College there. It was afterwardsremoved to Hongkong, and among its superintendentswere Drs. Chalmers, Legge and Eitel.In the early days wooden blocks, characters cut inmetal, and with the punches invented by Rev.Samuel Dyer, were all in use. The press was soldto a Chinese company in 1879. The L.M.S, alsoestablished in the early days a printing pr-ess inJava under Dr. Medhurst, and after the openingof Shanghai it was removed there, and was at firstunder Dr. Medhurst and then under Dr. Wylie. Itwas this press which printed the Delegates' Versionof the New Testament. Money was subscribed inEngland to scatter a million copies, and threemachines to be driven by bullocks were sent out toprint them, but the machines were not satisfactoryand most of the work was done by hand-presses.In 1860, when the American Presbyterian MissionPress was moved to Shanghai the L.M.S. gave Updoing this kind of work. The American Boardstarted a Mission Press in Canton under Dr.Bridgman, wooden blocks being first used, butmovable types were afterwards introduced withDyer's matrices. Dr. S. Wells W^illiams was atone time in charge of this press, which was destroyedin 1858 by fire when the missionaries had beenexpelled. Ten years later, a press was set up inPeking with the indemnity money paid at Canton.A great deal of work was done for those days, e.g.,1,702,160 pages were printed in 1894. The pressand everything connected with it was destroyed in1900 by the Boxers.Mission Presses at the present date fall intothree main divisions (1) Those which print formissions in general and do not limit their work toany one branch of publication ; (2) those which printchiefly for their own mission, and (3) those which376

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMISSION PRESSESare part of some industrial mission. It is evidentthat (2) and (3) may sometimes overlap.Tlie great Mission Presses in the firstgroup aregiven below :I.—The originator of the Presbyterian MissionPress was the Hon. Walter Lowrie, Secretaryof the A. P.M. (North) from 1837 to 1868, who aftermuch study and expense, had thousands of matricesfor Chinese type cut in Paris, before China wasopened to the foreigners. The press was firstestablished in Macao in 1844. In 1845, it wasremoved to Ningpo, and then to Shanghai in 1860.In 1902-3, the old premises having become utterlyinadequate, new works were built in another partof Shanghai, and in 1917 there are six foreignersconnected with it, and a staff of over 200 Chinesethe output for the year ending June 30th, 1917, was11,302,363 pages in English or bi-lingual, and54,329,020 pages in Chinese.In 1916 the P.M. Press united its sales departmentwith that of the Methodist Publishing Houseto form the "Mission Book Company" (q.v.) andments of the two Presses are in the hands of theMission Boards in U.S.A.II.—The Methodist Mission Press at Foochowwas established in 1862. In 1867, the first numberof the Missionary Recorder, afterwards the ChineseRecorder (q.v.) was printed there. The Press dida great deal of useful work, in printing Scripturesfor the Bible Societies, school-books and colloquialliterature, and in the production of Christianmagazines. In 1903, it was made a branch of theUnited Methodist Publishing House in Shanghai.In 1915, it was sold to a firm of Christian Chinese,the Mission, however, reserving its right to censoritspublications.III.—As early as 1894, the missionaries of theMethodist Episcopal Church and the MethodistEpiscopal (South) Church began to consider a unionMethodist Press, but if was not till 1902 that abasis of union was agreed upon. Business was commencedin 1904 in Shanghai under the style "TheMethodist Publishing House in China." In 1917three foreigners are reported in connection with thiswork, and a Chinese staff varying from about 150to 220 employees acording to the work in hand.Two periodicals, the China Christian Advocate (inEnglish), and the Chinese Christian Advocate (inChinese) are issued monthly ; the former has acirculation of 1,500, and the latter, of over 2,000.For the question of amalgamation with thePresbyterian Mission Press see above.IV.—The Canadian Methodist Mission Press,Chengtu, Ssuch'uan, was established at Kiating in1897, and was moved to the capital in 1903.This Press works in Tibetan, Chinese, HuaMiao, and English, besides printing language lessonsin French and German.In addition to printing forthe various missions of West China, a certainamount of work is done for Chinese schools, andfor non-missionary foreigners. See C. M. Mission.V.—The Chinese Baptist Publication Society atCanton, established 1899, v,'orks for all evangelicalmissions in the province, and publishes two religiousnewspapers in Chinese besides a magazine in English,tracts, Scriptures, etc.A new Publishing House was built in 1912.The chief examples of the second type ofMission Press are :1. The Signs of the Times Publishing House,established in Honan in 1906, and moved to Shanghaiin 1908. This is the property of the Seventh-Day Adventists, and is used only for their ownpropaganda. The paper which gives its name to thepress, had in 1916 an average sale of 60,000 permonth ; and a number of books, and pamphlets arealso issued. See Seventh-Dai/ Adventist Mission.2. The Press of the National Bible Society ofScotland, at Hankow, established in 1885. It wasseverely damaged by fire in 1892, and again in 1907.In 1914 it employed 200 workmen, and from itsinception to that date about 18,000,000 Testamentsand portions of Scripture had been produced. Nowork is done, except for the Society itself.3. The Trinity College Press, at Ningpo, belongingto the Church Missionary Society, whichworks in Eomanized colloquial and in character.4. The South China Alliance Press at Wuchow,Kuangsi, established in 1913, by the Christian andMissionary Alliance.5. Weihaiwei Mission Press, begun in 1903.6. Central China Religious Tract SocietyArthington Press, established in 1912, through agift of £2,500 from the Trustees of the ArthingtonFund {q.v.).7. The Evangel Press at Shenchow. Hunan,opened by the Evangelical Association in 1913.8. Union University Press, Weihsien, Shantung,moved from Tengchow 1907-8.The majority of the small presses are parts ofIndustrial work. The principal are :1. Foochow College Press, part of the Industrialwork of the American Board there, founded1889.2. Hinghua (Fukien) Mission Press of theMethodist Episcopal Mission, founded 1896.3. South Chihli Mission Press at Ta-ming fu,Chihli, established 1904.4. Broadcast Tract Press, Changsha, established1897 by the Hunan Faith Mission.5. Knipp Memorial Printing Plant, CantonChristian College, founded in 1914.4837;

MISSIONS ETRANGERESENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA6. Hainan Mission Press, belonging to theA. P.M., established at Kachek, 1904.7. English Presbyterian Mission Press at Swatow,established 1880 ; works almost entirely inromanized vernacular.The Eoman Catholic Church has five larger andfive smaller Presses in China.The five larger are :—1. The Lazarist Press at the Pei T'ang inPeking, which works in Latin, French, Chinese,English, etc.2. The Chihli Catholic Press at Ho-chien fu,working in the above-named four languages.3. Yenchou fu Catholic Pres.s (at ^^iJl^Yenchou fu in Shantung), working in Latin, Chineseand German.4. Zikawei Press, Shanghai, working in French,English, Chinese, etc.5. The Nazareth Press, Hongkong, whichworks in 15 languages.The five smaller presses, which do not issue acatalogue, are situated at Chungking, T'ai-yiian fu,Kalgan, Tsi-nan fu arid Ningpo.The Russian Orthodox Mission has a printingpress at Peking.China Mission Year Book for 1915, p. 516-532Les Missions de Chine et du Japon, 1916.MISSIONS ETRANGERES DE MILAN, aseminary {Seminaire de St. Calcocere) with the samerules and object as the Missions Etrangeres de Paris,founded in 1850. The Propaganda has entrusted toit three Vicariats in China, namely Hongkong,S. Honan and N. Honan. There is a Superior-General, the Director of the Seminary at Milan.The Christians number 55,958.MISSIONS ETRANGERES DE PARIS, aSociety of secular priests, who, without being tiedby any religious vow, devote themselves to thepropagation of the Catholic faith in the Far East.It originated about the middle of the 17th century,not by any definite founder but by some Frenchpriests proceeding by invitation to Tonkin to assistthe work of the Jesuits there.It has no Superior-General, but is administered by the heads of thedifferent Missions, who have the title Superior-Major, and by the Directors of its Seminary inParis. The first missionary to reach China Properwas Mgr. Palltj in 1681.All the members of the Society are French.The Society has provided more workers and moremartyrs than any other of the bodies who evangelizethe Far East. More than 160 of its members havebeen made bishops. In China it has under its care12 Vicariats with 462,821 Christians.MISSIONS ETRANGERES DE PARME,properly the Seminary of St. Francis Xavier forForeign Missions ; it was founded by the Archbishopof Parma in 1906 and received the Pope's approval[decretum laudis) in 1906. The first missionarieswere already in China in 1904. The Society hascharge of the one Vicariat of W. Honan, with 5,723Christians.MITFORD.See Freeman-Mitford.MIXED COURT OF SHANGHAI, THE, wasestablished in 1853 by Sir Harry Parkes, theBritish consul.It was a "tribunal for the decisionof cases in which foreigners were either directly orindirectly interested ... in which due attentionto foreigners' interests might be secured by thepresence of their representatives, while the jurisdictionof the native authorities was left untouched."As a Police Court it was to consist of a Chineseofficer, sitting alone, to try purely native casesarising in the Settlement and brought before himby the Municipal police ; it was a branch of theCity magistrate's ofllice, but it was intended to bemade independerit so as to avoid possible revisionof decisions by the superior officer away from theCourt.In criminal charges by foreigners againstChinese the Chinese magistrate was to deliverjudgement alone, but a Consular Assessor was tobe present with the right to stay proceedings. Forconvenience' sake it became the custom for theBritish Assessor to sit twice a week, an officer fromthe American Consulate twice a week and one fromthe German Consulate once a week.At the beginning there was constant troublethrough the Chinese magistrate being of insufficientrank for his work ; he was flouted and intimidatedand foreigners found it useless to bring civil casesto a Court where a just judgement either could notbe obtained or could not be enforced.Mayers : Treaties.MODEL SETTLEMENT, THE, a term user!by Shanghai people for Shanghai, with more or les?justice.MOGES, LUDOVIC JOSEPH ALFRED,Marquis of, was born in Paris in 1830, and becameattached to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Hewas appointed as a secretary in the Mission of BaronGros to China in 1857, and wrote an account ofthe Mission, Souvenirs d'une Ambassade en Chine,etc.,(I860), which has been translated into English.MOHAMMEDANISM. The first officiallyrecorded embassy from Arabia to China was ina.d. 651, but there were probably earlier Arabvisitors to the Court. Mohammedan armies earlymade their triumphant advance into Central Asia,378

and China was constantly affected by their movements.It was, however, not an attacking armywhich first entered China, but a body of troops sentby the Caliph in 757 in response to the appeal ofthe T'ang Emperor Su Tsung to help him againstrebels. These soldiers, whose number is uncertain,remained in China, married Chinese wives, and aresupposed to be the nucleus of the present Mohammedanbody. In the mass of Mohammedan legend,much of it absurdly incorrect, and in the paucity ofChinese references, the exact time and manner ofthe entrance of Islam into China must remain uncertain.Parkeui says, "None of their [Chinese]histories record a single word about the introductioninto China of the Mohammedan faith."[China and Religion, p. 139). But frequent intercoursein the T'ang and succeeding dynasties isrecorded, and with the people the religion also cameand spread.Of the Mohammedan monuments in China thetablet in Hsi-an fu claims to be the oldest.ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAIt bearsthe date corresponding to a.d. 742, and claims tobelong to a mosque erected at that time. It is byforeign scholars regarded as undoubtedly false ; butit is important as being the basis of much ChineseMoslem tradition. In Canton there is anothertradition that the first mosque in China was builtthere by Mohammed's maternal uncle, whose tombis near. He is said to have been sent to China in628 ; but it seems hardly likely that while thereligion was being persecuted in Arabia, and Meccawas still uncaptured, emissaries would be sent tofar-away China. In spite of monuments and traditionsthere seems little hope of finding anythingvery definite about the coming of Islam.After the victories of Khubilai Khan Mohammedanismcame with trade, not only to Canton butto Fukien and Kiangsu. The Emperor also onwinning Yiinnan sent a Mohammedan to administerthe province. The natives were thensavage, but the minister's wise rule was such thatMarco Polo says the whole population of Yiinnanwas Mohammedan. Through the province of KansuChina has conquered Mohammedan peoples inCentral Asia and these have at times flowed intoChina.During the last two centuries, that is, since theManchu dynasty ruled and never before, therehave been several serious Mohammedan rebellions,which were not, however, to be regarded as religiouswars. After some less important risings, (1818,1826, 1834), the most serious broke out in 1855 andlasted for eighteen years. This was the Panthay orYunnan rebellion. It is estimated that a millionlives were lost, and the province has not even yetrecovered its earlier prosperity.Another great rebellion, known as the TunganIrebellion, broke out in 1862 in Kansu and Shensi,379MOLEand was not quelled till Tso Tsung-t'ang ^^'^arrived on the scene in 1870. It has been statedthat in this rebellion the population of Kansu wasreduced from fifteen millions to one million. Asan outcome to some extent of this rebellion therefollowed the troubles in Kashgaria and other partsof the Empire in Central Asia. Yakoob Beg [q.v.)made himself master of the situation and ruled anindependent state for 12 years. At the time com-'petent observers expressed the fear that China itselfwould be transformed into a Moslem power. ButTso Tsung-t'ang in a remarkable campaign crushedthe rebellion and recovered the cities by 1877. Ithas been estimated that ten million lives were lost.The number of Mohammedans in China hasbeen very variously estimated. In Moslem authoritiesit is found as high as 80 millions ; de Thiersantgives it as 20 millions ; Palladius as 5 to 4 millions.A very careful inquiry has been made byBroomhall, and his estimate, founded on figuresreceived from 200 correspondents all over theEmpire, is 5 millions as a minimum and 10 millionsas a maximum.The increase of them is due to the birth ratenot to proselytising, and to the purchase of childrenin famine times to be brought up in their religion.They hold tenaciously to their religion in itsexternal sense, iJut its doctrines sit lightly on them,or they could not take office and worship the tabletof the Emperor, As the Koran may not be translated,as they insist on circumcision, and as theychew pork, they cay hardly attract many Chineseinto their faith ; but neither do they rouse any antipathiesby their religious practices.Broomhall : Islam in China, 1910 ; Deveria :Origine de I'lslamisme en Chine; De Thiersant :Le Mahometisme en Chine, 1878 ; Rocher : LaProvince Chinoise du Yunnan, (vol. ii).MO HSI ^S-The favourite concubine ofChieh, last ruler of the Hsia dynasty. She hadbeen presented to the Emperor by the conqueredchieftain of Yu-shih ^ Jg in modern Shantung,Chieh indulged in such excesses because of her thatshe may be said to have caused the downfall of thedynasty.See Chieh Kuei.MOKANSAN ^^Ul, translatedby some as'don't worry mountain,' a favourite summer resort,especially for residents of Chekiang and Kiangsuprovinces. It is 30 miles north of Hangchow and150 miles from Shanghai. It is about 2,000 feet inaltitude, and in 1917 has 116 houses, with apopulation of 716, including 286 children.MOLE, belonging to the order Insectivora.Six species are found in N. China and neighbouringdistricts, viz.,Mogera rohusta, Manchuria; M. woguracoreana, Corea ; Scapanulus oweni, S.W, Kansu

jMOLERATENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAS. Upturns, Chihli ; S. moschatus, Inner MongoliaS. gilliesi, Shansi, Ordos.SowERBY : Mammals of North China, N.C.B.R.A.S. Journal, vol. xvlii.MOLERAT. See Spdacidoe.MOLLENDORFF, PAUL GEORGE, Von.Born at Gorlitz in 1848, he died at Ningpo in 1901.From 1869 he was in the Chinese Customs in China orKorea, except for a short time when he was GermanConsul at Tientsin. He published a Manual ofChinese Bibliography, Shanghai, 1876, {q.v.) ; TheFamily Law of the Chinese, Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S.,vol. xiii and vol. xxvii, (translated into Frenchalso) ; a translation from the German of Faber'sSystematical Digest of the Doctrines of Confucius;and an Essay on Manchu Literature, Journal,N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xxiv.MOM El N, the Burmese name of T'eng-yiieh,{q.v.).MONASTERIES. See Buddhist Monasteries.MONGOL LANGUAGE. A script for Mon-1269 by Baschra actinggolian was invented in a.d,on Khubilat Khan's orders ; and it was based onUighiir.It never became popular, and it was supersededbefore the end of the dynasty by a modificationof Uighiir. Wylie states that no book inMongol has come down to us from the Yiiandynasty, but that there are stone tablets remaining,inscribed in both the characters mentioned. SeeBaschpa.Wylie : Notes on Chi7iese Literature; Giles :China and the Manchus.MONGOLIA, ^-g" Meng hu, a vast and poorterritory, of 1,300,000 square miles' area with only2,500,000 inhabitants. The poverty is due to thewall of mountains (Khingan ^ ^) on its eastern andsouthern boundaries, which shuts out the moistwinds and makes the climate hot and dry in summerand intensely cold in winter. Agriculture isimpossible except in a few spots, and the populationis of necessity nomadic and sparse. The wholecountry is a plateau of 3,000 to 5,000 feet above sealevel,from which a descent is made in everydirection by passes in the surrounding wall ofmountains. The only exception to this statementis the Tarim basin in the west, which is lower thanthe Mongolian plateau on its north but has the loftyTibetan plateau to the south.This valley, however,does not make part of the political division ofMongolia, though geographically one with it.The whole of the interior is marked on somemaps as the Gobi Desert or Sha mo. It is, however,not all level steppe, for spurs of the Altai range jutinto it, and lower hills cross it in many directions.Nor is the desert a sandy waste except in thesouth-west ; three-fourths of it is grass-land, thoughnot all equally rich, and on the borders in themountain valleys there are trees and water inabundance.The Mongols were originally a Tartar tribe,whose home was along the upper course of theAmur, between the Onon and Kerulon rivers. Thename Mongol means ' brave men.' Coming southin a.d. 1135 they first destroyed the Chin ^ powerand ultimately subjugated the whole of China.(See Yuan dynasty and Khubilai Khan).Modern Mongolia is divided into Inner ^ 7ieiand Outer ^ wai; the former south of the GobiDesert and marching with China Proper and Manchui'ia,the latter having its boundaries on the northand west coterminous with Russia. The InnerMongols are known, from their military division, asthe Forty-nine Banners; they represent (with theCh'ahar tribe. v. infra) the parts of the race whichmost readily submitted to the Manchu invaders ofChina. Their military organisation is directlydescended from that adopted by Chenghis Khan'ssuccessors. The forty-nine banners include twentyfourtribes, among which are two Khalka tribesfrom Outer Mongolia. The six leagues whichmake up the forty-nine banners, with the names ofthe tribes in each league, may be found in full inMayers' Chinese Government, 3rd ed. p. 88. TwoMilitary Governors-General, one at Jehol, one atKalgan, control Inner Mongolia, depending in civilmatters on the Viceroy of Chihli.The outer Mongols are either Khalkas orKalmuks. The Khalkas are the tribes which submittedto the Manchus much later than the tribes ofthe forty-nine banners. Their banners (includingtwo with the Inner Mongols) nimiber eighty-six.The centre of administration for the northern andeastern tribes is Urga; for the western, Uliasut'ai.The Khalka Khans send annual tribute to Pekingconsisting of 'Nine whites,' that is, eight horses anda camel, and pure white.The Kalmuks are the tribes further west ; theChinese name for them is M '^ 'Hf lu te, Oelot,turned by French missionaries into Eleuth. Theyonce made the independent nation of Sungaria, includingmodern Hi ; but were overthrown byK'ang Hsi and Ch'ien Lung. The tribe names(six) may be found in Mayers, (y.s.).There are twenty-nine banners (all but onebeing Kalmuk in origin) in the region of Ko-ko-norand on the northern borders of Tibet. These areCh'ing hai Meng hu ^^H'S' Ch'inghai (Ko-ko-nor)Mongols. There are thirty-four banners, Kalmukby descent, called Mongols of Alashan P^ ti # ^"S"they occupy the country north of Ninghsia (Kansu),west of the Yellow River.Another division is the Nomad Herdsmen jg'^iftThese are the tribes nearest the capital, immediately380

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMORRISON, JOHNbeyond the Great Wall.The Manchus forbade agricultureto them,—hence their name, and do not rulethem by titular Princes. It is within their territoryIthat the imperial pasturages were situated for rearingflocks, herds, horses and camels for the imperialhousehold. The more important tribes in thisdivision are the Ch'a-har and Bargu tribes.There are various other tribes or remnants oftribes,—the Hasak B^H;^, Khassak (Cossack) orKirghis; the Buriats (subject to Russia), etc. SeeMongol language.HowoRTH : History of the Mongols and otherworks; Prjevalsky : Mongolia, etc.; Cordieb'sBibliotheca Sinica gives 42 columns to works onMongolia.MO-NI.SeeMdjii.MONKEYS. Three species are found inN. China, Macacus tibetanus on the borders ofKansu and Ssuch'uan and Tibet; M. tschiliensis,a rare animal only seen in the forests near theEastern Tombs in ChUili; and Rhinopithecusroxellance, in W. Ssuch'uan and Kansu. The skinof the last-named is much valued by the Chinese,and it is said that at one time only members of theImperial family were entitled to wear it.In Swinhoe's list of Mammals south of theYangtze he mentions Hylobates sp., a black Gibbonsupposed to exist in Kuangtung and known inHainan ; Macacus sancti-johannis, a rock-monkeyfound on islands near Hongkong ; M. cyclopis, theFormoian Rock-monkey ; and M. erythrceus in Hainan.The list is old, and these names have no doubtbeen changed.SowERBY : Recent Research, Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii; Swinhoe : Catalogue of ChineseMammals, P.Z.S., 1870.MONSOON, said to be derived from the Arabicmausim, 'season,' a trade wind in the East IndianOcean, blowing in one direction for six, (or in somecases for three months), then in the oppositedirection for the same period. As far as the 30thdegree of latitude such winds are constant andperiodical all round the globe.MONSTER OF TRADE. See Go-hong.MONTECORVINO. See John of MonteCorvino.MOORMEN, formerly a common foreign namein Canton for the natives of India who came therefor trade. The Chinese call them 'white headpeople' ^ IS A pai t'ou jen, probably because ofthe turban.MORRISON EDUCATION SOCIETY, THE,was founded in September, 1836, in memory ofDr. Morrison "to improve and promote Educationin China by Schools and other means." It raiseda fund of about $13,000, and with the interest andwith annual subscriptions it supported a school ofits own, first in Macao, then in Hongkong ; but manyof its earlier patrons became scattered when otherports were opened and the accumulation of debtcaused the disbanding of the school in 1846. Theinterest of the Fund cleared off the debt by 1853.The income was then devoted to grants in aid ofvarious schools.MORRISON, GEORGE ERNEST, was bornin the Colony of Victoria on February 4, 1862 andwas educated at the Melbourne and EdinburghUniversities, graduating in medicine in 1887. Hehas travelled widely, his first great journey beingacross Australia on foot, from the Gulf of Carpentariato Melbourne, in 1882-3. In 1883, he was inNew Guinea, where he was speared and almost killedby natives. In 1894, he went from Shanghai toRangoon by land, and in 1896, from Bangkok toYiinnan fu. The next year he crossed Manchuria,381going from Stretensk.to Vladivostock ; and in 1910ha rode 3,750 miles from Honan fu to Andijan inRussian Turkestan. He was in Peking through thesiege of the Legations, and in 1905 accompanied theJapanese in their triumphal entry into Port Arthur.From November, 1895 to September, 1912 hewas correspondent for The Times, first in Indo-China, Siam and the Shan States, afterwards, fromFebruary, 1897, in Peking. In 1912 he acceptedthe appointment of Political Adviser to the ChineseGovernment, and still holds that post in 1917. Forthe famous library he collected see TAbraries.Except his correspondence to The Times hisonly published work is ^n Australian in China,(1895).MORRISON, JOHN ROBERT, second son ofDr. Morrison the missionary, was born at Macaoin 1814. After being educated for a short time inEngland he returned to Macao and received furtherteaching in the Anglo-Chinese College at Malacca.Then he acted as interpreter in Canton, and on hisfather's death succeeded him as Chinese secretaryand interpreter to the Superintendents of Britishtrade. He was always an active helper in missionarywork. In accordance with his father's wish hebegan the revision of the Chinese translation of theScriptures, and was later associated with Medhubst,GiiTZLAFF and Bridgman in producing a newversion.He died at Macao in 1843.His writings are. Some Account of Charms,Talismans, etc., London, 1833; Companion to theAnglo-Chinese Calendar, 1832; A Chinese CommercialGuide, Canton, 1834. (Later editions ofthis were re-modelled by S. W. Williams).(Wylie) : Memorials of Protestant Missionariesto the Chinese, p. 10.

MOl^RISON, ROBERTENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMORRISON, ROBERT; the pioneer of ProtestantMissionary work in China. He was bornin Northumberland in 1782. In his youth, whichwas spent in Newcastle, though he worked atbusiness twelve or fourteen hours a day, he beganthe study of Latin, Greek and Hebrew, paying ateacher's fees out of his scanty earnings. Later on,he entered the Dissenting College at Hoxton, (nowHighbury College), and having been accepted bythe London Missionary Society, was sent to theMissionary Academy at Gosport. He then studiedsome medicine and some astronomy and took somelessons in Chinese. He copied a manuscript ChineseNew Testament in the British Museum, and in 1807made the journey to Canton via New York in sevenmonths.The difficulties here met with were the oppositionof Chinese to his residence, the prohibition toChinese to teach the language to foreigners, thehostility of the Roman Catholic priests in Macao,and the strict regulations of the East IndiaCompany. However, in spite of all difficulties, hewas able to print the entire Scriptures in Chinesein 1824, Marshman's translation having appearedtwo years earlier in Serampore. This was madepossible by his accepting an official position in1809,—the post of Chinese translator to the EastIndia Company. He completed a Chinese grammarin 1812, a dictionary of Chinese in 1814, and anotherof the Canton dialect. In 1816, he accompaniedLord Amherst's embassy to Peking as interpreter,and in 1823 went to England for a furlough of twoyears. He baptized the first Protestant Chineseconvert in July, 1814, at Macao; after 25 years'labour, the converts were ten in number. He diedat Canton, August, 1834, and was buried at Macao.(Morrison) : Memoir, by his widow, 1839.MORRISON (Ship). The American shipMorrison made a voyage to Japan, leaving Macaoon December 3, 1836, with the object first, of carryingback seven Japanese sailors shipwrecked on theChina coast, next, of opening up friendly relationswith Japan. S. Wells Williams, Dr. PeterParker, C. W. King and Karl Gutzlaff were themen who made this attempt. Beyond landing theshipwrecked sailors the mission was a failure. Itwas 56 days absent. C. W. King's notes of thevoyage form the first volume of the work namedbelow. See also Eimmaleh.The Claims of Jajtan and Malaysia upon Christendom,etc., New York, 1839.MORSE, HOSEA BALLOU, was born in NovaScotia, July 18, 1855, and is an American citizen.He entered the Chinese Maritime Customs Servicein August, 1874. In 1879 he was sent to theLondon Office of the Service, where he remainedfor three years. Returning to China he held variousposts, being in 1896 Commissioner at Lungchow,and later at Pakhoi, Hankow and Canton. From1904 to 1907 he was Statistical Secretary inShanghai. During this last term he introducedmany reforms into the statistical procedure of theCustoms, and increased the efficiency of therecording staff and the value of the returns issued.Mr. Morse is a graduate of Harvard ; holds thedecoration of the Double Dragon, Third Division,First Class (1904); and Civil Rank of the SecondClass (1908).He left China at the end of 1907 and resignedtwo years later.He is the author of some important works :The Trade and Administration of the ChineseEmpire; The Gilds of China; and The InternationalRelations of the Chinese Empire. The last-namedwork covers "The Period of Conflict." It is understoodthat a second volume continuing the historydown to the present is ready for publication.MOSS, MICHAEL, a delegate sent by theHongkong Chamber of Commerce to explore theWest River in 1870. He went as far as Nan-ning.Narrative and Commercial Report of an Explorationof the West River, etc., Hongkong, 1870.MOSSMAN, SAMUEL, editor of the NorthChina Herald at the time of the T'ai P'ingrebellion, and editor of General Gordon's PrivateDiary of his Exjiloits in China, the diary havingbeen given to him by Gordon at the time. He hasalso published a story. The Great T'ai P'ingRebellion.Mobsman : General Gordon's Private Diary,etc., London, 1885.MOST FAVOURED NATION CLAUSE.This first appeared in the British SupplementaryTreaty signed at the Bogue, October 8, 1843, beingin Art. VIII, where it read . . . "should the"Emperor hereafter, from any cause whatever, be"pleased to grant additional privilegeis or immunities"to any of the subjects or citizens of such foreign"countries, the same privileges and immunities"will be extended to and enjoyed by British"subjects; ..."This Treaty was abrogated in 1858, by the firstArticle in the Tientsin Treaty of June 26 in thatyear ; but this clause is there reported and amplifiedin Article LIV. It reads a* follows : . . . "it is"hereby expressly stipulated that the British"Government and its subjects will be allowed free"and equal participation in all privileges, immuni-"ties and advantages that may have been, or may"be hereafter granted by His Majesty the Emperor"of China to the Government or subjects of any"other nation."There was a slight extension of this in 1869 byth

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMOXAThis clause has naturally been inserted in treatiesof almost every other Power with China.MOTACILLIDAE, a family of the Passeres;it comprises the 'Wagtails and Pipits. Motacillaleucopsis is found everywhere in China in hillycountry. M. hodgsoni, Hodgson's Pied Wagtail,has been tc'cen in Ssuch'uan and in S. Shensi.M. ocularis, the Streak-eyed Wagtail, is abundantall over China. M. lugens winters in S. China,passing through China on migration. M.bnicalensis is found in the western provinces, inmigration, has been taken at Shaweishan andoccurs at Peking. M. melanope, the Grey Wagtail,is found all over China and in Mongolia. M. flava,the Blue-headed Wagtail, is quite common in Chinaand Mongolia. M. taivana is an allied species withthe last ; it is found in Hainan, Formosa, andFukien, and passes through E. China on migration.M. borealis, the Eastern Grey-headed Wagtail, isseen on passage and is very abundant in N. China.M. citreola, the Yellow-headed Wagtail, is foundin summer in China and Mongolia, in Chihli, theOrdos, and in the valley of the Yangtze, accordingto P. David. It breeds on the upper Yangtze.Limonidromus indicus, the Forest Wagtail, insmall numbers; it nests in the mountains of W.and N. China, and is a common migrant. Anthusjaponicus, the Japanese Water-Pipit, is a commonbird, found in Chihli in the winter. A. hlahistoni,winters in N, China to the Yangtze. A. cervinus,the Red-throated Pipit, a migrant, wintering inS. China. A. rosaceus, Hodgson's Pipit, has beentaken at Mu-p'in. A. maculatus is common everywherein China and winters abundantly in S.China. A. gustavi, passes through Eastern Chinaon migration. A. richardi, Richard's Pipit,winters in S. China and passes through China onmigration ; it is found in Chihli at the time ofpassage and nests in Mongolia and the Ortos.Oreocori/s sylvanus, [G. kiangsinensis Da v.) hasbeen taken in Kiangsi, Fukien and W. China.Agrodroma goldlewsliii has been found in Manchuriaand on the Ala-shan.David et Oxjstalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine.MOTI. SeeMoTzu.MO TZU, also, Meh Tzu, Mih Tzu or Mu Tzu^^, sometimes Latinized as Micius, a philosopherof the period between the time of Confucius andthat of Mencius. His name was ^ ^. Mo Ti.Mencius vigorously combated his doctrines, and inthe opinion of orthodoxy, put them out of court forever. HsiiN Tzu also attacked him, though lessviolently. His works, as we have them, are in63 books or chapters, others having been lost. Theywere probably collected, if not written, by his disciplesafter his death. The text is in parts so corruptas to be quite unintelligible, the reason being thatafter hjs immediate followers died, he was totallyneglected for some centuries. The parts which areclear, show a methodical arrangement of argumentsexceedingly rare in early Chinese literature. Onethirdof the work deals with the science of fortification.His chief doctrine is Utilitarianism of thekind associated with John Stuart Mill, and"Universal Love" is the foundation of his Ethics.He offended his countrymen's sense of filial piety byinveighing against costly funerals; he condemnedmusic, as having no practical value; he combatedfatalism, and abominated war ; and though he seemsto advocate the practical to an exceedingly practicalpeople, yet the Chinese from Mencius downward,have dismissed his ideas as unpractical and impracticable.His views on the nature of the SupremeBeing, to whom he attributes the will, intelligence,and feeling which compose personality, and thedoctrine of Universal Love above-mentioned, makehim the Chinese thinker most akin to Christianitya fact clearly perceived by the Chinese when theChristian religion came to China and used as anargument against it.His works have not been translated, but Faberhas given the whole of his doctrine in a free translationwith remarks in The Doctrine of the PhilosopherMicius, in German,—rendered into Englishby Dr. Kupfer, Shanghai, 1897; and Alex. Davidwrote on him in French in 1907. Some interestingselections are given by Suzuki.Suzuki : History of Chinese Philosophy;Legge : Chinese Classics, vol. ii, prolegomenap. lOZet seq.MOU or MU, "Dt, the Chinese unit of landmeasure, generally translated acre. A mou inShanghai was defined by H.B.M. Consul in 1861 asthe equivalent of 7,260 square feet English. Likeall Chinese measures it varies in different parts ofthe country, and even in the same district two ormore sizes of mou may be in use. Thus while7,260 sq. ft. Eng. make the mou at Shanghai, 5,000and other figures up to 32,000 are given as the sizeof the mou in other districts when turned intoEnglish square feet.The importance of this to the reader is thatwriters often speak of the yield of crops per acrewithout giving any assurance that they have carefullyinquired into the size of the local mou. TheShanghai measure, which gives 6 mou to oneEnglish acre, is only good for Shanghai, and noteven for the neighbourhood of Shanghai, far lessfor other provinces.Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xxiv, Currencyand Measures in China.MOXA, "^'X oi huo, is distilled from Blumeabalsamifera, and is a product of the Nanning andPose districts of Kuangsi. It is marketed in the383

MUENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAform of a greyish-white powder, used in medicineand perfumery. The price is as high as Tls. 200per picul. The Materia medica says that moxa isthe powdered leaves of Artemisia vulgaris, themugwort. It is used in pellets for cauterizingsores, etc. Artemisia itself is used as a charm, andfor a great variety of diseases.Customs Report.MU %,. There was a King Mu, Mu Wang,ruler of the Chou empire, B.C. 984; there was alsoa Duke Mu, Mu Kung, ruler of the Ch'in State,B.C. 650.With the Bnnboo Books (q.v.) there was discoveredan account of a journey made by Mu Wangto the far west, as far as Hsi wang mu [q.v.].This has generally been regarded as a great exploitcf the Emperor. Chavannes, however, acceptingthe account as historic, believes the adventurebelonged to the Duke, and that the Tarim valleywas the limit of his journey,Parker : Ancient China Simplified, c. xxxv.MUIRHEAD, WILLIAM, for 53 years amissionary of the London Missionary Society, wasborn at Leith, 1822, and died at Shanghai, 1900.He reached China in 1847, was made D.D. ofEdinburgh University in 1894, published manyworks in Chinese and some sermons in English,besides China and the Gospel (1870).MUKDEN, the Manchu name of the city whichFeng-t'ien ^^, Sheng-ching |S^,the Chinese callShen-yang ^ |^ and Sheng-yang ^ P^. It wasformerly the capital of Manchuria, and is now thecapital of the province of Feng-t'ien. In 1621 itwas taken from the Chinese by Nurhachu, and hemade it his capital in 1625. The city is square, thewalls being ten miles in length ; and, as in Peking,there is an inner wall surrounding the old imperialpalace. The tombs of the first two emperors of theManchu dynasty, T'ai Tsu and T'ai Tsung, arehere or near here, and the later emperors used tocome to offer the sacrifices to ancestors ; but the lastwho visited Mukden was Chia Ch'ing in 1804.At the beginning of the Russo-Japanese warthe Russians made Mukden a great stronghold andwere only driven from it after a great battle.Hence, though the place was opened to foreigntrade by the Treaty with the United States andJapan in 1903, it was not till 1906 that the openingreally took place. It is noted for its skin and furtrade, which is however showing a tendency to gofurther north as the forests are cut down ; theFushun and Penhsihu coal mines are in closeproximity ; the oil-milling industry is importantthere is a large tobacco factory and numeroussmaller industries. A Goverrment AgriculturalStation exists, and the surrounding country is notedfor its wealth in beans and grain.The population in November, 1915, was 178,000,of whom nearly 3,000 were Japanese, otherforeigners (excluding some Koreans) being 177.Mukden is an important stfktion on the SouthManchurian Railway, being the junction of the mainline from Dairen and that from Antung. It is alsothe terminus of the line from Tientsin.The following have been British Consuls-General at Mukden since the post was establishedin 1916.1916, August 6, Harry English Fulford.1911, January 20, Pierre Frederick Hausser.(Did not proceed).1911, May 25, William Henry W^ilkinson.1913, October 1, P. E. O'Brien Butler.Richard : Comprehensive Geography of theChinese Empire; Pl.\yfair : The Cities and Townsof China.MU LAN 7J^|@, a celebrated heroine of thefifth century a.d. Her father, a military official,being called to active service on the frontier wasprevented by severe sickness from going to his post,and in order to save him from disgrace or distress,she disguised herself and took his place, servingfor twelve years without her sex being discpvered.Giles : Biographical Dictionary.MUMMIES. The usual though not universalway of disposing of dead Buddhist monks is bycremation (q.v.), but distinguished and saintlyabbots and others are sometimes embalmed andgilded, and exposed to the gaze of pilgrims. InTibet the bodies of the Grand Lamas are thuspreserved and exposed for a long time before beingput in a gilded tomb. The Chinese practice wasprobably borrowed from Tibet. Three such mummiesmay be seen on Mei shan, and one onChiu Hua shan.Yetts : Notes on the Disposal of BuddhistDead, R.A.S. Journal, 1911; Johnston: BuddhistChina.MUNDAY, PETER, a merchant who accompaniedWeddell's exploration [q.v.]. He kept adiary of the chief events of the voyage, which isnow extremely interesting to read and of greatvalue. He was a great traveller in Europe and Asiaand made copious notes. These are now beingedited and published by the Hakluyt Society, butthe diary of his journey to China is not yet ready.The manuscript is in the Bodleian Library atOxford. Fames : The English in China.MU P'ING pjciip also Moupin, etc., locallycalled Mu Ptchi, a town and district lying betweenChina and Tibet.It is one of the many semi-independent stateswhich are ruled by hereditary princes and paytribute to China, (see T'u ssu), and is perhaps384

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMUSICthe most important of such. The town has abouttwo hundred families; the district or principalityabout twelve thousand, or some 80,000 people. Ofthese a fair proportion are Chinese, the nativeelement being Kiarung, with traces of Tibetan immigrations.The prince has power over bothChinese and Mantzu, even to execution by strangulation.He pays tribute in Peking every five yearsand to the Viceroy of Ssuch'uan every three; ordid so under the Manchu rule. It is said that theprincedom was given by K'ang Hsi to a faithfulManchu soldier, whose descendants are now, however,practically pure Mantzu. The prince is aTibetan Buddhist; there is a lamasery in the townwith about twenty lamas of the Yellow sect. Theprincipality is said to have produced a Dalai Lama.The climate is mild ; there are many fine chainsuspension bridges in the district, but the roads areall exceedingly bad.The name is chiefly known to foreigners becauseof P. Armand David's Natural History researchesin the region.MURID/E, the family of rats, mice, hamstersand voles. This is a very large family includingthirty-three species in North China and neighbourhood.Their names and distribution are asfollows :Aleriones unguiculatus, Mongolia, N. Shansi,N. Shensi, Ordos ; M. auceps, Shansi, Shensi; M.'psamviofhilm, Shansi, Chihli ; Epimys norvegkussacer, Shensi, Kansu; E. norvegicus caraco, Manchuria; E. confucianus sacer, Shantung ; E. confucianusluticolor, N. Shensi, Shansi; E. confucianuscanorus, Kansu; E. ling, Kansu; Mtis wagneri,Shensi, Kansu; M. wagneri mongoUum, Shansi,N. Shensi; M. wagneri manchu, Manchuria; M'.ganxuensis, Kansu ; Apodemus speciosus peninsulce,Corea to Kansu; A. praetor, Manchuria; A:speciosus giliacus, Saghalien; A. agrarius corece,Corea, Chihli; A. agrarius pallidior, Shansi, Shensi,Kansu; A. agrarius mantchuricus, Manchuria; A.fergussoni, Kansu; Micromys 7n,inutus, S. Shensi;M. minutus ussuricus, Manchuria, Corea; Cricetulusnestor, Manchuria, Corea ; 0. triton, Chihli, ShansiC. triton incanus, Shansi, Shensi ; C. andersoni,Shansi, Shensi, Kansu ; C. griseus. Shantung,Mongolia; C. griseus obscurus, N. Chihli, N.Shansi ; C. griseus fumatus, Manchuria ; Phodopusbedfordice, Ordos, W. Shansi; P. campbelli. InnerMongolia ; Craseomys regidus, Chihli, Corea, Manchuria; G. shanseius, Shansi ; C. bedfordice, Saghalien; Microtus calamorum superus, S. Shensi ; M.malcolmi, Kansu; M. oniscus, Kansu; M. angustus,Mongolia; M. warringtoni, Mongolia; M. mandarinus,Mongolia, Shansi ; M. johannus, Shansi ; M.pulli/y, Shansi ; M. {Caryomi/s) incz, W. ShansiM. {Caryomys) nux, S. Shensi ; M. (fiaryomys) eva,49385Kansu; M. {Eothenomys) melanogaster , Kansu;M. pellicems, Manchuria; M. limnophilus , Kansu;M. raddei, Mongolia; M. gregalis, Mongolia;Arvicola mongolica, Mongolia; A. amurensis, LowerAmur, Manchuria, Saghalien ; Proedromys bedfordi,Kansu.SwiNHOE names a dozen species of the Musgenus as found south of the Yangtze, and no doubtsome of these will prove on examination to benamed in the above list for the NorthuSowERBY : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlviiSwiNHOE : Catalogue of the Mammals of China.MUSCICAPIDAE, the Flycatchers, a Familyof Passeres. Those known in China are as follows.Terpsiphone incii, common in summer throughoutChina and Manchuria. T. princeps, on thesouthern coasts in passage.Culicicapa ceylonensis,on the Upper Yangtze and in W. Ssuch'uan.Hypothymis azurea, the Indian Black-naped Flycatcher,in S.E. China, Hainan and Formosa.Muscicapula hyperythra, in Formosa. M. macidata,in Yiinnan. M. sapphira, the Sapphire-headedFlycatcher, in S.W. China. Siphia strophiata, theOrange-gorgeted Flycatcher, in S.W. China andin Mu-p'in. Cyornis hodgsoni, the Eusty-breastedBlue Flycatcher, in Mu-p'in, but rare. C. hainana,in S.E. China and Hainan. C. vivida, the RufousbelliedBlue Flycatcher, in Formosa. Stoparolamelanops, the Verditer Flycatcher, in summer inS. China and Mu-p'in. Cyanoptila bella, a migrantthrough China and Manchuria. Niltava sundara,the Rufous-bellied Niltava, in Ssuch'uan. N.davidi, in N.W. Fukien. N. macgrigoriae, inKuangtung. Xanthopygia tricolor, on passagethrough E. China and Manchuria ; found breedingat Chinkiang and in Chihli. X. narcissina, inpassage, S.E. China to the mouth of the Yangtze.Anthipes brunneata, in N.W. Fukien. Siphiaalbicilla, the Eastern -Red-breasted Flycatcher,common throughout China, especially in summer.PoUomyias luteola, on passage through E. China.Hemichelidon ferruginea, the Ferruginous Flycatcher,in summer, in S. China and Mu-p'in, andin Formosa. H. sibirica, the Siberian Flycatcher,on passage through China, Formosa, Hainan.H. griseosticta, and Alseonax latirostris, the BrownFlycatcher, both abundant throughout China insummer. (D. & 0.).David et Oustalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine.MUSIC. Legend states that Fu Hsi inventedmusic, and that Huang Ti systematised it on thebasis of the Pa Kua, commanding his ministerLing Lun j^ "^ to have bamboo tubes {lilS )cut which gave the twelve notes in imitation of thechromatic scale. One tradition states that this wasdone in imitation of the fabulous bird feng-huang,six of the notes being sung by the male bird, feng,

MUSICENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAand six by the female, huang. Another version isthat the fengs were not birds, but a tribe of thatname to the south of the Yangtze, whose singinggave Ling Lun the twelve semitones ; and yet otherexplanations are given. The lea.=t romantic, andprobably most correct tradition, is a numerical one,viz : that the bamboos were cut "according to theterms of a triple procession of twelve numbers,"because the numerical values of perfect fifths hadbeen discovered. The proportions of the successivetubes were three to two, symbolizing the harmonybetween heaven (represented by three) and earth(represented by two) ; and when two tubes of thesame diameter are cut in that proportion, theperfect fifth results, and is indeed represented inWestern music also by the same ratio. The firsttube was 9 inches long, and was called 35 ^huang chung. The sound it emitted was called ^hung, and it became the key-note of a chromaticscale, which, while containing twelve semitones likethe Western scale, was quite untempered, beingformed from perfect fifths.The tubes or lil were stopped at one end. Tothe first series the Chinese added two more, onehigher and one lower. It is impossible to ascertainthe pitch of the ancient huang chung tube ; but thepresent pitch of the chief fixed instruments, e.g.,of the flute, gives a tonic equal to our Western D.in later times, the lit were made of copper, ofmarble, and of jade, instead of bamboo, as lessliable to atmospheric influence.No vestige of the ancient music of China hascome down to us : nothing except some abstrusephilosophizing on its connection with the EightDiagrams, and eulogies of what it could accomplish.We do know, how^ever, that though in their twelvesemitones, the Chinese had all the raw materialfor the most elaborate compositions, and thoughmusic was considered a necessity for good government,in practice five notes only were generallyin use up to about B.C. 1300 ; and these were knownas hung ^, shang ^, chiao pj, chi fe, yu ^,corresponding toU-CoNFUCiTJS, himself a composer, is said to havebeen so moved after hearing a hymn by the greatShun, that for three months he did not taste meat.When Shih Huang-ti ordered the books to beburned, musical instruments and works on musicwere also destroyed ; and Chinese writers lamentthat subsequent music never reached the high levelattained in the ante-Ch'in period. It is probablethat an imperfect system of notation contributedgieatly to the loss of the ancient music, when oncethe succession of teacher and pupil was interrupted.Books and instruments were unearthed when theHan dynasty came to the throne, but the interpretationof the former and the use of the latterwere not clear. However, the ancient scale withits ancient names as handed down from the Chouperiod, was used until the Sung dynasty broughtin a new notation, introduced by the NorthernLiao, a Tartar people ; and this exists at the presentday. It is known as Kung Ch'ih, and its namefor the seven Chou notes are ho -^^ ssu p3, i Zj.shang Ji, ch'ih j^, hung X, fan fl, liu :;^, wu 3E..It is similar to the tonic sol-fa system, in that nomatter what the key, the first note is always ho,the second ssu, and so on. The Mongols of theYiian dynasty brought their own scale with them,in which, as in the Western scale, the first semitoneis between the 3rd and 4th notes. As this causedconfusion, Khxjbilai Khan combined the two thus :and then excluded all the notes producing halftones,thus getting a pentatonic scale whichdiffered from that of the Yin dynasty, as may beseen by comparing that with this :C 3 fThe Ch'ing dynasty in theory went back tothe Mongol scale, as brought by them, beforeKhubilai's compromise was fixed on, thus :c 1 fof our Western notation, (substituting the openkey, for the D which probably was the tonicof ancient China).In the Chou dynasty, two semitones wereadded, known as fien chi g ^J[and pien hungH g, forming a scale equivalent to this :At this time, music was one of the six arts ofeducation; and as an illustration of its power,that is to say, allowing for Inch of Umperameiit,the Western diatonic scale. But in practice, theconfused and confusing half-tones were given up,and whether in ritual or in popular music, onlyfive are employed. In this connection it may besaid that the Chinese never go beyond 14 soundsin a composition.Ching Fang -^Wj in the Han dynasty isstated to have been the first to explain the transpositionof keys; and this is done in a very in-386

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMUSICAL INSTRUMENTSgenious manner by the use of a complicated diagramdrawn up for the purpose. (Van Aalst gives thisin his work on Chinese music). Owing to theuntempered instrument, some keys are much "outof tune"; but the Chinese player, like the singer,flattens or sharpens, in a rough way, as required.The method of writing music is very imperfect,and the written notes are chiefly useful for refreshinga musician's memory : he must hear a tunebefore he can render it ; and it may be so varied bythe tastes of the different performers as to becomeunrecognizable. Chinese music is expressed invertical rows of characters, and the modulatorcontains fourteen notes. Signs are added denotinga higher octave, but there is no definite sys-tem indicatingnote-values. Sometimes a note is writtenlarger to express emphasis ; and sometimes dots areadded to the note to signify its length. A pauseor rest is denoted by a space between two notes, orby little signs (y or x), but they do not expressits value. Theoretically, four-time is the onlymeasure employed, and the beginning of the baris usually marked by a small circle at the side ofthe note. There are no signs for sharps, flats, ornaturals, as such changes are unknown.Harmony, in the Western sense of the word,is not possible with an untempered scale, nor withoutsemitones. But the Tudiments of harmonyexist, for sometimes strings are played together ata distance of a fourth, fifth, or octave. TheChinese mean by "harmony" that the timbre ofdifferent instruments playing the same tune isagreeable to the ear. Sometimes however, singersor instruments may respond to one another infifths, or in octaves.Chinese music was originally sacred, as in otherancient lands; but as eajly as the Shih Chingwe find mention of the court music-masters who setthe folk-songs to music. During the Sui dynasty(581-618) the distinction between sacred and secularmusic was more sharply drawn, and great increaseof instrumental music took place. Modern musicbegan with the T'ang dynasty. Indian music wasintroduced by Buddhist priests. The EmperorMing Huang (a.d. 713) founded a kind of conservatoireat Hsi-an fu, where drama and music werecultivated.The Manchu Emperors K'ang Hsi and Ch'ienLung tried to revive the ancient glory ofmusic, but met with but little success ; and thatwhich had been one of the essentials of educationand good government in the days of Confucius,was despised, and left to courtesans and beggars.There was in Peking a Board of Music, butthe music deemed indispensable at the worship ofHeaven and Earth, and of Confucius (see BitMalMusic), and of ancestors, at funerals, at weddings,and at receptions was all produced by peopledespised for doing it. Amateurs were rare amongthe educated classes.When the foreigner came, he brought hismusic, and it is safe to say it was more hideous tothe Chinese than the Chinese music was to him.Now it has become fashionable at Shanghai andother open ports to have what is thought to beforeign music, i.e., foreign brass instruments playedby Chinese. Some few Chinese have shewn greatappreciation of, and aptitude for. Western music,and it is only a question of time for Chinese torival Occidentals in their love of Western musicand interpretation of it.Van Aalst : Chinese Music; Courant : Musiqueclassique des Chinois (extract from Encyclopedicde la Musique) ; Mrs. T. Richard : Chinese Music ;Amiot : Mhnoire sur la Musique des Chinois.MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS are divided bythe Chinese into eight kinds, corresponding to theeight symbols {pa kua) :— i. Stone ; ii, metaliii, silk or stringed ; iv, bamboo ; v, wood ; vi, skinvii, gourd or wind, and viii, earthen.The chief examples of each are given below.I. Stone Instruments.- y/te Sonorous Stone,T'e Ch'ing ^^, of a blackish colour with whiteveins, is used at Confucian services, being struckat the close of each strophe. Its shape is somewhatlike a carpenter's square.7'Ae Stone Chime, Pien ch'ing i^^, was greatlyesteemed by the ancient Emperors, but it disappearedin the destruction of books, etc., byShih Huang Ti. Under Ch'kng Ti (b.c. 32) acomplete stone chime was found in a pond, andserved as a model for new ones. It is a set ofsixteen stones, used at Confucian rites. Jade isthe best stone for chimes, but a black calcareousstone is usually employed.Flutes were formerly made of marble and jade.In 276 A.u. a jade pipe and a jade flute yii-ti 35 'STyii-hsiao2 ^ were discovered in a tomb. Jadeflutes were also made in the reign of Ch'ien Lung.II. Metal Instruments.—A Bells, Chung^. The Emperor Huang Ti is said to have orderedhis minister Ling Lun to cast twelve bells to correspondwith the twelve Iii ^. According to theChou l\ bell metal should be made of six parts ofcopper to one of tin. The lower edge of clapperlessbells is usually notched.The Great Bell at Peking was cast at the beginningof the 15th century. Its height is 14 feet,diameter of mouth 9-10 feet, thickness about8 inches and weight about 53 tons.It is covered with Chinese inscriptions, bothinside and out.Po Chung If^ is a pointed oval bell used atConfucian rites, struck before each strophe. PienChung H M is a set of 16 barrel-shaped bells hung387

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAwithin a frame, used at Confucian services. HslngErh ^ fg, is a pair of clapperless bells struck againsteach other, used by priests.Ling ^ is the name given to bells with clappers,generally of brass. Small hand-bells are used atservices by Buddhist, Taoist and Lama priests.Fing ling or wind-bells are fastened to thecorners of the eaves of temples, pagodas, pavilionsand sometimes private houses. From the crossshapedclapper hangs a thin brass ornament shapedlike a fish's tail which, when swayed by the wind,swings the clapper.B. Gongs. Tien Tzu Si ^ is a gong of brassor iron suspended at city gates and in temples-,varying from one to four feet in diameter, and ofornamental shape.2^0 01 is a brass gong used on the stage andin processions. Tang tzu ^dp, a flat gong aboutone foot in diameter, and Tang lo^ |g, a gongeight inches in diameter, are used in Buddhist andTaoist worship. Chin ku ^ gt about fourteeninches in diameter, is used in wedding processions.Yiin lo^mis a chime of ten little gongs suspendedin a frame. It is used by Buddhist priests and inorchestras. T'i tang IS®, a brass gong shapedlike a bowl, is used at funerals and also by sweetmeat-sellers.Gong metal should be made by'melting 100catties of red copper with 25 catties of tin.C. Metal Plates. Hsiang fan ^ /^ is anoblong brass plate struck by pedlars and priests.T'ieh fan |g ;K is an oblong iron plate used b>blind fortune-tellers. Po ^ cymbals, are used onthe stage and in temples. A smaller cymbal wasinvented in the later T'ang dynasty, but the largerkind was introduced from India.Ch'ing ^ is a brass bowl struck at Buddhistand Taoist services, about 10-12 inches in diameter.D. Metal Wind Instruments. The Chinesetrumpet, Hao t'ung j^t^, is a cylindrical instrumentof brass or copper with a sliding tube. Its entirelength is about three feet. It is blown at funerals.Sometimes the outer cylinder or bell is made ofwood. The La pa |(ijt7\ is a brass horn, rangingfrom 5 feet in length to 15 inches. It is chieflyused for military purposes. A crooked variety ofit, Cha chiao ?|c:^, is used at wedding processions.Kang t'ou is a brass or bronze conical horn withone slide, in length about ten feet. It is used inthe Lama Temple. Kan tung ^ |S is a curvedcopper horn 16 inches long, used in processions byLamas.K'ou ch'in P ^ is the Chinese Jews' harp,made of iron, used chiefly in Peking.III. Stringed Instruments.—4. Vibrated btAir. Feng cheng )|^ fp is a wind -bow of bamboo.Another variety is the Yao p'ien t^^. Tap ch'inH ^ or kite-harp is a gourd -.shaped frame ofbamboo across which seven bamboos are fastened.These when hung to the string of a kite, make aloud, humming noise.B. Played by Hand. 1. Without a Neck.The Ch'in ^ or horizontal psaltery is said to havebeen invented by Fu Hsi. Formerly it had fivestrings, but now it has seven silk strings, stretchedover a curved board. Thirteen studs mark theplaces where the strings may be stopped. Thestrings can be tightened by turning pegs. Theako played byCh'in is used at State services and isthe educated classes. It is about 3-ft. 6-in. long.A similar instrument is the Se ^, curved aboveand flat below. It has twenty-five silk strings, butno pegs. It is about eighty inches long. It isused only at State services. The Chmg ^ is asmall variety of Se with only fourteen or fifteenstrings, either of brass or wire. It is used onjoyful occasions and formerly at Imperial receptions.2. With a Neck. Yiieh ch'in J p or moonguitar,has a circular body fourteen inches iudiameter, and a neck four and three-eighths incheslong. It has four silk strings with pegs and ten^Pfret?. It is played with a plectrum. Shuang ch'inis a variety with an octagonal body of nineand a half inches diameter and a neck thirty-oneinches long. It is used sometimes in processions.Pi f'a S^ isa lute about forty-two inches longwith a pear-shaped body. The neck is eight anda half -inches long. It has ten or twelve frets andfour or six strings. It is said to have been inventedafter the suppression of music by Ch'in ShihHuang Ti. It is now used on the stage, and sometimesin religions processions. Chin kang t'ui^ MO 1^ is a small variety of P'i f'a, only twentysixinches long. Hsien tzu Udp or San hsien Hij^is a three-stringed instrument with a small ovalbody covered above and below with snake-skin, anda neck about thirty inches long. There are nofrets. It is played with a plectrum of jade, andis one of the commonest of instruments. Hu po4J] }^is a four-stringed instrument with long neckand small pear-shaped body covered with snakeskin.dulcimer, or foreign harpsichord,probably of Persian origin, is a flat boxYaiig ch'in ^ ^about two feet long and one foot broad, coveredwith sets of wires crossed by two bridges. It isplayed with two bamboo sticks.C. Played with a Bow. 1. Without a Ni-ck.La ch'in JJ i^ is a bowed psaltery in shape likethe Se, about twenty-six inches long. It has tenpairs of strings. It is used in Peking to accompanysongs.2. With a Neck. Hu ch'in Sg ^ is the generalname given to Chinese fiddles with a small cylindricalbody open below and covered above with.388

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMUSICAL INSTRUMENTSsnake-skin, a neck which passes through the body,a bow passed between the strings, and large pegs'They are used in theatres and by street musicians.They include the Tun ch'in g/| ^ or Chhiif /,(/:gi^.with a cylindrical bamboo body, two silken strLgsand a bow of white hairs; Hui hu ^^, Erh huZL ^ Panjhu ^ j^, with the body covered withwood; S6U /^wpili^, with two double strings;Hu hu nj. py. with a neck 331 inches long and a cupshapedbody of cocoanut; T'i chHn w^ „i- J|Ta SS;hu ch'in i^M^ ,or two-stringed violin, for-'merly used in the Palace.The Hu ch'in has sometimes been called theTartar fiddle, but Mabillon quotes Fetis as sayingthat the Erh hu was derived from a Cingalese violin.IV. Bamboo Instruments.—J. Vertically Blown.P'ai hsiaoijl ff, or Pandean Pipes, consist of 16small bamboo tubes fixed into a case of wood, withthe longest at the ends, and the shortest in themiddle, varying from 11^ inches to 4| inches long.They are tuned to the 12 semi-tones of an octaveand the 4 top notes of the next lower octave. Theyare now played only at State services. Yo ^ wasa bamboo flute open at both ends with 3 or 6 fingerholes and a length of 20 inches. It is no longerplayed, but used as a wand in ceremonial dances.A similar instrument, is the Ftng Jiucnuj hsiaoSLUlt, which has 6 finger holes and is about twofeet long. It was invented in the Han dynastyand i.s u.sed in processions and at religious rites.It is commonly called hsiao.B. I'ransversely Blown. The Ch'ih jH is abamboo flute used in state ritual; its length is173 inches and it has 6 finger-holes. The Ti tzuPI if- is a very popular flute, about 26 inches long,formerly with 11 finger-holes, one of which wascovered with membrane, but now haVing 6 fingerholesand a 7th covered with membrane. A smallervariety is the Panj tzu tl ^ ^ '^. The Kuan ^is a pipe of wood with a doubled-reed and 7 holesabove and 2 below. It is used at weddings andfunerals. The Pi li @ SI is similar, but made ofbamboo. Hu chia ^ f^ is a double-reed pipeterminating in a horn. So na |t Bft, or Chineseclarionet, is a wooden pipe fitted with a brassmoulh piece and a copper bell and has 7 finger-holesabove and one below. Its length is 17| inches. Itis a common instrument at funerals. A smallvariety is the Chi na ^ B^ or K'ai ti % '^.V. Wooden Instruments. Chu ^ i« awooden tub two feet square with slopingsides, which is struck with a mallet duringConfucian rites. Yii S^ is a wooden tiger abouttwo feet long crouching upon a pedestal. On itsback is a row of teeth over which a stick is rapidlypas.sed three times at the end of the music at theConfucian rites. Mu yii pjc^ is a rounded piece ofwood, partly hollow, struck by priests during the|recital of prayers. It is usually painted scarlet.'1'^ y" 3^ 3Siis a variety specially used by Taoists,and P'ai pan ilSl /^ or castanets are two or threepieces of red-wood tied loosely together. They areused in the theatre in orchestras, and at funerals,also by pedlars and beggars. Ch'un «u # gf wereancient castanets formed of 12 slabs of bamboofastened together ; they were formerly ujsed at Stateservices. Shou jian ^/|g are clappers employed atConfucian rites.Pamj tzu ;^ ^ is a wooden drum used inorcihe&:traS.^ Pang % and T'o ;fel: are two drumsstruck by ' night-watchmen. Yu pang ^ if/g is ahollow wooden fish several feet long that hangshorizontally in monasteries and is struck beforemeals. Hsii pan ^ i^ is a. board 30 inches by18 inches that hangs in monastery cloisters and isstruck eVery evening.VI. Skin Instruments.— Drums were introducedfrom Central Asia into China, the first kindsbeing of earthernware filled with bran and coveredwith skin. Chin ku ^ gfe is a large drum used inConfucian temples, about six feet in diameter.Ying ku ffl| afe is a barrel-shaped drum resting horizontallyon a frame. It is used at Confucian rites,being struck three times after each strophe of thehymn to CoxNfucius. Po fu ^|it is a small barrelshapeddrum of 9 inches' diameter at the ends,struck in Confucian worship. Hua hu ;{^ |j^ abarrel-shaped drum containing wires which jinglewhen the ends are struck, was formerly used inState services, but now only in orchestras. T'migku ^ gi is a large barrel-shaped drum hung vertically,beaten in theatres, camps and temples.Chan ku |g fi is a war drum. Pang ku ^^ gfe is asmall flat drum covered on the top with cow-skin,having a round hole in the centre. It rests on atripod, and is used in orchestras. Man t'ou kutS 0S,or loaf drum, is a similar drum, also usedin theatres. Pan fang ku 4^ ^ |$ is a flat, circulardrum covered on the top with skin, and played infuneral processions. Shou ku ^"^ is a hand drum,8 inches in diameter, with a central opening, likethe Pang ku; it is used by priests at funerals. TheLama priests us5e a flat drum two feet in diameter.Yii ku ^ ^ is a bamboo pipe one end of which iscovered with snake-skin. It is tapped by blindfortune-tellers. T'ao ku fg ^ is a small rattlodrumwith a handle passing through the body.Two beads hang by strings from each side of thebarrel, and when the rattle is twirled, they hit theends of the barrel. There are numerous varietiesfrom 2 to 12 inches in diameter, used principallyby street vendors. Pa fang ku A"^ ^ is an octagonaltambourine, covered on one side with snakeskin.Jingles and tassels hang round the edge. Itis said to be used by singing-girls in Peking.3«&

MUSIC, BOARD OFENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAChang hu ^ St is a bamboo pipe 18 inches long.It is used in processions. It is 2| inches indiameter, terminating in a cup-shaped drum coveredwith cow-skin at one end, and a bell-shaped drumat the other, covered with snake-skin. The headsare tightened by cords braced round the bamboopipe.It is possibly of Indian origin.VII. Gov^DS.—Sheng ^, the Reed-organ.This is said to have been invented by Niii Kua,sister and successor of Fu Hsi. In the ordinarykind there are three parts—the mouth-piece, thebody, which is made of a gourd or of wood and isabout as large as a tea-cup, and the tubes, whichare inserted into the upper part of the body. Thetubes are seventeen in number and are of fivelengths. The sMng was used at Confucian worshipand formerly at court ceremonies. An organ-builderat St. Petersburg, Kratzenstein, after havingobtained a shtng, made an organ with similar reeds,which led to the invention of the accordion andharmonium in Europe.VIII. Clay Instruments.— Hsiian, 3^ or S;or Chinese ocarina, is said to have been inventedby P'ao Hsi, b.c. 2700. It is a cone made mostly ofreddish-yellow clay or porcelain, but sometimes ofblack clay, with a blow-hole at the top, and threeholes in front and one behind. Its height is2f inches. It is played at Confucian ceremoniesand other State services.Hermann Smith : The World's Earliest Music;Amiot : Memoire sur la musique des Chinois, (1776)Van Aalst : Chinese Music, (1884) ; Motjle :Chinese Musical Instruments, (1908), N.C.B.R.A.S.Journal, vol. xxxix ; Engel : Musical Instrumentsin the South Kensington Museum.MUSIC, BOARD OF, Yiieh p?/. See SixBoards.MUSK : ^^ she hsiang. A secretion of ther.avel of the musk-deer, Moschus moschatus whichis found all over Tibet, but especially on the plainsof Kokonor. The destruction of these animals atthe cloiseof last century was enormous, and exportationof musk declined in quantity, bu-t its valuetrebled in a decade. It is very extensively used inChina in medicine, in perfumery, and in the preservationof clothes from moths ; of late years Parisperfumery houses have sent agents to Likiang on theUpper Yangtze, to buy up supplies. In 1902 Hosieestimated the value of the annual Tibetan exportat Tls. 1,000,000; in 1913 this amount was exportedfrom all the Treaty ports, half of it going abroad,chiefly to the United States and France. In 1897the killing of the deer was forbidden by the DalaiLama, as indicated by his horoscope, but the prohibitionwas evaded. In 1916 the export was18,893 taels (oz.), value Hk.Tls. 515,941. SeeMush-deer. Customs and Consular Reports.MUSK DEER, a small deer,so called becausethe male has in the skin of the abdomen a smallbag containing the substance known as musk. Thiscan be sold by the hunter for |10 or $20 Mexican,say £1 or £2; the consequence is that the deer ismercilessly hunted, chiefly by snaring which takesmale and female alike. It is therefore becomingrare and foreigners find it difficult to procure specimensfor study. The use of the musk-gland is uncertain,as there is no odour in it while fresh.Moschus chrysogaster is found in Ssuch'uan,M. sifaniens in Kansu, and M. sibiricus, a darkbrownspecies with a cream-yellow patch on thethroat, is found in Shansi and Chihli. SeeCervidce; Musk.Sowerby :, Fur and Feather in North China.MUSTARD SEED is grown near Kalgan.There was a small exportation from Tientsin aslong ago as 1873, and the quantity is now increasing.MUSTELID/E, a Family of Carnivora, theweasels, badgers, etc. There are twenty speciesin N. China and Manchuria. They are givenbelow, with their habitats :Mustela nivalis sp., the Manchurian Weasel,Manchuria ; M. kathiah, the Chinese Weasel, Shansi,Chihli ; M. tiarata, Holl, Kansu, and two PolecatsM. larvata, N. Shansi; M. davidiana, M.-Edw.,David's Mink, Chihli, Manchuria ; M. sibirica, Pall,the Siberian Mink, Shansi, Shensi ; M. astuta,M.-Edw., the Little Mink, Shansi, Kansu; M.erminea, L., the Ermine, Kansu, Tibetan Border;Martes zibellina, the Sable, Manchuria ; M. martcs,the Pine Marten, S.W. Kansu, N.W. Ssuch'uan;M. foina, the Stone Marten, N. Shansi ; M. flavigulahorealis, the Yellow-throated Marten, Manchuria,Chihli, Shansi, Shensi, Kansu ; Vormela negonsMill, the Eastern Vormela, Ordos, N. ShensiGido luscwi, the Wolverine, Manchuria ; Meleslejdorhi/nchns, the Badger, Chihli, Shansi, ShensiM. hanensis and M. siningensis, Badgers in S.Shensi and Kansu respectively; Arctonyx leucolmmusand A. leucolcemus orestcs, two Sand-badgersin Chihli and S. Shensi respectively ; Lutra vulgaris,the Otter, Manchuria, Shensi and Kansu.In S. China, Meles leptorhyncus is commonnear Amoy ; Martes flavigula is found in Formosathe Chinese Otter is common throughout S. Chinaand in Hainan ; Lutra swinhoei is found at Amoy,and there is a Clawless Otter in Hainan, Anonyxleptonyx; Mustela siberica is met with in Amoyand Formosa ; and there are two Tree-civets,Helictis moschata in Kuangtung, Hainan and Amoy,and H. subaurantiaca in Formosa.Swinhoe tells that the Otter is trained to drivefish into the net,Sowerby: Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlviiSwiNHOE : P.Z.S., 1870, pp. 228, 615.390

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICANAN HUA CHINGNNAGAS, monsters in mountain regions, demons,dragon spirits, tutelary deities of the ground, etc.The worship of them is characteristic of Turanianraces.NAMES. The Chinese call themselves by theterm /yo hsing g ji^ 'the hundred surnames '(o£ TToAAoi), and one of the- first books a childlearns by rote in school ib' the Po chia hsing "g" ^ jl4or Hundred clan names. The names in the bookare in fact four hundred and eight single and thirtydouble names ; and there are many more not sooften met with and not found in the list. Thesesurnames are all given together in Williams'Dictionary, p. 1242, and in Giles' Dictionary,(especially see 1st ed.). The commonest surnames,corresponding to our Smith, Jones and Robinsonare Wang ^, Chang Jg, and Li $.While the surnames are thus very limited innumber compared with those in the West, the individualmay have a number of personal names.At birth he receives a 'milk name,' which is usedby his relatives and neighbours. On first going toschool another is given him,—the "book name," tobe used by his schoolmasters, schoolfellows, officialsand in anything connected with literature. Atmarriage he receives a 'great name' ^ tzd or style,which is used, like the 'milk name,' by relatives,and another style, t| hao, for use by acquaintances.Besides, every literutus takes one or more 'studionames,' pj Jg Pich hao. If he takes a literarydegree, enters official life or has official rankbestowed on him he takes an 'official name' 'g' ^huan viing. After death he is perhaps given aposthumous name. It must be understood thatnone of these names are ready-made and meaningless,like our William or John; they are more or lessoi-iginal and have a more or less appropriate significance.A girl receives the milk name and a marriagename and perhaps a nickname. As to surname sheretains her own when married, though by courtesyshe is called by her husband's. In official documentsboth will be used in combination, the husband'iscoming first.A child will not use his father's personal name,nor a wife the husband's,—it would be very disrespectful.The personal names of the Sovereign were notto be uttered or written by the general public solong as that dynasty might last. Any characteroccurring therefore in such a personal name iswritten in ordinary usage with some alteration oraddition.The Emperors are known after death by theirposthumous or 'temple names,' ^ ^ miao hao, the'dynastic titles' ; but while living their reign hassome 'style,' the ^^ nien hao, which may bechanged during the reign. Thus when foreignerswrite of the Emperor K'ang Hsi, the meaning is,"that ruler whose dynastic title or miao hao, isSheng Tsu Jen, and whose reign period was knownas K'ang Hsi." His personal name ^ J^ HsiiANYeh would never be uttered by the ordinary people,nor would a character making part of it be writtenin it« proper form so long as the Manchu dynastylaste'd.The T'ang ming ^ ig, or family-hall name isa fancy name of two characters joined with t'angreferring to some event in the family's history ; it isgenerally inscribed in one of the principal rooms ofa house and is used on gravestones, legal deeds, etc.The Chiin viing ^ ig or territorial appellationis hardly used except for girls on their marriagedocuments. A list of these geographical namescorresponding to surnames is given in Giles'Dictionary, 1st ed. p. 1361.Giles has arranged the Po chia hsing alphabeticallywith a translation of the genealogicalresearches found in Chinese library editions.Giles : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xxi.NAN CHAO EMPIRE, f^fg, the empire ofIndo-Chinese races which existed for five centurieswith its capital at Tali fu, till conquered byKhubila* Khan. Davies : Yiinnan, p. 333.NAN HAI T2U }f^^^, a park some li southof Peking, having an eixtent about four times thesize of the capital. It was the Imperial HuntingPark and was surrounded with a high wall.NAN HUA CHING it^^l®, the name whichsince a.d. 742 has been given to the writings of theTaoist philosopher, Chuang Tzu. They are saidto have consisted at one time of fifty-three books,but as we have them now they number thirty-threeonly, divided into "Inner," "Outer" and "Miscellaneous."Of these three divisions, the first undoubtedlycontains less admixture of spurious matterthan the others.Chuang Tzu's literary style is excellent, thoughin parts purposely obscure. He is admired andread as a classic even by the orthodox Confucianists.He refers constantly to Lieh Tzii [q.v.]. In him^391

NANJIO, BUNYIUENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATaoist writing reached its culminating point, hislofty idealism having won for him the title of "TheChinese Plato." He has also been compared withHeracleitus. Chuang Tzu has been translatedinto English by Dr. Legge in the Sacred Books ofthe East, by Balfour under the title of The DivineClassic of Nanhua, and by Professor Giles ; alsointo German by Wilhelm, See Chuang Tzu;Taoisjn; Philosophij.Suzuki : History of Chinese Philosophy.NAN J 10, BUNYIU, a Japanese Buddhistpriest who has studied in England, and has translatedBuddhist works into English. The work bywhich he is best known is the important Catalogueof the Chinese Translation of the Buddhist Trijntaka,compiled by Order of the Secretary of Statefor India, 1883.jSIANKEEN, a native cloth, so called becauseNanking was, before the T'ai P'ing Rebellion,famous for its manufacture.NANKING ^;g, southern capital;the officialname being Chiang ning '>IL^a-lso called Chin linga city on the south bank of^ ^ or Golden Ridge ;the Yangtze in lal. 32° 4' N. and long. 118°- 45' E.,193 miles by rail from Shanghai. Its history as awalled city extends back to the Han dynasty. Itwas the capital of the Wu principality in the secondcentury. Its great days were under Hung Wu, whomade it the Ming capital in 1368. It was taken bythe Manchus, and again by the T'ai P'ing rebels,who d'estroyed the famous Porcelain Pagoda andthe Imperial palace and left the city desolate. In1911 the Revolutionists took it after severe fighting.It was again taken by Chang HsiiN in the SecondRevolution of 1913, and suffered three days' looting.The first Provincial Assembly was held there in 1909.The British captured it in 1842 and the FirstWar was then closed by the Treaty of Nanking. Itwas opened to foreign trade by the French treatyof 1858, but the formal opening did not take placetill 1899. The railway to Shanghai was opened in1909, and it is now connected with the north by theTientsin-Pukow railway. Other lines are projected,and Nanking, so far unimportant commercially^may have a great future before it as a railiwaycentre. It is an educational and Mission centre,having a University and several colleges. Thepopulation is 350,000.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 12,484,333 12.247,142Net Chinese „ 2,211,164 2,560,591E.xports 7,623,726 9,560,268Total Hk.Tls 22,319,223 24,368,001Gmllari) : Nanhin port ouvcrt, (Var. Sin.).NANKING, TREATY OF. This treaty wassigned at Nanking, August 29, 1842, by Sir HenryPoTTiNGER, Keying (Ch'i Ying), Elepoo and anotherChinese, and ratified at Hongkong, Jume 26,1843. It ended the first British war with China.It had thirteen Articles and opened for tradeCanton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai,where British Consuls were to be appointed. Hongkongwas ceded to Great Britain. Six milliondollars were to be paid for the opium destroyed,three millions for debts due by Hong merchants,and twelve millions for the expenses of the war.A tariff was to be made, and Chusan was to beheld till the payment of the indemnity.NANKING UNIVERSITY, was opened in1888 by the M.E.M. under Bishop Fowler, whoappointed Dr. John C. Ferguson the first President.In 1910 it was merged into the University ofNanking (q.v.).NANNING j^ ^ was opened by the Chineseto foreign trade in 1907. It lies on the Tso river;fe Jl, a branch of the West River, about 370 milesabove Wuchow. Land has been set apart by theChinese and bunded, and some roads macadamised,all with a view to making a foreign settlement.The regulations have not however been accepted bythe foreign powers. Foreigners can only lease landfor thirty years. The population is 50,000. Theonly foreigners there are officials and missionaries,with the agents of one foreign firm. The leadingexports are agricultural products and aniseed, butduring the Eurojiean War the demand for antimonyhas brought out a considerable exportation.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 3,012,295 2,586,282Net Chinese „ 898,632 721,710Exports 3,887,734 3,844,531Total Hk.Tls. ... 7,798,661 7,151,523NAN YUEH ffii^, an ancient kingdom alsocalled Chiao chih ^gt. In a.d. 222 it was dividedinto Chiao chou ^ ^ (Tonkin) and the country nownamed Kuangtung and Kuangsi.NAPIER, WILLIAM JOHN, the Right Hon.Baron Napier, was a descendant of the inventor ofthe system of logarithms called Napierian.Till 1815 he had served in the British Navy,and was present at Trafalgar.In 1833, when the East India Company's monopolywas about to come to an end in China, theBritish Government established a Superintendencyof Trade and appointed Lord Napier as ChiefSuperintendent (q.v-)- Owing, in part, to thenew system not having been notified to the Chineseauthorities before his arrival, he was, from the dayhe reached Canton, the 25th of July 1834, involvedin a long wrangle about his right to be there. TheViceroy refused to receive his letter, since it was892

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICANATIONAL MEDICALnot in the form of a petition and did not comethrough the usual channel, the Hong Merchants;and Lord Napier refused to retire as he was orderedto do, or to alter the superscription of his letter.Things thus came to a deadlock. The Viceroy firstforbade the shipment of cargoes ; then on September2nd completely stopped all trade with British merchantsand ordered all compradores, linguists andservants to leave the factories. The city was veryfull at that time and getting very excited. LordNapier therefore ordered the cruisers Imogene andAndromache to come up the river to Tiger Island.They were fired on by the forts and returned thefire. On September 11, they reached Whampoa.At this time Lord Napier was suffering fromfever, and by the 14th was so ill that he told theBritish merchants he must return to Macao, beingto some extent influenced by the promise that thennegotiations would be opened. On the 18th, inobedience to the surgeon Colledge's suggestion, heagreed to go outside the Bogue. Colledge thereuponasked for the necessary 'chop,' which howeverdid not come till the 21st. In consequence of thebad faith of the Chinese, the boats did not reachMacao till the 26th, by which time Lord Napier wasexhausted. He gradually sank, and died on October11, 1834. He was buried at Macao.Chinese Repositort, vol. iii ; Eambs : TheEnglish in China.NARWHAL, called in Chinese lo ssu ma, (q.v.)Monodon monoceros.NATHAN, MATTHEW, RIGHT HON. SIR,was born January 3, 1862, entered the RoyalEngineers in 1880, and is now Lieut-Colonel. From1903 to 1907, he was Governor of Hongkong. Hewas made C.M.G. in 1889, K.C.M.G. in 1902,G.C.M.G. in 1908, and P.C. (Ire.) in 1914.NATIONAL BIBLE SOCIETY OF SCOTland,The, was formed in Edinburgh in 1861 by theunion of several Scottish Societies, and in 1863 itfent out the Rev. Alexander Williamson to Chefooas its first agent in China. Mr. (afterwards Dr.)Williamson had already been a missionary for someyears in the country, and became a notable andsuccessful agent of the Society. He resigned in1877 to do other work. The headquarters were thenremoved to Hankow, and in 1885 the Society set upits own printing establishment, under the new agent(Mr. John Archibald), where not only Scripturesbut many tracts, and other Christian literaturehave been printed. The Society also published in1893 a tentative edition of St. Mark's Gospel withnotes, and later the whole annotated Bible, a muchdebatednew departure which has since been adopted,by others.50393The Society has produced twelve versions ofScripture on its own account and nineteen in unionwith the other Bible Societies, mostly portions.In 1916, there were five centres, Hankow,Tientsin, Chinkiang, Amoy and Chungking, withsix foreign agents, and 221 paid colporteurs. Duringthe year the Society circulated. Bibles 751 ; Testaments23,225; Portions 1,808,476. Total 1,832,452.Total circulation since 1863, 23,005,869 Scriptures.NATIONAL HOLINESS ASSOCIATIONMission.Headquarters :—Chicago, U.S.A.An offshoot from the South Chihli Mission(q.r.), working in "M ^ J^ Tung-ch'ang fu andM It I® Nankuant'ao in Westerji Shantung, witii9 foreign workers in 1916.NATIONAL MEDICAL ASSOCIATIONof China, The, was formed in 1915, by some twentyChinese physicians attending the conference of theChina Medical Missionary Association {q.v.). TheN.M.A. is not a missionary, or a foreign, but anative organization. Its objects are defined asbeing :1. To promote good will and union among theChinese practitioners of modern medicine2. To maintain the honour and interest of themedical profession3. To expedite the spread of modern medicalscience in China, and to arouse interest in publichealth and preventive medicine among the people ;and4. To co-ordinate, and co-operate with theexisting medical forces in China, Chinese andforeign, in the working out of the above object?.The officers are elected annually, the first prejsidentbeing Wu Lien-teh, m.a., m.d. The firstConference was held in Shanghai in February 1916,and was attended by about 30 members. At itsclose, resolutions were passed and forwarded to theChinese Government on (1) the registration of thepractitioners of modern medicine, and of sellers offoreign drugs ; (2) the establishment of a CentralMedicine Board in Peking; (3) the combating oftuberculosis and venereal disease ; (4) the establishmentof a Public Health Service ; and (5) an annualgrant for scholarships to students of medicine. Thesecond Conference was held at Canton in January1917, in conjunction with the Conference of theChina Medical Missionary Association, there beingjoint and separate sittings. Eighty-eight membersof the N.M.A. attended including a number ofChinese lady physicians ; all but three or fourresided in or near Canton. Dr. Wu Lien-teh reada valuable paper on "The Menace of Morphine,"and in view of the facts that in 1914, fourteen tonsof morphine were imported into China, and that theamount had since increased at the rate of a ton

NECTARINIINAEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAper annum, the Conference passed a resolutioncalling the attention of the Chinese Government tothe matter, copies being sent also to the Governmentsof Great Britain, the U.S.A. and Japan.A second resolution prayed the Chinese Governmentto regulate the practice of modern medicine.These two resolutions v?ere heartily supportedby the C.M.M.A.The next Joint Conference will meet in Pekingin 1919.See China Medical Missionary Association.NECTARINIINAE, the Sun-birds. Thesehave the mandibles of the bill serrated for theterminal third of its length, ^tho-pyga dabryi,Dabry's Yellow-backed Sun-bird, is found in S.and W. China. ^. christinae is found in Hainan.^E. latouchii occurs in Fukien and Kuangtung.Arachnechthra rhyzophorae is very wide-spread inHainan. A. sanguinipectus and /Ethopyga labecidaoccur in Yunnan.NEMESIS, a private armed steamer, noted asthe iirst iron steamer to round the Cape of GoodHope. She was constructed at the BirkenheadIronworks, her engines, of 120 horse-power, beingdue to Forrester & Co. of Liverpool. Her burdenwas about 630 tons and she was completely constructedand launched within three months.The Nemesis was never commissioned as one ofHer Majesty's war-vessels, yet was generally c6mmandedby officers belonging to the Eoyal Navy.She sailed from England in March, 1840 underCaptain Hall, and joined the British fleet at theBogue Forts in November. She was of the greatestuse throughout the war, as for instance in pullingoff vessels that got aground in the Yangtze. Afterthe Treaty of Nanking she returned to dock atBombay about May or June, 1843. There have beenseveral editions of the narrative of her voyage.Bernard : Narrative of the Voyages andServices of the Nemesis, etc.NEPAL) L. In 1790, owing to a disputebetween the Dalai Lama and his brother, theGurkhas of Neoaul were called on to enter Tibet.The Chinese border garrison could not resist them,but obtained peace by promising an annual sum ingold, to be paid by the Tibetan monasteries. Whenthe money was not paid the Gurkhas sacked Tashilumbo.A large Chinese army was then sent, andthe Gurkhas were driven out and pursued intoNepaul ; they agreed to acknowledge the sovereigntyof China and to send tribute every five years.NERBUDDA, a Britishtransport wrecked onthe Formosa coast in September, 1841. The twentyBritish escaped in the only boat left, (for whichthey were afterwards placed under arrest), and werenot able, until too late, to send assistance to thetwo hundred and forty Indians left on board.These had landed and were taken prisoners by theChinese authorities ; some were drowned in landing,and of the remainder only two escaped at last;the rest died, some of ill-treatment or starvation,and one hundred and fifty were beheaded. Theofficial responsible for this and for the murdering ofthe crew of the Ann (q.v.) was nominally punishedand really rewarded.Pottingeb's Proclamations in Chinese Repository,vol. xi, p. 682 ; Ouchterlony : The ChineseWar, p. 203.NERCHINSK, TREATY, OF, or of Nipchu,the first treaty between China and any foreignpower, was made in 1689 ; it allowed the Russiansto build a fort lajt Nerchinsk in place of one atAlbazin destroyed by Chinese, and it fixed theGoritza and Argun rivers as the boundary of thetwo empires.NESTORIAN CHRISTIANS, The Christianityof IsJ. China was traced by M. Ricci toS. Thomas. To the early church S. Thomas wasknown as the apostle of India and of the East,but it is not, we believe, before the 13th centurythat he is explicitly said to have visited China.The clearest references are quoted by Ricci fromservice books of the Malabar Church ; but, whileit is very improbable that these references areJesuit interpolations, there seems to be no reasonto date them earlier than the 13th century; andwe may even guess that the story of S. Thomas'visit to China originated with the discovery ofSyrian Christianity at Khanbalig (Peking) byenvoys from the Malabar Church who reachedthat city in 1282.The Nestorian Monument.The certain history of Christianity in Chinabegins with the Nestorian Monument, known tothe Chinese as Ching chiao pei )^^«^. This is astone slab with the cop finely carved, measuring9-ft. 1-in. high, 3-ft. 3.8-in. wide, and U-in. thick,tapering towards the top. The title, surmountedby a small incised cross, reads : "A monument ofthe spread of Christianity (i^fjc) in the MiddleKingdom." The front face of the slab is occupiedby a Chinese inscription, in prose and verse, ofabout 2000 words, followed below by a much shorterinscription in Syriac (estrangelo characters writtenvertically). The edges of the stone are coveredwith unexplained lists of names in Syriac followedfor the most part by Chinese equivalents.The excellent composition and handwritinghave made the inscription famous among nativeconnoisseurs, and it is described in many booksdevoted to ancient inscriptions. It has lately beenconjectured, though without any serious ground,that the otherwise unknown writer, Lij Hsiu-yen394

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICANESTORIAN^^M> is the same as Lij Yen g®, the reputedfounder of the Chin tan ^j^ sect.The text is given in fac-simile in VarietesSinologiques No. 7, 1895, and Das NestorianischeDenhmal in Singan fu, 1897, and is correctlyprinted in N.C.B.R.A.S. Journal, 1910.Purpose and date.—The inscription scates thatthe Monument was erected a.d. 781 by and inhonour of the country-bishop IzADBtrziD of Balkhor,in Chinese, I-ssu of Wang she ch'eng.Position and history.—There is no evidence todecide the original position. It is hard to believethat it was not erected in or near Ch'ang-an ^ ^(Hsi-an), but there is good contemporary evidencethat early in 1625 io was dug up near Chou-chihSl^- 1'he perfect condition in which it then wasproves that it had been buried soon after itserection, possibly in the persecution of a.d. 845.From 1625 to 1907 it scood in a court of theCh'ung sheng ssu ^ ^. # outside the W. gate ofHsi-an. On October 2, 1907, it was placed in thePel lin ;^ i^ inside the S. gate of that city.M. Pelliot believes that the Ch'ung sheng ssumarks very nearly the spot both of the firsterection in 781 and of the discovery in 1625.Contents.—The prose narrative describes thecreation of the world and gives an outline ofChristian doctrine :— good and evil, God, the Incarnation,and so forth, making special mentionof the cross (+^), baptism (j^fS), and theScriptures (i|s5). It next describes the arrival atICh'ang-an of A-lo-pen, quotes the decree issued inhis favour, and gives the story of the mission downto the year 781, closing with the virtues and benefactionsof I-ssu. The verses cover much the sameground very briefly.Hymn to the Holy Trinity.With the Monument should be named a ChristianMS. in Chinese of about the same date, foundby Pelliot in the Ch'ien Fo tung =f-j^Jf^ of Tunhuangin 1908. This consists of a short hymn to theholy Trinity called San wei mcng tu tsan HSK^MBJfollowedby a list of 'honoured ones' ( @) andof 35 books (i(g), and closes with a historical notein another hand. It is now preserved in theBibliotheque Nationale, Paris. (Text printed in©C ^ ^ ^ it « vol. iii, 19-.)History of the Nestorian Church.Both the Monument and the MS. say thatChristianity was brought to Ch'ang-an a.d. 635by A-LO-rEN ^l^i\fi (?=Rabban) of Ta-ch'in ;^^{q.v.) and was well received by the Emperor. In638 a decree (independently known) was issuedgranting a monastery for 21 monks and leave copreach. According to the Monument the Christianscontinued in favour until 781 with only a shorttime of persecution at the beginning of the 8thcentury. The MS. states that "the above 30 {sic)books" were translated by Ching-ching ^^, thePersian monk who was the nominal author of theinscription on the Monument, and is also recordedto have helped an Indian missionary to translatea Sutra into Chinese. From the Monument welearn that there were monasteries in Kansu andelsewhere. A decree of 745 indicates a monasteryin she Eastern capital {Lo :j:§), and there is alsoevidence of a wealthy monastery in Ch'eng-tu )^^.At the suppression of Buddhism, a.d. 845, 2000(or 3000) monks and nuns of other foreign faiths,including the Christian (Ta-ch'in), were forced torenounce their vows. There is a clear, but notnecessarily exact statement, that at the end ofthe 9th century there was only one Christian inthe whole empire; and there is at present no traceof the existence of Christianity in China properduring the 10th and 11th centuries.We have nevertheless literary evidence of Christiansliving in Northern China in the 12th century,prior to the movement of the Mongol armiestowards the East. The establishment of a foreignpower in Northern China gave a fresh impulse tothe expansion of Christianity in these parts.A stir was made in Europe by the report of theChristianity of Prester John, who is generallyidentified with the Kerait chieftain Une Khan(i fP) who died very early in the 13th century.Later writers confused Ung Khan with the contemporaryKhan of the Ongut, whose grandsonsAibuga and Kiinbuga and great grandson 'KingGeorge ' (mentioned by Marco Polq, John ofMonte Corvino, etc.) had no doubt a largeinfluence in the spread of Christianity. Tung-sheng;^|^ (Tozan, Koshang, or Tokto) in their domain(now in Shensi province) was the birthplace of oneMark, who as Mar Jaballaha III was Patriarchof the Nestorian Church a.d. 1281 to 1317. Manyinscriptions recording the privileges of Christianmonks are extant, and a number of similarallusions to Christianity are found in the Yuan Shihand other books of the 13th or 14th centuries.From these sources we gather that Christians wereplentiful in N. China, with bishops at Khanbaligand Ning-hsia Jgg] and perhaps elsewhere, andwere found in less numbers in Yiinnan provinceand in the eastern cities of Yang-chou ^ f^,Hang-chou j^ ^[-f,Wen-chou ^ >}\], and especiallyat Chen-chiang ^ ^ (Chinkiang). Marco Polo'saccount of the foundation of Churches at Chenchiang(Cinghian fu) by a Christian governornamed Mar Sargis is curiously confirmed byvarious entries in the old records of Chen-chiang.From these it appears that there were at leastseven Christian monasteries in or near the city,and that the Christian population amounted to 215.Christians, called yeh-U-k'o-wen ^B.'^IMl [drkagiin)as generally in the Mongol period, are reckoned,I895

NESTORIAN TABLETENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAnot as adherents of a religion, but as members ofa foreign nation, and we gather that Chineseconverts were few and of little influence. ForeignChristians (among whom the Alani from theCaucasus were censpicuous) came with the foreignconquerors, and with the fall of the Mongol dynastyin 1358 Christianity almost vanished. In 1608Ricci heard of the last trembling remnant of'worshippers of che Cross ' as living in fear oftheir lives at K'ai-feng ggj^. Yet, his informantsaid, they had been many and prosperous there andat Lin-ch'ing ^ fj^ and in Shansi until about themiddle of the 16th century.Apart from the possible influence of the earlyNesfcorians on Buddhism (a matter which is stillunder dispute), they and their successors seem tohave made little or no impression upon the customs,beliefs, or literature of China. And the Nestoriansof the Mongol period have left no known visiblerelic, except a battered stone monument which issaid to exist at Chen-chiang ; but this has not yetbeei properly described. [M.]Trigatjlt : De. Christiana Expeditione apudSina-i, Rome, 1615 ; Wylie : The Nestorian Tabletof Sengan fod, Shanghai, 1854-5, reprinted inChinese Researches, 1897; Palladitjs : Traces ofChristianity in Mongolia and China, in ChineseRecorder, 1875; Legge : TJie Nestorian Monumentof Hsi-an fu, etc., London, 1888; Havbet : LaStele Chrctienne de Si-ngan fou, Shanghai, 1895,1897, 1902 ; Chabot : Histoire de Mar Jabalaha III,Paris, 1895 ; Rockhill : The Journeys of Williamof Rubruck, London, 1900; Yule : Cathay and theWay Thither, new ed., London, 1913-16, and TheBook of Ser Marco Polo, 3rd ed., London, 1903;Chavannes : Inscriptions et pieces de chancellerie,etc., in T'oung-pao, 1904, 1905, 1908; Pelliot :Chretiens d'Asie centrale et d' Extreme-Orient, inT'-oung-pao, 1914 ; Giles & Moule : Christians atChen-chiang fu, in T'oung-pao, 1915 ; Saeki : TheNestorian Monument in China, London, 1916Yii Hsi-LU ^^^, Chih-shun Chen-chiang ChihM)(S^&:.^.> 1333; printed 1842; Anonymous:Yuan Tien chang 7C:ft^> 1303, with supplement of1323, printed 1909; Sung Lien : Yiian Shih 7c &•[M.]NESTORIAN TABLET. See Nestorian Christians.NESTOR I US, appointed Patriarch of Constantinopleby Theodosius II, a.d. 423. He helddoctrines concerning the nature of the union betweenthe human and divine in Christ. which were condemnedby the General Council of Ephesus,A.D. 431. Later he was exiled and the place andtime of his death is unknown. His heresy was soonstamped out completely in the Roman Empire. SeeNestorian Christians.Gibbon : Decline and Fall, etc., c. 47.NETHERLANDS AND CHINA.Relations with China.See DutchNETHERLANDS MISSIONARY SOCIETY,The, was the second I'rotestant Society to attemptmission work in China. It sent out the well-knownKarl F. A. Gutzlaff [q.v.) in 1827, and HermannRoTTGER, who worked among the Chinese in theislands; after which it seems to have withdrawnfrom China. It still works in the Dutch EastIndies.NEUMANN, CHARLES FREDERIC, bornin 1798 in France of Jewish parents. He became aProtestant Christian and was made Professor ofHistory at Spires but was soon deprived of this postbecause of his excessive independence. Havinglearned the elements of Chinese at Paris he visitedChina, and returned to Bavaria in 1831 with animmense Chinese library bought for Germany. Hewas made Professor of Chinese and Armenian atMunich, but in 1852 was removed from this postalso. He retired to Berlin, where he died in 1870.Havret : La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fou,II, p. 297, note.NEVIUS, JOHN LIVINGSTONE, D.D., amissionary of the American Presbyterian Mission(North) born in Seneca Co., New York, U.S.A., in1829, of Dutch descent. He arrived in China withhis wife in 1854, and after a number of removalsfinally settled in Chefoo in 1871. In 1877, heassisted in famine relief work. He was a successfulitinerator and pastor, and is also widely knownthrough his introduction in 1885 of grafts and scionsof foreign pears, apples, grapes and plums, the twoformer especially being very successfully cultivated,and becoming a new source of income for thefarmers of the district.Dr. Nevius for many yearscollected data among the Shantungese for histhoughtful and valuable work. Demon Possessionand Allied Themes, which did not appear till afterhis death in 1893, at Chefoo.He also wrote China and the Chinese, 1869.Mrs. Nevius : Life of John Livingstone Nevius.NEWCHWANG, ^ |E niu chuang, 'cow village,'is the foreign name for a port the proper nameof which is Ying-k'ou or Yingkow, J^ p. Newchwangwas named in the Treaty of Tientsin, 1858,but it was Yingkow which was actually occupiedand called Newchwang. It is in lat. 40° 40' 38" N.and long. 122° 15' 30" E., being some thirteen milesfrom the mouth of the Liao River which runs intothe Liao-tung Gulf. Sea trade is stopped for threeor four months in the year because of ice, but theport is now well joined to the outer world by rail.The Chinese population is estimated at 52,000,and the foreign is about 3,000, most of whom areJapanese.396

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICANEWSPAPERSFor many years Newchwang was the only treatyport in Manchuria; it has now to compete withHarbin and Dalny or Dairen. . The chief exportsare beans, millet, maize and their products, bean-oil,bean-cake, etc. The export of Fushun coal hasmuch increased of late years.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports ... ... 10,515,210 9,209,670Net Chinese „ 9,486,496 8,171,996Exports 20,393,833 14,097,490Total Hk.Tls 40,395,539 31,479,156NEW DOMINION.See Turkestan.NEWSPAPERS, CHINESE.Utility and progresswhich formed the key of the Baconianphilosophy in England during the seventeenthcentury, unlocked the barred gates of China in thenineteenth. The ancient philosophies of Europeand Asia which concerned themselves mostly withmoral perfection, disdaine-d to be practical, andremained stationary for centuries. Inductive reasoningrevolutionized England and the enlightenedworld. All countries whose philosophic systemshave checked or throttled scientific investigationhave lagged hopelessly behind in the race for theuseful and the good.The -gf M. or Peking Gazette (q.v.) is perhapsthe oldest periodical in the world : it can be tracedback through a period of 1,000 years. Yearlyvolumes of this paper, with abridged translations,were once issued by the North-China Herald. Inthe modern acceptation of the term this publicationcannot be called a newspaper. The Asiatic Journalof 1827 says : "There is nothing in China that canproperly be called a newspaper." The PekingGazette was simply a record of official acts made upfrom documents presented to the General Councilof the Chinese Government.Modern printing in China began with thepublication of Morrison's Dictionary, by the EastIndia Company in 1815. Mr. Gamble of theAmerican Presbyterian Press in Shanghai, introducedelectrotype printing about the year 1860.The newspapers, as the purveyor of generalnews and the expositor of public thought, did nothave much vogue till the later part of the lastcentury. Under the protection of foreigners, newspaperswere first published only at the treaty ports.Limited editions of the Hongkong Daily Press andthe Daily Mail were the beginnings of present-dayjournalism. Chinese translations of the formerwere first made at the suggestion of Dr. WirTiNG-FAXG, now acting-premier of the Eepublic ofChina. According to Mr. Li Sttm-ling, vicepresidentof the Press Congress for China, both ofthese papers were started in the early forties.Their circulation was limited and the papers reachedonly parts of South China. The ^ ^ Shenpao,was first published in Shanghai by Mr. Major in1872, and the jg ^ Hupao followed in 1880 : thelatter was issued in connection with the North-ChinaDaily News. A dozen years later the ^ P9 ^Sinwenpao, appeared. It may be said that thesethree journals blazed the way for the 2,000 dailynewspapers in China and Manchuria to-day, whichflourish not only at the treaty ports but in manyinterior cities. Of these 2,000 only 400 are of muchconsequence, the rest being merely local. In 1895there were only twelve daily newspapers in China;but ten years later the flood gates of promiscuousjournalism were opened never to be closed again.Papers of all kinds, monthly, weekly, daily, sprangup like mushrooms, and most of them perished asrapidly. . Knowledge of all kinds was spread abroadand much superstition and prejudice against Westernmen and manners were disarmed. In the firstdecade of this century, journalism advanced witha bound. Scientific magazines, papers for women,some illustrated, were sold extensively where a fewyears before news-boys were employed to enter teashopsand public places to explain the nature oftheir wares. It was largely through the influenceand power of the press that the Eevolution of 1911was brought about. The newspapers had exposedthe bribery and tricks of the mandarins and wereoften used for the purpose of blackmail and toadvance the personal and political aims of individualsand parties; but for the most part ahealthier moral tone has been developed and whileoften in the wrong, the Chinese newspaper hascreated a salutary public sentiment which is makingfor the good of China. After the Revolution manyparty organs subsidized by individuals werepublished ; but the only secular papers that havesurvived the changing conditions are two of thepapers mentioned above, the ^ ^ and the ^ ^ |ftJ. W. Farnham, Y. J. Allen and Timothy Richardare the pioneers of the religious papers in China.The tfJ® lit # ^ Chung hsi chiao hui pao, wasstarted in 1891, the |Jc "t if $S Chiao hui hsin pao,in 1894 and the^^i5V|R Beview of the Times, in1888. Besides the news of a religious nature, thesepapers maintained a secular department and beingaddressed to minds trained and receptive to truth,found a^ ready circulation. As the earlier exponentsof religion and morals, these periodicals served amost useful purpose, but none of them exist in nameto-day. All of the papers were monthlies; theawakened minds of the Chinese demanded a widerscope and more frequent instruction. There was aclamor for weekly papers, and several of these werestarted, some under foreign editorship, others solelyby Chinese. The pl^^, Advocate, the develop-397

NEWSPAPERSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAment of a Foochow monthly, now has an extendedcirculation throughout China and the Straits Settlements.Its editors are Dr. Chen Wei-ping andDr. A. P. Parker. It is the joint organ of theAmerican Methodist Churches, but its readers areby no means confined to that church.The jfi, R3 fli Intelligencer, was inaugurated in1902 by the Presbyterians of Europe and Americaresident in China and Manchuria. At the beginningof this year its circulation was 7,000 throughoutChina and many other countries where Chinese live.Like the Advocate it is not confined to any one setof readers but draws its subscribers from all classes,prints secular as well as religious news, telegramsand scientific articlq^ of permanent value. Itseditors are Chkng Chun-sheng and Dr. S. I.WOODBRIDGE.There are several religious monthlies, notablythe ^ iV # ^ Chinese Churchman, the ii^M.Woman's Messenger edited by Miss Laura White,and the 1^^^ Happy Childhood conducted byMrs. D. MacGillivray, which still exert a wideinfluence for good among their constituents.Another monthly, the W ¥ H i^Association Progress,with a circulation of 5,600, is a decided factorin moulding the intellectual, moral and religiouscharacter of China's young men. The i^ :§ j^ ^published by the Commercial Press of Shanghai,while not distinctly religious, maintains a highmoral tone among the thousands of itsreaders.In general, the Chinese newspaper may be saidto be the chief instrument for furthering in theFar East the utilitarian and progressive philosophyof Bacon which revolutionized the world over threecenturies ago. (See Press). [S.I.W.](For the Signs of the Times ^^iM^, withits circulation of 53,000 per month, see SeventhDay Adventist Mission).NEWSPAPERS, EUROPEAN. See Press.NEW TERRITORY; the 376 square miles^Kowloon Extension,' leased to the British in 1899,is thus called in Hongkong.NEW YEAR CEREMONiES.The ceremoniesat the new year, jg ^ kuo nien, are too numerousto describe. On New Year's Eve water is drawnfor three days' use and the well sealed up; therooms are swept; the children have money giventhem, which is supposed to guarantee their livingthrough the year; the kitchen god, returned frommaking his report to heaven, is stuck in his properplace; late at night the door is sealed up till themorning, and so on. Next morning the door isopened with auspicious words ; various gods receiveworship; and a round of congratulatory visits ismade. Festivities and ceremonies continue till theoffifteenth of the moon, when comes the Feast ofLanterns, (q.v.).NGWEI STATE ^.NICKEL.See Minerals.See Wei, State of.NIELLE, is a process of inlaying gold andsilver wire on bronze, called by the Chinese "goldand silver thread," chin yin ssu ^^^. A Buddhistmonk, Shih Su, of the late Yiian dynasty, issupposed to have done the finest silver nielle inChina.NIEN FEI ^ ^, troops of mounted robberswho ravaged the northern provinces from 1853onward.Nien means 'twisted,' and it is said the namearises from the twisted turbans worn by the banditsas their badge.NIES, FRANCOIS XAVIER, a priest of theCongregation of Steyl, was born in 1859 in Westphaliaand arrived in China in 1885. He and P.Henle were murdered in Shantung in 1897, whichled to the German occupation of Kiao-chow. SeeTsingtau.NINGPO, ^ ^peacefid waves, is in theprovince of Chekiang, on the river Yung g, some12 miles above Chinhai at the mouth of the river;its position is in lat. 29° 55' and long. 121° 22' E.The city is said to have been founded in 2205 B.C.just after Yii's deluge.It was moved to its presentsite in a.d. 713. It was captured by the T'ai P'ingrebels in December, 1861, and held by them untilthe following May.This is the earliest place where foreign colonistssettled. It is uncertain when the colony, which wasPortuguese, was founded ; Fernando de Andradbis said to have visited the place and about 1517George Mascarenhas went there. In 1533 thecolony was flourishing, and was called Liampo;it was probably a suburb of Ningpo. In 1545Ferdinand Mendez Pinto landed there, and it wasin that year that the insolence and licentious conductof the colonists caused them to be attacked by theEmperor's orders. Twelve thousand Christians, includingeight hundred Portuguese, were killed andthirty-five of their ships were burned.The East India Company sought to open tradethere in 1701, sending a ship with a hundredthousand pounds' worth of cargo ; but the regulationsand restrictions were more intolerable than atCanton. The same was found the case on a secondattempt in 1736. The next year an edict restrictedall trade with foreigners, except Russians, toCanton, and particularly forbade foreign ships toenter Ningpo or Chusan. In consequence of thisedict, Flint (q.v.) who had been sent there by theE. I. Company, was expelled. The prohibition wasrepeated in the answer which Lord Macartney took398

HouENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICANON-ALIENATIONback to England, and Lindsay's trip on the LordAmherst (q.v.) in 1832, was equally fruitless.In 1840, however, instead of trading ships,British war-vessels appeared at Ningpo andestablished a blockade ; and the next year, onMarch 13, the place was entered without resistanceafter the fall of Chinhai.The Chinese made a futile and costly attemptto recover both places, but in August, 1842, theTreaty of Nanking opened Ningpo to foreign trade.The nearness, of Shanghai and other causes haveprevented the place from becoming very importantin foreign trade. Its population is estimated at400,000, but the foreigners, exclusive of missionaries,are not more than fifty or sixty.The products of Ningpo and district are rushhats and mats, green tea, cotton, ice-preserved fish,and, as a speciality, furniture.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 8,672,989 10,590,405Net Chinese „ 7,327,229 7,909,365Exports 10,609,551 11,153,784Total Hk.Tls. ... 26,609,769 29,653,554NINGPO J OSS HO USE, a Club-house or Guildbuilding with mortuary, cemetery, etc., belongingto the Ningpo Guild or Hui kuan in Shanghai.It is in the French Concession, and a riot wascaused by the attempt of the Municipal authoritiesin 1874 to make new roads which would cut throughthe cemetery. Eight Chinese lost their lives, andthe cemetery was left undisturbed. In 1898, theauthorities decided that for sanitary reasons thecemetery must be removed. A second riot thentook place, in which twenty Chinese were killedbut the cemetery was not removed.Morse : The Gilds of China; Customs DecennialReports, 1892-1901, pp. 469, 524.NINGPO VARNISH. See Varnish, Chinese.NIPCHU, TREATY OF, See NerchinskTreaty.Nl PO T'U i^ ^il, earthen jar opium, thelocal name for Hunan opium, which was sold insmall earthen jars. It was cheap and only usedby the poorer classes. It was not exported to otherprovinces.NO.See Lolo.NOBILITY ^]f. All the vassal rulers ofthe Chou Empire on receiving their fiefs were madeKung ^ , fl, Po fg, Tzu ^, or Nan ;H whichfive titles are generally translated into English asDuke, Marquis, Earl, Viscount and Baron, forconvenience merely,—because we also have five ranksof nobles. In feudal times the size of the fief, thepedigree of the holder and especially his relationto the royal house, determined the title bestowedon him. These titles are supposed to have originatedwith Yao and Shun.In modern days, under entirely different conditions,the same titles are in use as official distinctions,each being divided into three classes,and the first three ranks carry also laudatoryepithets "^ ig Chia ming.There are also in modern times four other ranks,lower than the above, viz., Ch'ing chii tu yii® $ ffl gt, Ch'i tu yu li tl5 iJ , Yiin ch'i yii g^gjand En ch'i yii,1.||U.Except the last all the ranks are hereditary fora given number of lives, twenty-six being themaximum.In some cases, few among Chinese, more amongManchus, the title is permanent; e.g. the head ofthe Confucius family is always Yen sheng kung© B 5^ , Holy Duke.Under the Republic the old titles of nobilityhave been replaced by Titles of Merit which aregranted by the President as formerly by theEmperor. They are as follows, with their earlierequivalents :1. Grand Title of Merit, Prince of blood-royal.2. First Class Title of Merit, Kung ^ or Duke.3. Second Class „ Hou ^ or Marquis.4. Third Class „ Po \^ or Count.5. Fourth Class „ Tzu ^ or Viscount.6. Fifth Class „ Nan S^ or Baron. .NOBILITY, IMPERIAL. See Imperial Nobility.See also Imperial Nobility.Mayers : The Chinese Government, p. 68.NOEL, FRANCIS, a Jesuit missionary, bornin Belgium, August 18, 1651. He went to Chinain 1687 and returned for the second and last timeto Europe in 1708. He then published a veryimportant work, Observationes mathematicae etphysicae in India et China factae, ab anno 168^.usque ad annum 1708; it was issued at Prague in1710. In this collection of memoirs, perhaps themost valuable is the list of Chinese names of starsand constellations. He also translated the FourBooks, etc., with some extracts from the philosophers.Remusat criticizes these translations veryseverely. P. Noel died in 1729 at Lille.Remusat : Nouveaux Melanges Asiatiques.NON-ALIENATION OF YANGTZE REGION.An exchange of notes between the British andChinese governments was made in February 1898,when the Chinese government declared it "out ofthe question that territory in provinces adjoiningthe Yangtze should ever be mortgaged, leased orceded to another Power."399

NORTH CHIHLI MISSIONENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICANORTH CHIHLI MISSION, a smaU undenominatioiial Mission with its headquarters atStaback, near Christiania, Norway; working in1917 at four stations in Chihli with eight foreignworkers.NORTH CHINA BRANCH of the RoyalAsiatic Society,—not to be confused with the ChinaBranch (q.v.). The Society was founded in Shanghaiin 1857 with the name Shanghai Literary andScientific Society. Its first President was theRev. Dr. Bridgman and its first Secretary Dr.Edkins. A Journal was issued in 1858, but theSociety then became affiliated to the R.A.S. andits name was changed to that which it has borneever since.Through lack of support and through Dr.Bridgman' s death the Society ceased to exi^t afterits meeting of October, 1861. In 1864, however,it was resuscitated, with Sir Harry Parkes asPre.sident. The British Government allowed it apiece of land at nominal rent in 1868, on conditionthat buildings were put up thereon within threeyears. Cordier (who was the librarian) andF. B. Forbes begged the necessary funds 'sou bysou,' obtained Tls. 2,700, Kingsmill drew the plansfree of charge, and the present buildings wereerected in 1871.Wylie's library was bought after another appealto the public for funds, and Cordier preparedthe first catalogue.There is now a membership of over 400, theLibrary has some 8,000 volumes, there is a smallbut well-directed Museum, an annual Journal isissued, lectures are given through the winter, andthe Society is to-day more flourishing than ever.China Review : vol. ii ; T'gtjng Pad, 1894,p. 449; 'Old Mortality' : N. C. Herald, 1873,vol. xi, p. 361.NORTH CHINA DAILY NEWS, THE.first appearance under this name was on July 1,1864, but it took the place of The Daily Shipjiingand Commercial Netos. It is still published and isItsthe most important paper in China and the Far East.For its editors see North China Herald.NORTH CHINA HERALD. The first numberof this weekly Shanghai paper was issued August3, 1850, the proprietor and editor being HenryShearman. At his death in 1356, Charles SpencerCoMPTON became editor, and in 1861 SamuelMobsman, follow^ed by R. Alexander Jamieson(1863), R. S. Gundry (1866), George WilliamHaden (1873), Frederick H. Balfotjr (1881),J. W. Mclellan (1388), R. W. Little (1889),H. T. Montague Bell (1906), 0. M. Green(1911). Many scientific papers appearing in itscolumns were reprinted as a Miscellany appendedto an annual Almanac, till 1858.In 1859 it became the official organ for BritishLegation notifications, etc. In 1867 it altered title,format and price, and appeared as The North ChinaHerald and Market Report, No. 1. With the firstnumber of 1870 the Supreme Court and ConsularGazette was incorporated, and the title henceforthwas The North China Herald and Supreme Courtand Consular Gazette.Since 1864 it has been the weekly edition ofThe North China Daily News, and has had thesame editors.NORTH CHINA UNION COLLEGE, THE,at T'ung-chou in Chihli, had as its foundation aprimary school for boys opened in 1867 by theA.B.C.F.M., which later became an Academy, andin 1889 a College. In 1900, the buildingsi weretotally destroyed by the Boxers, and some of i,i;estudents were killed.Work was re-opened in temporary quarters inPeking in the autumn of 1900, and T'ung-chouCollege rebuilt in 1902. The L.M.S. and A.P.M.are now associated in the work, the former joiningin 1904, and the latter in 1905. The A.B.C.F.M.provides five of the foreign staff, the L.M.S. one,and the A.P.M. two. The larger part of thestudents are from Christian families and those inthe College department numbered 80 in March, 1917.Arrangements were completed in 1916, wherebythe College became part of the Peking University.NORTH-WEST KIANGSI MISSION, THE,works at Kuling, and two other stations in Kiangsi,with fourteen missionaries in 1917.NORWEGIAN ALLIANCE MISSION.China Inland Mission.SeeNORWEGIAN LUTHERAN MISSION.Headquarters :— Kristiania.Entered China, 1894.Works in South-west Honan and North-westHupei.This Mission's chief centre is at its oldeststation, Lao-ho-kow ^M X\ , in North Hupei, inwhich province there are four other stations, viz.,Yiin-yang |R {g (1898), Kiin-chow i^ ^\ (1899),Shi-hwa kai ?I|2 ® (1904), and Fang-hsien ^ jg(1912).In Honan province, the centres are Chen-ping^ 2p, Nan-yang }g ^, and Teng-chow g^ ^, allopened in 1904, and Lu-shan © |1| (1906).The Mission emphasizes evangelistic work, butschools have been begun at every station, and atmany outstations.A hospital was opened at Lao-ho kow in 1913,but the resident physician, Dr. Froyland, wasmurdered by "White Wolf" in March, 1914, sincewhich time Medical work has lapsed.400

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICANUMISWtATICS1916 :Statistics for the year ending December 31st,Foreign force 62Chinese staff 173Communicants 1,232Non-communicant members ... 189NORWEGIAN MISSIONARY SOCIETY.IJtatlquarters :—Stavanger, Norway.Entered China, 1902.Works in Hunan.This mission occupies six centres in the Changshaand Pao-ch'ing prefectures, besides maintainingone professor at the Union Lutheran Seminary atShe-kow, Hupei. The work was begun at Changshaand other places under great difficulties owingto the virulent anti-foreign feeling of the Hunanese,but has been very successful, the Christian community,(i.e., baptized members and catechumens),numbering 3,389 in the beginning of 1916, as theresult of fifteen years' work.Educational work is vigorously prosecuted, in60 primary schools, one middle school, (at T'ao-hualun), a normal school for women, a men's blindschool, and girls' orphanage ; in addition to theShe-kow Theological College mentioned above.Medical work is carried on in three hospitals,and four dispensaries, with four foreign doctors,four foreign nurses, and fourteen Chinese nurses.It is usual to make special and united evangelisticcampaigns at Christmas. In December 1915,in Changsha district 15,000 listeners, admitted byticket, attended the services.Statistics for the year ending December 31, 1916.Foreign missionaries 36Chinese staff 214Communicants 1,958Non-communicant members 571NORWEGIAN MISSION IN CHINA. SeeChina Inland AIicsio7i.NO SU. See Aborigines.NOTES AND QUERIES ON CHINA ANDJapan, a monthly magazine published in Hongkongby N. B. Dennys from January, 1867 to December,1S69. C. L. Davies bought the magazine, and fromFebruary "with which is incorporated Papers onChina" was added to the title. It appears to havedied that year. Mr. Dennys started The Chi7iaReview, or Notes and Queries on the Far East, inJuly, 1872.See Papers on China.Nij-CHEN TARTARS.See Chin.NU-CHIH, ^jg, the same as Nu-chen ^ ||..The Nii-chen Tartars, being subject to the Khitans(Liao dynasty), made this change in a.d. 1035,because the word chen formed part of the personalname of the reigning Emperor, Hsing Tsung, SeeChin.NU-KUO icM- See Woman-country.NUMISMATICS.The earliest Chinese recordstell of barter, but in Europe while such evidenceas the word pecunia implies barter of cattle, etc.,denoting hunting and pastoral stages of civilization,in China the earliest indications point to the agriculturalstage. Metallic coinage was introducedvery early and gradually supplanted other mediaof exchange such as cloth, silk, pearls, jade,cowrie?,etc.It is claimed by some authorities that moneydates from the time of T'ai Hag ^ ^ b.c.2953.Others, more critical, date it from Shun's reign,B.C. 2255. The earliest dates which are generallyagreed on are tlie Ch'eng wang period, e.g. 1115—1079 for the inscribed round coins, and the FeudalPeriod of B.C. 770—470 for the Knife J] tao coins.All coinage has been in copper (bronze) untilthe modern mints began to coin silver in 1895. Inexceptional times iron coins have been made, andwhite metal and lead are said to have been used.Gold has never been cast in coins.The shapes of early Chinese coins are veryvarious. Spade money, Pu (cloth) money, Ch'uancoins. Knife money of differing shapes, can hardlybe explained without illustrations, and the readerisreferred to the works mentioned below.All the dynastic histories from the Han to theMing dynasty have a section on currency ; Ssu-maCh'ien, Ma Tuan Lin and other writers also dealwith the subject. But the first purely numismaticwork that we have knowledge of is the Ch'ien chih^ -^ by Liu Shih. We only know of him by hiswork being referred to in the Ch'ien P'u ^ |§of Ku YiiAN, whose book again is only known byreferences. Ku YiiAN was of the Liang dynasty,a.d. 502—555. Many other numismatic works werewritten in the T'ang and Sung dynasties, but haveperished except for fragmentary references. Onework only has survived,—the Ch'iian Chih ^^^by Hung Tsun ^ ^, published in a.d. 1149.The next important work was the Ch'ien T'unrj1^ ifiby Hu W^o-k'un ^ ^^ ^, of the Ming dynasty.In the Manchu dynasty there were many writers onnumismatics, the most important being Ch'uShang-ling i^ ^ ip who wrote Chi chin so chien hiin 1827, and Li Tso-hsien .^^^, author of theKu Ch'uan Hui -g"^®, published in 1864. Thelatter work, consisting, with a supplement, oftwenty thin volumes and figuring close on sixthou.sand coins, is generally regarded as the bestbook on the subject.The Journal of the North China Branch of thePtoyal Asiatic Society contains illustrated paperson Ch'ing dynasty coins by Wylie and Bushell,(vols, i and xv). Hopkins and Hillier have alsowritten valuable papers on the subject. De401

NURHACHUENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICALacotjperie described the British Museum Collectionincluding the Gardiner Collection of Chinese Coins,—a very valuable work ; and in 1895 Mr. (now Sir)James Stewaet Lockhart published the GloverCollection, now out of print. The latest importantbook on the subject is Sir J. H. StewartLockhart's description of his own collection, issuedin 1915 by the N. C. Branch of the Eoyal AsiaticSociety. The N.C.B.R.A.S. Journal for 1917 hasa paper on the Republican coinage, by Res.NURHACHU, who afterwards reigned asT'lEN Ming 5c ^j was the real founder of theManchu power. He was born in 1559, in one ofthe small independent communities which resultedfrom the breaking up of the Chin.^ dynasty (Niichen).At 24 years of age he came into prominenceas a leader, and by good government and by forcehe so brought the various tribes under his sway thatin 1586 he was able to declare his independence ofChina and to refuse tribute. By his orders awritten language was prepared for his people, whotill then had none. It was based on the Mongol,after some improvements had been added thirtythreeyears later, it was the Manchu language asit is used to-day. In 1616, the term Manchu, ofwhich the etymology is not known, was adopted asthe national title, and a few year's later he inflicteda disastrous defeat on an army of 200,000 men sentby the Ming Emperor against him. In 1625 heestablished his capital at Mukden, then calledShen Yang fg J^ and his rule stretched to the seaon the East, and to the Amur on the North, Ningyiianbeing almost the only important possessionleft in Chinese hands north of the Great Wall,In attacking this place, however, he suffered agreat defeat through meeting artillery at closerange; his chagrin brought on a serious illness andhe died in 1626. He was canonize'd as T'ai TsuNUTGALLS; these are produced by an insecton Rhus javanica, the fu yang tree, and on E.potaninii, both of which have their habitat in themountainous regions of W. Hupei, Hunan, Kueichcuand Kuangsi.The first are named Wu pei tzu S.'i\!^J', andare reduced to powder to produce a dye-stuff,besides being largely used in tanning. The secondhas galls, Ch'i-pu-tzu -t ^ J-, used in Chinesemedicine. Chinese nut-galls furnish the finest tanningmedicine in the world. In commerce nut-gallsare classified into plum-shaped and "other." Hankow,Chungking, Ichang, Yochow and Wuchow, inthe order named, are the chief ports. The export,which was 20,000 piculs in 1876 had risen to 43,000piculs in 1898 and 66,000 (the record) in 1909. In1916 it was pels. 47,068, value Hk".Tls. 1,032,502.See Dye-stuffs.NUTHATCHES.See Sitta.OATH OF ROMAN CATHOLIC PRIESTS.See Papal Bull.OATHS. According to Parker the commonmode of taking an oath in ancient China was tothrow something into a river, either calling theriver-god to witness, or intending 'If I break myvow may I pass as this river.' In the case ofsolemn treaties part of the sacrificial animal wasOOATS, Avena ?ativa L., are not much grown,except in parts of Manchuria, Mongolia andN. Shansi and Kansu, in the highlands of Ssuch'uan,and in the N.W. corner of Yvinnan, nearthe celebrated pony-raising district of K'iitsingfu.OBSERVATORY OF PEKING. The Observatory,called huan hsing t'ai 'star-gazing platform,'is situated by the wall of the Tartar city, not farburied, that the Earth might be witness. Instances from its south-east corner; it was actually at theare given of oaths by the killing of a chicken, a corner of Khubilai Khan's city, which did notpig, etc.extend so far south as the present Tartar city.In Hongkong the form of oath for Chinese inIt dates from Khubilai Khan's 16th year ofCourt was by cutting off a cock's head. Afterwards rule, 1280, and was under the care of Mohammedansthe breaking of an earthenware vessel was substituted;later a yellow paper, with oath and ScHALL. It is merely a platform 'built of largetill 1622, when the direction was given to P. Adamimprecation written on it or the witness' signature, bricks and rising fifty feet high, on which stand thewas burned. The latest form is a simple oral astronomical instruments. Two very large instrumentsdating from the thirteenth century used toaffirmation.Parker : Ancient China Simplified; Eitel :Europe in China.402stand at the base of the platform ; one is now left,the other being in Potsdam.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAOILSP. Verbiest made six instruments in 1673, butthe Germans have taken three of these also.The instruments with their location are asfollows :I.—Cast in the thirteenth century by theCantonese astronomer Kuo Shoxj-ching #{1 ^ |i1. Large planetary sphere, jfj^ ^ yang i; atPotsdam.2. Astrolabe, ^ •g| chien i; in the Observatorycourt.3. Gnomon, Q ^ jih kuei; in the Observatorycourt.II.—Cast by Verbiest, 1673 :1. Quadrant, ^ ^ ^ hsiang hsien i, on theplatform, north-west.2. Zodiacal sphere, ^ -^ huang tuo, on theplatform,south-west.3. Equatorial sphere, ^ ^platform, south-east.ch'ih tao, on the4. Celestial sphere, ^ j|§ t'ien t'i, at Potsdam.5. Azimuth horizon, Jfe'^p^ ti p'ing i,„6. Sextant, lEsf^"!^ chi hsien i, ,,III.—Given by Louis XIV :xVrmillary sphere, ^pij^j^H^ 'pHng ti chingwei i, on the platform, south.IV.—Founded later by the Chinese :1. H M^^''^ ch'cn, made in the Ch'ien Lungreign ; at Potsdam.2. Celestial sphere, yi |f t'ien t'i, to replacethat by Verbiest, taken by theGermans ; smaller than the original ; onthe platform, west.Bulletin Catholique de Pekin, 1914, p. 211.OCARINA. See Musical Instruments.O'CONOR, NICHOLAS RODERICK, born inIreland in 1843, was Secretary of the BritishLegation in Peking in 1883 and charge d'affairesin 1885-6 and was called from Bulgaria to beMinister in China, April 1, 1892. He was madeK.C.B. in 1895, G.C.M.B. in 1896 and G.C.B.in 1897.On the conclusion of a contract for a loan fromRussia to China in 1895 he spoke to the Tsung-liYamen in such indignant language that the Yamenexpressed a wish for his recall ; so satisfied was theBritish Government with his services that he waspromoted to the Embassy at St. Petersburg, October24, 1895. He died at Constantinople, March 19,1908.CoRDiER : Histoire des Relations de la Chine,etc., vol. iii, p. 309.ODES, BOOK OF, ^m.-See Shih Ching.ODIN BAY, a name given to a small bay inTa-lien wan, during the occupation by Britishforces in 1860. It was named after one of the warvessels.ODOR IC, was born at Pordenone near Venicein 1286. About 1300 he entered the FranciscanOrder, and was sent to Asia to follow up the successof MoNTE-CoRViNO. He started in 1318, made hisway through Persia, India, Ceylon, Sumatra, Javaand Borneo, travelled from Canton through China,staying three years in Peking where Monte-Corvinowas then Archbishop, and returned to Europe viaTibet. He is the first European to mention Lhasa.His homeward route is not known but he arrivedin 1330, and in May of that year dictated theaccount of his travels, which was written in Latin.It is said he returned in order to get fifty moremissionaries, but he died at Udine in 1331. In 1755he was officially beatified. His tomb is at Udinenear his birthplace, and his body is exposed to theview of the faithful once in every four years.CoRDiER : Les Voyages . . . d'Odoric dePordenone, Paris, 1891 ; Yule : Cathay and theWay Thither.OELOTS. See Eleuths.OFFICIALS. Mayers in his Chinese Governmentgave the titles of 612 offices under the Manchus.Many of these have been abolished or the titlechanged since the Revolution. Such as are likelyto be referred to will be found in their proper placesin this book. See Government, Republican.OILS. See Wood, Beans, Sesamum, etc.OIL, PERSIMMON: A varnish oil is obtainedfrom the wild form of Diospyros kaki, Jft ifj^ -3^Yu-shih-tzu, which is abundant in the mountains ofcentral and western China up to 4,000 feet altitude,where it forms a large tree 50 or 60 feet tall. Thefruit is plucked in July when still green. By meansof a wooden mallet it is reduced to a pulp, whichis placed with cold water in large earthenware jarsfitted with covers, and allowed to decompose. Thecontents are stirred occasionally, and at the end of30 days the residue of the pulp is removed and theresultant liquid, a nearly colourless varnish, ispoured into other jars. To give it a warm tint,the leaves of Ligustrum lucidum, privet, or Lashui^^ or -j/C M. "" cheh, are steeped in the jars forten days or so, according to the depth of tintdesired. This varnish is used for waterproofingpurposes generally, its principal use being in themanufacture of umbrellas.OILS, ESSENTIAL. The principal essentialoils are camphor, cassia, and aniseed (q.v.). Besidesthese the following are exported from the twoKuang provinces, (given under the heading Oils,Essential, in the Customs Export List),—cardomom,cinnamon, ginger, gum, benjamin, peppermint, rose,and sandalwood.In 1916 the exports were pels. 9,431, valueHk.Tls. 878,840.403

OUD UNCLESENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAOLD UNCLES ^fijt winy chung, the namegiven to a dozen gigantic statues of iron made byShih Huang Ti from the iron which he had commandedthe people to bring in to prevent theirmaking weapons. They are said to have been each240,000 lbs. in weight; they were placed in thecourt-yard of his palace.TscHEPE : Histoire du Royaume de Ch'in, p. 25.OLIPHANT, LAURENCE, was born in 1829at Cape Town, where his father had just been sentfrom London as Attorney-General. Much of hisearly life was spent in travel, and he also acted assecretary to Lord Elgin in Washington. In 1857,he became private secretary to Lord Elgin on hisvisit to China, was present at the bombardment ofCanton, and in 1859 published a Narrative of theEarl of Elgin's Mission to China and Japan in theyears 1857-8-9. His further career, exceedinglyvaried, and also marked by strange religiousdevelopments, had nothing to do with China, andistherefore not related here.[Leslie Stephen] : Dictionary of NationalBiogruj)hy.OLOPEN or OLOPUN, the first Nestorianmissionary to China, arrived with his companionsin A.D. 635, was well received by the T'ang emperorT'ai Tsung, and began his work in Ch'ang-an(Hsi-an fu).The name only occurs in the Chinese part ofthe inscription on the Nestorian monument, andit has given rise to discussion. Yule first suggestedthat it was the Chinese form of the Syriac liabban,the title by which the Apostle had come to begenerally known. Havret accepted this opinion asthe most satisfactory of any. Hirth sugested thatthe O-lo represented ru, (cf. 0-lo-ssu for Russia)and that the missionary bore the common nameRuben.Yule : Cathay and the Way 2'hither; Hirth :Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xxi, p. 214.OLYPHANT D. W. C, a member of one ofthe early American firms in Canton,—Talbot,Olyphant & Co., noted for his good deeds. It wasby his invitation and infliuence that AmericanMissions began in 1829. His firm provided aMission house in Canton, rent-free, for 13 years.At his suggestion the church in New York to whichhe belonged sent a complete printing plant; heinvited and carried out Abeel, and the firm gavefifty-one free passages to missionaries and theirfamilies, which meant far more then than it wouldmean now. He encouraged the beginning of theChinese Repository, built an office for it in Canton,and promised to bear all loss if the publication wasa failure. He published Medhurst's HokeenDictionary at a cost of $2,000 ; and did many othergenerous things. He died at Cairo on his way tothe U.S.A., June. 10, 1851.Chinese Repository, vol. xx, p. 509Williams : fjife and Jjetters of S. Wells Williams.isOMI SHAN ;also known as Omei and 0, etc.,one of the Four Sacred Hills of Buddhist pilgrimsin China.It is'one day's journey west of Chia-ting(Kiating) in Ssuch'uan, and is of hard limestonerock, 11,000 feet above sea level, rising precipitouslyfrom the plain. The first European to visit it wasE. C. Baber in 1377. He states that it has perhapsthe highest precipice in the world—about 6,000 feethigh. From the edge pilgrims sometimes see in theabyss tlie 'glory of Buddha'—a brilliant disc surroundedby a rainbow, a natural phenomenon whichis very impressive to the simple and superstitious.The patron deity of the mountain is P'u HsienPusa, who was supposed to have once appeared onthe mountain seated on an elephant. A colossalbronze image, perhaps dating from the 7th century,representing P'u Hsien on his elephant, is one ofthe sights of the mountain. Other wonders are thegilded and lacquered mummies of three holy men,and a tooth of Buddha, twelve inches long andeighteen lbs. in weight. The ruins of a bronzetemple erected by the Emperor Wan Li (1573-1620)and destroyed by lightning in 1819 can also beseen. There are 56 pagodas, including two bronzeones of the Ming dynasty, and over 70 temples andmonasteries containing more than 2,000 monks arescattered on the mountain. Thousands of pilgrimsflock there every year, some from Tibet and Nepal,and some even from the China coasts.See P'u Hsien.Wilson : A Naturalist in West China;Johnston : Froju Peking to Mundalay; Little :Mount Omi and beyond; Baber : Travels andResearches in W. China.6m MANI PADME HUM, a Mongolian andTibetan six-syllable charm, inscribed on amuletsand, in Tibet, on pillars and walls everywhere, toward off evil influences, and continually uttered aswell. The first European riotice of it seems to bein William of Rubruck. Rockhill gives thelegendary origin.Rockhill : 2'he Tjand of the Lamas, p. 326.ONE-EYED REBEL .f.BBM. a.i epithet forLi Tzu-ch'eng {q-v.), who lost his left eye in thesiege of K'ai-feng fu.ONGUT, an important tribe, called also inChinese books White Tartars. They dwelt north ofthe great bend of the Yellow River, commandingthe entry into China through N.W. Shansi, in thedi.strict called by Marco Polo Tenduc. They werea Christian tribe, as is known from many sources,Marco Polo, Montecobvino, Odoric, and Chinese404

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAOPIUMand Persian writers. In Marco Polo's time thelegend of Prester John pointed no longer to theKeraits (q.v.) but to the Ongut, whose PrinceGeorge is spoken of .as descended from PresterJohn.Pelliot : Chretiens d'Asie centrale, etc., T'oungPao, 1914.OPIUM AND THE OPIUM QUESTION INChina.—For a proper understanding of themuch-vexed opium question the best approach isthrough reading the arguments of the defenders ofthe importation of opium into China. The ablestpresentment of the case for opium is that made in1882 by W. H. Brereton, a Hongkong solicitor,who for many years acted as legal adviser to theopium farmers in that colony. The lectures,delivered in London, were the result of a determinationto "expose the mischievous fallacies disseminatedby the Anglo-Oriental Society for theSuppression of the Opium Trade." The lecturerstates that he was denied the use of Exeter Hallfor the purpose of his lectures, and "thinks he isjustified in exposing this act of intolerance."Mr. Brereton first gives his personal experienceof fifteen years in Hongkong, stating that opiumsmoking, as practised by the Chinese, is perfectlyinnocuous. He then notes the ideas as to the tradeprevalent in England, ideas which he declares to beunfounded on fact and contrary to the opinion ofall Europeans and Americans in China, with theexception of the missionaries. It is, in fact, hesays, on a par with tea-drinking and smokinghe had known hundreds of Chinese who had smokedfrom their earliest days, but never observed anysymptoms of decay in them. He sums up that thecharge against England's good name is foul anduntenable.The fallacies -which he mentions are ten innumber, viz. : 1.—That opium smoking in Chinais now and always has been confined to a smallpercentage of the population, but which, owing tothe introduction into the country of Indian opium,is rapidly increasing. The fact being, he says, thatthe custom is, and for centuries has been generalamong the male adults throughout China, its usebeing limited only by the ability to procure the drug.In order to clear up this point it is necessary togive an historical sketch of the opium trade in China.Edkins, in his The Poppy in China, states thatthe poppy was apparently unknown in China previouslyto the T'ang Dynasty (a.d. 618) ;the firstmention in literature is in the SupplementaryHerbalist of Chen Tsang-chi, in the first half ofthe eighth century, and in the Herbalist's Treasury,A.D. 973, is a reference to the medicinal use of thepoppy, whilst a medical writer, Lin Hung, probablyof the twelfth century, and other medical writersa little later, describe the preparation of opium andits uses in bowel troubles. There can be littledoubt that the preparation of opium had been introducedinto China through Arab channels by the endof the sixteenth century.Morse states, (The Trade and Adi/tinistrafi

OPIUMENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAensued the action which forced the foreign merchantsat Canton to deliver up their stocks of opium, whichwas destroyed by the Commissioner, and the subsequentevents which led to war with Great Britain.This war has been called the "Opium War," as thedestruction of the opium was made by the BritishGovernment a casus belli, "yet, apart from theopium traffic, there were causes leading inevitablyto an open rupture between the two nations," (Pott :A Sketch of Chinese History, 1st ed., p. 130).The opium trade after the war is shrouded ina veil of secrecy, and from 1840 to 1860 pandemoniumreigned : the Chinese Government attempted theimpossible in applying to foreign nations alone therestrictions which they could not enforce on theirown subjects, iso removing all regulation from atrade which they would not consent to legalize; a"perfect carnival of smuggling," in Morse's phrase,ensued. This was put an end to in the BritishTreaty of 1858, Article xxvi of which provided fora revision of the Customs traffic, in which opiumwas included at a duty of Tls. 30 per picul.Legalization was first suggested by the AmericanMinister, W. B. Reed, who saw the abuses towhich the contraband character of the trade gaverise. By the Chefoo Convention of 1876 the collectionof likin was authorised, and after this becameeffective, and the Kowloon and Lappa Customs wereopened, (1887) smuggling was greatly reduced.The official policy of the British Governmentin relation to opium is summed up in the followingdocument :Viscount Palnierston's Instructions to Sir H.Pottinger respecting Opium, on his departure forChina, 31st May 18^1."It is of great importance, with a vie-w tothe maintenance of a permanent good understandingbetween the two countries, that the ChineseGovernment should place the opium trade uponsome regular and legalized footing. Experiencehas shown that it is entirely beyond the power ofthe Chinese Government to prevent the introductionof opium into China; and many reasonsrender it impossible that the British Governmentcan give the Chinese Government any effectualaid towards the accomplishment of that purpose.But while the opium trade is forbidden by law•it must inevitably be carried on by fraud andviolence ; and hence must arise frequent conflictsand collisions between the Chinese preventiveservice and the parties who are engaged in carryingon the opium trade. These parties aregenerally British subjects ; and it is impossibletj suppose that this private war can be carrj^d onbetween British opium smugglers and the Chineseauthorities, without events happening which musttend to put in jeopardy the good understandingbetween the Chinese and British Governments."H.M. Government makes no demand in thismatter : for they have no right to do so.The Chinese Government is fully entitled to prohibitthe importation of opium, if it pleases ; andBritish subjects who engage in a contraband trademust take the consequences of doing so. But itis desirable that you should avail yourself ofevery favourable opportunity to istrongly impressupon the Chinese Plenipotentiary, and throughhim upon the Chinese Government how much itwould be for the interest of the Chinese Governmentitself to alter the law of China on thismatter, and to legalize, by a regular duty, a tradewhich they cannot prevent."Fallacy No. 2.—That opium smoking is injuriousto the system, more so than spirit drinking.—Againstthis, Brereton says that the former is not onlyharmless but beneficial. This opinion is reinforcedby the words used by Messrs. Jardine, Matheson,quoted by Moule, The Opium Question p. 43,"the use of opium is not a curse but a comfort totha hard-working Chinese ; to many scores ofthousands it has been productive of healthfulsustentation and enjoyment." Pottinger, in OpiumPajjers 1842-66, pp. 7, 8, stated that the allegeddemoralizing and debasing efforts of opium havebeen vastly exaggerated. Consul Gardner, (ChefooTrade Report 1878), said that "thousands of hardworkingpeople are indebted to opium smoking forthe continuance of lives agreeable to themselves anduseful to society." Consul Scott at Kiungchowsaid, also In 1879 : "no one can maintain that a mildindulgence results in physical or mental debility.A pipe of opium is to the Chinese workman what aglass of beer is to the English labourer, a climaticnecessity." Further quotations to the isame effectare made (these are in an essay on the Indo-ChineseOpium Trade, by J. S. Hill), from another consul,two doctors in China (non-missionary), two inIndia, two travellers in China (Fortune and Baber),and finally from Sir George Birdwood, M.D. aprominent medical official in India, who, in a letterto the Times of December 6, 1881, argued stronglyin favour of the downright innocency of opiumsmoking, "... and that we are as free tointroduce opium into China, and to raise a revenuefrom it in India, as to export , our manufacturesinto France" : he also affirmed that the smoking ofopium cannot be otherwise than harmless, as theactive principles of opium are non-volatisable, i.e.non-smokeable. This latter part of his contentionhe was later compelled to retract, and his opinionwas therefore deprived of one of its chief claims torespect and attention.The above testimony, brought forward by J. S.Hilt, in an inquiry into the question which ismarked by studied moderation, was said by him tobe almost the whole testimony that can be brought406

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAOPIUMto substantiate Messrs. J.^dinb, Matheson's statement.Although seldom given without qualificationswhich often weaken its force, and not always bywholly unbiassed deponents, it presents a fairlystrong -prima facie case for argument which cannotbe ignored. Taken moreover in connection with thefajt that China showed but few signs of decrepitude,it would be necessary to bring forward cogent argumentsagainst it.The most significant fact on the other side is thealmost entire absence of Chinese witnessesi from thecase of the opium apologists : the opinion of thosewho consume the drug is surely of the highast importance.This argument can be strengthened byproducing an almost unanimous body of Chineseevidence against opium. As regards the opinion offoreigners, these may be divided into two classes,official and other. The Directors of the East IndiaCompany early in the history of the traffic wroteto the Governor in Council in Bengal as followsReport 1831, on the Affairs of the East India Co.,Apjj. p. 11— "We wish it to be clearly understoodthat our sanction is given to these measures (forsupplying a quantity of opium for the internalconsumption of the country) not with a view to therevenue which they may yield, but in the hopethat they will tend to restrain the use of thispernicious drug ... to prevent its introductioninto districts where it is not used, and to limit itsconsumption in other places as nearly asi possibleto what may be absolutely necessary. Were itpossible to prevent the use of the drug altogetherwe would gladly do so in compassion to mankind."Further quotations are made from eminent men,e.g. a Chairman of the Directors of the Companyspeaks of opium as "a grievous evil" (Pari, Papers,1856, p. 82) ; Mr. C. A. Bruce, Indian GovernmentSuperintendent of the tea plantations in Assam, isequally emphatic. Turning to China, we find SirThomas Wade, British Minister, saying, in hisimportant memorandum relative to the revision ofthe Treaty of Tientsin :— "I cannot endons'e theopinion of Messrs. Jardine, Matheson that the useof opium is not a curse, but a comfort and a benefitto the hard-working Chinese."Sir R. Alcock statedbefore the East India Finance Committee in 1871 :"Looking to the universality of the belief amongthe Chinese that whenever a man takes to smokingopium it will probably be the impoverishment andruiii of his family . . , those who are addictedto it always consider themselves moral criminals."Another leading official quoted in the same sense isSir J. P. Hennessy, Governor of Hongkong, andth9 opinion of medical men is then given, andincludes those of Sir B. Brodie, Sir J. Ritson, and24 leading doctors in England. The testimony ofmedical men residing in China is almost unanimousagainst opium, and, though a few doctors have beenquoted in itsfavour, the weight of authority and anumerical majority are convincing.Fallacy No. 3.—That the supply of opiumregulates the demand, and not the demand thesupply.—This argument, brought forward by theAnti-Opium Society, is disproved by Mr. Brereton,particularly by his pointing- out that Indian opiumwas of much better quality than the native drug.Later on, when the quality of the Indian articledeteriorated, the demand fell oif.Fallacy No. 4-—That opium smoking and opiumeating are equally hurtful.—This point appears tobe of littleimportance, in view of what follows.Fallacy No. 5.—That nearly all who smokeopium are either inordinate smokers or are necessarilyin the way of becoming so, and that once thecustom has been commenced it cannot be dropped ;but the victim is compelled to go on smoking thedrug to his ultimate destruction.—The lecturer saysthat it is a matter of common knowledge that thisis not the case : he has known hundreds of moderatesmokers. But, as the habit is beneficial, few desireto discontinue it. Against this may be quoted aletter from a Chinese resident in London (Times,6 July, 1875), "show me one instance where a manhad been adhering to a fixed allowance of opiumwith which he had commenced years ago, and Iwill show you a hundred cases where men wereruined within ten years."Dr. Shearer, of Liverpool, in a pamphlet onOpium (awarded a prize in 1881 by a commissionof eminent physicians) states that the vice is farmore ensnaring and seductive than dram-drinking,that cumulative doses are required to produce theoriginal effects, and that even the moderate continuoususe of the drug induces the most seriousderangement of the nervous system. The chiefobjection to its use put forward by the Chinese isthat it injures the intellect and impairs the moralcharacter. The desire for the drug among thepoorer classes leads them to stint themselves of thecommon necessaries of life, the consequence beingrapid deterioration of health. The effects on thewealthy are less noticeable, but no less sure in theend, for there are few who ever discontinue thehabit. Medical opinion generally at the presentday may be said to confirm this view.Fallacy No. 6.—That the Chinese Governmentis, or ever was, anxious to put a stop to its use, oreven to check its use among the people of China.The sole object of the Government, says Mr.Brereton, was to protect the native drug, toprevent bullion leaving the country and generallyto exclude foreign goods. If the Chinese Governmentreally wanted to put a stop to the use of opiumthey would begin by doing so themselves :theycould do this without difficulty. But they will not407

OPIUMENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAbecause they derive a large revenue from the drug,because smoking is an ancient and harmless, andbeneficial custom.That smoking is not an ancient custom has beenshown in the historical sketch. The opinion of theChinese Government is well illustrated in thefollowing document, viz :—Extract from Memorial of Choo-Tsun, Memberof the Council and of the Board of Bites, againstthe admission of Opium. October 1836."To sum up the matter, the wide-spreadingand baneful influence of opium, when regardedsimply as injurious to property, is of inferiorimportance ; but when regarded as hurtful to thepeople, it demands most anxious considerationfor in the people lies the very foundation ofthe empire. Property, it is true, is that on whichthe subsistence of the people dependsv Yet adeficiency of it may be supplied, and an impoverishedpeople improved, whereas it is beyortdthe power of any artificial means to save a peopleenervated by luxury." [He then goes on to saythat opium had been introduced into Java by theDutch in order to enfeeble the natives, and sosubdue them the more readily.] "Now the Englishare of the same race. In introducing opium intothis country, their purpose has been to weakenand enfeeble the Central Empire. If not earlyaroused to a sense of our danger, we shall findourselves, ere long, on the last step to ruin. ..."The memorialist then goes on to state thatruin is being caused in the army by the use ofopium."While the stream of importation of opiumi;^ not turned aside, it is impossible to attain toany certainty that none in the camp do eversecretly inhale the drug. And if the camp beonce contaminated by it, the baneful influencewill work its way, and the habit will be contractedbeyond the power of reform. When the periodicaltimes of desire for it come round, how can thevictims—their legs tottering, their hands trembling,their eyes flowing with child-like tears—beable in any way to attend to their proper exercises?Or how can such men form strong andpowerful legions?"[An instance is then given of the failure dueto opium of a campaign in 1832 against the Yaourebels]. He then proceeds to descant on the lowebb to which morals have fallen, and recommends,besides the prohibition of importation, the strictenforcement of prohibition of its use, so that reformationmay ensue.Another memorialist, Heu-Kevv (October 1836)dv.-ells chiefly on the danger arising from the increasingexports of silver, but argues also on moralgrounds, saying that opium is highly injurious tomen, and to permit it to pervade the empire isincompatible with Celestial dignity. {Blue Book1840, p. 175). Hwang Tseo-tsze, president ofthe Sacrificial Court, memorializing the Throne in1838, (vide Chinese Repository), referred to theEmperor Kea-king having foreseen the injury thatopium would produce in China and having passed aprohibitory law. "But at the time his ministers didnot imagine that its poisonous effects would everpervade the empire to their present extent. Hadthey sooner been awake to this, they would haveawarded the severest penalties, in order to havenipped the evil in the bud ... the use of thedrug has now extended from the idle rich upwardsto ofl[icials and downwarlds to the laborer and thetradesman, to the traveller, and even to women,monks, nuns, and priests. In every place itsinhalers are to be found." He also refers to thedrain of silver from the country, and the weakeningof its resources. He therefore pleads for the suppressionof the trade and the prohibition of theuse of opium under the severest penalties, and asksfor the promulgation of prescriptions for the cureof the habit, so that the people'.s lives may be savedfrom danger. A generation later Li Hung-chang,Grand Secretary, stated [vide the Times of July29th, 1881) : "The single aim of my government intaking opium will be in the future, as in the pas-t,to repress the traffic . . . never the desire togain revenue from such a source. . . . If it bethought that China countenances the import fromthe revenue it brings, it should be known that mygovernment will gladly cut off all such revenue tostop the import of opium."This appears, indeed, to have been the constantattitude of the Central Government, as well as ofall the best opinion of China. The trade was abettedby a host of venal officials in the provinces, butthe volume of ^nti-opium opinion gathered strengthas years went by, and culminated in the movementof the early years of the 20th century, when theevil had reached a serious pitch.Fallacy No. 7.-—That the British merchants inChina are making large fortunes by opium.—Thefact being that the trade is profitable to a veryfew merchants only, whilst the British merchantsas a body have no interest in the trade whatever.This latter statement appears to have been trueat the time, and ever since. The fact that theGovernment of India was deriving a large revenuefrom opium is not, however, mentioned, and wasof vital importance in the argument.Fallacy No. 8.—The discontinuance of thesupply of opium from Briti.sh India would stop oreffectually check the practice -of opium smokingin China.—Here again Mr. Brereton was right atthe time, but as soon as China began to take steps408

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAOPIUMto put down opium-production, this point naturallyassumed great importance. (See below—Historical).Fallacy No. 5.—That the opposition of Chineseofficials to the introduction of opium into Chinaarose from moral causes.—This has been dealt withunder Fallacy No. 6.Fallacy No. iO.—That the introduction of Indianopium into China has arrested and is impeding theprogress of Christianity in that country, and thatif the trade were discontinued, the. Chinese, orlarge numbers of them, would embrace the Gospel.—No greater delusion than this could be indulgedin, says the lecturer. We send no opium to Japan,yet we make as few converts there as in China. Ifwe could and did stop opium importation, theChinese would find some other excuse for rejectingChristianity, and could point to the drunkennessprevailing so largely in the West and to the recordsof the Divorce Court as arguments against acceptingour religion.J. S. Hill, however, quotes several prominentmissionaries as stating that they had often beenmet with this objection to their faith, and it cannotbe denied that the objection, when sincere, hadgreat force. Christianity in China has spread inrecent years to a greatly increasing extent, but thecauses are manifold.Later History of Opium.—The opium importreached its zenith in 1879, when 82,927 piculs wereimported (besides 20,000 estimated to have beensmuggled in). Nine years later the figures werepractically the same, but from then (1888) onwardsthe trade began to decline, and ten years later lessthan 50,000 piculs were imported. This was dueto the enormous increase in the cultivation of thepoppy in China, in Manchuria and the northernprovinces generally, especially Ssuch'uan, where thevast majority of the adult population used the drug.Contributory to this result were the facts thatIndian opium had risen in price and deterioratedin quality ; by blending it with the native drug thetaste for the latter had become acquired, and forthe former correspondingly lost. Cultivation hadbeen confined to W. and N.W. China until the1860's and it was in the later years of that decadethat it began to spread through Honan into Chihliand the wild districts of Manchuria, and, furthersouth, in Hunan, Chekiang, and also in Shantungand especially in Hsuchowfu, Kiangsu, which hada large production. In 1881 the British ConsuratIchang estimated the production of Western Chinaalone at over 100,000 piculs; the total productionten years later must have been well over 200,000piculs, and in 1906 Morse estimated the total productionof native opium at 376,000 piculs, and itwas also estimated that between 10% and 20% of52409the male population, or 2J-% to 5% of the totalpopullation of China smoked opium.•This alarming growth of the vice caused astrong anti-opium movement to spring up in China,concomitantly with the spread of liberal ideas consequenton the growth of education and the shockadministered by the China-Japan War and thesuppression of the Boxer movement. In 1906 themovement had gathered such strength that theCourt was influenced to issue an edict ordering theabolition of opium smoking within ten years.Thiswas in September, and in the May previous a condemnatoryresolution had been passed in theParliament of Great Britain, where the opponentsof opium (who had never ceased, in ispite of Mr.Brereton, to oppose the traffic), finally won theday, and secured the passing of an agreement withChina, by which the export from India was reducedby one-tenth annually for ten years, provided theproduction of opium in China were reduced 'partjmssu; the first three years were however to bean experimental period, at the end of which thesituation wasi to be reviewed, and further action considered.Further edicts, were issued by the ChineseGovernment, the sincerity of whose action was recognisedby the International Opium Commission,which met at Shanghai in 1909, and resolved to giveassistance to China in its attempt to put a stopto opium growing and trade.At the end of the three years' experimentalperiod, referred to above, i.e. at the beginning of1911, fresh negotiations were opened between thetwo Governments of China and Great Britain, andon May 8th arrangements were made to continuethe agreement for the unexpired period of sevenyears, H.M.'s Government agreeing to prohibit theimportation of opium into such provinces as hadsuppressed cultivation and import of the nativedrug, and to discontinue the export from Irrdiabefore the seven years had elapsed, provided Chinacould produce proof that production had ceased.The consolidated import duty was' increased fromTls. 110 to Tls. 350 per picul, and a uniform taxlevied on native, opium. A second internationalconference, at which China was represented, washeld at the Hague in 1911.Unfortunately the establishment of the Republicin China, owing to the disorganisation in distantprovinces, led to a revival of cultivation, but theGovernment set itself to suppresis the vice, and, inspite of many diflficulties and some opposition fromthe growers, has made increasing progress year byyear. Sir A. HosiE, whose investigations on behalfof the British Government took him through mostof the opium-growing districts (as described in hisOn the Trail of the Opium Poppy), has said "Noquestion has ever stirred the Chinese Empire so

OPIUM WARENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAprofoundly as that of opium suppression. It afEectsall classes, and public opinion, backed by a youngbut growing patriotism, is gradually but surelybranding opium-smoking as an evil that must beeradicated." At the end of March 1917, the importationof Indian opium ceased under the terms of theAgreement of 1907, and the extinction of cultivation,now carried on only in secret in remote districts,appears to be only a question of the re-establishmentof a strong government, for the whole mass ofenlightened opinion in China is against it. In thisconnection the work of the National Anti-OpiumSociety, with the aid of the International EeformBureau, is worthy of notice. The first branch wasformed in Tientsin, and the movement spread allover China. A great feature of the campaign hasbeen the public burning of opium and opium-pipes,etc., and a stigma is now universally attached tothe habit which can only be carried on in secret.The whole movement is universally admittedto reflect great credit on China.[N.S.]Brereton, W. H. : The Truth about Opium,1882; British Parliamentary Papers, passim; Hill,J. Spencer : The Indo-Chinese Opium Trade, 1884HosiE, Sir A. : On the Trail of the Opium Poppy,1914; Morse, H. B. : The Trade and Administrationof the Chinese Empire, passim; Motjle, A. E. :The Opium Question, 1877; Shearer, G., m.d..Opium Smoking and Opium Eating, 1881 ; Stirling,W. G. : Opium Smoking among the Chinese, 1913;Sultzberger, H. H. : All about Opium, 1884.Eeports of the Maritime Customs—SpecialSeries; No. 4, (1881) Opium; No. 9, (1887) NativeOpium; No. 10, (1888) Opium, Crude and Prepared;No. 13, (1889) Opium, Historical Note or ThePoppy in China (J. Edkins) ; No. 14, (1889) OpiumTrade.OPIUM WAR, a question-begging epithet whichhas unfortunately passed into current use. Theseizure of the opium by the Commissioner Lin wasthe occasion of the war, but the causes were theinsults, indignities, oppressions and injustices ofall the years during which the British and othershad sought legitimate trade with China.ORANGES, Citrus spp. China is probably theoriginal home of the sweet orange and also of mandarinoranges, tangerines and kumquats.There are said to be over eighty different kindsof edible oranges grown on the south-eastern coastsand islands of China,Of the sweet orange, (C. aurantium sinensis),there are several varieties, chiefly from South China.The mandarin oranges (C. nobilis) are large,have a loose skin of a dart orange-red colour, andare flattened in shape. One variety is seedless andvery sweet. Other excellent varieties are found inSsuch'uan. The trees are not so prolific as thetangerines, and the leaves and wood are muchstronger in growth and of a darker colour.To the same group belong the so-called bitteror tonic oranges from Wen chow.The tangerines are also C. nobilis but includethe small loose-skinned oranges, mostly of a lightorange colour and well seeded. The leaves of thetrees are small and of a light green colour. Thereare several varieties. The trees are able to bearquite severe cold.The kumquat {C. japonica) is a small fruit,generally preserved in sugar or syrup. There area few varieties, the elongated kind being thefavourite; it is even sent as far as the Pekingmarkets.Of pomelos and shaddocks (C decumana) thereare several varieties. The Amoy pomelo is particularlygood ; vit is flattened, has a loose skin, itssegments separate easily, and, when fresh, it is verysweet and juicy.The lemon is not grown in China as a fruit treebut only as a dwarf pot-plant, bearing as manyfruits as can be got on it. The fingered lemon orBuddha's Hand (C. medica digitata) ^ ^ fo shouisa queer fruit much grown as an ornamental potplant.The fruits are used as presents and keptfor their scent, and are supposed to bring good luck.There are various other quaint citrus plants,grown in pots and valued for their strangeness.Meyer : Agricultural Explorations, etc.ORDERS, etc.See Decorations.OR DOS M^ ^0 i'^o> tlie part of Mongoliaenclosed in the great bend of the Yellow River,north of Shensi. It is 5,000 feet high in the south,sloping to 3,200 feet in the north, and is almosteverywhere a sandy desert.ORIENTAL COLLEGE. See SsH I Kuan.ORIENTAL SOCIETY OF PEKING, THE,was founded in 1885 and issued four numbers ofvaluable papers.ORIGINAL EXPORT, an expression oftenfound in this book in connection with local manufactures,etc., means the export from place of origin,the surplus production of a place, sent away therefrom,whether to other parts of China or to foreigncountries.ORIOLES. There is one species of the genusOriolus (Sub-family, Linumce) Oriolus indicus, whichis found all over China in the summer, except inthe mountainous districts. It ventures even intoPeking. In the beginning of September it goessouth, to Cochin China and to India.Psaropholus ardens has only been seen in thevalleys of Formosa. P. nigellicauda of Hainandoes not differ from P. ardens except in having410

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAORNITHOLOGYshorter wings and a tail which is longer and allblack instead of being red underneath.David et Oustalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine.ORNITHOLOGY. China, including Manchuriain the North, Mongolia in the North andNorth-West, Chinese Turkestan in the Far Westand Tibet in the West, together with the tropicalIsland of Hainan in the South and the (nowJapanese) Island of Formosa, forms an immenseterritory, comprised within the 18th and 53rdparallel, north of the Equator, and extending fromCentral Asia to the Pacific Ocean.Manchuria, Mongolia, Chinese Turkestan,Northern Tibet and all China proper down to the34th parallel. North, lie within the great zoologicalPalaearctic section of the globe. South of the 34thparallel China is included in the Oriental Region,the birds of the mountain areas from an altitude ofabout 3,500 feet upwards, being of WesternHimalayan type, while the lowland birds are eitherof purely Chinese species, closely allied to thoseof the adjoining southern countries—Tonkin,Burma, etc.,—or are identical with species inhabitingthose countries. Mr. H. J. Elwes, in hispaper On the Distribution of the Asiatic Birds(P.Z.S., 1873, p. 645), after pointing out theHimalayan character of the mountain birds ofSouth China, from an altitude of 4,000 feetupwards, very appropriately named that part ofthe Oriental Region, which includes South-EastAsia from Burma to the Yangtze, the Himalo-Chinese subregion of his Indo-Malay Region (theOriental Region of Wallace). The Northern boundaryof this subregion was, however, left undefineduntil 1891 when Seebohm and after him Styansuggested that the dividing line in China betweenthe Palaearctic and the Oriental regions wasprobably the watershed between the Huangho andthe Yangtze. There is now very little doubt thatthis is correct, so that a line drawn through NorthKiangsu, Central Honan, and South Shensi, wherethe Ch'in Ling ^^ marks the northern limit ofseveral West Ssuch'uan birds, will indicate fairlyaccurately the northern boundary of the OrientalRegion in China.The western portion of the Chinese Palaearcticarea (Mongolia, Kansu, North Shensi, ChineseTurkestan and North Tibet) is Central Asian andshould come into Dr. Sclater's Tartarian subregionof the Palaearctic Region (Ibis, 1891, p. 514). Thispart of China has a large number of birds ofgenera unknown further East and its Avifauna ischaracteristic of Central Asia.North Manchuria is evidently a part of theSiberian Subregion of Sclater, and Eastern Mongolia,South Manchuria (Fengt'ien Province) andNorth China (Chihli, Shantung, Shansi and NorthHonan) should be included within the ManchurianSubregion of the same authority.North Chihli, which is bounded by EasternMongolia and South-West Manchuria, numbersamong its resident, or, at any rate, winter birds,the following species :JUgithalus caudatus, Parusinsularis, Dendrocofus major, Suthora mantschurica,Sitta amurensis, Certhia familiaris, Erythrospizamongolica and Pyrgita petronia, all of which arecommon in South Manchuria or Mongolia, whereasSouth Chihli, Shantung, Shansi and Honan havenone of these. On reaching Kiangsu and theYangtze, we find that the last of the residentnorthern birds {e.g. the Marsh Tit and the GreyheadedGreen Woodpecker (G. canus) ) are hereon their southern limit, and that southern residents(e.g. the Huamei, the Chinese Forktail) now beginto appear.A short distance up the Yangtze, we have inthe province of Anhui an avifauna containingmany well-known Fukien birds such as Pomatorhinusswinhoei, Garrulax picticollis, lanthocinclacinereiceps, Alcippe hueti, Schoeniparus superciliaris,etc. This province is also the habitat insummer of Pitta nympha, Geocichla citrina a

ORNITHOLOGYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAlegist to the party, Dr. Weigold, has been so far,owing to the war, unable to publish the results.The avifauna of Yiinnan is closely related tothat of Burma but also contains many Ssuch'uanbirds. This province has been explored by anumber of naturalists. The first expeditions werethose of Dr. J. Anderson in 1868 and 1875.Within more recent times. Prince Henry ofOrleans and Mr. Bonvalot, the Catholic missionariesof the province, Captain Wingate, Mr. A. L.PiCHON of the Chinese Customs, and paid collectorson behalf of Mr. Collingwood Ingram and otherornithologists, have made more or less importantcollections, so that the ornithology of the provinceis fairly well known. Part of Captain Wingate'scollection was made in Hunan and Kueichou andthe latter province was visited by Styan's collector;but our knowledge of these two provinces isvery limited.The mountainous regions of Kuangsi andKuangtung in South East China do not appear tohave been explored to any extent by ornithologists.The lowlands are better known. An importantpaper on the birds of these provinces whichappeared in The. Ibis for 1913, and other lessimportant papers previously published in the samemagazine furnish instructive lists of, and fieldnotes on the birds of this part of China.Chekiang and Fukien are ornithologically wellknown. The former province was worked fromNingpo by Consul Robert Swinhoe in the earlyseventies of the 19th century. Two handsomepheasants, Pucrasia darwini and Calophasis elliotiand the Collared Laughing Thrush Garrulax picticollis,were discovered there by him. Fukien wasextensively worked by the same ornithologist fromAmoy and the southern part of the province produceda number of new species. Fukien was nextexplored, this time in the North-West, by PereDavid, who made a short stay in the autumn of 1873,in the mountains dividing the province from Kiangsi.Three new Babblers, Pomatorhinus swinhoei,Trochalo'pteron milni and Dryonastes berthemyiand the re-discovery of Cabot's Tragopan were themost notable ornithological results of this exploration.After an interval of ten years, ornithologicalwork in Fukien was resumed, by Mr. J. Baun inNorth-West Fukien and by Mr. J. de La Totjcheat Foochow. In the nineties of the last centurythe latter, in collaboration with Mr. C. B. Rickett,and also Mr. F. W. Styan worked chiefly by meansof native collectors the province from the coast tothe N. West, and numerous discoveries of newbirds of Himalayan type and the extension of therange of many Himalayan and West China birdswere the result of their researches. The explorationof Fukien has since the departure of Rickettand La Totjche been continued by their Chinesecollectors T'ang Wang-'wang, T'ang Chun-kai andtheir family, and new species or additions to theAvifauna of China are occasionally obtained bythem. The following are the most striking newspecies obtained in Fukien during the last 20 years :Suthora davidiana Slater, Proparus guttaticolUsLa T., Brachypteryx sinensis Rickett, B. carolinaeLa Totjche, Tribura melanorhyncha Rickett,Cryptolopha ricketti Slater, Gecinus citrinocristatusRickett, Chrysophlegma ricketti Styan, Lepocestessinensis Rickett, Gecinulus viridanus Slater,Harpactes yamakanensis Rickett, Scops latouchiiRickett, Arboricola ricketti Ogilvie-Grant, Juncosiemsseni Martens. The last mentioned bird belongsto a section of Buntings previously unknownout of North America. The province of Kiangsiwas worked by Pere David in 1868 and 1873, buthas not produced anything of importance.The tropical island of Hainan was explored bySwinhoe in 1868 and 1872, by the late Mr.Schmacker's collectors in 1891—92 and by thecelebrated collector, the late Mr. John Whitehead,in 1899. The latter fell a victim to forest feverand died in the interior, two months and a halfafter his arrival in the island. His collections,which contained many remarkable novelties, andthose of his predecessors, prove the avifauna ofHainan to be entirely Oriental and to comprise'several Indo-malayan as well as Burmese genera,so far not known from the mainland of China, andmany species peculiar to the island. Subsequentnative or Japanese collectors have added other rarebirds to the list of Hainan birds published by Mr.Ogilvie-Grant in 1900 in the Proc. of the Zoo. Soc.of London.Although the Island of Formosa does not anylonger form part of the Chinese possessions,zoologically it remains a part of China and itsavifauna is closely related to that of the neighbouringprovinces of Fukien and Kuangtung. Themountain birds are Himalayan ; some have alliesin Fukien, others are also found in the mountainsof that province and in Kuangtung. The lowlandbirds are practically similar to those of the lowlandsof Fukien. This island possesses a large proportionof peculiar species. The first explorer of Formosawas Swinhoe, who discovered there a large numberof new species and published the results of his workin The Ibis for the year 1863. The well-knownornithologist, Henry Seebohm, sent there in 1893his collector, Mr. A. Holst, who added a coupleof new birds to the lists published by Swinhoe.Mr. Walter Goodfellow^ was however, the firstEuropean collector to penetrate into the heart ofthe island (Jan.—March, 1906 and Jan., 1912).He made important discoveries, and brought backfrom his last expedition among other valuablebirds, living examples of the magnificent pheasant,412

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAORNlTHOLOdYCalophasis mikado Ogilvie-Grant. Other collectorsand ornithologists have since added more speciesto the Formosan list, and Professor Uchida andother Japanese ornithologists are actively engagedon the further exploration of the Beautiful Isle.Eastern China, from Canton to the Gulf ofLiaotung, and the Islands of Formosa and Hainan,were extensively worked by Mr. Robert Swinhoe,of H.B.M.'s Consular Service in China, from thetime of his arrival in China in the year 1854 until1873, during his residence at Amoy, Shanghai,Ningpo and Chefoo and in Formosa and Hainan.Consul Swinhoe's expeditions included :—a journeyup the Yangtze to Ssuch'uan, the circumnavigationof Formosa, journeys in Formosa, in Hainan, andtwo expeditions to Peking and to the Great Wallof China, N.W. of Peking. Swinhoe's numerouspapers on the birds of China were published inThe Ibis, in the Proceedings of the ZoologicalSociety of London and in other scientific periodicalsfrom 1860 to 1877 and are summarized in hisRevised List of the Birds of China and its Islandswhich appeared in the Proceedings of the ZoologicalSociety of London for 1871. Very little wasknown of the ornithology of China previous tothis zealous naturalist's labours in the Far East.His work has formed the basis for all subsequentstudy of Chinese birds, and many species ofbirds, as well as of other vertebrates, were discovered,named and described by him, while thepublished accounts of his various journeys wereimportant contributions to the Zoological literatureof his time.While Swinhoe was devoting his energies tozoological research in Eastern China, another greatnaturalist, Armand David, priest of the LazaristMission of North China, was working with equalzeal in Mongolia, in North, West, South-West andEast Central China. Pere David was sent toChina for the first time in 1862. He began at onceon his arrival in Peking to form a Natural HistoryMuseum, (the Peit'ang Museum,—the remains ofthe Bird collection are now preserved at theNant'ang, Peking). In 1862, he visited Siwan,a Christian village in Mongolia; in 1863, hespent a month in the Si-shan ; in 1864, he wentto Jehol where he remained five months. He wasthen commissioned by the administrators of theParis Museum to further explore the interior ofChina and in 1866, he made a long expeditionto Mongolia (Mao Mingan, Ordos and Ourato)returning to Peking in October of that year, afteran arduous journey which had lasted seven and ahalf months. In 1868, Pere David started on avoyage of exploration to Ssuch'uan, via Shanghaiand the Yangtze. Leaving Peking in May, hespent the summer and the early autumn in Kiangsion the borders of the Poyang Lake and on the13th November, 1868, he left for Ssuch'uan. Hearrived at Chengtu in January, 1869, explored firstthe mountains lying to the North of that city andproceeded to Mu-p'in, a Tibetan principality, eightdays' journey North West of Chengtu, where heremained until November, 1869, and thence wentto the Eastern corner of Kokonor, finally returningto Chengtu at the end of March, 1870, and reachingTientsin on the 24th June of that year. Unable toproceed to Peking on account of the Tientsin Massacre,Pere David went to Europe. He returnedto China at the beginning of March, 1872, thenwent on to Peking where he remained till theautumn and started on his last expedition on the2nd October, 1872. The winter was spent in SouthShensi where he explored the Ch'in Ling ; in May,1873, he went down to Hankow, thence to Kiukiang,and from June to the autumn was spent in Kiangsion the borders of Fukien, where he nearly diedfrom malarial fever. Having recovered from hisillness, the intrepid explorer went on to Fukien,and remained for a couple of months in a hamletsituated in the high mountains which separate thatProvince from Kiangsi. Unfortunately, he againfell ill and was compelled to return to Tsitou, hisformer centre in Kiangsi. His health having quitebroken down, Pere David returned to France inApril, 1874. His health was restored to a greatextent, but he did not visit the Far East againand resumed conventual life and work at theRue de Sevres in Paris. There, his superiorsallowed him to install a museum, and he continuedto teach zoology and at the same time formed avery valuable collection of Chinese colseoptera.Pere David's great work Les Oiseaux de la Chinewas written, after his return to Europe, in collaborationwith Dr. E. Otjstalet of the Paris Museumand appeared in 1877. The good father died atthe Rue de Sevres on the 10th October, 1900.Father P. M. Heude, s.j., the founder of theSikawei Museum, explored the Yangtze valley fromJanuary, 1868 to November, 1884. Although notspecially devoted to birds, he made collections ofthe birds of his district and was the discoverer ofThalassaetus niger Heude, Paradoxornis heudeiDavid, and Pucrasia joretiana Courtois. PereHeude died at Sikawei on the 3rd January, 1902.General Przewalski, the well-known Russianexplorer, made during his journeys in Mongolia,Kansu and North Tibet important collections ofbirds which are described in the Appendix to hisBook of travels in Mongolia, Western China andTibet. The appendix in Les Oiseaux de la Chinegives a summary of his discoveries and additionsto the ornis of China. This naturalist travelledin Manchuria, Mongolia, etc., during the years1870—73.413

ORNITHOLOGYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAAfter SwiNHOE, David and Przewalski, therewas an interval in bird research in China. Mr.F. W. SxYAN, of Shanghai, explored the Yangtzevalley from 1885 to 1902 when he was struckdown by paralysis and had to leave China. Thesummary of Styan's work in this region is containedin his List of the Birds of The Lower YangtzeBasin, an important paper which appeared in TheIbis for 1891. He also contributed to the samejournal other interesting papers on the Ornithologyof the Yangtze, of Fukien and of West China, andhis articles in certain Shanghai papers and in TheField on his favourite subject are models of theirkind. At the time of his departure from China,Styan had begun, in collaboration with Mr.Kershaw of Macao, an illustrated book on Chinesebirds the text of which he was to supply whileMr. Kershaw contributed the illustrations.Mr. J. D. DE La Tottche and Mr. C. B. Eickettworked in Fukien, the latter between the years 1890and 1903 and the former from 1883. Mr. LaTotrcHE has also done ornithological work inFormosa, Swatow, Chinkiang, South Manchuria andof late years in North-East Chihli.Father F. Courtois, s.j., the Curator of theSikawei Museum, has been actively engaged inornithological as well as botanical work in Kiangsuand Anhui since 1890. His Oiseaux du Musee deSikawei contains a quantity of valuable information.The late Dr. Bergen, an American missionaryin Shantung, made extensive collections of birds inthat province, but unfortunately did not publishthe results of his investigations.The Reverend Dr. Geo. D. Wilder, of theAmerican Presbyterian Mission at Peking, has alsofor several years done bird work in Chihli, buthas not yet published results of his work.Father E. Licent, s.j., is engaged in the explorationof North China (Chihli, Shantung, Shansi,Shensi and Kansu) and will in due course work outhis collections which are already considerable.Mr. A. de C. Sowerby, the well-known collectorand naturalist, is preparing a work on the ornithologyof Manchuria.The following is a list of some of the moreimportant papers and works on the ornithology ofChina, Hainan and Formosa :CHINA, MONGOLIA, MANCHURIA, TIBET.ARMAND DAVID, Voyage en itongolie, (1866), Bulletin, NouvellesArch. Mns., Paris, 1867, pp. 18-96; Bull. Kouv. Arch. Miis.,Paris, 1868, pp. 4-83.Expedition dans le Kiangsi (1868), Bull. Xonv. Arch. Mus., Paris,1869, pp. 4-13.Catalogue Oiseaux de la Chine Sept., Bull. Xouv. Arch. Mus., Puris,1871, pp. 3-14.Rapport sur Voyage au Kiangse, Tibet et Kokonoor, Bull. Nonv.Arch. Mu8., Paris, Tome VII, 1871, pp. 76-100.Voyage au Centre de la Chine etau Tibet Oriental, Bull. Xonv. Arch.Mns., Paris, Tome vni, 1872, pp. 3-128.Journal de man 3me Voyage, 1872-1874. Paris, Hachette & Cie.Voyage au Centre de la Chine etau TibetMns., Paris, Tome IX, 1873, pp. 16-48.riental, Bull. Nonv. ArchVoyage au Centre de la Chine et au Tibet Oriental, Bull. Nouv. Arch.Mns., Paris, Tome X, 1874, pp. 3.82.E. OUSTALETd- A. DAVID, Remarques stir VHistoire Naturelle dela Chine Septentrionale et Occidentale. Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S.,1872, pp. 228-230.Let Oiseaux de la Chine, Paris, 1877.R. SWINHOE.— The Small Chinese Lark, N.C.B.R.A.S., 1859, iii.pp. 287-292.On the Ornithology of Atnoy, Ibis, 1860, pp. 45-68.Additions and corrections to do., Ibis, 1860, pp. 130-133.Further additions and corrections to do., Ibis, 1860, pp. 367-361.Letters, Ibis, 1860, pp. 428-429.Ornithology of Hongkong, Ibis, 1861, pp. 23-58.On the birds about Ta-lien Bay, Ibis, 1861, 251-262.Ornithology of Amoy and Foochow, Ibis, 1861, 262-268.Notes on Ornithology between Takoo and Peking, Ibis, 1861,pp. 323-345.Letters, Ibis, 1861, pp. 408-414.On a Bird, the supposed female of CrossoptUon auritum Pall,1862, pp. 286-287.On some Tientsin Birds, P. Z. S. 1862, pp. 315-320.Ornithological Ramble in Foochow, Ibis, 1862, pp. 253-265.*P.Z.S.Additions and Corrections to Ornithology of N. China, Ibis, 1863,pp. 87-97.New and little-known Birdsfrom China, P. Z. S. 1863, pp. 87-94.On the species of Zosterops inhabiting China and Japan, P. Z. S.1863, pp. 203-205.Catalogue of birds of China, P. Z. S. 1863, pp. 259-335.Ditto., amendments, P. Z. S. 1864, pp. 271-272.Letterson Chinese Ornithology, Ibis, 1865, pp. 107-108, 111, 230, 346,354, 538.Jottings on Birdsfrom Amoy Journal, Ibis, 1867, 226-237.Jottings on Pirdsfrom Amoy Journal, Ibis, 1867, 385-415.Ornithological Notesfrom Amoy, Ibis, 1868, pp. 52.LetUr on Chinese birds mentioned by Collingwood, Ibis, 1869,pp. 3, 4, 7, 8.Letter on return from China, Ibis, 1869, p. 463.Letter on a new species of Parus, Ibis, 1870, pp. 154-156.Description of three new species of Birds from China, A. & M. Kat.Hist., 1870, pp. 1-3.Ofi the Pied Wagtails of China, Part I, P. Z. S. 1870, pp. 120-124.On the Pied Wagtails of China, Part II, P. Z. S. 1870, pp. 129-130,On a new species Accentor from North China, P. Z. S. 1870.pp. 124-125.Seven new species of Birds from the Yangtze, P. Z. S. 1870,pp. 131-136.On the Plovers of the genus ^gailites/o«nd in China, P. Z. S. 1870,pp. 136-142.Zoological Notes of a Journey from Canton to Peking and Kalgan.P. Z. S. 1870, pp. 427-451.List

IIENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAORNITHOLOGYLetter on the White Stork of China, etc., P. Z. S. 1873, pp. 729-730.On a Black Albatross of the China seas, P. Z. S. 1873, pp. 781-786.A new species of Little Bittern, Ibis, 1873, 73-74.Letters, Ibis, 1873, 95-6, 227-231, 423-7.A new Chinese Owl, Ibis, 1873, pp. 127-129.The nosy Ibis of China and Japan, Ibis, 1873, 249-253.yoUs on Chinese Ornithology, Ibis, 1873, pp. 266-270.J/^otes on Chinese drnithology. Ibis, 1873, pp. 361-372.Ornithological Notes made at Chefoo, Ibis, 1874, pp. 422-447 andIbis, 1875, pp. 114-140.Letters, Ibis, 1876, pp. 115-116 ; pp. 519-520 ; 1876 ; pp. 507-8, 1877,pp. 128.A new Reed Bird, Ibis, 1877, pp. 203-5.F. W. STYAN, On a Collection of Birds from Foochow, Ibis, 1887,pp. 215-234.Description of Troch. cinereiceps. Ibis, 1887, pp. 166-168.Some Notes on, and Additions to, the Chinese Avifauna, Ibis, 1889,pp. 443-446.On the Birds of the Lower VangUe Basin, Ibis, 1891, pp. 316-359,481-510.Notes on the Ornithology of China, Ibis, 1894, pp. 330-337.On some Chinese Species of the Genus Alcippe, Ibis, 1896, pp. 309-312.Additions to the List of Lower Yangtze Birds, Ibis, 1899, pp. 286-289.On Birdsfrom West China, Ibis, 1899, pp. 290-300.C. B. RICKETT, On some Birds collected in the vicinity of Foochow,Ibis, 1894, pp. 216-226.Additional Notes on the Birds of Fohkien, Ibis, 1900, pp. 63-60.Additional Field-Notes on the Birds of Fohkien, Ibis, 1903, pp.216-222.RICKETT

OSBECKENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAAdditional Notes on the True Pheasants, (Phasianns), Ibis, 1908,pp. 670-592.A. de C. SO WERBY, Fur and Feather in North China, Tientsin, 1914.Tlie Sportsman's Miscellany, Tientsin, 1917.EINAR LONNBERa, Notes on Birds collected by Mr. Otto Bambergin Southern Transbaicalia and Northern Mongolia, Arkiv. f.Zool. Band V, No. 9 (1909).HAINAN.R. SWJNHOE, Letter on the Birds of Hainan, Ibis, 1868, pp. 353-54On the Ornithology of Hainan, Ibis 1870, pp. 77-97, 230-256, 342-367.a. HARTLA UB, Abh. d. Nat. Ver. zn Bremeu, 1892.F. W. STVAN, Ibis, 1893, p. 424-437.W. R. 06ILYIE-0RANT, P.Z.S., 1900, p. 457-504.FOEMOSA.R. SWINHOE, Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., (1859), No. 2, pp. 145-164,228-230.Ibis, 1860, pp. 357-361.J. GOULD, r.Z.S., 1862, pp. 280-286.R. SWINHOE, Letter on Psaropholus ardens, Ibis 1862, pp. 363-365,Ornithology of Formosa, Ibis, 1863, pp. 198-219, 250-311, 377-435.Four Formosan New Birds, Ihis, 1864, pp. 361-370, 424-429; Ibis1865, pp. 353-359, 538-546.Voice On Ornithology from Formosa, Ibis 1866, pp, 129-138.Ornithological Notes from Formosa, Ibis 1866, pp. 292-316.D. G. ELLIOT, P.Z.S., 1870, p. 406.R. SWINHOE, P.Z.S., 1871, pp. 337-423.H. J. ELWES, r.Z S., 1873, pp. 666-667.R. SWINHOE, On a new Bird from Formosa, Ibis, 1877, pp. 473-474.F. W.'STFAN, Ibis, 1S93, p. 470.H. SEEBOHM, Ibis, 1895, pp. 211-213.J. D. D. LA TOUCHE, Ibis, 1895, pp. 305-338.Ibis, 1898, pp. 356-373.J. GOULD, Birds of Asia (1850-1883).W.R. OQILVIE-GRANT & J.D.D. LA TOUCHE, Ibis, 1907, pp.152-198, 254-279.W. R. OOILVIE-GRANT, Ibis, 1908, pp. 600-608.W. R. OOILVIE-GRANT, Ibis, 1912, pp. 643-657.S. UCHIDA, A Handlist of Formosan Birds, Ann. Zool. Japan, Vol.VIII, (1912).N. KURODA, Notes on Formosan Birds, with the description of anew Bnllflnch, id. Vol. ix, pt. 3 (1917),See also Les Oiseaux de la Chine, Cat. Birds, B.M., etc.OSBECK, PETER, a chaplain of the SwedishEast India Company, who spent four and a halfmonths in Canton in 1751-52 and took good notes ofall he saw. These were published in 1757 inSwedish, with an Account of the Chinese Husbandryby EcKEBERG, and also a Faunula andFlora Sinensis. The work was translated intoGerman, and from German by Fobsteb, into English,A Voyage to China and the East Indies, London,1771. Chinese Repository, vol. i, p. 269.OSPREYS.See Accipitres.OSTASIATISCHE LLOYD, DER, a Germannewspaper in Shanghai, first issued in 1886. For atime it appeared as part of The Shanghai Courier.Its. publication was prohibited after declaration ofwar by China in August 1917.ST END COMPANY, a trading company witha charter given by Charles VI of Austria in1722 or 1723, and suspended for seven years in1727. The English East India Company sufferedseverely from its competition at Canton ; attemptsto exclude it from entry were made on the spot, andin England statutes were passed with regard to thematter. The Company became bankrupt in 1784and was quite extinguished by the regulations onwhich the English Company's charter was renewedin 1793.Fames : The English in China; Birdwood :Revue de l' Extreme Orient, vol, iii, p. 601.OUIGUR. See Uighur.OU-YANG HSIU Um^>a.d. 1007-1062. Anative of Kiangsi, a famous poet, the author of theChi hu lu ^ "jS" li> the earliest work on ancientinscriptions, and of many other works. He wascanonized as ^ ,^» Wen Chung, and in 1530 wasadmitted into the Confucian Temple.OUZELS. See Turdinae.OVERLAND FRIEND OF CHINA, THE,a resume of The Friend of China (q.v.), publishedfor the home-going mails. It began in August, 1845,and continued till 1860. See Friend of China.OVIS JUBATA. See Sheep, wUd.OVIS NAHURA. See Sheep, wild.OXENHAM, EDWARD LAVINGTON, bornin 1843, died in 1897. He had retired for healthreasons in 1890, when Consul at Ichang. He wasthe writer of various papers, and published anHistorical Atlas of the Chinese Empire. T'ouNGPad, 1899.PA E, an ancient kingdom, now constitutingeast Ssuch'iian. See Feudal States.PADDY, from the Malay padi, meaning ricein the ear or unhusked. 'Paddy-fields' is theconimon expression in English for fields of rice,Paddy-bird is a name give to Egretta modesta, thewhite egret, which is often seen in rice-fields ; it isnot the rice-bird, {q.v.).416

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA P'AI LOUPAGODA, i§ t'a. The word probably comesfrom Persian or Hindustani words which meanthe house of idols. The French use it correctly fora group of religious buildings, the English lesscorrectly for a single tower perhaps not connectedwith religion.Pagodas were first erected in China in the thirdcentury of our era, and were undoubtedly Buddhistin origin. To what extent the architecture was ofIndian origin is disputed : but it is certain thatthe type in China took on so new a style as to bepractically a new creation. None of the earliestpagodas are now standing. The Ming and Manchudynasties produced most.The pagoda is a tower generally divided, atleast externally, into stages. The stages are seven,nine, eleven or thirteen in number. Thirteen is themaximum, and those with five or three stages arecalled by a different name. The number is alwaysodd, because to Buddhists the odd numbers are mostreligious and propitious. The commonest shape isthe regular octagon, but some octagonal towers havethe faces alternately large and small; hexagonaland round are rare, square are not uncommon, andexamples occur where several shapes appear in thesame tower, cylindrical superposed on octagonal, etc.•Some pagodas are solid, others are very nari*bw,and such have no floors inside but are divided intostories externally by projecting cornices.In othersexterior balconies with roofs correspond with floorsin the interior.The highest is that at Ting-chou (Chih-li),approximately 360 feet ; the Porcelain Tower ofNanking was about 250 feet.The usual material is brick, but sometimes thebricks are glazed and we have what are calledPorcelain towers. There are a few of cast iron.Though religious in origin, and though idolsfrom one to hundreds are housed in them, theirerection or repair is now generally a matter offeng-shui, for the good luck and prosperity of thelocality. They are seldom erected now. It isestimated that there are some 2,000 in China.Milne : Life in China; Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., 1915.PAGODA ANCHORAGE AND ISLAND.Foreign ships are obliged at Foochow to anchor10 miles below the city, and a pagoda on an islandgives its name to both the island and the anchorages.PAGPA.PAG U MA.PA HSI EN A fill.See Baschpa.See Civets.See Eifjht Immortals.PAI CH'I f^ 15, a famous general of the Ch'inState, who died b.c. 258. He defeated Wei andHan in 293, killing 240,000, and in 260 put to death400^000 Chao troops after accepting their surrender.He fell into disgrace later and was forced to commitsuicide. See Ch'in, State of.PAI CHI A HSING H^M- The hundredfamily names, which, as at present taught, includeover 400 names of a single character and 78 doublecharacter names. See Names.P'AI FANG JJfiS, an honorary gate, the sameas p'ai lou, (q.v.).PAI HSING 7J ]^, the hundred names; a termused in the meaning of 'the public,* ot 7ro>.^ot . SeePai chia hsing ; Bah Tribes.PAI KO, a gambling game.See White Pigeon.PAI LIEN HUl. See White Lotus Society.P'AI LOU ^^, an honorary gate or archway,a very common object all over China. P'ai meanstablet, and loxi means storey ; less elaborate archesare called p'ai fang, the character fang ijj beingoriginally the place, transferred in later times todenote the structure.Early in the Chou dynasty worthies were rewardedby a mark of distinction being affixed tothe gateway of their village.In the more peacefuldays of the T'ang and Sung dynasties, when populationincreased and villages were merged in towns,the practice began of erecting special gateways tobear the honorific tablets. They are now found onthe streets of cities, across country roads and bythe roadside. They vary in size and splendouraccording to the wealth of the families which erectthem, having sometimes twelve supporting columnsand sometimes only two. The commonest are thosewith four pillars, forming a large central passageand two smaller ones. Generally the inscriptionsand decorations are the same on both sides,—thereia no front or back. •The important thing, which gives glory to thestructure, is the tablet placed highest of all, bearingthe two characters ^ a y" chih, By ImperialDecree, or §1 ^ sheng chih, By Sacred Decree ;during the Manchu rule at any rate,for,such archwayscould only be erected by a special order of theEmperor. With the permission there is also a grantof thirty taels of silver, which is probably meantto defray only the cost of the tablet bearing thetwo characters named above.These memorial arches are granted to loyalservants of the State who have died in war (^ £chung ck'in) ; to officials of good reputation (;^ 'gming huan) ; to local worthies, distinguished byvirtue and learning ( ^ g hsiang hsien) ; to philanthropists[Vk^tS-M lo shan hao shih) ; to familiesthat have lived together for four or five generationsto centenarians ; to the highest literary graduates(iE i chin shih) ; and to women who have beenkilled or have committed suicide in defence of theirchastity, widows who have escaped compulsion toI417

PAINT1NIGENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAre-marry by destroying themselves, or those whohave performed suttee {q.v.).In memorial arches proper the p'ai or maintablet bears an inscription which indicates itspurpose ; but there are arches which also are termedp'ai lou or p'ai fang which are merely decorativeand commemorate nothing. Several examples ofthese may be seen in Peking.Probably the finest p'ai fang now extant is thatat the beginning of the avenue leading to the Mingtombs ; its date is 154Q.De Groot : The Religious System of China,vol.ii.PAINTING. According to the records ofhistory, the art of painting in China had its originearly in the Classical Period which opened fivecenturies before Christ, but no specimens fromthose early days have survived ; in fact, theearliest authentic works in our possesion may besaid to date from about the sixth centuryof our era, although a scroll which is believedto be by Ku K'ai-chih of the 4th and 5thcenturies is now in the British Museum, and worksattributed to this great master occasionally appear,while the Golden Age of Chinese Pictorial Art,which reached its zenith during the Sung dynasty,(960-1280 A.D.) opened in his day.The division into what are known as theNorthern and Southern schools of painting tookplace under the T'ang dynasty (618-960 a.d.) whenmen had begun to search for spiritual meaningsbeneath the outer semblance of their surroundings;the former being founded by Li Ssu-HsiiN, thelatter by Wang Wei whose pictures were describedas "poems," while his poems were called "pictures."The characteristic of the Northern school is a'certain virile sternness; that of the Southern,delicate refinement.Through the succeeding centuries the art ofpainting, in conjunction with those of musdc andpoetry, rose high in favour, and became the acknowledgedpastime of the literati and the officials of allranks. We of the West cannot but be struck bythe universality of the talents in those halcyondays, ere the art of leisure had been lost, and wefind in the countless biographies of men long dead,a curious monotony in the recital of their accomplishments.To appreciate Chinese painting at its true worththe Occidental must adopt a point of view differingin many ways from that in which he has beeneducated. He must realize, firstly, that the outlookof the artist is that of a bird on the wing, and thatthe perspective in the apparently fantastic landscapeshe is .studying seems so strange, because inthe majority of cases, the painter has regarded hissubject from above ; he has walked among the mountains,or has remained seated by the window of hisrustic dwelling, gazing down upon the scene beforehim until it has impressed itself upon his very soulthen, and then only, has he in the privacy of hischamber transferred it to his silk. "I have it allin my heart," was the reply of the great Wu Tao-tzuto his Emperor who had despatched him to depictthe beautiful scenery on the Chia-ling river inSsuch'uan, and who was amazed when the painterreturned empty-handed.Secondly, the distinctive attitude which theOriental assumes towards Nature must be takeninto consideration. Here indeed, lies the very cruxof the matter : whereas, to the individualistic West,Man is the Centre and Lord of the Universe, he ison the contrary, to the more integral East, but oneof the component parts of Creation. The philosophywhich since the days of the I Ching (written byDuke Wen of Chou, before 1122 b.c.) has directedthe evolution of the Chinese mind, considers "everybeing in the world, every manifestation of Nature,every genie, every god, as an active part of thegreat. whole, of that Reality which is behind andbeyond the flux of phenomena." This philosophyit is which has given to the Oriental his marvellouscomprehension of Nature in all her moods andworks, be these of the most trivial. With a flower,a bird, a tree, he feels a sense of kinship whichmust, of necessity, be denied to his more sophisticatedbrother of the West, and the Chinese artiststrives to interpret the very soul of Nature, as ourportrait painter strives to unveil the most intimatecharacteristics of those whose features he isdelineating.Further it must never be forgotten that Chinesepictorial art is in no sense photographic or objective,in fact it is entirely suggestive and subjective, thuscorresponding, in many respects, more to our musicthan to our painting. Thus the Shou chiian orlong horizontal scrolls were intended to be taken upand slowly unrolled, to be slowly enjoyed bit by bit,to present one theme following upon another, completingand resolving that which had just passed.The following quotation is from the interestingarticle "Ink Remains, by An I-chou," by Dr.Ferguson in the Journal of the North China BranchRoyal Asiatic Society, vol. xlv, for 1914."The title of this book impresses a foreignreader as peculiar, but it has the most familiarsound in his own language to a native of China.Chinese speak of ink in phrases where we say pen.The 'power of the pen' would be written by Chineseas 'the power of ink.' Literary product is theproduct of ink—not of the pen. The title of An'sbook refers to the writings and paintings whichcame under his observation. These were the productof ink, the ink of literary men. The copy of thebook owned by me is in four volumes, two of whichare devoted to records of writing, 'shu,' and two418

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPAINTINGThese are designed for wall decoration and areto painting, 'hua.' The association of writing andT-iiU)painting is taken for granted in the classification of hung according to certain conventions. The Ta!'shu' and 'hua' as common products of ink. In this Chung T'ang and Chung T'ang are hung uponassociation which is met with in all books on ceremonial occasions, the former opposite the doorpainting in the Chinese language we see at once in the central hall of a Chinese house, the latter,that painting is linked with writing, i.e. calligraphy, in pairs, on the side walls of this same hall. Theand not, as in Europe, with sculpture or architecture.This distinction is fundamental in the study of theplace of the Chung T'ang may be taken, on ordinaryoccasions, by sets of scrolls upon which are writtenpictorial art of China. Only confusion and disappointmentcouplets, or quotations from the Classics..can come to one who approaches this The rule governing the hanging of pictures instudy from the same view-point as he uses for the the inner rooms of a house are less strict, and hereunderstanding of the productions of European we may find on the centre wall a Li Chou which isartists. In China, .he must always remember that of a size smaller than the two preceding, while onpainting is the work of cultivated men of literary the side walls may be hung P'ing T'iao— -the smallinstincts, and not of men trained in schools of pictures in sets of four—or Heng P'i, by whichpainting. A few good students never become expert name are known the highly popular horizontalcalligraphists. . . . The poet and painter are pictures.men who, in addition to being students and Shou chiian ^^, and Tse yeh j59 H ^'^e thecalligraphists, have imagination and inspiration. names by which are known respectively the handThey are not of a separate class from other scrolls, and the albums ; the latter made of longliterary men, but have talents above their fellows.strip?, of folded paper.Th'j ink used for writing poems is the same as that The names of a number of artists are mentionedfor sketching the mist on the hill-tops, and is notin the early periods of Chinese history, but the firstdiiTerent from that used in ordinary writing. Ink artist of whose work we have an example is Kuremains, therefore, are literary remains ; only itK'ai-chih gf( ti ^ who lived in the 4th and 5thmust be kept in mind that the word 'literary' must centuries of our era.be widened in its meaning so as to include calligraphyand painting."Under the T'ang noted names, are : Li Ssu-hsiin$ .® mi, VVu Tao-tzu ^ it :f Wang Wei ^^,,Thus in China the arts of poetry and painting Han Kan ^ ^.and writing are closely allied, and the love of Under the Sung noted names are : Fan Kuan,Nature—not only as a delight in pleasant aspects,^ %. Kuo Hsi in gg, Li Lung-mien $ t| |R,but as a close sympathy which can identifj' itselfMi Feiwith the life of things in nature and value nonhumanexistence for its own sake—is inherent in Under the Yiian, or Mongol dynasty noted^ ^, Ma Yuan ^ ^, Hsia Kuei S ^,Mu Ch'i ^^the Oriental soul.names are : Chad Meng-fu ^ "g IKI. Yen Hui f§ ||.HsiEH Ho, m j^ A.D. 475, gives the following Under the Ming noted names are Lin LiangSix Canons, of Chinese painting.;^H>She^ Ciiou-t^. T'ang YiNjg^,CHiu Ying1. The conception should possess harmony andik ^- Wu Wei ^ U Wkx Cheng-ming -^Wl^vitality.Painting during the Ch'ing dynasty has not yet2. The brush should be used to establish thereceived, from Western amateurs, the attentionexternal framework.which, perhaps, it deserves.; Chinese connoisseurs,3. The outline should conform to the shape of thehowever, value highly many modern works andobject.pictures of much charm have been produced.4. Colouring should be suited to va,rious forms.Among the many painters of fame the Four5. Perspective should be correctly conceived.Wangs are the best known. They were Wang6. Representation should be in conformity withShih-min 3; BJ S5f- born at Soochow, 1592Shih-chien 3E RJ S, born near SoochowIn find Paintings classified asin 1598 ; Wang Huishen ^^, miao ^i;, and neng (j^.^ f^, born near Soochowin 1632, a pupil of Wang Chin-chien and a left1. Shen, are pictures in which the heaven-inspired•handed worker ; and Wang YiiAN-cn'i 3E ^. Mquality of vitality is found.Soochow, born 1670. The four were landscape2. Miao, those in which brush work is of highpainters. Besides there may be mentioned YiiNorder, colouring harmonious, and whereShou-p'ingthere is grace or charm.^s^. ^ho ^^^ ^° ^^ Ch'ang chowin 1633 and lived at Hangchow.style selected.1100 A.D. weWangNeng, have strength without sacrifice of form.3.In regard to their size Paintings are dividedFor the lives of the painters see; History ofinto five classes, 1. Ta Chung T'angChinese Pictorial Art, by H. A. Giles. Other works:*: tf» ^2. Chung T'ang t\t ^; 3. Li Chou i. ffl: 4. P'ing treating of the art in a general way are; Paintingin the Far Fjunt, Guide to an Exhibition of Chinese,B?-m; &• H^ngP'i 1^1^.419

1852PAI SHOU WEN ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAand.and Japanese Paintings, The Flight of the Dragon, in the former system the balance was perfectA Painting by Ku K'ai-chih, all by Binyon; La no room for 'play' seemed to be allowed.made nature dynamic instead of static, so to speak j of the Hsi Yu Chi f§ jS fiG, ibid. 1866; in Russian.Philosophie de la Nature dans V Art de VExtreme The / Ching seeks out the principles of theseOrient, Petrucci; Three Essays on Oriental Paint-Sei I-chi Taki Chinesische Kunstgeschichte,diagrams, but as a matter of practice they are connectedwith fate rather than *"i7, ^y ; with any principles,by MiiNSTERBERG; Chinese Pictorial Art, by and are used to-day all over China as a means ofStrehlneek ; Scraps from a Collector's Note-book, fortune-telling or divination. The Pa kua are alsoby Hirth; Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art, by spoken of as the parent of mathematics and ofFenollosa. Numerous publications in Japan give written characters.very beautiful and faithful reproductions of thd PA LI CH'IAO AS^, eight li bridge, aworks of great Masters ; such publications are issued carved marble bridge outside T'ungchou, nearby the Shimbi Shoin Publishing Co., and also Peking. The Allied forces in 1860 gained a victoryappear in the Kohka Magazine, etc. [F.A,] over the Chinese troops here, and General . dePAI SHOU WEN. See Thousand Character Montauban was afterwards given the title of CountEssay.Palikao,PAKHOI ;it^, was opened to foreign tradePALLADIUS, THE ARCHIMANDRITE, theby the Chefoo Convention in 1877. It is on the religious name and office of Piotre (Peter)north of the Gulf of Tonkin, in lat. 21°. .29' N. and Iv/NOvrrCH Kafarof. He was born at Tschistopollong. 109 ° 7' E. The harbour is very easy toin the province of Kazan in Eastern Russia onapproach and "enter. The population is said to be September 17, 1817. He studied theology in20,000, and there are about 70 foreigners, who allSt. Petersburg, and being made hiero-deacon, joinedhave their houses on the bluff, some forty feet high. f^he ecclesiastical mission proceeding to Peking, andTrade was at its best about 1888, but has declinedreached that place in September 1840. He remainedin consequence of the opening of Treaty Ports on there between six and seven years, reaching St.the West River and of the free port of Kuang-chou Petersburg again in March, 1848. He was raised towan. The city has suffered severely from thethe dignity of Archimandrite and appointed headplague. . 1915 1916 of a new mission to Peking, where he arrived inNet Foreign Imports 1,789,452 1,623,384 September, 1849. He left China again in 1859, andNet Chinese „ 11,904 7,532 having refused a bishopric was appointed at hisExports 1,252,005 1,365,174 own request to the more humble position of almonerTotal Hk.Tls. ... 3,053,361 2,996,090 at the Russian Legation in Rome, his desire beingPA KUA Alb- The Eight Diagrams are of to have leisure for study. He stayed there almostvery ancient origin and by the Chinese are attributed four years, and was then invited to return toto Fu Hsi (B.C. 2852). The / Ching (q.v.), which Peking as head of the mission; he reached Pekingtreats exclusively of the diagrams, states that f jr the third time on March 25, 1865.the T'ai Chi AS> represented by a dot, was In 1870 the Geographical Society of St. Petersburgasked him to make some archaeological andgenerated by the Wu Chi ^ ;g, which was withoutform.. The T'ai Chi then generated the two ethnological researches in Russian Manchuria ; he/ §1, which are distinguished as Yin '^ and spent nearly a year in this mission. In July, 1878,Yang gj. The Yang I is represented by a long failure of health forced him to retire from China;li.ie and the Yin / by a long line divided into two he went by sea and reached Marseilles, but diedshort ones. From the two / were generated the soon after landing. He was buried at Nice.four Hsiang ^, which are called T'ai Yang ^ |^, He was a great sinologue, with immense knowledge; but unfortunately he published few largeT'ai Yin % I^, Shao Yang /Jj (^ and Shao Yin ^ |^.They are represented by the / placed one over the works though at his death he left a mass of notes andother in the four possible ways. By similarly combiningtranslations. The following is a list of his publishedthe four Hsiang the Eight diagrams (Pa Kua) writings, which are mostly in Russian. (1) Theare produced. Their names are Ch'ien $£ Heaven, Life of Buddha, in the Collection of works by theK'un *f Earth, Kan i^ Water, Li ^ Fire, Tui Russian Ecclesiastical Mission at Peking, ; inMoisture, Sun H Wind, Chen g Thunder, Ken ^ Russian ; translated into German. (2) HistoricalHiU.Studies of Ancient Buddhism; ibid. 1853; inArranged in a circle they form a common charm Russian, translated into German. (3) Navigationor talisman and figuratively represent the evolution between Tientsin and Shanghai, ibid. 1857 ; inof nature and its cyclic change.Russian. (4) Ancient Christian Monuments; (StudiesWkn Wang and Chou Ktjng, at the beginning of made at Rome) ; in Russian. (5) History of Genghizthe Chou dynasty, by similarly combining the eight khan; in fhe Collection of Scientific works by themade sixty-four diagrams. It was this change which Russian Mission ; 1866 ; in Russian. (6) Translation420

&N CYCLOPAEDIA SINICAP'AN FEIlit(7) The Mahometans in China, ibid, 1866; inRussian. (8) Chinese Literature of the Mahometans,published by the Archaeological Society at St.Peterioburg, 1874 j in Russian. (9) The Tombs ofthe Chin Emperors^ published in the St. PetersburgGeographical Society's Bulletin, 1866; in Russian.(10) Translation of the Itinerary of Chang Te-huiin I2J1.8 from Peking to Karakorum; in IrkutskGecgiaphical Society's Bulletin, vols, x-xi ; inRussian ; translated into English, GeographicalMagazine, 1875. (11) Note on the Mantzu of theUsiuri, in St. Petersburg Geographical Society'sBulletin, 1871. (12) Notes of a Journey fromPeking to Blagovestschensk ; ibid. 1872; in Russian.(13) Ancient Chinese Story of Genghis Khan,translation, in Oriental Collection ; 1872 ; in Russian.(14) Memoir on Ancient traces of Christianity inChina; ibid.; 1872; in Russian. (15) Traces ofChristianity in Mongolia and China in 13th centuryin Chinese Recorder, 1875; in English. (16) Noteon the Inscription of Si ngan fou; ibid., 1875; inEnglish. (17) Elucidations of the Travels of MarcoPolo in North China; in Journal of N.C.B.R.A.S.,1875; in English. (18) Chinese-Russian Dictionary,unfinished.CoRDiEB : Revue de l' Extreme Orient, 1882, p. 9.PALMS. The Sago-palm or Sagus Tumphii,^ ^ kuang lung, or i^ ^ so mien, grows in S.Kuangtung and Hainan. The bark is used formaking ropes and the fibre for coarse cloth andmatting.The «ago is considered very nutritious. Itspopular name is ^t. ^^ ^ t'u hsi vii; it consists oflarge yellow grains worth Tls. 4.00 or Tls. 5.00per picul.Livistona chinensis, f^ 5? p'u Jc'uei; from thisilm the famous palm -leaf fans are made. Aection of country in the Sun-wui district of theWest River delta in Kuangtung is given up almostwholly to the industry, and several thousand acresare covered with the palms, mostly low lying ground.B. C. Henry, in his Lingnam, p. 76, states that fromsix to ten thousand palms are grown per acre.The quality of the fans produced is better whenthe smaller number is grown. Five to fifteen fansare obtained from each tree yearly. The palms beginyielding when seven years old, and they often livefor several hundred years, pcoducing all the time.After they reach the age of 30 to 40 years, theyproduce fans 5 ft. by 3 ft. in size. The fans aresun-dried, bleached with sulphur, trimmed and hemmed,and the best are ornamented with pencils' or hotirons. The inferior leaves are made into cushionsand raincoats or. used for thatching houses, whilethe stalks are made into brooms, brushes, andchairs.In 1892 eleven millions of these fans wereexported, and they became so popular that ten yearslater the export had risen to forty-one millions.As has so often happened in Chinese trade, therising demand brought malpractice in its train, anddeterioration of quality led to a temporary declinein the trade, which however soon recovered.The import of these fans in 1916 was of valueHk.Tls. 442,292.The commonest palm in China is the usefulcoir-palm, Trachycarpus excelsus, H. Wendl, ^tsung, which is common on the Yangtze, in thesouth, and in the lower regions of Yiinnan. It isa hardy plant, even withstanding the frosty wintersof Kiangsu ; the large brown bracts, which protectthd stem from the cold, are natural pieces of fibrecloth, resembling cocoa-nut fibre, but superior. Thetree yields on an average over a catty of fibre, whichis woven into mats, rain-coats, which last for twoor three seasons ; covers of trunks ; the uppers ofrain-shoes, etc., and is indispensable to the poorerclasses. This coir is shipped in considerablequantities from Wenchow and from .Chungking.[N.S.]PAN CHAO^BS, sister of the historianPan Ku, circ. a.d. 50—112. She wrote Lessons forFemales ;^ M and other works. She was highlyhonoured in her lifetime and her books are stillread.PAN CH'AO,]g^, younger brother of Pan Kxjthe historian, and one of the greatest generals inChinese history, was born a.d. 31 in Shansi anddied in 101. He distinguished himself in an expeditionagainst the Hsiung-nu, and was later sentto the King of Khoten, whom he persuaded tosubmit to China. He advanced to Kashgar andBactria, and through a large part of Central Asia,bringing fifty kingdoms into allegiance to China,For these services he was made marquis, and afterspending 31 years in Central Asia he returned toChina in time to die.He did not reach the Caspian, as is sometimesstated, but in 97 he ordered one of his officers,Kan Ying, to open communication with Ta Ts'in,(the Roman empire or Syria) ; see Kan Ying.Giles : Chinese Biog. Diet.; Yule : Cathay andthe Way Thither.PANDA, THE GREAT, Aeluropus melanoleucus,the sole representative of itsgenus in China,is a bear found in Kansu and Ssuch'uan. SeeUrsidae.SowERBY : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii.PANDEAN PIPES.See Miisical Instruments,P'AN FEI JgiE, the favourite concubine ofthe sixth sovereign of the S. Ch'i dynasty. Thepractice of footbinding is said to have been begunby her. 'Every step makes a lily grow,' said theEmperor when she danced before him ;hence theexpression 'golden lilies' for the small feet ofwomen. Gold leaf flowers were strewn in the421

P'AMG ACHILLESENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAstreets where she passed. The fall of the dynastywas due to her and .she was put to death, a.d. 501.M^m >P'ANG ACHILLES, or P'ANG T'lEN SHOUa convert of Taul Hsii, baptized byI'. KoFFLER. He was the chief eunuch of theEmpress Helen, ((J.v.) and an active supporter ofthe fugitive Ming dynasty under Yung Li. Heseems to have been a devout Catholic. By hisadvice the Empress wrote to the Pope, and he alsosent a letter himself, in which he states that he was62 years old, that he was in command of all theMing forces, both land and «€a, in Fukien andKuangtung, and commander of the Imperial Guard,with full powers over the commissariat and financialdei

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAt»APEREgo, N. . . . , missionarius ad Sinas (vel adlegnum N. . . . vel ad provinciam N. . . . ) asuperioribus meis juxta facultates eis a SedeApcstolica concessas missus, (vel destinatus)proccepto ac mandato Apostolico super ritibus accccrimoniis sineiisibus, in Constitutione ClementisPapoe XI hac de re edita qua presentis juramentiformula praescripta est, contento, ac mihi, perintegram ejusdem Constitutionis lecturam apprimenoto, plene ac fideliter parebo, illudque exacte,absolute ac inviolabiliter absque ulla tergiversationeaddmplebo ; atque pro virili enitar ut aChristianis Sinensibus, quorum spiritualem directionemquoquo modo me habere contigerit,&imilisobedientia eidem praeststur.Ac insuper, quantam in me est, numquampatiar ut ritus et cctrimoniaB Sinenses, in LitterisPastoralibus Patriarchae Alexandrini, Macai datisdie 4 Novembris 1721, permis-.x, ac a SSmoDomino Nostro Benedicto Papa damnatoe, abeisdem Christianis ad praxim deducantur.Si autem (quod Deus avertat) quoquo modocontravenerim, toties quoties id evenerit, poenisper praedictas Constitutiones impositis et adhucvigentibus me subjectum agnosco et declare. Itatactis sacrosanctis Evangeliis, promitto, voveo et. . . , manu propria.juro. Sic me Deus adjuvet, et hoec sancta DeiEvangelia. Ego N.Native priests in China also take this oath.In- every case a duly -signed copy must be sent atonce to the Propaganda.Collectanea Constitutionum . . . Sancta Sedis,Hongkong, 1905.Pi>ANCHET : Missions de Chine, 1916, p. 457.PAPER-, ^ Chih. The Chinese are said tohave been the first people to prepare a writing surfacefrom vegetable and other fibres beaten to apulp and then compressed into sheets. The inventionis supposed to be due to Ts'ai Lun, a.d. 105,but though the Chinese have been producing paperever since, their methods remain very crude. Inspite of this there are manufactured quite a surprisingnumber of varieties of paper.Eice Straw is the commonest of the materialsused, since it is made into the coarsest and cheapestpapers, packing-paper, paper used in the manufactureof fire-works, paper money to be burnedat funerals, etc., etc.Mao Tzu ^ ^, the reed Imparata antndinacea,isalso used, alone or mixed with rice straw.A finer class of paper is made from bamboo,cither tz'ii chv 5^ ^ or cliiii chu ^ ^ being used,of not more than two years' growth.It takes somesi;c months to reduce the bamboo to pulp, with atreatment of lime and soda. The paper is made ofvarious qualities, the poorer being for paperingwindow?., the better kinds for writing or printingpaper. It may be dyed, or coloured on one side,or glosrcd with white wax.What foreigners call rice-paper has nothing todo with rice but is simply the pith of Fatsiapapijrifera cut into thin sheets. It is largely usedby artists for painting on, and in the manufactureof artificial flowers.Walls are not papered in China to any extent,but ceilings and partitions are often papered, andthe same type of paper is used for making artificialflowers, for clothing the human effigies which areburnt at funerals and for covering cardboard boxesfor toys, jewels, medicines, buttons, etc< Scrolland picture papers are also largely used in templesand large houses ; there are also the well-known doorscrolls, used in the humblest families. Tracingpaper is consumed by boys tracing charactemi inbooks:' wrapping, mourning, umbrella and goldand silver papers are other varieties.Three foreign mills for paper manufacture havebeen put up in China in recent years. One is atShanghai under Japanese management ; it is wellequipped and can produce fifty or sixty tons ofpaper a day.The other mills are ; one at Wuchang, belongingto the Hupei Provincial Government, and the otherat Hankow, (Seven-mile creek), belonging to theCentral Government; they were put up about 1910to manufacture paper for Government use, but theyhave been idle mo.«t of the time. Both remainedclosed during 1914, the former through lack offunds, and the latter because of repairs tomachinery.In Western China a great deal of paper is madefrom the "paper mulberry," Brousscnetia fjupyrifcru,Vent. This paper is also used as wadding forwinter clothing.In south-west Kuangtung the fibreof Wikstrotmia is made into stout paper. (SeeWihstToemia).Paper is classified in the Customs Returns as1st Quality ; 2nd Quality ;joss-paper ; mill paper ;and paper, other kinds ; and the whole trade,under the heading Original Export, amounts toover Hk.Tls. 10,000,000. Of these joss-paper comesfirst, and Swatow heads the list of exporters. Butthe Swatow paper comes from Tingchow in Fukien,and Fukien is the leading paper producer in China,closely followed by Kiangsi, especially from Kuangsinfu.China imports an increasing quantity of paper,the value being Hk. Tls. 6,375,765, in 1915. Ofcourse this was not an ordinary year, foreigncountries not being in a position to fully supply thedemand. In 1908 the amount imported wasHk. Tls. 3,733,775, and the annual increase hasbeen fairly .steady.The chief of the imported papers is one manufacturedexpressly for the China market, called in423

l>APEft BOATS ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAthe trade, machine-glazed cap. It is the thintissue-like paper used in printing Chinese books,the printing being on one side of the paper only.It is mainly supplied by Norway and Sweden.Printing papers, glazed and tissue-papers and otherkinds are also imported.Nearly twenty-five per cent, of the paper isfrom Japan, and twenty-five per cent, passes throughHongkong as the distributing centre for the southernprovinces. Sweden is next after Japan, sending,in 1914, paper to the value of Tls. 983,543, andGreat Britain next, Tls. 841,714.Wood pulp has recently been imported, thequantity for 1915 being 36,370 piculs.The export of paper in 1916 was, 1st quality,Tls. 1,044^,411; 2nd, Tls. 1,041,669; joss-paper,Tls. 1,306,468; mill, Tls. 31,093; other kinds,Tls. 104,757.British Chamber of Commerce Journal, Shanghai,August, 1916.PAPER BOATS, so called by foreigners becausethe usual cargo is paper. A kind of boat used atSwatow, broad and flat-bottomed and having thebows sheer sharply up to a height of ten feet.Poling is the method of propulsion, and the crewstart from the top of the incline with the poleat the shoulder and run the whole length of theboat, thus gaining a great impetus.PAPERS ON CHINA, a periodical reproducingthe best articles from journals in China andJapan. It was issued from the China Mail officein Hongkong from September, 1867 to July 1868.In 1870 it was incorporated with Notes and Queries,(q-v.).PARADOXORNITHINAE, the Crow-Tits,a Sub-family of the Corvidae. The following arefound in China. Paradoxornis guttaticollis, theCrow-Tit, in S. China. P. heudei, Lower Yangtze,Chinkiang to Nanking. Cholornis jaaradoxa, inMu-p*in. Suthora unicolor, the Brown Crow-Tit,rare, in the mountains of W. China. Scaeorhynchusgvlaris, the Hoary-headed Crow-Tit, Fukiento Lower Yangtze. Conostoma aemodium, theRed-billed Crow-Tit, the frontier of China andTibet. Suthora bvlomachus, in Formosa. S.suffusa, N.W. Fukien and Yangtze. S. webbiana,Shanghai District. S. mantschurica, Chihli, Manchuria.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPAWNSHOPSDecember, 1844. He afterwards filled variousimj.ortant posts, and died on November 13, 1866.[Laughton] : Dictionary of National Biogra'phy.PARKES, HARRY SMITH, was born inStaffordshire in 1828. At thirteen years of age hejoined his cousin Mrs. Giitzlaff at Macao, andstudied Chinese under John Robert Morrison.He was Interpreter under Alcock in 1844. Hebecame Acting-Consul under Sir John Bowring atCanton in 1853, was Vice-Consul at Amoy in 1854,and after assisting to make the Treaty with Siamwas sent to England with the Treaty and the Kingof Siam's presents to Queen Victoria. He becameConsul at Canton in 1856, and distinguished himselfin his dealings with Yeh over the lorcha Arrowcase. He was made Commissioner of Canton afterthe capture of that city. In 1860 he accompaniedliord Elgin to the North to ratify the Treaty ofPeking, and was taken prisoner by the Chinese,and suffered many indignities. He went up theYangtze with Admiral Hope, establishing BritishConsulates at the newly-opened Treaty Ports. Hewas made K.C.B. in 1862, became Consul atShanghai the next year, and established the MixedCourt there in 1864. With Gordon he formed theCamp of Instruction for Chinese troops defendingShanghai. In 1865 he succeeded Sir RutherfordAlcock as Minister to Japan.There he spent the next eighteen years, andin 1883 was offered the Peking Legation at areduced salary—owing to the House of Commonsfeeling economical. He was the last Minister tou?e the additional title of 'Chief Superintendent ofTrade' {q.v.). His official work only lasted eighteenmonths, three of which were spent in a visit to thenewly opened Korea. He was made MinisterPlenipotentiary to the King of Korea in additionto his China appointment. While foreignersthroughout China were "delighted at his becomingMinister at Peking, the Chinese were prejudicedagainst him, and arrogant, especially as a result ofthe war with France, and his post was not at allan easy one.He had been made K.C.B. at the very early ageof 34, and in 1881 he was made G.C.M.G.He died in Peking, March 22, 1885, and wasburied at Whitchurch, Middlesex. A statue hasbeen erected to his honour on the Bund at Shanghai.Lane-Poole : Life of Sir Harry Parkes, 1894.PARROTS. The Order Psittaci is tropical,bat a few species are found outside the tropics,both north and south. Six are found in China :Palaeornis satvadorii Oxjstalet, (which is commonin Nepal) comes to pass the winter in the woodedvalleys of the Upper Yangtze, as far north as 30"this seems to be the extreme northern limit of theparrots. P. lathami occurs in Hainan, and -P.luciani is probably found in the South-west ofChina. P. cyanocephalus comes asi a visitor fromBurma, etc., and has been taken near Canton. Asmaller species, P. longicauda, is said to be foundin Kuangsd. Coryllis vernalis is another speciesmet with in S. China, but it is very rare.David et Oustalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine.PARTIES, POLITICAL. See Political Parties.PARTRIDGES. See Gallinae.PA SSE PA. See Baschpa.PATRIARCHS, SIX, p^;iii^iw . fqjThe very large characters painted on thewalls of large buildings ^ or Jf must be noticed byall visitors to Chinese cities.. The chih tang or pawnshop proper is a privateinstitution, but licenced by the local officials andsubject to some government regulations. The timewithin which pledges may be redeemed is sixteenmonths, and the interest payable is three per cent,per month. Jewels are not received as pledges, andgold or silver only with restrictions.The hsiao ya pawnshops are not recognised bythe authorities and are much more used by thepoorer classes. The interest charged is higher andthe time for redemption is only three months.Being illegal institutions they have to guard care-6442.5

jPEACH BLOOMENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAfully against burglary, etc, as there is no help forthem in law against any theft, fraud or robbery,Giles : Chinese Sketches.PEACH BLOOM (peau de peche). SeePorcelain.PEACHES, Amygdalus persica, |% t'ao. Thepeach i& supposed to have originated in China, thoughtho point cannot be regarded as settled. But threeimportant kinds have been developed there, andsome of the most commercially important varietiesin the United States have been introduced fromChina.The three strains mentioned are the ChineseCling group, the Honey group and the Pien t'aogroup. The first belongs more to the north, thesecond to the south and centre, and the third isextensively cultivated only in the south, though itwill thrive anywhere.The best variety of the Chinese Cling group istho Fei t'ao, from the district of Fei ch'eng inShantung. It is a large peach, often weighing morethan a pound, and besides its excellent flavour ithas the advantage of keeping good from the timeit ripens in October till February, if it is wrappedin soft tissue paper.There are some less noted varieties, and thereare also several varieties of the Honey group, someof those in Shantung being especially fine.Of the Pien t'aoMWi or flat peaches, the redflat peach of Chekiang, the white and the yellowflat peaches, both of Shantung, deserve mention.The nectarine, A. persica nectarina, is veryrare in China.The Wild Peach, A. davicliana, is found as ahill shrub or as an ornamental tree in gardens. Itis used as a stock for grafting almost all stone-fruittrees.The peach has an important place in Chinesesuperstitions. The wood of the peach-tree is ademonifuge, and Taoist priests use it for makingthe seals with which they seal their talismans andamulets. Branches of the tree are also used tostrike fever patients, to 'expel the spirit of fever.Th3 fruit is, however, more important than thewood ; it is the fruit which has given immortalityto the immortals, and is a chief ingredient in thedixir vitae of the Taoists. The god of longevity% B, Shotj Hsing is often pictured as issuing froma peach, and peach-stones carved in the shape oflocks are amulets to keep children secure from death.DoKE : Recherches sur Us Superstitions, p. 477Meter : Agricultural Explorations in the Fruit andNut Orchards of China. (U. S. Department ofAgriculture).PEACH-ORCHARD LEAGUE, Wi^'^Wifan yuan chih i; LiTJ Pei, Chang Fei, and Kuan Tiswore together to fight, live and die with oneanother. The covenant wa® made in a peadiorchard: hence the name. See Kuan Ti; Liu Pei.PEACOCKS. See Gallinae.A decoration con-PEACOCK'S FEATHERS.ferred by Manchu Emperors. The highest grade,(called i^% hua yu, flowery feather), is literallyof the peacock's feathers, with 3, 2, or 1 eye accordingto the merit of the recipient. The lower gradeC& ^ ^«" 2/"' ^1"® feather) is from the raven's tail.PEANUTS. See Groundnuts.PEARL RIVER. See Chu kiang.PEARS, ^li, Pyrus sinensis. Pears are veryfewmuch cultivated by the Chinese, but there arevarieties that are enjoyed by foreigners. One ofthe best is the quince-pear, Ya huan li; it is a largefruit, sometimes weighing half a pound. Next tothis comes the Pai li fi ^ or white pear, a roundfruit, generally small. It is best known toforeigners as the Peking pear.The Ta suan li, big sour pear, is found nearJehol, the Mien suan li or mealy sour pear, nearKuangning in Manchuria, and another sour variety.Mo p'an suan li or mill-stone sour pear, in Liaoyang.These are all soft pears ; the hard pears aremore appreciated by the Chinese, and there aremany varieties of them. The best is the Ya erh li,a large pear-shaped pear, which keeps well andcan be got all through the winter in N. China.The Ma t'i huung li or Horse-shoe yellow pear isvery large, with coarse flesh ; it grows in Manchuria.So does the Hsiang shui li or fragrant water pear,which is dried and packed in boxes. A number ofboxes of them used to be sent annually fromLiao-yang to the Emperor. The Mi li or honeypear is hard, but very juicy and sweet; it comesSome pears of W. Shansifrom the Chihli province.are remarkable for their 'keeping' properties. TheYu li or oil pear can be kept for more than a year.There is a fatty substance covering the fruit, givingit its name, and perhaps explaining its kefepibgproperties. The Pen li or furrowed pear andHuang li or yellow pear are from the same district.Shantung produces some very large pears, theli for instance often weighing 1^ pounds. The426Hsiu hua li from Shantung is a large pear shapedlike a flattened apple.There is a large number of red pears inN. China ; all are apple-shaped and all remarkablygood 'keepers.' Many other varieties might benamed. From the foreign point of view it is notthe pear as the Chinese have it to-day that isinteresting, but the Chinese pear as it may be aftera course of foreign, scientific treatment in foreignsoil.There are at least four varieties of wild pearfound in N. China.Meyer :Agricvltvral Explorations, etc.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPEKINGPEGOLOTTI, FRANCIS BALDUCCI, theauthor of some curious notes, purely mercantile, onthe route to Cathay, weights and measures, prices,etc. The work was written about 1340, and isfound as an appendix to a work published inFlorence in 1765-66. Part of the notes are translatedby Ytjle.Yule ; Cathay and the Way Thither.and who had built the Pei T'ang, as the King ofPortugal was protector of the Jesuits of theHsi T'ang.After some 90 years the Society of Jesus wassuppressed, and the Lazarists took their place. Afterthe persecutiion 'in Chia Ch'ing's reign the PeiT'ang came to an end in the reign of his successorT.\o KUANG. It was sold, by imperial orders, to aPEI-TAI-HO is a sea-side resort situated on thecoast of Chihli some twenty miles south of Shanhaikuan. There are three settlements of house©,namely, West End, Rocky Poirtt and East Cliff,of which Rocky Point is the most populous andbest-developed.It originated in 1894-95 when railway engineersbegan building. The Methodist Episcopal Missionnext rented land, and when there were 14 cottagesRocky Point Association was formed. Then theEast Cliff Land Co. took up 700 mow, and manyhouses and a hotel were built. In 1900 all wasdestroyed, but building was resumed two years laterand in 1917 there are about 300 houses with some2,000 summer residents.A branch line haa been opened in 1917 from thePeking-Mukden Railway, 5 miles away.PEITANG -^^ pei fang, a small port inChihli, at the north of the Pei-t'ang river, some tenmiles north of the mouth of the Pei-ho. When theP3i ho was barred to the Ministers in June, 1859,Mr. Ward, the American envoy, landed at Pei fangand, after a humiliating visit to the capital, exchangedratification of the treaty at Pei-t'ang onAugust 16. In 1860 the allies landed at Pei fangto take the Taku Forts.PEI T'ANG 4h^, northern hall, the name ofthe Roman Catholic establishment in the west ofthj Imperial City in Peking. The ground wasgiven by K'ang Hsi in 1693 after PP. Gerbillonand BoTJVET had cured his fever with quinine.Tt was called Pei T'ang to distinguish it from thealready existing Tung (east) T'ang and Hsi (west)T'ang, now called Nan (south) T'ang. Six yearslater the Fathers begged for an extension of theground that they might build a church. K'ang Hsinot only granted the land, but himself composedthree inscriptions to be placed on the new church.A description of the building is given in theBulletin de Pekin. It had a small tower whichserved as library and astronomical observatory ; there.sidence of the missionaries was on the east andwas in Chinese style, and the garden stretched to ablock of houses which adjoined the imperial gardensor San hai 3 ^. The modest little church, calledthe church of S. Sauveur, was dedicated in December,1703. LoTTis XIV contributed much to itsdecoration : he was, of course, especially the protectorof th& French Jesuits, whom he had sent out.mandarin, for the sum of 5,000 taels, and everythingwas allowed to go to ruin.By the treaty between France and China of1860 the property was restored to the church; anew and larger building was put up and completedin 1867.An important institution at the new Pei T'angwas the Museum of Natural History formed byP. Abmand David, which was much visited bymandarins ;. some of the princesses also went thereand, it is said, the Empress-dowager herselfincognito. It was presented to her when thePei T'ang was removed in 1885.At the accession of Kuang Hsii the Pei T'angproperty was required for inclusion in the palacegrounds ; an amicable arrangement was made andanother .site provided not far away, on which ane>v cathedral was built and consecrated in December1888.Favier : Peking; Bulletin Catholique dePekin, February, 1916.PEKING, :!h ^ pei ching. There have been .several cities with various names on the site nowoccupied by Peking.1. Thefrom B.C.earliest of these was called |5i Chi,723 to 221 the capital of the Yen ^Kingdom. It was destroyed by Ch'in ShihHUANG-TI.2. A new city was built on the ruins in a.d, 70,by the Han dynasty, and it was called Yen a^which is still used as a literary name for Peking.3. From the time of the Three Kingdoms tothe T'ang dynasty the same place had the name ofYu chou i^ W.4. The K'itans destroyed the place when theyestablished the Liao dynasty in 986, but they builtagain on the same spot and called the place Nankingl^ilR, southern capital, to distinguish it fromtheir earlier capital which was north, up in Liaotung.They also called it Yen ching ^JR.5. The Chin ^ dynasty followed in 1126, builta new city adjoining the old one on the east andof the same size, calling the double city Chung Tutjj f |5 Central capital : their northern capital wasnear Jehol and their southern at K'ai-feng fu. Itwas' also called Ta-hsing fu :)z$^M'6. This city was completely destroyed byChenghis Khan in 1215. His grandson KhubilaiKhan removed the Yuan dynasty capital fromKarakorum, building on the Peking Isdte the city427

PEKINGENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAcalled Khanbaligh, sometimes written Cambulucand, in fact, written in many ways. Khanbalighstood on the site occupied by the present Tartarcity, but its north wall was five li further northand its east and west walls were one li outside thewalls of to-day. The Bell Tower is in the centreof this old city, and the Observatory is at its southeasterncorner. This is, of course, the city whichwas made known to Europe by the early Franciscanmissionaries and by Marco Polo.Another name by which it was called duringthe Yiian dynasty is Ta tu :^ fP ,great capital.7. The first Ming rulers had their capital atthe city famous as Nanking, and KJianbalighbecame a simple prefecture with the name Pei-p'ingfu J^^^. Being considered too large its northernwall was removed five li to the southward ; whetherthe east and west walls were moved is not certain.8. The third Ming emperor Yung Lo removedhis capital to Pei-p'ing fu and called it Pei ching^ Siy or as it may be spelt, Pe-king, which meansNorthern Capital ; and it has remained the seat ofgovernment ever since.Two things may be borne in mind by thosewho wonder at the situation of Peking.' (i) Theenemies of the Empire were generally on the North,—for half the time during the last seven or eightcenturies China has actually been ruled by conquerorsfrom the North. Hence, a capital nearthe northern frontier seemed necessary. (ii) Thefact that the city is on a dusty plain instead ofbeing, like Nanking, near a noble river, remindsone that the founders of such cities were horsemen,used to scouring the plains with their armies. Theydid not seek a site suitable for water supply, forunloading of goods, etc.The present city of Peking consists of fourenclosures. The Tartar city or North city is almostsquare ; within it and more or less central is theenclosure called the Imperial City, the walls beingabout five miles in total length; and within thisagain there is a third enclosure, the Imperial Palaceor the Purple Forbidden City. The Chinese cityor South city is south of the Tartar city and adjoiningit; east and west it extends beyond the Tartarcity, but its width north and south is less than halfitslength ea^ and west.The Tartar city is so called because the Manchusat the beginning of their dynasty drove out theChinese into the suburb which has become theSouth city. All the palaces of Manchu princes andimportant Manchu families and all governmentbuildings are in the Tartar city. The older wallswere faced with brick by Yung Lo of the Mingdynasty in 1437, and the three divisions of thecity were also made by him.The Imperial City ^ ^ huang ch'eng is almostsquare, being a little more north and south thaneast and west; the length of itfc walls isi 10,350kilometres. It has in it, besides the Forbiddencity, three lakes, the Coal Hill, many temples, thePei t'ang, etc. Its walls are 18 feet in height andare pierced by four gates.The Purple Forbidden city, tzu chin ch'eng,is the innermost enclosure, and it was the strictlyprivate residence of the emperors. The mortarused in the buildings was purple or violet, andthis general tinge gave the name to the city.Another explanation, however, connects the namewith the Pole Star, called by an ancient writer'the Star of the violet myrtle,' the empire dependingon this central spot as the heavens on the pole star.The walls of this enclosure are 1006 metres northand south and 786 metres east and weist, and are22 feet high. Outside is a moat 60 metres wide.There are four gates.Among the better-known 'sights' of Peking thefirst place must be given to the Altar of Heaven(q.v.). The Confucian Temple with the StoneDrums {q.v.), The Lama Temple {q.v.), the Observatory{q.v.) with its remaining instruments, theSummer Palace {q.v.), the Drum Tower and BellTower, are all attractive. Some people may takemore pleasure in visiting the sites connected withearly church history in Peking,—the Cathedrals,the Portuguese cemetery with the graves of Ricci,ScHALL and many more (see Chda).The Legation Quarter adjoins the eastern part ofthe southern wall of the Tartar city, and is nowalways in a state of defence.Unfortunately no very good guide to Pekinghas ever been issued. Favier's work has manyinaccuracies, and Bretschneider' s is too short andlimited.Bretschneider : Archcelogical and HistoricalResearches on Peking, Shanghai, 1876 ;Favier :Peking.[The plans of these cities, given below, arereduced from those in Le Bulletin Catholique dePekin for February, 1914, by kind permission ofBrother A. Maes, Director of the Lazarist Pressat Peking.In these plans the broken lines represent thepresent Peking, while the dark lines show therelative size and situation of each ancient city.]p..^}"«-.-—•1. ChiB.C. 725—221.428

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPELICANS2. Yen, built in a.d. 70;known as Yu Chou (B)from 4th to 10th centuries5. Chung ttjA.D. 12th centuryr n.\ 4. .4rIti^4. Nan chingL.D. 10th century)4 'f\ 1r H - - ^.2!»—«6r-f,..,6. KhanbalighA.D. 13th centuryu...... .....JPEKING CONVENTION. Sir FrederickBruce, proceeding to Peking for the ratification ofthe' Tientsin Treaty (q.v.), was forcibly hindered.This led to an expedition and to this Convention.An indemnity of eight million taels was agreedon instead of the two millions of the Treaty. Theport of Tientsin was to be opened to British tradeand residence. The Kowloon territory alreadyleased to Her Majesty's representative was to beceded to Great Britain.atChuisan was to be evacuatedonce.The Convention was signed on October 24,1860, at Peking, by the Earl of Elgin and PrinceKUNG.PEKING GAZETTE, :g Wl ching pao, traditionallydating from the end of the 10th century,was a daily metropolitan affiche, containing CourtGazette, Decrees and Memorials. Manuiscript copieswere sent to the high provincial authorities, and theprinted form was sent to Canton, etc. In someplaces it was reprinted.The 'yellow' Peking Gazette ceased at the closeof the Manchu period, but a white edition is stillissued by HsiiAN T'UNG, the ex-Emperor.PEKING STAG. See Siha.PEKING UNIVERSITY, (®X:A:^^) (notUniversity of Peking, q.v.) is a missionary undertakingwhich had its origin in the educational workof the M.E.M.In 1870 a small day-school was opened withthree boys, induced to attend by the gift of onemeal per diem. In 1878, a boys' boarding schoolwas begun with six Christian boys. In the year1885, this became the Wiley Institute, with thegrade of an Academy. In 1888, during the visit ofBishop Fowler, this in turn became the PekingUniversity, with the Bishop as Chancellor and theRev. L. W. PiLCHER as first President. In 1890,a certificate of Incorporation was granted by theLegiiSlature of New York, and a Board of Trusteesin New York City constituted. In 1891 a Boardof Managers to control the local affairs of theUniversity was formed in Peking, and includedmissionaries! of the A.B.C.F.M. and L.M.S., besidesmembers of the foreign community.Land was purchased, and the first building,Durbin Hall, put up in 1892. This, like all theM.E.M. property in the capital, was destroyed bythe Boxers in 1900, but was rebuilt in 1902 andsince enlarged from time to time. After the rebellionnegotiations were begun among the variousmission's in Peking with a view to union in highereducational work, and in 1905, a union MedicalCollege was agreed upon, the Lockhart MedicalCollege of the L.M.S. being re-organised so asto represent both the North China EducationalUnion and Peking University. In 1916 the ChinaMedical Board having bought out the five Missionsconcerned, this work passed into its hands.Union in Theological work in Peking University,has been in operation since the fall of 1915.At the present time (May 1917), the arrangementsfor the federated University are almost completed,a charter has ' been granted by the New YorkState, and the new scheme is expected to belaunched in the fall of the year.The land for the campus comsdsts of onehundred acres, of which one-third was alreadypurchased a year ago. Each Mission gives $100,000gold towards the initial outlay ""^d instruction isto be confined to college and higher^ades.The number of students in April^.l^ie, notincluding those in Lower and Higher PrimaryDepartments, was 659.The President is the Rev. H. H. Lowrt, D.D.of the M.E.M.PELICANS. See Steganopodes.429

PENENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAPEN or BRUSH ^pi, used for writing, issaid to have been invented by Mkjjg T'ien {q.v.),a celebrated general of the First Emperor, whodied B.C. 209. Before his time characters werepainted with a reed pen dipped in black lacquer orelse incised with a bronze style.BusHELL : Chinese Art, II, p. 122.PENAL CODE. See Law.PENTECOSTAL MISSIONARIES, THE,have a kind of Kome base at Chicago, III, U.S.A.They have arrived in China only during the last fewyears. In the Missionary Directory for 1917 theirnumber is given as 35, and they work in Hongkong,and in five stations in Kuangtung province, alsoat Yunnan fu and at T'ai-an fu in Shantung.See Assemblies of God.PENTECOSTAL MISSIONARY UNION, The,was organized in 1909, with Headquarters inliOndon, England. Its workers in China are givenin the Missionary Directory for 1917 as 27 innumber, working in three stations' in Yunnan.See Assemblies of God.Pe'n TS'AO KANG MU, :^:^m @ ,

. PETRELS.'ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPHARMACOPAErA•reaches a pound in weight; it is seedle&s and containsvery little tannin,—that is, it is non -astringent.By freezing them the fruits can be kept perfectlygood for months. This, and some other varieties,has a constriction round the thickest part of th*flattened fruit.Another variety, called the Sweet persimmon,is exceedingly rare; Fire persimmon and Lotuaflowerpersimmon are other important varieties.The less juicy kind® are often dried, and theneaten raw or stewed.The wild persimmon, D. lotus, is called hei tsao'black date,' by the Chinese and in the Customslist. It is found here and there in the mountainsof N. China. It does not often develop into abig tree. It is used as a stock on which to graftthe cultivated persimmon. The fruit is abundant,and edible when soft or after being touched withfrost, but it is not very fleshy. Together with the"red date'.' (see Jujube) it is sent to the silk districtsfor consumption by the silk-men, who liveentirely on the fruit when rearing the worms, inorder to avoid injui'ing the insects with smoke fromfires. [British Consular Beport, Chinkiang, 1887).The export abroad, for Chinese emigrants, wasin 1915 nearly 57,000 piculs, worth Tls. 300,000.Original export, 256,000 picufe, worth Tls. 1,413,000,mostly from Tientsin, Chefoo, Hankow and Nanking.Meyer :Agricultural Explorations, etc., U.S.Dept. of Agricuture, 1911.PESCADORES, Portuguese for fishermen, agroup of islands west of the centre of Formosa.,forty miles from that island and about eighty fromthe mainland. The largest island is Panghu [q.v.).The Dutch occupied them about 1620, before settlingin Formosa. The group has belonged to Japansince 1896, together with Formosa.See Tubinares.PETROLEUM. See Minerals.PETUNTSE l^^J-, the felspathic stone,fusible at a high temperature, which gives thetransparency to porcelain. The best is reserved formaking the glaze. The name literally means 'whitebriquettes,' and refers to the shape in which thepulverised stone is transported.Btjshell : Chinese Art, vol, ii.PEWTERWARE.one of the chief industriesof Wenchow.The best quality is composed of fourparts tin to one of lead. Basins, candlesticks,lamps, teapots, cups, trays, and ornaments ofvarious kinds are made. Pewterware is aiso madeat Chaochow and Chaoyang, near Swatow. Theware manufactured at Shasi is much inferior to thatfrom Wenchow and Swatow. Ningpo pewter isfamous also, and is preferred to copper on accountof its freedom from verdigris. Many articlesformerly made of it are now, however, made ofimported tin-plate.PFISTER, ALOYSIUS, Jesuit miBsionary atZi ka wei ; he was born in Meurthe, April 24, 1833,and died in Shanghai May 17, 1891. He publishedin 1873 the first part of a list of Jesuits in Chinafrom Xavier to recent times. (Catalogusi Patrumac Fratrum e Societate Jesu qui a morte S. Fr.Xaverii ad annum MDCCCLXXII Evangelio XtiPropagando in Sinis adlaboraverunt. Pars Prima).He had collected material for a full history of theJesuit Mission in China, but it wais all destroyedin a riot at Wuhu in 1891,A list of his published works is given in theT'oung Pao, 1891, p, 463.PHAGSPA.See Baschpa.PHARMACOPAEIA. The following are noteson £iome of the chief Chinese vegetable drugs.Aconite,( i^ H9 ) wu t'ou. A great manyspecies are found throughout China.These principallyused are ts'ao wu t'ou (^ ^ gg), A. wilsonii,which is cultivated, and its powdered roots, mixedwith white of egg, applied externally as a remedyfor boils. Ch'uan wu t'ou, A. hemsleyanum, isused similarly, and after frequent boilings, in smallquantities as a drastic cure for coughs. Fu-tzii{ ^ ? ) is 4- fischeri; this is cultivated in thewinter, steeped in vinegar and salted and furthertreated. This and other aconites are used for avariety of diseases. Their poisonous qualities arediminished by the above treatment.Angelica. A. anomala, (Q 1£) pai-chih, grownin Ssuch'uan, Hupei, and Chekiang, is a favouritedrug, used in female compliants and as a cosmeticA. decursiva (i^^) Ch'ien hu, a common plantused as a tonic and exported abroad; A. polymorpha(^ S§) tong kuei, the roots of which are used as atonic and blood-purifier. The name tang kuei isalso applied to the honeywort (Crypto taenia), veryfrequently used in prescriptions, which resemblescelery in odour and taste. It is used extensivelyin menstrual, chlorotic, and puerperal diseases.AsAFOETiDA, imported from India, is a gumre.sin, the exudation of the Ferula, a shrub growingin Central Asia. It is used medicinally, and isdeodorizing, anthelmintic, carminative, etc., and anantidote to mushroom poisoning.Baros Camphor is considered the best in China.It is imported from Borneo. It is not true camphorbut steareopten ; it is applied as a powder tochancres, buboes, etc., and used for polypus, fistula,etc. It is Dryobalanops camphora, Chinese pingp'ien( ^ )r)• Ngai-camphor , a steareopten isomericwith the Borneo camphor, said to be extracted fromBlumea balsamifera, from Hainan, is a very431

PHARMACOPAEIAENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAvaluable substance valued at 500 Taels per picul,and is used as a febrifuge and carminative.Capoor Cutchery, Katmfftria galanga, (|ll^)shan nai, a root eaten as a relish, like ginger,and usied medicinally as a cure for toothache,as a wash for dandruff and scabs, or to destroy lice,hence used to preserve clothes. It is exported toIndia, Persia, and Arabia.Cardamum, \& 3. ^) I^ai tou k'ou,introducedto China a thousand years ago. It is the Amomum,medicine, L., grown in South-west Kuangsi, whoseseeds are used in chest complaints and generaldebility.Castor Oil.{See separate heading).CoDONOPSis TANGSHEN, Hemsl, is a campanulaceousplant sometimes called bastard ginseng, andU'sed to adulterate ginseng. Tangshen is the namegiven to several other species of Cam.'panulacaea.It is used as a tonic.CoPTis CHiNENSis, ( H i^ ) huang lien, grownin West Hupei and in the Mount Omei plantations,Ssuch'uan. The dried rhizome is an all-roundmedicine, and particularly valued as a stomachic.CuBEBS, Cubeba officinalis (Jg Jn) ch'eng chia,a one-seeded berry, exported from South China. Itresembles black pepper in size and form, has afragrant odour and aromatic taste, and is usedmedicinally.Dragon's Blood; that ordinarily used in Chinais the produce of a large species of rattan calamusdrace in Sumatra and Borneo and perhaps SouthChina. The Pen ts'ao name is Jg Hf K'o liu andJg, ^ K'o ping.EucoMMiA XJLMOiDES, ( ;^ ft) tu chung , a treefound in Hupei, Honan, Shensi, Shansi, etc., thebark of which is tonic and diuretic. The leavesprevent hemorrhoids.Fritillary. Fritillaria roylei, etc., is pei-muK ^ grown in the Tachien lu region, West Ssuch'uan.The tiny white bulbs are pounded andboiled with dried orange skin and isugar. Used infevers, coughs, rheumatism, and eye-diseases. Aninferior kind is cultivated in Chekiang.Lotus, Nelumbium speciosum, {7^) ho, a verypopular and useful water-plant, widespread in-J-), areChina. The seeds, named lien-tzu ^(used in medicine. The cotyledons are ground intoflour (See Arrowroot)^ or boiled, and make a verypaJatable food- The boiled root-stocks form asweet mucilaginous food which is very popular.All parts of the plant are used in medicine, andare highly esteemed, e.g. the arrowroot in dysentery,the seed-caulicle in hemoptysis, and the leavesin fevers and skin eruptions, etc.PhELLODENDRON CHINENSE BARK, huaug 230 H ^is a complete materia medica in itself, the poorman's "Cure-all.''PiCRASMA QUASSioiDES, ku lien tzu bark, yieldson boiling an extract which is used in colic and asa febrifuge.QuiSQUALis INDICA, shih chun tzu ( ^ ^ -Jwhichiis' grown in Fukien, a safe vermifuge, hassince the outbreak of the European War been muchused by foreign physicians as a substitute forsantonin, where the latter has not been available.It is the "Rangoon creeper "of India..Rehmannia glittinosa, ti huang (ifi ^) is acommon plant in North China. The root is used, as a tonic and the leaves for eczema. Ts'ing hua,in Honan, is the chief market; the sale realises£160,000 annually. (Richard, Geography, p. 61).Many insects are eaten in various forms asdrugs. Dried centipedes, scorpions, silkworms,and beetles, the exuviae of cicadae, bats' dung,insect white wax, cantharides, tigers' bones, bears'galls, hedgehogs' skins, are also partaken of andamong mineralis, realgar, zinc bloom, fossil teeth,brown mica, cinnabar ore, clay and a variety ofothers are used.The Customs' List of Chinese Medicines coversa great deal of ground, and Hosie's list comprises220 various kinds, of which 189 are vegetable fromSsuch'uan, whence comes so many of the chiefdrugs. Reference ishould be made to these lists,but full descriptions of all known drugs are givenin Stuart's Chinese Materia Medica, 1911.[N.S.]PHEASANTS. See Gallinae.PHILASTRE, P. L. F., a translator of theI Ching or Book of Changes,—the finsit translatorinto French. It appeared in Annates du MuseeGuimet, vols, viii and xxii.PHILLIPS, GEORGE, was born in Kent in1836 and died near London in 1896. He enteredthe China Consular Service in 1857, and occupiedvarious posts till his retirement in 1892. He wrotea good many articles on Formosa, Zaitun, etc., alist of which is given in the T'oung Pao, 1896.PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF CHINA.See China Branch of Royal Asiatic Society.PHILOSOPHY.—Having regard to the antiquityof Chinese civilization and literature, and tothe acuteness of the Chinese in practical affairs,their aversion to metaphysical speculation is asurprising fact. Three reasons have been suggestedfor it; (i) The inexact nature of the language;(ii) The lack of a well-developed logic; (iii) Thepractical bent of the Chinese mind. On the otherhand, it is argued that a nation has the languageand methodology it deserves, and that practicalability is often found in company with philosophicleanings, e.g., with the wily Greek and the cannyScot.432

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPHILOSOPHYThe amount of philosophical writings in China,however, can only be considered small if comparedwith the mass of serious literature. The departmentof philosophy in the Imperial Library containedin B.C. 190 no less than two thousand sevenhundred and five volumes or "sections" by onehundred and thirty-seven authors. Again in a.d.1412, in the reign of Yung Lo, the writings of theSung philosophers were collected and annotatedunder the title of ^ =a ;A: ^ Philosoj)hy in itsCovijjhteness, or more tersely, The Complete-Philosophy. They were in sixteen volumes and"would if translated, fill more than that numberof Western volumes octavo of medium thickness."(Meadows).The Imperial Encyclopaedia of Philosophyembraces three hundred and sixty volumes, but itmust be remembered that the Chinese thoughtcomprehended under the name of Philosophydiffers very widely in itsi form from that of theWest.Philosophy is a vague term in China, andphilosophical matter is much mixed up with othersubjects, e.g. in the ^M:h-^, dissertations onthe arts of government and of education, on helhslettres, etc., are introduced.The orthodox Chinese philosophy is Confucian,and while in a true philosophy speculation shouldbe absolutely free, and not undertaken in theirterests of any creed or school of thoughit, inChina the problem is, "Given the infallibility of theConfucian classics, how to construct from them ametaphysac?" thus resembling the task of themediaeval Schoolmen.Of the usual divisions of metaphysics, viz.,Ontology, Cosmogony, Psychology, Ethics andEpistemology, only the fourth really interests theChifiese. Psychology is mainly represented in itsrelation to good and evil, and cosmogony andontology, though early discussed (in the / Ching)are the last to be elaborated, and then chiefly withreference to morality.There have been two periods of great philosophicalactivity in China, the first beginning withLao Tzu and Confucius and ending with theaccession of Shih Huang Ti ; the second beginningwith Chou Tzu and ending with Chu Hsi, whodied a.d. 1200.The era before the birth of Lao Tzii, has leftus but one philosophical work, the enigmatical/ Ching; but it is exceedingly important becauseit laid the foundations on which all subsequentthinkers! built. Even if it be the case, as someassert, that the true interpretation of the / Chinghad been lost before Wen Wang (b.c. 1231-1135)and Choc Kung (died 1105 B.C.) wrote their notes55483upon it ; if it be true that it was only a manual ofdivination, and that the broken and unbroken linesot the "Eight Diagrams" represent the knotted andunknotted cords used by primitive China for recordingand making simple calculations; the bookis none the less a philosophical one, since allsystems of divination are based on at least a crudemetaphysic,: and a numerical conception of theorder of the world is one of the earliest known.The / Ching teaches a dual system in explanationof all changes in nature and in humanaffairsi—the interaction of the two forces callecfStrong and Weak, otherwise Male and Female, andalso Heaven and Earth, producing all phenomena.But pre-Confucian speculation had another side,which has not handed any book down to us, yetwhich was growingly monistic and idealisltic. Inthe / Ching itself there are sporadic allusions ofthis nature, and a doctrine of that from which theDual Principles derived Tao 5^—was in variousforms well-known. The / Ching, the doctrine ofTao and some strongly-held ethical principlesintuitively known, enforced by experience, andregarded as harmonizing with the / Ching, andemanating from Tao or from T'ien Ji, were thematerials on which Confucius, Lao Tzu, and theirsuccessors worked.Confucius accepted the dualism of the / Ching,and the commentaries on that work ascribed to himare the most philosophical part of his teachings,which were mainly positivist, and above all, ethical.(See Confucianism).He uses the term Great Limit T'ai chi (;icfi[0concerning the Origin of the Dual Principles, butthis line of thought was not developed by his immediatefollowers, and though Mencius epeaks ofa Universal Energy (f^^^^^l) as filling theUniverse, he is only interested in it as functioningin the moral life of men.Even in Ethics, Confucius and his followerswere chiefly interested from a practical point ofview. The Metaphysics of Ethics are eitherignored or settled without controversy, e.g. theproblem of the origin and existence of evil is nottouched upon ; freewill is taken for granted.Lao Tzu, and his followers, working on thesame material as Confucius, arrived at verydifferent results. The monistic and idealistic sayingswhich occur sporadically in the / Ching theyappropriated, but their chief reliance was on thedoctrine of Tao as handed down from the YellowEmieror and other ancient worthies. It is notnow clear how far this doctrine had developed priorto Lao Tzfl, but in the Tao-Te Ching we are faceto face with that from which the Dual Principlesproceed, that which is without form or limit, begin-

PHILOSOPHYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAning or end, above definition, above speculation,above reason itself—the Absolute, as conceived byLao Tzu, to whicb he gives the time-honouredname of Tao.He appears, however, in the short compass ofthe Tao-Ti Ching to use Tao in two meanings :(1) the Great Principle which formed the Universe,and (2) the primordial matter from which theUniverse was made. The latter was substantiallythe Great Limit of the / Ching Appendices, buf.the former was the true basis of all typicallyTaoist thought.Three books have come down to us professingto represent Taoist thought before the close of thefirst period of philosophical activity, viz., thereputed works of Lieh Tzu, Chuang Tzu andKuan Yin Tzu, {q.v.). The last, though in thetrue Taoist succession and perhaps containing someancient sayings is undoubtedly much later than theothers. Lieh Tzu's book is perhaps the work ofhis disciples, much added to and altered by laterTaoists. Chronologically he comes between Lao Tzuand Chuang Tzu, the latter constantly referringto him.Lieh Tzu took a very transcenidlent attitudetowards the universe and evolved a cosmogony whichby its identity of contraries led inevitably to absoluteindifference and aloofness.In Chuang Tzu we meet the most brilliant ofTaoist and of Chinese philosophers. In his workwe breathe the air of Greece. He has been comparedwith Plato by Mears {China Review,vol. xix, p. 225), and with Heracleitus by CanonAubrey Moore, in an introduction to Giles'Chuang Tzu, Mystic, Moralist and Social Reformer.Chuang Tzu felt Taoism was threa^tened bysome of the teachings of Lieh Tzu (e.g., theallusions to magic and so forth) and by those ofthe agnostic and materialistic Confucianists. Heaccepts Lao Tzu's ethics in toto and bends all hisgenius to the elaboration of a wonderful philosophy.Starting with the relativity of all things, he becameconvinced of the unreality of the visible world, andthe consequent uselessness of controversy. He isall for individual freedom, and so gets to theWu Wei (doctrine of Inaction), and ultimately toa half-pantheistic mysticism, which is saved frompantheism by the dualism which he conceives asexisting forever between man and God [Tao). Itis the true duty and delight of the soul to understandsomething of the Tao and imitate what isknown. Man is not the coming-to-consciousnessof the Abiding Ground of all things, but a beingakin to It in nature, capable of attaining a positiveand eternal perfection through It, and therefore ofinfinite value ; in his innermost being he is not aThing, though in body and mind he may be, andherein lies his danger, his possibility of failing toattain perfection.Among the other philosophers of the period,are Yang Chu and Mo Ti. Both were severelydenounced by Mencius. Y.ang Tzii, who has leftno written works, held views closely approachingthose of Epicurus. Part of Mo Tzu's works havecome down to us, but the text in places is verycorrupt. As against Yang Tzu he is supposed bythe Chinese to represent ultra-altruism. He had avery logical mind, and put his arguments moremethodically than any Chinese before the Sung era.His system resembles Christianity in many respects.His famous precepts of universal love, and of utilityas an unfailing criterion of moral values, are basedon a doctrine of the Supreme Being which greatlyresembles that of "God"' in the Christian sense.There were other independent thinkers some ofwhom are loosely classed with Taoists, the mostfamous being HsiiN Tzu who opposed the followersof Mencius by maintaining that human nature isradically evil, and anticipating Hume in his beliefthat morality i« an artificial thing.HsiiN Tzu, however, though against Mencius,considered himself a Confucianist, and fought fororthodoxy as against Mo Ti.One of HsiiN Tzu's pupils, Han Fei Tzu [q.v.)is also called a Taoist writer, though he occupiedan independent position. He fell under the displeasureof the ruler of Ch'in, afterwards ShihHuang Ti, and committed suicide,—the last of theante-Ch'in thinkers.Between the times of Shih Huang Ti afid therise of the Sung philosophers there was an interyalof twelve hundred years, during which very littlephilosophical thinking was done.Yang Hsiung [q.v.) founded an ethical school,in which the doctrines were propounded that huinannature is both good and evil, and that environmentis everything. Huai Nan Tzu (died B.C. 122)wrote a celebrated treatise embodying his researchesinto the secrets of Nature from the point of viewof the degenerate Taoism of the day, and WangCh'ung [q.v.) in the first century of our eracriticized Confucius and Mencius in a very boldand original way, but nothing of importance wasachieved'. The fire of the Ante-Ch'in times wasburnt out or had been extinguished, and the stateof China was not conducive to philosophical energy.At the beginning of the tenth century printinghad been invented, and gave a great impetus to alleducation. Buddhism had established itself firmlyin the Empire and was forcing even Confucianiststo look on their ancient doctrine in a new light;and the second great period of philosophical activitybegan under the Sung dynasty with Chou Tzfl(born A.D. 1017). (See following article).434

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPHIL0S0P+1Y, SUNGThe teachings of the Sung philosophers wereaccepted as the final statement of Confucian orthodoxy,much as the interpretatiofns of S. ThomasAquinas were accepted in the Middle Ages, andonly one great philosophical thinker has appearedin China since. This was Wang Yang Ming (q.v.)of the Ming dynasty. His views were regarded asheterodox, because, though a Confucianist, hediffered so widely from Chu Hsi, but he is increasinglystudied both by Chinese and Japanese, andhis lofty idealism is perhaps destined to play aconsiderable part in the re-interpretation of Confucianismwhich is inevitable, as China becomesacquainted with the deepest thought of the West.Meadows : The Chinese and Their Bebellions,chap, xviii ; Suzuki : History of Chinese Philosophy,[C.E.0.]PHILOSOPHY OF THE SUNG PERIOD.—With the 11th century, a renaissance of literature andat the same time a revival of orthodoxy, resultedin what is known as the Sung School of Confucianism(5lc m). Its founders formed a groupcalled "The Five 'Philosophers" (jE.-J-), of whomthe first, and the prime initiator of the movement,was Chou Tun-i (1017-1073), and the last was thefamous Chu Hsi (1130-1200), whose keen dialecticsecured for the doctrine of the school a lastingplace in the intellectual life of the naition. Theintervening philosophers were the two brothersCheng Hag (1032-1085), and Ch'eng I (1033-1107),who from an early age were Chou Tun-i^s pupils,and -their uncle Chang Tsai (1020-1076) to whomthey passed on the teachings they had received fromtheir master.Chou Tun-i left two works, posthumouslypublished by his pupils, The Complete Treatise(iS 'Bf), and' The Doctrine of the Supreme UltimatelUu-^fratedby Diagram [X'i^^lSi)-The latter is of the greatest importance asCentaining in a remarkably condensed and pregnantstatement the chief tenets of the writer's philosophicalsystem, the outstanding feature of whichis indicated in its title. Taking an obscure passagein the / Ching, the Philosopher elaborated hisfamous doctrine of the Supreme Ultimate, T'ai Chi(jfcfii), the Final Cause of the Universe, an Infinite|Being whose essence is an ethical principle, Li (S).but finds its manifestation in the Ether from whichis evolved the physical universe. The stages of theevolution are traced from this primordial Ether,through its Two Modes, the Yin and the Yang( F« ^) and the Five Agents, or Elements (BE fx),to Man, the highest form of created existence.The doctrines of Chou Tzu were passed on anddeveloped by his pupils Ch'eng Hao and Ch'eng I.In their voluminous writings consisting mainly ofessays, letters and notes of conversations with theirpupils, the most prominent subject of discussion is•the constitution of Man^s Nature. With themoriginated the clear distinction between the Originaland Essential Nature ( fii ;2|s: || i§ :i )14 and thePhysical Nature (^ K ^ fi)- The former wasexpounded as purely ethical and identified with theNature defined in the Doctrine of the Mean as the"Decree of Heaven." The latter is this originalnature as conditioned by the physical element inwhich it is inherent. It is to the former, it wasmaintained, that Mencius referred when he assertedthat the Nature of Man is good. It is to the latterthat Confucius referred when he taught that thenature- of all men isakin ("ftitBiE).Another marked feature of the Ch'eng philosophywas the place given to Love in the constitutionof the universe. In the Fourth Appendix to the/ Ching the four ultimate principles of the Universe,Yuan, Heng, Li, Cheng (tc ^ flj ^), the principlesof Origin, Beauty, Utility and Potentiality, aresaid to be the principles which in man become Love,Righteousness, Reverence and Wisdom. Ch'engHag elaborated the doctrine thus stated and showedthat Love, corresponding to the principle of Originin the universe, is both the source and the sumof the other three principles of man's nature whichproceed from it, and are included in it; and thatin the physical universe this same principle is thesource of the other three ultimata, just as in thecase of the Four Seasons, which are the physicalembodiment of these principles, all proceed fromthe productive season of Spring.Chang was less of a creator of thought and moreof a propagandist than his nephews. He eagerlyimbibed the teachings of Chou Tzu received fromthem, and became an enthusiastic teacher attractinglarge audiences to his lectures. He has left twoimportant works, The Bight Discipline of Youth(iE^), and the Western Inscriptions (® j:^ ),besides an exhaustive commentary on the / Ching,the chief subject of his lectures.A gap of twenty-three years intervened betweenthe death of Ch'eng I, the last survivor of thefirst four founders of the School, and the birth ofChu Hsi, the fifth, but there is nevertheless a directconnection in the transmission of the doctrinestaught by the earlier philosophers. Chu Hsi'steachers were fir.-t, his own father, and, later,Li Yen P'ing, a native of Fukien province. LiYen P'ing (1093-1163), who exerted a profoundinfluence upon the mind of his pupil, studied' underLo Ts'uNG Yen, who in his turn was one of themost brilliant students of the famous Yang KueiShan, a pupil of both the Ch'eng brothers.The following table will illustrate and makeclearer this succession of philosophical teachers.4SS

IPHILOSOPHY, SUNGENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICALo Ts'uNu Yes107^-llS6Li Yen P'inoloaa- 1^163Yano K-OEt ShanluSa-UiiaCue Hsi 1130-1200C'h'enu Hao1U32-1U»5CHOU TZU10l7-107aCu'kno I1U33-11U7CUANU TSAIlo2U-lo7t>Cue SuNQ (Father of Chu IIsi)1UU7-1H3Chu Hsi in early life was an eager student ofBuddhist philosophy, but was weaned from whathe later regarded as pernicious heresy by the argumentsof his revered teacher Li Yen P'ing. Likethe great Sage, he was not a creator so much as atransmitter, but he did more than transmit. Theteachings of his predecessors were reduced to aharmonious and consistent system, the apparentdiscrepancies and contradictions in their writings,as well as in the Classics, were explained, and byhis clear and persuasive reasoning thousands werewon to adherence to his views. The most important,from this point of view, of his multitudinousliterary labours was the work entitled^'Modern Thought" {U^ ,g?, |^), in which his friend,Lii Tung Lai collaborated. In this work, extractsfrom the writings and sayings of the earlier philosophersof this School were collated and classifiedfor the benefit of younger students of philosophy,so that it formed a complete digest of the system.The scheme of philosophy which thus grew inthe minds of the Five Philosophers, and was finallypresented by Chu Hsi as a complete system,followed two main lines of thought. It propoundeda theory of the universe, and upon that theory itbased its account of the constitution of man'snature. In its theory of the universe it accountedfor the existence of the All-Things in terms of adualism, but the dualism resolves itself ultimatelyinto what may be termed an ethical monism. Theultimate elements of the universe are Law andMatter O ^) or a primordial Ether in which anEthical principle is inherent. These, two elementsare co-existent and inseparable, but the Ether derivesits existence from, and is subject to the control ofthe ethical principle. The Ether again evolves adualism of its own in its Two Modes ( ^ ^ )already referred to. The ethical principle Li {^)is also termed Tao ( jE ) or the Moral Order, theterm being used to represent the ethical and all-..umprehensive aspect of Li.The nature of man consists of this Li, or theEthical Principle, individuated irj ea^h individualman. In its essence it is absolutely pure and good,but seeing that it is inseparable from the materialelement Ch'i {M.) or the Ether, it is from Man'sbirth to a greater or less extent impeded andtainted by tne grossness of Ether. The moraldifferences in the degree of purity and fineness ofthe Etherial medium, Grossness in .the Etherimpedes the manifestation of the ethical principle,while fineness in the Ether allows its full "illustriousvirtue" to be displayed. Hence we have sages andmean men, the noble and the ignoble.Chu Hsi and his predecessors were comparativelysilent on all questions religious and theological,but when pushed by persistent questionsChu Hsi confessed to his belief in the T'ien K ( )but objected to all anthropomorphical representaofthe classics as the Moral Ruler of the Universe,tions.This T'ien he asserted is Li (^), that is, aspiritual Being, but like the T'ai Chi (;icfS )findshis manifestation in a physical medium, the AzureVault, the purest and most renned portion of theEther.After the death of Chu Hsi, notes of hislectures and conversations, together with his essaysand letters, were published by his pupils. These,to which were added numerous works published byhimself in his lifetime, and the works of the earlierphilosophers which he had collected and commentedupon, became the nucleus of a voluminous libraryof works by philosophers of this School.In the fifteenth century a Symposium entitledHsing Li Ta Ch'uan {f^SM.J^'^) was compiled underImperial auspices, containing the writings of asmany as one hundred and twenty representativesof this school, and remaining to this day thestandard work of reference on this subject.It is[J.P.B.]PHCENIX, in,© feng huang, the king of birds.supposed to appear only in times of peace andprosperity. It has a hen's head, a man's eye, aserpent's neck, a locust's viscera, a swallow's browand a tortoise's back. Its tail, which is like thatof a fish, hasi twelve feathers, except in years withan intercalary month, when there are thirteen.This divine bird is the product of the sun or offire, hence it is often pictured gazing on a ball offire. The sun being the yang or active principle,the phoenix hasi great influence in the begetting ofchildren. It never rests on any tree but thewu-t'ung, and feeds on the fruit of the bamboo.It is six feet in height. The male is called fengand the female huang.Its first recorded appearance is in the reign ofHuang Ti, some 2600 years b.c. It again sheweditself in the next reign, and two phoenixes nestedin Yao's palace about B.C. 2350. It is. not however436

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPILGRIMSuntil the Han dynasty that we hear of worshipbeing paid to it. Later its appearance becomes acommonplace in Chinese history, and itei sure toglorify a peaceful reign or flatter a successful ruler.Its lai=t advent was at Feng-huang fu in Anhui,where it scratched at Hung Wu's father's grave,and the imperial power passed into Hung Wu'shands. This town now sends out enormous numbersof pictures of the phoenix to all parts of thecountry.DoRE : Eecherches sur les Superstitions enChine, p. 442.PHONETIC. See Primitive.PHONG IE, the Burmese word pongyi, meaninga monk who has been over ten yeara in themonastery; the term is, however, often used outof politeness to any monk. It is not correct tospeak of it, ajs F. H. B>\lfoue, does, as being aBuddhist sect.Scott : Burma; Balfour : Waifs and Straysfrom the Far East, p. 140.PHYSIOGNOMISTS, ;|g ® ft?]hsiang mien ti.In the West the word is used for those who studythe face to find out the character and dispositionin China the purpose is to tell the fortune or lengthof life. Chinese worksi refer to them in the thirdcentury B.C. Modern physiognomists use the planetsfor their science, the signs of the zodiac, the tenstems and twelve branches, the five sacred mountains,and many other things, connecting whichwith the features, etc., they tell a man the good orbad fortune awaiting him, his expectation of life,etc.DoRE : Eecherches sur les Superstitions, p. 225.PIAN DE CARPINE. See John of Pian deCarpine.PI CI DAE, the family of the Woodpeckers.The following are found in China. Dendrocopuscabanisi, the Chinese Pied Wood-pecker, is commonthroughout the provinces and occurs in Hainan.D. major the Great Pied Wood-pecker, is found inNorth Chihli. D. atrutus is found in Yunnan.Picus desmursi is found in the high mountains ofSsuch'uan. P. pernyi occurs in S.W. China. P.insularis is resident in the interior of Formosa,and in West Fukien. Picoides funebris lives inthe coldest and highest regions of W. China, butis not wide-spread. Dryocopus martius is foundin Manchuria and in N. Chihli.Yungipicus scintillicepsis resident in N. China. /. haleensis is foundin Formosa and throughout S. China. /. pygmaeusis found in Yiinnan. Hypopicus poliopsis is metwith in Chihli and Shantung on migration. H.hyperythrus, in Yiinnan. Gecinus canus, theGrey-headed Woodpecker of Europe, is common inN. China. G. citrinocristatus is found in CentralFukien. G. guerini is found in the central provinces.G. chlorolophus, in Yiinnan. G. tancoloinhabits Formosa and the southern provinces ofChina. Micropternus fohiensis is resident in Fukienand Kuangtung. M. holroydi is abundant in Hainan.Lepocestes sinensis occurs in the interior ofFukien. Picumnus chinensis, the Speckled Piculet,a very tiny bird, is found in Kiangsu, Fukien,'Ssuch'uan and as far as Ko-ko nor. lynx torquilla,the Common Wryneck, is common on migration inChina and also in Mongolia. Chrysophlegmarichetti and Gccinulus viridanus are found in theinterior of Fukien. Other woodpeckers have beendescribed from Hjiinan. Gecinus hainanus, Chrysophlegmastyani, Lepocestes hainanus; see P.Z.S.David et Oustalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine;and P.Z.S., 1900, p. 482. *PICUL Jf

PINALENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAsuch pilgrims by land or sea, in the 7th and 8thcenturies. See separate articles.PaekePv : China; Her History, Diplomacy andCommerce.PINAL or PINHAL.When the Spanish tookthe Philippines in 1565, they tried to open tradewith Canton, but were, of course, opposed by thePortuguese. China, however, according to Mendoza,permitited them to trade at Pinal, which he statesto be thirty leagues from Canton. It is probablethat the place may be P'ing hai ^ ^, on the southcoast of Kuangtung, east of Hongkong. The foreignname for P'inghai is Harlem Bay.Mendoza : History of China; Morrison :Anglo-Chinese Calendar for 1832.PINE-APPLE FIBRE, po-lo ma Je!j^^, isobained from the leaves of Bromelia jjenguin,which is extensively cultivated in Hainan, undertropical conditions, particularly on the east coastalso on the Leichow Peninsula on the mainlandopposite. It is grown as a hedge plant and also inparallel rows in fields. At the end of their firstyear the trees produce leaves capable of beingdecorticated for fibre, but it is' usual to wait tillthe second year, when longer leaves are obtainable,which give a better yield of fibre. About a dozenleaves are taken from each plant, and are scrapedboth above and below until the green tissue hasbeen removed, revealing a skein of yellowish fibres,which is soaked in cold water for six hours, andthen dried in the sun. This alternate washing anddrying continues for three days, until the fibre hasbecome sufficiently bleached and all non-fibroustissue has been removed. The material thus preparedis next combed in order to reduce it toregular filaments of the required fineness, afterwhich it is made into threads for weaving.The combings are said to give excellent resultsfor paper making. The fibre itself is of fine qualityand great strength, suitable for textile purposes,but the time and labour involved in extracting ithave hitherto restricted its use.In Hainan this fibre is made into a very finegrass-cloth, and it is also sent for manufactureto Swatow. The average annual exportation isbetween 3,500 and 4,000 piculs of fibre, worth aboutHk.Tls. 3.3 per picul. The grass-cloth is worthabout Hk.Tls. 150 per picul, or nearly double thevalue of ramie grass-cloth exported from theYangtze ports.PINTO, FERDINAND MENDEZ, was bornin Portugal in 1509 or 1510, and lived a life ofextraordinary adventure.After many wild doings elsewhere, he and atroop of other desperadoes came to Ningpo, andthere learned from a Chinese pirate that there wasto the north-east, an island with the tombs ofseventeen Chinese kings, all of gold. They setout thither ; on the way there the Chinese deserted,but the Portuguese reached the island, plunderedthe tombs, were attacked and had to retreat. Ontheir way back a gale made it necessary to throwtheir plunder overboard; one ship was wrecked,the other they ran ashore. The fourteen Portuguesesaved were taken prisoners by the Chinese,thrown into a pond and almost devoured by leeches,then sent to Nanking, where they were whippedand barely escaped being each deprived of a thumb.They were then sent to Peking, and after twomonths there, were condemned to a year of hardlabour, fir^st at the Great Wall, then at Quinsay(Hangchow). Before the time was finished, however,the coming of the Manchus liberated them.They went with their liberators to Manchuria, thenagain to Ningpo, and thence to Japan ; after manymore adventures, Pinto returned to Malacca. Helater made another visit to China, but it wasapparerttly less full of excitement.He was in Japan three times, the third visitbeing in Xavier's company in the year 1548, andhe was the first European to visit that land.Most of the wealth he had acquired he gave tofound a Seminary in Japan for the propagation ofthe faith.His travels lasted from 1537 to 1558, duringwhich time he says he was sold sixteen times, madea slave thirteen times and shipwrecked five timestruly a crowded twenty-one years of glorious life.His account of his adventures was first printedat Lisbon in Portuguese in 1614. It has of coursebeen translated into many languages ; there are atleast two English translations, by Gent and Cogan.It is accepted now as substantially correct, thoughmany details are doubtless highly coloured. Hereturned to Europe in 1558 and died in Portugalin 1581 or 1583.The Voyages and Adventures of FerdinandMendez Pinto, London, 1891.PIONEER, the name of the first merchantsteamer fto reach Chungking, June 20, 1899. Itwas bought by the British Government and turnedinto a river gunboat, with the name Kinsha. Itstonnage was 337 tons. Mr. Little's 7-ton launchhad reached Chungking the previous year, but shehad to be tracked over the rapids, and was toosmall for cargo. See Chungking.P'l P'A. See Loquat.P'l PA CHI g^=E- The Story of the Guitar;a play by Kao Tse-ch'eng, first performed in 1704,and considered by some as the best of Chineseplays. The plot is given in Giles' Chinese Literature,p. 326. and the play hasi been translated intoFrench by Bazin, (Paris, 1841). See Drama.438

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAPLAGUEPIPITS. See MotacUlidae.PIPES, THOMAS, an ambassador, the firstfrom Europe to China, sent in 1518 to Peking bythe court of Portugal ; he had been a resident inthe Indies for some years engaged in collectingdrugs. The squadron of nine vessels was commandedby Ferdinand de Andrada, and it is plausibly saidby contemporary writers' that he was the appointedenvoy, but that in view of the humiliating ceremoniesrequired at the Chinese court he gaveprecedence to Piees. It was de Andrada whoinsinuated himself into the good graces of theCanton officials, and after a time it was possiblefor PiRES to start for Peking.Meanwhile, however, Simon de Andrada,brother of Ferdinand, had come from Malaccawith four vessels, built a fort on one of the islandsand allowed his men to plunder and ravage thecoasts. These high-handed doings being reportedto Peking, and the vassal King of Bantam appealingat the same time for vengeance against thePortuguese conquerors of Malacca, the Mission ofPuiKS was not a success ; indeed, but for the deathof the emperor, Cheng te, he would probably havebeen executed ; the mere style of address in theletters he brought was a deadly offence. As it was,he was sent back to Canton, orders being givenmeanwhile that the Portuguese should leave. Theyrefused to obey, and a struggle took place,immediately after which the luckless Piees arrived.He and his followers were at once thrown intoprison and made responsible for all the offences oftheir compatriots. Of twelve followers five died oftheir rigorous treatment, and it was incorrectlyrecorded that Piees himself also perished in prison.It seems, however, that he was banished to somepart of the empire, and there married, and broughtup children in the Christian faith : at least,Mendez Pinto relates that twenty years later hecame across a daughter of Pires, who knew somePortuguese and was acquainted with the churchservice. He died about 1543.Hue : China, Tnrtary and Thibet; MontaltoDE Jesus : Historic Macao; Mendez Pinto :c. xxvii ; Remusat : Nouveavx Melanges Asiatiques,vol.ii.PISCICULTURE.See Fishes and Fisheries.PITTIDAE, a Family of the Passeres. Pittanympha T. & S. is a rare bird which is found in thesouthern provinces ; it has been taken at Amoy,Foochow, Shanghai, Chefoo, Shaweiahan, in Anhuiand in Formosa; (CouiiTOis).PLAGUE. Plague has been known in Chinaunder different names, such as wen ij^^, i chenggg^, 2Jai ssu tu 15*l6f ,11, i.e. pest, and shu i gitS.-The last, meaning rat plague, is perhaps the mostscientific and accurate, and is now adopted in allmedical and lay books published in Chinese.HISTORY.—The history of plague is perhapsmore fascinating than that of any other knowndisease, but it is not proposed to enter into detailshere except in so far as it concerns China.Plague is a very old disease and is mentionedin the Bible as occurring centuries before theChristian era in the land of the Philistines.Chinese history also teems with references tot cheng, but it is not quite certain how many ofthese reported epidemics are due to typhus, famineoc bubonic plague. The first authentic pandemicof plague originated somewhere in Egypt (b.c.542) and spread to Constantinople and neighbouringcities. The second one recorded began insidiouslyin the 11th century and developed into thegreat pandemic known as " Black Death," becausethe sick turned black before death. Much disputehas arisen as to the origin of this great epidemic.The Russian records place it in India, the Grecianin Scythia, the English in India, the Arab inTartary and the Italian in Cathay (China). It isprobable that marmots inhabiting that long chainof mountains bordering on India and Tibet werethe precursors of this disease and by infectingfirst the household rat and then man succeeded inspreading the plague, which, though at first bubonicin character, became pneumonic later on. Thispandemic spread all over Europe and most partsof China, and killed millions of people. The GreatPlague of London swept over England in the seventeenthcentury, and has been vividly described byDefoe in his great book. In India plague hasappeared off and on since the 11th century, butit was not until the great outbreak of 1896 thatserious attention was drawn to it in that country.Prof. W. J. Simpson (London) maintains that theextraordinary epidemic which swept over Cantonand Hongkong in 1894, and two years afterwardsspread all over India, had its origin in the provinceof Y'iinnan, where a Catholic priest encounteredit in 1871 under the name of yang-tzu ^ J-. It isquite possible that this too, as in the case of theBlack Death, may be traced to the marmots of theHimalayan and Altai Mountains. This view issupported by the work of American investigators,who have found plague in an endemic form amongthe ground squirrels inhabiting the Rocky Mountains.The last epidemic occurred in Manchuriaand North China in the winter of 1910-11, knownas the Pneumonic Plague, which in a few monthskilled over 60,000 people. This outbreak wastraced to some bubonic cases in the Astrakhandistrict (Russia) where it has been endemic forscores of years.GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.—Plagueis an insidious disease, beginning slowly, and then,439

PLAGUEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAif not suppressed in time, developing with unusualvirulence. The outbreak in 1894 at Hongkonghas maintained its course to the present time,and has invaded India, South China, Cochin China,Japan, Formosa, Australia, the Philippine Islands,South America, West Indies, United States, CapeColony, Madagascar, Egypt, Asia Minor, Persia,Mauritius, Straits Settlements, Russia, West Africa,Siberia, Marseilles, Hamburg, and even England.The total number of deaths due to it approximateten millions, of which six millions have occurredin India. With increase of knowledge of its causeand prevention, however, there is every sign of itsdying out. Taking the two cities of Bombay andHongkong, hotbeds of plague some years ago, wefind that in 1915, only 599 cases were reported inthe former city and 144 in the latter.CAUSES.—The actual organism of plague isa small, non-motile, straight bacillus discoveredby KiTASATO in 1894. It grows and stains in acharacteristic manner, is easily killed by heat butcan withstand very great cold. Besides man andthe rat, it may attack all sorts of rodents as wellas rabbits, and dogs and even cats. When onceit enters the human body it rapidly multiplies innumber, and if death occurs the bacillus may befound in almost every o'rgan of the body. Theusual form met with is the bubonic variety, causedby the rat flea. Thanks to the excellent work ofthe Indian Plague Commission and painstakingresearches carried out in different parts of theworld during the last twenty years, our knowledgeof the plague has immensely increased. The followingis a summary :1. Both the black rat (Mus rattus) and thebrown rat [Mus decwnanus) are the principalagents by which bubonic plague is carriedfrom place to place. Just before B.nepidemic occurs, these rats may be seendying in large numbers, and migration andincreased mortality of these animals areominous signs of coming plague in acommunity.2. The rat infects man through the rat flea(usually Xenopsylla cheopis, but sometimesCeratojjhyllus fasciatus), which appears toconvey the germ in a mechanical manner.3. There is no fear of man infecting man inthe bubonic type. In pneumonic plague,on the other hand, the greatest danger isexperienced, owing to direct infectionthrough the breath.4. It is quite possible that fleas and otherinsects attached to the baggage or clothingof infected persons may contribute to thespread of the disease, but a more potentfactor is the migration of infected rats,carrying with them innumerable fleas.5. Insanitary conditions have little or norelation to the occurrence of plague, exceptin so far as they favour infestation by rats.In pneumonic plague, insanitary habits,such as spitting and overcrowding, tendto spread infection.6. Bubonic plague is more prevalent in warmweather, whereas the pneumonic type ismost dangerous in winter.TYPES OF PLAGUE.—Three types of plaguemay be distinguished :Bubonic, Pneumonic and Septicemic.(a) The Bubonic variety may be seen in amild or severe form. In the former case (Pestisminnr) the patient suffers for a few days fromfever with swelling of the glands and perhapssuppuration, and there is no. danger. Such casesoften occur at the beginning of an outbreak. Thesevere bubonic variety constitutes 80 per cent, ofall cases. The stage of invasion is characterizedby headache, backache, stiffness of limbs, a feelingof anxiety and restlessness, and depression ofspirits. The fever gradually rises until the fourthday, when it drops a few degrees and then risesagain. The tongue turns brown, the patient feelsvery ill and may die.Swelling of the glands (buboes) is usually presentin the groin, sometimes in the arm-pit, sometimesin the neck. Bacilli can always be detectedin the fluid obtained by puncturing the buboes.Suppuration of the buboes is a good sign. Redspots (haemorrhages) frequently appear on the skin,and when extensive are bad omens. Nearly tenper cent, of untreated cases of bubonic plaguerecover in an epidemic, but if serum is used, 20-25per cent, may be saved.(b) Pneumonic or Pulmonary Plague wasconsidered a rare type until the Manchurian outbreakof 1910-11. It begins with sudden fever,shortness of breath, headache, bone- ache, coughand discomfort in the chest region, after an incubationperiod of 2 to 3 days. Very soon the feverincreases, the pulse becomes fast and small, markedsigns of lung involvement are observed, and a pink,liquid, frothy sputum is coughed up containingenormous numbers of plague bacilli. Owing todifficulty of breathing, the patient becomes bluein the face, signs of bleeding in the mucous membranesappear, and the patient dies in 2 to 4 daysafter the first appearance of symptoms. No authenticcase of recovery has been recorded. It isperhaps the most virulent type of all knowndiseases. ,(c) The Septicemic type may be the resultof bubonic or pneumonic infection. Haemorrhagesare common, and the bacilli are always presentin the blood.440

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPLAGUE CONFERENCEHOW TO DETECT PLAGUE.—This must beleft to the trained doctor, and requires the maintenanceof a laboratory where the appliances for thedetection of plague and other infectious diseasesare at hand. Plague itself is easily diagnosed,as the organism causing it has peculiar features.Unless proper measures are adopted, the first fewcases may be overlooked, leading to disastrousresults. In all suspicious cases, the medical manexamines under the microscope either the bloodycontents of a bubo or the phlegm coughed up bythe patient. Once diagnosed the necessary notificationand preventive measures will be undertakenby the medical attendant.PLAGUE PREVENTION.—The preventionof plague is based upon common-sense laws for thepreveiitioa of most infectious diseases, such as,th'i establishment of isolation hospitals, laboratories,trained sanitary staffs, and education of the generalpublic in matters of hygiene.On the ijrinciple that bubonic plague isprimarily a rat disease, any measures whichare taken should be directed towards theextermination of these pests and their allies, thefleas. For this purpose, all new buildings shouldbe made rat-proof so as not to allow any loopholefor rats to breed ; infected old buildings shouldeither be rebuilt or have their floors and ceilingsmade I'at-proof ;godowns in particular should berearranged so as to house as few rats as possible.In this work rat traps and poisons (preferablymade with phosphorus) may be freely used. Thereis no need to curtail seriously the freedom ofhuman beings, for, apart from rats, these arenegligible in the dissemination of bubonic plague.Hitherto most authorities have laid too muchstress upon the human and too little upon therat factor as a means of combating plague. Allfacts point to the need of dealing with the ratpopulation in an infected district rather thaninterfering with the free movement of the travelling public. The extension of infection into cleanterritory may be prevented by supervision ofoutbound shipping, destruction of rats in ships byfumigation, rat-proofing of railway-cars, inspectionof cargo, etc' To these precautions additionalsafety may be secured by restrictions regardingloading and the use of rat-guards, etc. A simpleworkable method of plague prevention, which hasbeen adopted by the Shanghai Health Departmentunder Dr. Stanley, may be mentioned here :Public Measures.1. Survey of plague deaths among man andrats.2. Careful storage of refuse in ratproofreceptacles, and daily removals.3. Rat-proofing of houses, temporary and56permanent.4414. Rat destruction by trapping and poison,beginning at the periphery and workingtowards the centre.5. Preventive inoculation, beginning with thesanitarystaff.Individual Measures.... M-Oiio :—No rati, noplague. A house that is rat-proof is plague-proof !1. Rid your house of rats by trapping andpoisoning.2. Make your house as rat-proof as possible.?. Provide no food for rats. Keep everythingclean, and store everything in properlycovered iron receptacles.4. Use solid floors wherever possible.5. Inspect regularly openings for drains,furniture, etc.6. Burn all trapped or poisoned rats. Sendthose found dead to the Health Office,using tongs for handling.7. Get vaccinated if exposed to infection.8. In case of difficulty communicate with theHealthOfficer.Prevention of Pneumonic Plague entails adifferent method of procedure. Here the routineexamination of rats is unnecessary unless cases ofplague have occurred among them before. Beingessentially a man-to-man infection, pneumonicplague must be strictly controlled from the beginning.Patients suspected of the disease must beat once removed to the isolation hospital and thediagnosis made from the .sputum. Those whohave been living with the sick must be taken tothe quarantine station, and examined frequentlyevery day. As soon as definite signs of plagueappear in any one, he must be segregated in asimilar way. All members of the hospital andsanitary staff must wear properly fitting gauzemasks. These masks are easily made from a pieceof gauze 2^ feet long, covering a piece of cottonwool (4 inches square), and divided into threeslips at either end for tying over the head. Thismask is the best protection against infection 'andmay be changed daily. Disinfection of the infectedquarters should be undertaken as ordered by theauthorities.Preventive inoculation is usually done withHaffkine's vaccine, and has been proved successfulin bubonic cases. During the pneumonic epidemicno vaccine of any sort proved effective. Serumtreatment has saved 20-25 per cent, of cases in India.No other medicine is of any avail in Plague. SeePlague Conference ; Tarbagan. [W.]PLAGUE CONFERENCE, INTERNATIONAL.The plague carried off 50,000 people in Manchuria inthe winter of 1910-11, and the Chinese Governmentthereupon invited the eleven foreign powers representedin Peking to send specialists to meet inConference and discuss both %he nature of th©

PLAINENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAdisease and methods for prevention. Some fortydelegates and deputies met at Mukden from April11 to April 28, 1911, under the presidency of Dr.Wu LiEN-TEH. A Report was published. SeePlague.Report of the International Plague Conference,1912.PLAIN; the Central plain or Great plain ofChina has been formed by the alluvial deposits ofthe Yangtze and the Yellow River. It is some900 miles long, stretching from Peking to Hangchow,and its width varies from 150 to 500 milesthe total area is about 200,000 square miles. Itincludes most of Chihli, part of Shantung, thelarger half of Honan, all Kiangsu and part ofChekiang. The Grand Canal traverses it from oneend to the other.PLANCH ETTE, a fortune-telling device us«din some parts of China. A question- is written onpaper in the temple and immediately burnt at thealtar; two men, holding the ends of a V-shapedinstrument with a projecting style, write the answerof the god on a trayful of sand.Giles : The Civilization of China ^p. 67.PLAYFAIR, GEORGE MACDONALD HOME,a native of Dublin, was appointed student-interpreterin China in July, 1872. He held variousposts as Acting-Consul or Consul.He was' a student of botany and made a finecollection in Pakhoi and from Formosa, includingquite a number of novelties. What he has beenbest known by is his Cities and Towns of China,a most useful work, to a great extent a revision ofBid's Dictionnaire des Villes Chinoises. Thebook appeared in 1879 and an enlarged edition waspublished in 1910.Bretschneider : History of European BotanicalDiscoveries in China.PLOCEINAE, a sub-Family of the Ploceidae.It comprises the Weaver-birds, etc. The followingspecies are found in China. Munia topela; M.oryzivora, the Java Sparrow ; M. sinensis;Uroloncha acuticauda; all these occur in S. China.The Java Sparrow has been taken in S.E. Chinawhere it is occasionally seen. M. topela and M.acuticauda are abundant from the Lower Yangtzesouthwards.PLOVERS. See Limicolae.PLUMAGERY. Enamelled headdresses forwomen, with kingfishers' feathers "inlaid," aremade at Canton and Ningpo, and ornaments ofsilver or copper filagree, in the shape of combs andearrings. A beautiful effect is produced by alternatingazure, ultramarine and sapphire blues withfilagree flo>\'ers and dragons, interspersed withartificial pearls. This plumagery bears a strikingresemblance to that of the Aztecsi.Ningpo Customs Report, 1869.PLUMS, Prunus sp., i$ li. For some unknownreason the plum is not very much cultivated inChina. The best are found in Shantung. Aremarkable fruit grown there is called li-hsing orplum-apricot, apparently a hybrid, grafted on seedlingplum stock. The fruit is large, red and verysweet and aromatic. The best are grown in theneighbourhood of Ch'ing-chow fu ^ '}^^.Meyer : Agricultural Explorations, etc.PLUM-TREE PASS. See Mei-ling Pass.PLYMOUTH BRETHREN MISSIONS.The"Open" Brethren have a number of representativesin China, more or less connected with communitiesin the British Isles, the home addresses given inthe Protestant Missionary Directory being in Bathand Glasgow. There is but little organisationeither in Great Britain, or on (the field, betweenthe various groups of missionaries, who are returnedin the Directory under the heading. ChristianMissions in Many Lands.The first worker to arrive in China was Mr.R. Stephens who began in 1889 in Shih-tao, (^ ^ )about ninety miles south of Chefoo. Weihaiweiwas occupied in 1892, and there are in all fourstations in Shantung.Mr. Stephens in 1897 began work in InnerMongolia, and the six stations now occupied inChihli, are apparently the result of this effort.A third work was begun in 1883 when WuCh'eng Chen in Kiangsi (since given up) wasoccupied. Kiukiang was made a station in 1894,and there are now eleven centres in this province,the largest being in Nan ch'ang fu Jfl ^ /fj (opened1897), where Mr. and Mrs. H. C. Kingham of theBrethren Mission with their child were killed in ariot in 1906.The number of Brethren Missionaries at theabove mentioned twenty-one stations was eighty-onein 1917, but there are in addition a number of quiteindependent workers, holding Brethren views:It is characteristic of all of them, that the>do not publish statistics or periodical reports. Inthe case of the work mentioned above, accountsappear from time to time in some of the journalsand newspapers issued by the Open Brethren inGreat Britain, through which subscriptions forthe work are also received.POETRY. Chinese poetry begins with theOdes which form the Shih Ching. They are 305in number, and it is said they were culled byConfucius from 3000 to which he had access, andthat some of them were composed as far back asthe time of the Great Yii, who founded the Hsia442

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPOETRYdynasty in 2205 B.C. They are short ballads,generally having four words to the line and mostlyrhymed. They are in four sections, (i), popularballads of the feudal states, specimens of whichwere sent by the vassal lords to the Emperor thathe might judge of the manners and morals of thepeople, hence called kuo feng ^ ^ "the manners ofthe states." (ii). Odes sung when the noble entertainedhis vassals, (iii), Odes sung at gatheringsof the feudal nobles themselves, (iv), Odes used atthe funerals and memorial services of th© Chotjsovereigns.All have the marks of primitive poems,in their simplicity, the homely vigour of theirmetaphors, their ruggedness, and their archaismsand, but for the notes given with them, it would insome cases be impossible for present-day scholars tounderstand them. They are very valuable fromthe light they throw on the manners of that remoteperiod, but the sense of their simple, natural beautyhas been greatly obscured by the zeal of commentators,who have read into them the most far-fetchedpolitical meanings, much as some divines have"spiritualised" some parts of Scripture. Everyline of the Odes has been studied by Chinesescholars as carefully as European scholars have goneinto the Greek and Roman classics, and divinesinto the Bible. Forming one of the Five Scripturesthey are memorized by every advanced student, andare a storehouse of allusion for all forms of literature.It is noteworthy that they are ballads ofpeace.From the time of Confucius to the secondcentury B.C. the poetry is of a totally differentcharacter from the Odes, the metre being soirregular and wild as to be irreducible to rula.Sometimes rhyme is used, but most frequently notin fact, the poetry only differs from prose in itspoetical imagery and elevation of language. Themost famous poet of this period is Cn'ii YiiAN M Mi(fourth century B.C.), who wrote the famous Li SaoSJgg or Lament, a long poem of "nine songs" onhis own misfortunes as a loyal minister of State,fallen on evil days through the jealousy of fellowofficials.His nephew, Sung Yii ?K ^ ,also an official,was a famous poet of the school CH'ii YiiANfounded. His poems with those of his uncle andsome written by Ching Ch'a ^^, are known asthe Elegies of Ch'u (q.v.). This style of poetrycontinued right into the Han dynasty, and Chia ITung Fang-so '^'IjWI, and others have leftK^,us poems from the second century B.C.With the establishment of the Han dynasty,Confucianism finally triumphed over its rivals ;andwith the renewed cult of the classics, the influenceof the Odes made itself generally felt on the poetryof the time. With Mei Shkng 44 1^, (died 140 B.C.),modern poetry may be said to begin, as he virtuallyintroduced the five-syllabled line. Two of the HanEmperors, the fourth and the sixth, were famouspoets. In the 25 years when the Han dynasty wastottering,—the }^ ^ Chien-an period,—we meet withseven poets called after the period, one of them adescendant of Confucius (20th generation). Sometimesthe notorious Ts'ao Ts'ao ^ ^, and his son,Ts'ao Chih Wiill, are added to make nine.In the time of the Three Kingdoms, (3rdcentury a.d.), another set of seven poets is motwith, known as the Seven Sages of the BambooGrove. The most famous of these were Liu Lingglj 1^, and Hsiang Hsiu ifi]^, the author also ofa valuable commentary on Chuang Tzii, left Unfinishedat his death. In this whole period the bestknown name is that of T'ao Ch'ien ^||| ^g, born365 A.D. His most famous poem is probably ThePeachblossom Fountain.Chinese poetiy reached its perfection in theT'ang dynasty (a.d. 600-900). In 1707 a completecollection of the T'ang poems was published,arranged in 900 books, and containing about49,000 poems. The Chinese variously divide thepoetical work of this time into three or fourperiods. The greatest poet of all was Li (T'ai) Po$(;fc)^. a native of modern Ssiich'uan, (a.d.705-762), who lived the typical Bohemian's life,gay, dissipated and drunken, with a tragic end."An Immortal banished to earth," was the dictumof a courtier on him. Tu Fd ;«: ^ (712-770), thescholarly poet par excellence, was great in otherdepartments of literature also, but unsuccessful asan official. Han Yii (768-824), usually known asHan Wen Kung l^ ;^ ^ is one of the most famousnames in Chinese literature. In addition to muchexquisite prose he wrote an immense amount ofpoetry, mostly in lighter vein. Po Cnii-i 6 ^ ^(772-846), at one time President of the Board ofWar, wrote, amongst many beautiful things, thefamous poem of The Everlasting Wrong. Ssfl(834-908), a famous Taoist, andK'ung-t'u p] ^ ©a Secretary of the Board of Rites, is known as thelast of the T'ang poets. ^His works are highlyphilosophical and difficult to interpret. These arebut a few among many famous names. Quite anumber of these poets show clearly the influenceof Buddhist and Taoist ideas. That art whichconceals art is at its best in T'ang poetry.Under the Sung dynasty poetry became moreconventional, form was worshipped too exclusively,and there were fewer poets who were only poets,i.e., every literary man as such was also a poet.The greatest names are Ou-yang Hsiug^ltgjg:(d. 1072), CH'fiN T'UAN p^{ ^§ (d. 989), Yang Ij^ (t (d. 1030), and Shad Yung M M (d. 1077).Kao CHii-NiEN ^ ^ 5^, is known by one poem, asimply poignant little lyric, reminding one ofHeine.443

POETRYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAThe Mongol dynasty's poetry fills eight largevolumes, but in quality it was not by any meansequal to that of the preceding dynasties.In the Ming dynasty quantity is still great,but great poets are few and far between. The firstname is also the best, viz., Hsieh Chen, ^ ^(1369-1415).In the Ch'ing dynasty, YiiAN Mei g ^.(1715-1797), is one of the most popular writers, andfar and away the best of the few poets.The poetry of every age, including the Odes,contains the work of poetesses as well as poets.As, to the form of Chinese poems, most of themare exceedingly terse ; the lines are few and short.The twelve-lined poem, p'ai lii ^\i^, is consideredideal, and was the one set at the great publicexaminations (until 1905, when the old system wasabolished) ; and eight-line compositions are alsofavoured. The four-line poem known as the chiieh^ or stop-short, which reached perfection under theT'angs, is very difficult, but much admired.According to some, the name implies that the poemends abruptly, leaving the reader to continue thetrain of thought suggested. Another explanationis that the four-line poem was regarded as composedof two couplets severed from the eight-line poem,selected and combined within certain limits at thewill of the poet, though others hold that the fourlinepoem is the foundation on which the lii andjt'ai lii have been built up.The rhymes in the chiieh are generally arrangedas in the quatrains of Fitzgerald's Omar Khayyam,the first, second and fourth rhyming.In addition to the above, there are many otherforms, some very ancient ; these are often groupedunder the generic ijame of Yo fu IflK, showingthat they are intended to be set to music, or to bechanted or recited to some musical instrument.There is nothing corresponding to an epic inChinese poetry, nor to drama as we xnnderstand it,though songs are introduced into all Chinese playsnor are there long satires like the Dunciad; andthe long narrative poemg are generally neither verypoetical nor very elevating. Pastoral poems arealso wanting, agriculture having been the occupationof the people for milleniums, to the exclusion ofpastoral pursuits. There are didactic compositionsin plenty; but the most beautiful of all Chinesepoems are those descriptive of Nature, and showinga passionate love for all her moods.In Chinese poetry every line is complete initself, i.e., there is no enjamhement. From theT'ang dynasty down, the line is generally ofseven or five syllables; in the former the caesuraoccurs between the fourth and fifth syllables, andin the latter, between the second and third. TheOdes, as has been noticed, are mostly in four-wordlines, bnt this form is now seldom used. Threewordlines are met with occasionally, a famousexample being the Trimetrical Classic, and a poetof the Ming dynasty is said to have written athousand pieces in this form. It is also commonin the doggerel with which China abounds, fromnursery rhymes to some petty mandarin's exhortationto the "silly people." The T'ang poets mostlyused five, and seven-word lines, but some wrote in"ancient style."Rhyme is apparently considered essential. Mostof the Odes have rhymes, and in those cases wherethey are lacking it is probably that they have beenlost through changes in pronunciation, and manyChinese scholars have advocated forcing the rhymeby altering the pronunciation of the characters whenreciting the Odes. A Sung scholar named Wu I^ ^ reduced this to a system and published awork with the titlei^ li.of the 'Rhyme mender,' YUn puGreat attention has been paid to the wholequestion of rhymes, and rhyming dictionaries arecommon. One of the oldest extant is the ^ ^Kiiang yiin, the earliest known edition of which isof the time of the Sung dynasty ; this gives therhymes as used in the T'ang and Sui dynasties,which differ widely from those of the Odes. Therhymes which are obligatory on poets and versifiersof the present day are, however, those of K'angHsi's Thesaurvs, iJ$,'^MM, and these, again, differfrom the current pronunciation. The Chinese languageis weak in rhyming endings, owing to thepaucity of sounds, and this shortage is increased bythe rule that all rhymes must agree also in tone ; butthe poets are very ingenious in overcoming thisdefect.With regard to the tones, for the purposes ofpoetry they are of two classes, the even and theoblique. In the strictest forms, these must occupyfixed places in the lines, being so arranged that aneven word in one line corresponds to an oblique inthe text. Bu,t this is not always insisted upon.Sometimes only the last words correspond, exceptin the first and last lines of the poem, where agreementis compulsory ; and if the first line begin?with an even, the second must begin with an obliquetone and vice versa. Also, in seven-word metre,the second, fourth, and sixth sounds must conformto rule, and in five-line metre, the second andfourth.In modern poetry the tone must be satisfiedin the rhyme also, as mentioned above, but inancient forms this was not the case. It is adisputed point among Chinese literati, whether anyattention was paid to the tones of the rhymes usedin the Odes, and there is evidence that the tonalsystem of the Chinese was not complete till somewhereabout the fifth century of our era.The most marked feature of Chinese poetry,as of all Chinese fine writing in general, is parallelism.It recalls in many ways the Hebrew poetry,444

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINItJAPOLITICAL f^ARTl£8and Chinese parallels, like the Hebrew, may be ofseveral kinds, antithetic, or corresponding, or constructional; but they are much more exact, thoughtnot only answering to thought, but word to word,tone to tone, and particle to particle.All these things, the monosyllabic uninflectedwords, the shortness of line, and of poem, thebalance of tones, the restrictions as to rhymes, andthe strict parallelism, make a fine Chinese poem akind of mosaic, or of word-embroidery, which ismore suitable for expressing some dainty fancy orpassing mood, than for dealing with lofty subjects,or long narrations. The polish is very high, butcould not be sustained to great length; or being sosustained, would probably pall upon the reader.Original poems are regularly inserted by writersof Chinese novels, as a relief from the prose, in thesame way as songs are introduced into the dramas.Owing to the terseness of the language, thewealth of classical and historical allusions, and thegreat divergence between Western and Easterncivilization, it is almost impossible to translate aChinese poem into a Western tongue, without th,edelicacy being destroyed in the process.Legge : Chinese Classics, vol. iv ; Giles :Chinese Poetry in English verse; Budd : ChinesePuems; d'Hervey Saint Denys : Poesies Modernes;Davis : Poetry of the Chinese; Allen : Book ofChinese Poetry; Chalmers : Rhymes of the ShiKing, China Eeview, vols, vi and ix ; Cordier :Bibi. Sinica, col. 790. [C.E.C.]POISONED BREAD,POLAM BRIDGE.POLECAT.^ee Ah Lum.See Bridges.See Mustelidce.POLITICAL PARTIES. The political partysystem of China had its origin in a revolutionarySociety or T'ung Meng Hui (Alliance Society),which was formed by Chinese revolutionaries underthe leadership of Dr. Sun Yat Sen in Japan in 1901.The Revolution of 1911 brought this party intodirect political action in China. It stood forcomplete party government through a cabinet responsibleto the national parliament. It was stronglyopposed to YiiAN Shih-k'ai. Its program did notobtain ready acceptance; accordingly in August1912, the party name was abandoned and the membershipassociated itself with several smaller politicalgroups, in the formation of the Kuo Min Tang(Democratic party).The Kuo Min Tang, formed in this manner asa coalition party, obtained a majority in the nationalassembly elected in 1913. The party supportedlocal self-government, national centralization andgovernment through a party cabinet. Being heldresponsible by President YiiAN Shih-k'ai for theattempted revolution during the summer of 1913,the party was dissolved by presidential order onNovember 4th of that year and its members wereejected from the National Assembly.The Chin Pu Tang was formed in 1913 out ofvarious smaller groups for the purpose of opposingthe Kuo Min Tang in Parliament. Among itsfounders were Liang Ch'i-ch'ao and HsiungShih-ling.The party was allowed to exist after thedissolution of the Kuo Min Tang.When President YiiAN Shih-k'ai embarked onhis adventure of establishing an empire he wasopposed by the leaders of both the Chin Pu Tangand Kuo Min Tang. This latter party, whileofficially dissolved, nevertheless had maintained itsactual existence. During their joint efforts inopposition to the monarchy in 1916, it was agreedby both parties to dissolve their corporate existenceand to act henceforth in unison for the welfare ofthe country. However, as soon as the parliamenthad been re-convened in August 1916, the old groupingsreasserted themselves ; and while the nameswere not officially used, they continued to stand foractual societies of public men. The members ofparliament formed numerous groups, some of whichwere associated with one, some with the other party,while others proclaimed themselves non-partisan.A list of these groupings is hereto appended. InAugust, 1917, the Chin Pu-tang officially re-assumedthe use of its name. While no such formal actionwas taken by the Kuo Min Tang the same resultwas produced in its case. In political opinion andaction the Chin Pu Tang contains the more moderateelements, some of whom lean toward constitutionalmonarchy. The membership of the Kuo Min Tangcontains the more radical democrats. However,great diversity of political opinion exists in bothparties.TAst of Political Clubs at Peking, collectedfrom the Chinese Press.Yiian Lu ^|^, non-partisan.Shang Yu Hui ^^-f", non-partisan.I Yu She Sifeiiti:, an offshoot of the Kuo Min Tang.T'ao Yii |3 H, a branch of the I Yu She (KuoMin Tang).Ching Lu t=P^, non-partisan.P'ing She 2pjf4, „Su Yiian |^, jg ,Heng She '^ f±, „Cheng Hsiieh Hui t^^-^, a. branch of the I YuShe (Kuo Min Tang).Ping Ch'en Chii Le Pu ("1916 Club") RMmHi^a branch of the I Yu She (Kuo Min Tang).Hsien Yu Hui ^^"t", a branch of the Yen ChiuHui (Chin Pu Tang).a branch ofHsien Fa Hsieh I Hui ^?£^li#,the Yen Chiu Hui (Chin Pu Tang).Hsien Fa Yen Chiu Hui ^^W ^^-t", an offshootof the Chin Pu Tang.445

'Khant»OLO, MAftCOENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPOLO, MARCO. The great traveller wasborn at Venice in 1254, the son of Nicolo Polo ofnoble blood. His father and uncle travelled to theborders of Cathay and visited Khubil.\i Khan.He sent them back on an embassy to the Pope.They started to return to the East in 1271, takingyoung Marco with them and reached the court ofKhubilai about May 1275. Marco pleased theand was employed in the public service,travelling far and wide, and acting also for threeyears as Governor of the great city or district ofYangchow. The three Polos came to Venice againin 1295. Three years later, in a seafight betweenthe Venejtians and the Genoese, Marco with 7,000more was taken prisoner. It was while he was aprisoner that he dictated his travels to a fellowprisoner.In August of the next year, 1299, hebecame free again, and we know little of his laterlife. The probable date of his death is 1324.His book is one of the greatest and mostinteresting of all books of travel, fascinating to allstudents of geography and the Mediaeval East.The great edition in English is Colonel Yule's,revised by Cordier.POLYANDRY. The taking of a single wifefor a number of brothers is a common and respectableform of marriage among the Tibetans.It is' no doubt grounded in the low morality of therace, but it can be defended by them on veryreasonable grounds. In the mountain pastureswhere it obtains, above 12,000 or 13,000 feet up,labour is almost impossible to women. Even lifewithout labour is extremely difficult for them,where robbery is common and husbands must be atwork away from home. Life there is also nomadic,and women are impedimenta whenever camps arestruck. At those altitudes also the rearing ofchildren is a difficult matter. Having but one wifeand family among brothers simplifies the questionof property, which need not be constantly dividedinto smaller and smaller holdings.In spite therefore of the repugnance which thepractice arouse in the western mind, travellershave been obliged to point out some advantages ofthe system under the conditions where it is found.Missionaries, both Roman Catholic and Protestant,might give much information on the subject, butthey are probably restrained by delicacy and bytheir relations with their Societies.'Defloration is the right of the eldest brother,and the first-born child is by courtesy regardedas his.The practice is found in a looser form amongall Tibetan communities, even where there can beno plea of necessity, except in the populous valleysof Eastern Tibet, where children are desired, andhere polygamy is the rule instead.It has been stated that a kind of polyandry ispractised among the lower classes near Amoy.Baber : Western China, p. 97 ; Wilson : ANaturalist in Western China, vol. i; JournalN.C.B.R.A.S., vol. XX, p. 35.POLYGAMY. In China legal polygamy is notpossible. A 'secondary wife' is taken withoutscandal if the first wife has no son ; and many richChinese do not look for this excuse. But the truewife always preserves her status, and the othersareconcubines merely.POMEGRANATES, Punica granatum, i^ ^Shih liu, are not indigenous in China but wereintroduced from Central Asia at the beginning ofour era.In Shantung a large number of varieties isfound from dwarf plants with a few small fruitsto trees 15 or 20 feet high bearing fruits a poundor more in weight. Some varieties have the fruitwhite outside and red inside; others have it whitewithin and without.Most pomegrantes in China are, however, grownfor ornament, not for the fruit, and the flowers aredouble. The colours of these vary from whitethrough pale red to very dark.The Chinese think the fruit has medicinal value,Meyer : Agricultural Explorations, etc.POMELOS. See Oranges.PONGEE, ;2}s;^, pen chi or ;i^^pen chih,the former meaning 'own loom,' the latter 'homewoven.' A kind of silk, on which the firm's name isstamped with the above characters following it.Fauvel derived it from i^ ^ p'cng ch'e, thewheel on which the thread is reeled.The export of pongee for 1916 was pels. 24,266,value Hk.TL«. 7,813,378.PONTAIN, an island mentioned by MarcoPolo, and identified by Pauthier and Yule withBintang, south of Malacca Point.POO TOO. See P'ut'o.POOTUNG, Ji % p'u tung, 'East of the(Huang) p'u.' To the dweller in Shanghai thisgenerally means the part of Shanghai across theriver, opposite to the Bund. It is however thename of the whole district lying between theHuang p'u (Whangpoo) and the sea, as far southas the Chekiang border.POPULATION. The question of the populationof China has been a vexed one for manydecades : the margin of difference between maximumand minimum estimates is very great. Thus theCustoms Returns for 1910 give a population ofalmost 440 millions, whereas the Minchengpu censusof the same year found only 331 millions. With theaddition to the former of Sinkiang, Tibet, and the446

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPOPULATIONdependencies, the former becomes 448 millions, andwith the same addition, plus Manchu MilitaryOrganization and a necessary addition to Ssiich'uan(vide China Year Booh, 1916), the later figure isbrought to 342.6 millions, a difference of over 100millions. The China Inland Mission in theirpublication The Chinese Evipire (1906) adopt thefigures of the "census" of 1902, described in thebulletin of the American Geographical Society forDecember 1902 a^ having been made with morethan ordinary care and acceptable as a satisfactoryapproximation of the population, but by Eockhillas "nothing more than a guess of the Chinese Boardof Revenue" as "there is not a scintilla of evidenceto show that any census was taken for the purposeof the apportionment of the indemnity to thePowers."The following comparisons will ^how how wildthe estimates of some observers have been, or howincautiously statements have been accepted. Thus'The Chinese Empire states, {p. 31) that the populationof Soochow is 700,000 (in 1906); Richard'sComprehensive Geograpihy {p. 159) gives it at590,000 (in 1908) and the Customs' DecennialReport for 1911 states that it was in 1909, 256,624,by official census. Canton is generally credited with"one and a half to two millions of people, with125,000 boat people in addition," and the Customs'Decennial Report of 1901 goes so far as to say,"The estimate of 2,400,000 is probably not over themark for the numbers afloat and ashore"; butlong-resident missionaries at the same time estimatedthe land population at not more than 600,000 to700,000 and the boat people at 50,000. In the1891 Decennial Reports the Foochow Report gavethe population of Fukien as from six to eightmillion, while the Amoy Report's figure was30,000,000. Ssiich'uan is credited with nearly72,000,000 in the latest Customs Reports, but thereisa foot-note to the effect that Hosie estimated thepopulation at 45,000,000. Parker, who knew theprovince as well as Hosie, agrees with him thatits population has been greatly over-estimated (videChina : Past and Present), and so did the LyonsCommercial Mission.From the earliest times of their history theChinese have made every few years enumerationsof the adult population of the Empire. The historyof the census in China may be divided into twoparts. During the first, extending from the firsitrecorded count in the 23rd century B.C. (when thefigures were 13^ millions—Wang Tag) down to1712 A.D. with a few exceptions, the number oftax-paying households alone was recorded.In thesecond period the total number of individuals issupposed to have been taken. It was the Manchudynasty which first set itself to ascertain thenumbers. Although an Imperial edict in 1712ordered the total number of inhabitants to be given,no such return was given until 1741, after repeatedorders by the Emperor, when the number was foundto be 143,412,000.With regard to early times. Ma Tuan-lin gavethe population in the ninth century B.C. as13,700,000, living north of the Yangtze, a figureapproximating to that of the first census, but representing(according to Wells Williams, TheMiddle Kingdom, vol. i, p. 260) 65% of the numberfor China as it now is, which would therefore havehad nearly 22,000,000 souls at that time. Duringthe Han dynasty, from a.d. 1 to 156, when theterritory over which the ten censuses taken by thatline was substantially the same as at the presentday, the population varied between 50 and 60millions, and in a.d. 606, when China was againunited under one rule, the figure was 55^ millionin 756 A.D. it was about 61 million (according toBiOT, Journal Asiatique, 1836, as quoted byRcckhill), who states that the population wasabout the same when China was again united underthe Sungs at the end of the eleventh century (duringwhich ten censuses were taken). A century later,after the Mongol conquest, the number, kept downby terrible warfare, had not increased. Under theMing.s, according to Rcckhill, the populationincreased very slowly ; in 1578 (when the last Mingcensus out of 21 in all was taken), at a time ofprofound peace and prosperity, the population was63,600,000 souls.Under the rule of the Manchus enumerationswere made nearly every year. Parker has recordedthem, as shown in the Tung hua lu (^^|^) inthe Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, vol. Ixii,Part I.From 1651 down to the present time the figuresof the returns vary with such extraordinaryrapidity, so unlike anything noted in the earlierenumerations, that they must be regarded as fanciful(Rcckhill).An exhaustive study of the question may befound in The Middle Kingdom, chapter v. WellsWilliams is numbered among those who accept thevery highest figures ; he argues as to the probabilityof their being approximately correct, from theintensity of cultivation, the high birth-rate, pluralityof wives, overcrowding, and other considerations.W. W. Rcckhill, on the other hand and to a lesserextent E. H. Parker, disbelieve the figures. Noattempt v;ill be made by the present writer to giveany estimate, but the following table, showingmimimum and maximum figures, will be foundinteresting. The 3rd column is that supplied in1885 to Rcckhill by the Board of Revenue, andthe 4th is that of the 1910 census, taken by households,and not by heads.447

'OPULATIONENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAI. IL IV.Minimum MaximumIII.Anbui .. 14,080,000 36,000,000 20.596,988 14,077,683Chekiang . 11,580,000 26,300,000 11,684,348 13,942,655Chlhll ... 20,9S0,O0O 32,570,000 17,937,006 22,970,654I'ukien ... .. 8,560,000 30,000,000 23,502,794 8,556,678Honan ... .. 22,380,000 35,310,000 22,117,036 22,376,516Hunan ... .. 18,000,000 23,600,000 21,005,171 20,583,187HnpeU ... . 21,260,000 36,280,000 33,600,492 21,256,144Kansu ... .. 3,800,000 10,380,000 5,411,188 3,807,883Kiangsi. 11,000,000 26,530,000 24,541,406 16,264,374Kiangsu .. 15,380,000 37,800,000 21,269,989 15,379,042Kwangsi . 5,140,000 8,120,000 5,151,327 5,426,356Kwangtung . .. 23,700,000 32,000,000 29,740,055 23,696,366Kwelchow 5,000,000 11,300,000 7,669,181 9,266,914Shausi ... 9,420,000 17,050,000 10,791,341 9,422.871Shantung .. 26,810,000 38,000,000 36,545,704 25,813,685Shensi ... . 6,730,000 10,310,000 3,276,967 6,726,064Szechwaii . 46,000,000 79,500,000 71,073,730 54,505,600Yunnan 4,000,000 12,720,000 11,721,576 8,049,672TotalChina Proper 271,770,000 505,770,000 377,626,298 302,111,344Manchuria .. 12,740,000 20,000,000 12,742,360Mongolia 1,800,000 10,000,000 1,800,000SJnkiung 1,000,000 2,490,000 1,768,660Tibet ... 2,200,000 6,500,000 2,195,496»9,000,000289,510,000 544,760,000 329,617,760*Infants under six not enumerated, but estimated by Kockhill).The authorities for the above are as follows :Maximum figures : 1902 estimate of Board ofRevenue, followed by the Statesman's Year Bookfor many years, but now abandoned in favour ofthe figures of the census of 1910. Nevertheless,these figures are given here, as it is on theirauthority that the population of China is so oftenreferred to as being "well over 400 millions." Themaximum figures from the Statesvian's Year Bookare for Honan, Hupei, Kansu, Kiangsi, Shansi, andTibet. Those for Chekiang, Kiangsu, Kuangsi andShensi are from The Middle Kingdom, vol. i, p. 264,and are stated to be from Customs Reports madein 1882. High as they are, they should supposedlybe still higher in the generation that has passedsince then. The Customs Annual Reports for 1910give the highest figures found, in the case of Anhui,Kuangtung, and Shantung; the Minchengpu censusof 1910 has the highest i^ Chihli, Hunan, andKueichou, for Fukien the Amoy Customs' DecennialReport for 1901, for Yiinnan, Richard's Geography,and for Ssuch'uan the Russian investigator Popoff,who got his figures from the Peking Government.For Manchuria the authority is The Chinese Empire,and for Mongolia, Dr. A. Williamson and Dr.Edkins are quoted in the same book.As regards the minimum figures, the 1910census is responsible for Anhui, Fukien, Honan,Hupei, Kansu, Kiangsu, Kuangtung, Shansi, Shantung,and Shensi. The Statesman' s Year Bookgives the figures, (as from the same authority asabove) for Chekiang and Kuangsi (and in thesecases an increase should be allowed for, as the dategiven is 1902). For Hunan, the Customs DecennialReport of 1911, for Kiangsi, Mr. Clennell {Reporton Kiangsi) ; for Kueichou and Turkestan TheChinese Empire, for Ssuch'uan, Sir A. Hosie, forYiinnan, the Mengtsz Customs Report; for Manchuriathe 1910 Census; for Tibet and Mongolia,Richard's Geography, are the authorities.One point should be noted : it is a mere figureof speech to talk of China's four hundred millions :the Chinese Government does not claim a populationof more than about 330,000,000 for all China proper.The latest published figures are 332,639,000 (VideShanghai Times of 20th February, 1917). On theother hand Rockhill's estimate of 270,000,000 only(1914) seems somewhat low.Rate of Increase : Rockhill has examined theprogress between 1743 and 1783, a period duringwhich the enumerations were all presumably madein the same manner. He finds that from 1743 to1749 the annual rate of increase was 2.90 per cent.,from 1749 to 1757 it fell to 0.91 per cent., to'ri&ebetween 1757 and 1761 to 1.37 per cent., falling againto 0.73 per cent, between 1761 and 1767, and to0.57 per cent, from that date to 1771. The nextchange is phenomenal : Between 1771 and 1776 itwas 5 per cent., but between 1776 and 1730 it fell,without any known reason, to 0.86 per cent., torise again between that date and 1783 to 2.34per cent. The average rate of increase during thewhole period was 1.83 per cent. Compare thiswith Japan, where, though much more favourableconditions exist than in China, the average yearlyincrease of the population from 1872 to 1899 wasonly 1.04 per cent. Compare also with India, wherethe census of 1911 revealed that the population(315,132,000) had increased in ten years by sevenper cent., or 0.70 per cent, annually. The Chineserate of increase can hardlv be higher than these.[N.S.]S. Wells Williams : The Middle Kingdom,chap. V ; E. H. Parker : China Past and Present,chap, ii ; W. W. Rockhill : Report of the SmithsonianInstitute, 1904, pp. 659-676 ; An Enquiry intothe Population of China (R. P. Tenney), U.S.Consular Report on the Chinese Census of 1910(July 13, 1911) ; British Consular Report on theProvince of Kiangsi, 1903, (in which are interestingnotes on the population question generally) ;CustomsDecenni\l Reports, passim; The Chinese Empire,passim.N.B. It will be noticed, as illustrating the incertitude ofreturns, that there isa discrepancy between the two versions ofthe 1910 Census (line 13 of this article and Table IV above). Thefirst, 342.6 millions, is from Mr. Ten key's Report, and the second,329.6 millions, is from Rockhill's figures (vide American GeographicSociety's Journal for September 1?12).POPULATION, FOREIGN. The followinglist is tabulated from the Customs Reports, thefigures being for the year 1916.446

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPORCELAINAmerican, 6,580; Austrian, 296; Belgian, 286;British, 9,099; Danish, 397; Dutch, 277; French,2,374 ; German, 3,792 ; Hungai'ian, 34 ; Italian, 400Japanese, 104,275; Norwegian, 327; Portuguese,2,293; Russian, 55,235; Spanish, 366; Swedish,423 ; Non-Treaty Powers, 159 : Total, 185,613.PORCELAIN, ij^ tz'u. The word is from thePortuguese 'porcellana, a cowrie shell, which wasso called because its shape resembled the roundedback of a little pig; porcelain at its first introductionto Europe reminded people of the polishedshell and it accordingly received the name 'porcellanu,porcelain.There is no accepted definition of porcelain.It is pottery, very hard, compact and fine, especiallyit is translucent. The Chinese do not includetranslucency in the connotation, but call opaquepieces ti'u if they give out a clear, resonant noteon being struck. The gradual passage from simplepottery to real porcelain makes a definite boundaryline impossible. The difference is in the scientificskill with which the ingredients are mingled, theintimacy of the blend and the intensity of thefiring process.The materials used are kao-lin and pe-tun-tze.The former is a clay formed by the decompositionof the felspar of granite rocks; it is infusible atthe highest furnace temperature. It is sometimescalled china-clay; the Chinese name is simply thename of the district from which the clay is got(see Kao-lin). Pe-tun-tze is weathered granite orother crystalline rock containing felspar and mica,to which quartz sand may have to be added. Itis fusible in the furnace. Sometimes it is calledchina-stone ; the Chinese name means 'white briquettes,'because of the shape in which it is preparedfor handling; (see Petuntze). The resulting porcelaindepends largely on the quality of thesematerials and on the proportions in which they aremixed. For on these two things depends thetemperature necessary to be used, and the temperatureagain decides what colours it is possible tolay on.A vessel having been moulded by hand or thrownon the wheel is first left to dry in the air ; in mostcases the glaze is then applied and the vessel issubjected to a single firing,—the grand feu as it istermed. If enamel colours are to be applied, oneor more subsequent firings will be necessary. Theglaze is prepared by mixing certain special varietiesof pe-tun-tze with an impure lime. It is almosttransparent, so as not to conceal the whiteness ofthe porcelain, but sometimes colours may be mingledwith it, for pieces which are to receive no furtherdecoration. It may be applied by sprinkling, blowingor brushing it on, or the vessel may be dippedin it. The glaze is more easily fused than the pasteof the porcelain, and on being fired these uniteintimately.Sometimes colours are laid on the clayvessel after it has been either air-dried or oncebaked, and before glazing. The more commonmethod of decoration is by the use of enamels,which are a flux of lead silicate coloured withvarious metallic oxides; these are applied over theglaze, and fixed by subsequent firings.The Chinese and some foreign authorities datethe earliest beginnings of porcelain in the Handynasty, which covered two centuries before andtwo after ouir era began. Most foreign studentsconsider the latter part of the T'ang dynasty asthe earliest date, towards 900 a.d. But even ofthat period there are no specimens extant, theearliest being the productions of the Sung dynasty,A.D. 960-1260, and these are extremely scarce. Untila century later than the fall of that dynasty therewas no painted decoration, and all colouring wasin the glaze. During the Ming dynasty, from 1368to 1644, the decoration was nearly always byp(>loured_gl^azes or by paintjng.. under the glaze,although enamels over the glaze were introduced.From the end of the ^TTng dynasty to the present,over-glaze enamel decoration has been most usedand has been brought to perfection.Some of the terms connected with ceramics willbe found in their own places in this book : seeEnamel, Sang de boeuf, etc.During the last thirty years or so there hasbeen much scientific study of Chinese art and acraze also for collecting examples. One result hasbeen the immense multiplication of books on Porcelain.Some are mere popular guides calculatedto mislead ; for an example, one book gives thesimple or silly dictum that when "the empty doublering is found," (as the mark at the bottom of apiece) "it is a certain sign that the piece was madeduring the reign of K'ang Hsi." Other works arescientific, sympathetic studies by men who knowwhile some are glorious descriptions with artisticallycoloured pictures of the best examples in the greatcollections ; these are inaccessible to most menthrough their costliness. The few works referredto below are the more important of the more easilyobtainable books. The chief collections of porcelainaccessible to the public are the Franks Collectionat the British Museum, the Salting Collection atthe Victoria and Albert Museum, the GrandidierCollection at the Louvre in Paris and the Collectionin the Metropolitan Museum at New York. SeeChinaware; Pottery; Ching te chin.Btishell : Chinese Art; and Chinese Potteryand Porcelain; Gulland : Chinese Porcelain;MoNKHOUSE : Chinese Porcelain; Dillon : Porcelain;HoBSON : Chinese Pottery and Porcelain;HipriSLEY : A Sketch of the History of CeramicArt in China; Jtjlien : Histoire et Fabrication dela Porcelain chinoise; Gorer and Blacker : Chinese449

PORCELAIN TOWERENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPorcelain aiid Hard Stones; Laufer : The Beginningsof Porcelain in China, 1917.PORCELAIN TOWER, THE, t>k^^pao en6v*M. See Pagodas.PORPOISE. The flesh is much prized for itsflavour, but is also regarded as very poisonous.With many precautions as to cutting away certainparts of the flesh, long boiling, etc., it is eaten withmore or less impunity. It enters the rivers in theearly spring, ascending the Yangtze a thousandmiles, as far as the rapids. Those caught in riverswould appear to be more poisonous than those takeninsea-water.Macgowan :Chinese Recorder, vol. xvii, p. 45.PORTA DO CERCO, the barrier betweenMacao and the Chinese territory. It was the sceneof an engagement on August 19, 1840, when theBritish attacked and scattered a camp of hostileChinese troops, both by fire from ships and by alanding party. The Portuguese remained strictlyneutral.PORT ARTHUR, M 198 n Lii shun h'ou, atthe southern point of the Liao-tung peninsula. Itwas so named by Admiral Seymour in 1860, whenthe British forces were in Ta-lien Bay, because itwaa discovered, so to speak, by Lieut. Arthur(afterwards Admiral Arthur, c.b.) while seekingfor a suitable harbour. It was formerly China'schief naval arsenal, but was taken by Japan in thewar of 1894. Russia obtained a lease of it in 1898and strongly fortified it. In the war betweenRussia and Japan it was attacked by the Japanesefleet on February 8, 1904, and was besieged on theland side from May 1904 to January 1, 1905, whenit capitulated.The Japanese name for it is Riojun. It is theheadquarters of the Japanese civil and navaladministration of the Kuantung province.The town is divided into two parts, called'old' and 'new' ; the old dates from the Chinesedays; the new from the Russian occupation. Theharbour is always free from ice. The West Harbourwas made a free port on July 1, 1910. The townis indirectly connect-ed by rail with Dairen, Ithejourney taking one hour and a half. The population,not including military forces, is over sixteenthousand, the larger half being Japanese and therest nearly all Chinese.The Russo-Japanese War gave occasion for anenormous mass of literature; those referred tobelow are a few dealing especially with Port Arthur.James, D. H. : The Siege of Port Arthur;AsHMEAD-BARTliETT : Port Arthur, the Siege andCapitulation; Norregaard : The Great Siege;Tretyakov : My Experiences at N'an Shan andPort Arthur; Nojine : The Truth about PortArthur; Villiers : Port Arthur; Smith, W, R. :The Siege and Fall of Port Arthur; Seymour, E. H. :Ml/ Naval Career and Travels.PORT EDWARD. See Weihaiwei.PORT HAMILTON, U ^ ^ > a small groupof islands south of Korea, occupied by Great Britainin 1885, and evacuated February 1887 ca a guaranteefrom the Chinese Government that neither theislands nOr any other portion of Korean territoryshould be occupied by a foreign power.Herslet : China Treaties, 3rd ed., p. 499.PORTUGUESE RELATIONS WITH CHINA-Portugal has the honour of being the first of theEuropean nations to open up direct intercourse withChina. In 1516 Perestrello, sent from Malaccain a native ship by d'Albuquerque, came on avoyage of enq&iry. The next year de Andrade withfour Portuguese and four Malay ships, reachedSt. John's (San ch'iian) and was allowed to enterCanton. Unhappily, a year afterwards the goodeffect of his conciliatory behaviour was destroyedby the arrival of his brother Simon, who conductedhimself in ^uch an arrogant and truculent way thatthe Chinese were driven to oppose him. He had builta fort, but was blockaded, and escaped withdifficulty ; while his brother was driven away, andthe envoy from Portugal whom he had brought,Thome Pires (q.v.), was put in prison and perhapsdied there. Shortly after another envoy arrived,but was attacked and most of those with him killed.Earlier than this, about 1517, Portuguese hadreached! the Fukien coast, perhaps under Mascauenhas,and traded at Chinchew, (Ch'iian chou)and Foochow. A colony was also established at ornear Ningpo, named Liampo. In time, however,the licentious and overbearing conduct of the colonistsbecame such that in 1545 imperial orders weregiven to attack them, and it is stated that 12,000Christians perished, including 800 Portuguese, while35 of their ships were destroyed. In 1549 a similarmassacre took place at Chinchew, through the samecause : those who escaped fled to the island ofLampacao, near Macao.In 1557 they gained permission to occupy theextremity of the 'island' or peninsula of Macao, theChinese building a wall across the isthmus, with asingle gate in it. From the beginning the positionwas only held by means of gifts or bribery. Thesum officially paid to the Chinese w^as at firstTls. 1,000 per annum ; in 1691 it became Tls. 600in 1740 it became Tls. 500, which was paid till 1849.The relations of Portugal and China are almostconfined to Macao matters; but about 1850, whenpiracy was exceedingly troublesome, the Portuguesedid almost all the convoying of Chinese ships onthe coast.The coolie traffic, which had been such a disgraceto Macao, was brought to an end in 1874.450

•GalhardoENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPOST OFFICEIt was not till 1887 that Portugal's first treaty withChina was made. (See Macao; de Andrade, esuiiii.(l charge as theaiKl oilier omoials. holdinMiicao Portiigiufifc Representativeill ChinaViSCONDE DE Governor 1874, as MinisterS. JanuarioJose Maria Lobo Governor Dec. 7, 1874, asd'AvilaCharge d'AffairesCarlos Eugenic da Governor Jan. 10, 1877, asSilvaCharge d'Affaires& Aug. 1, 1877,as MinisterJoaquim Jose da Governor Nov. 28, 1879, asGra9AMinisterJose Alberto Colonial Mar. 24, 1883, asCoRTE Real Secretary Charge d'AffairesThomas de Souza Governor May 14, 1883,ROZAas MinisterFirming Jose da Governor Oct. 13, 1886,Costaas MinisterJoAO Jose da Silva Acting Oct. 19, 1888, asGovernor Charge d'AffairesFrancisco Teixeira Governor Feb. 9, 1889,DA Silvaas MinisterCustodio Miguel Governor Mar. 14, 1891,DA BORJAas MinisterManuel "de Paes Colonial May 10, 1891, asSande Castro Secretary Charge d'AffairesAlb\no Alves Acting Mar. 18, 1893, asBranco Governor Charge d'AffairesAlfredo Pinto Colonial June 8, 1893, asLello Secretary Charge d'AffairesJose M. de Souza Governor Mar. 28, 1894,HoRTA e Costaas MinisterAlfredo Pinto Colonial Feb. 18, 1897, asLello Secretary Charge d'AffairesEduardo Rodrigues Governor May 14, 1897,as MinisterArthur Tamagnini Acting April 18, 1900, asBarbosa Governor Charge d'AffairesAlb\no db Acting July 25, 1900, asMagalhaes Governor Charge d'AffairesJose M. de Souza Governor Aug. 12, 1900,• Horta e Costa as MinisterAlfredo Pinto Colonial Mar. 17, 1902, asLello Secretary Charge d'AffairesArnaldo de Novaes Governor Dec. 17, 1902,Rebelloas Minister(II).—List of the Ministers and Chargesd'Affaires of Portugal in China, since direct representationwas established in Peking.Jose de Azevedo Castello Branco, Envoy Extraordinaryand Minister Plenipotentiary to China.From January 24, 1902, until October 10, 1902.Gabriel d' Almeida Sanctos, Charge d'Affairesad interim,. From October 10, 1902, untilDecember 2, 1907.Martinho de Buederode, Charge d'Affaires. FromDecember 2, 1907, until September 10, 1911.Barao de Sendal, Envoy Extraordinary and MinisterPlenipotentiary to China and Japan (withresidence in Tokio). From April 20, 1908 until1910.Henrique O'Connor Martins, Charge d'Affairesad interim. From September 10, 1911 untilMay 21, 1913.J. Batalha de Freitas, Envoy Extraordinary andMinister Plenipotentiary to China and Japan(with residence in Peking). From May 21,1913.POSTHUMOUS MARRIAGE,^qq Marriage.^* POST OFFICE, CHINESE. Early in the "sixties,"during the first few wintersafter Foreign Representatives took'J*t ''w!'^*up their residenc.e at Peking, theLegation and Customs mails were exchanged betweenShanghai and Peking, under the auspices of theTsungli Yamen, by means of the- Governmentcouriers employed for the transmission of officialdespatches. It was then found convenient toarrange that the Customs should undertake theresponsibility of making up and distributing thesemails, a practice which, for the overland serviceduring the winter months, involved the creation ofPostal Departments at the Inspectorate and in theCustoms Houses at Shanghai and Chinkiang, and,similarly, for the transmission of mails by coaststeamers during the open season, the opening ofquasi-postal Departments in the Tientsin and othercoast port Custom Houses. At that early date itcould be seen that out of this simple beginningmight be elaborated a system answering other andlarger requirements on the principle of a NationalPost Ofl[\ce. This idea gradually shaped into formand had already so much ingratiated itself in theofficial mind that in 1876, when the Chefoo Conventionwas being negotiated, the Tsungli Yamenauthorized the Inspector General to inform theBritish Minister, Sir Thomas Wade, that it wasprepared to sanction the establishment of a NationalPostal System and willing to make it a Treatystipulation that postal establishments should beopened at once. Unfortunately, through, so to451

POST OFFICEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICApostal clause was omitted from the official text ofspeak, a conspiracy of silence, the insertion of thethe Treaty, and thus the project was postponedeine die. Meanwhile, however, the experiment waspersevered with and warmly encouraged by theImperial Commissioner Li Chung-t'ang, who promisedto "father" it officially as soon as it proveda success. Hence the more formal opening of PostalDepartments at various Custom Houses, the 1878experiment of trying a Native Post Office alongsidethe Customs Post, the establishment of Customscouriers from Taku to Tientsin, and from Tientsinto Peking, and the Customs winter mail serviceoverland from Tientsin to Newchwang, from Tientsinto Chefoo, and from Tientsin to Chinkiang,as also the introduction of Customs postage stampsin 1878.The growing importance of the Service thusquietly built up and its convenience for regularcommunications with Peking and between Treatyports were not only appreciated by the Foreignpublic, but were also recognized by the ForeignAdministrations having postal agencies in China.In 1878 China was formally invited to join thePostal Union. In the same year, while on a visitto Paris, the Inspector General was sounded bythe French Minister for Foreign Affairs as to apossible way of withdrawing the French PostOffice in Shanghai ; and while, more than once,the British Postmaster General at Hongkong expressedhis readiness to close the Hongkong PostOffice agencies along the coast, arrangements wereactually discussed for the absorption by the CustomsDepartment of the Municipal Post Office at Shanghai.But no definite response to these overturescould be given, or final steps taken, before theChinese Government had declared its intention toundertake national responsibilities ; and the CustomsDepartment continued to satisfy only certainwants and prepare the system for further developmenttill, 20 years after the Chefoo Convention,the Decree of the 20th March 1896 appeared. ThisDecree created an Imperial Post Office for allChina,to be modelled on Western lines, the organizationand management of which were confided to SirRoBKRT Haut, who from that date acted in thedouble capacity of Inspector General of Customsand Posts.This long hesitation on the part of theChinese Government formally to recognize andfoster an institution known to have worked withsuch profitable results in Foceign countries, fromboth public and revenue standpoints, may be tosome people a matter of surprise. But it must notbe forgotten that from immemorial times the Chinesenation had possessed two postal institutions : one,the I Chan |$ J^ (or Imperial Government CourierService), deeply rooted iq official routine ;the other.the Native posting agencies, long used and re-.spected by the people. Both gave employment tolegions of couriers and were still considered necessaryto the requirements of an immense nation ; theycould neither be suppressed, transformed, norreplaced at a stroke. The Imperial decision thereforeonly gave final sanction to a new and vastundertaking, but abolished nothing.In connexion with the establishment and workingof the service in its experimental stage, theInspector General has placed on record the valuableservices of two commissioners, Mr. H. Kopschand Mr. G. Detring, the former for preliminaryinvestigations and suggestions, and the latter forinitiating and superintending courier arrangementsand office details while Commissioner for PostalAffairs at Tientsin. On the issue of the ImperialDecree the Customs Statistical Secretary at Shanghai,then Mr. Kopsch, was appointed to act alsoas Postal Secretary and, under the InspectorGeneral, superintend postal work generally.In thefollowing year it was found necessary to have thePostal Secretary at the Inspectorate General inPeking and Mr. J. A. Van Aalst, then ActingChinese Secretary, was additionally entrusted withthe duties of Acting Postal Secretary. At thebeginning of 1899 as the work had greatly increasedand the Inspector General himself could not affordso much time to it as before, Mr. van Aalst wasappointed Postal Secretary, to assume, under theInspector General, entire charge of the PostalDepartment in order that he could devote his timeand energy exclusively to postal business. Heremained in charge till the autumn of 1901 andunder him the bulk of the pioneer work of thesystem as it now exists was accomplished. TheMoney Order and Parcel Post services were inticducedand detailed staff working rules for allbranches of postal work were issued. Above alla regular system oi extension was inaugurated.Hitherto postal facilities had been confined to theTreaty Ports. Now each Treaty Port Post Officewas considered the central Office of a postal districtthroughout which subsidiary Offices began to beopened, all subordinate to, and superintended by,the Treaty Port Office. In each district the Commissionerof Customs was Postmaster "ex officio."Under him was appointed a .special staff, foreignand Chinese, to transact postal duties, the foreignersbeing mostly detailed from the regular Customsstaff. Mr. VAN Aalst was succeeded by Mr. T.PiRY, a Frenchman, who with only a short breakhas piloted the service ever since. To his ableadministiration and skilful organization is due inlarge measure the credit for an efficient servicefunctioning over the length and breadth ol China,from Corea to Kashgar and from the River Amurto the borders of Tonkiq and Burmah.452

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPOST OFFICEUnder the control of the Inspector General, thePost Office organization was naturally developedon the same lines as the Customs, this beingespecially so as regards staff. English became theofficial language of the foreign and senior Chinesestaff, all official correspondence, unless with otherAdministrations, being in English or Chinese. Incourse of time it was found necessary at the largercentres to relieve the Commissioners of Customsof their postal duties and responsibilities. PostalCommissioners were installed and progress anddevelopment became still more rapid. At the sametime the fact was not lost sight of that the controlof the Service must one day revert to the Governmentand in any changes in organization the waywas gradually prepared for this step. The transferwas actually accomplished on May 28th, 1911, when,under Imperial Decree, Mr. F. A, Aglen, thenOfficiating Inspector General, handed over theService to the Ministry of Posts and Communications.The separation was brought about at theinstance of Sheng Kung Pao (Sheng HsiiAN-HUAi),then President of the Ministry. Mr. Piry wasappointed Postmaster General (|S> 151 ) with controlof the staff and the executive similar to thatexercised by the Inspector General of Customs inthe Customs Administration, but subordinate in rankto a Chinese Director General (,^ ^) the titularhead of the Service. The first Director Generalwas Li Ching-fang, then Acting Senior Vice-President of the Ministry. Since the separationit has been arranged that Mr. Piuy's successorshall bear the foreign title "Associate DirectorGeneral" instead of Postmaster General. HisChinese title and functions, however, will remainunaltered. In appointing a Frenchman to be headof the Service on separation from the Customs,China was fulfilling certain obligations to France.An exchange of notes between the two Governmentsin 1898 stipulated that when the Chinese Governmentorganized a definite postal service with ahigh functionary at its head it proposed to call forthe help of foreign officers and declared its willingnessto take account of the recommendationsof the French Government in respect to the selectionof staff. This engagement was made more explicitby a further exchange of notes in 1902.A detailed account of the postal operations ofall these years would make an in-Development. tensely interesting volume. TheImperial Decree of 1896 gave sanction to anational post office but this was not sufficient tobring the idea into favour with provincial authoritieswithout whose assistance progress and developmentwere impossible. Further, from the day ofits birth the new organization had to contend witKkeen competition from the two older postal systems,and long and persevering effort, combined with theintroduction of better services and the use of steamcommunication, was necessary before it could inany measure establish itself in the estimation ofthe/ commercial classes and thus overcome thenatural and deep-seated prejudice against it. Indeedthe full confidence of the public and officials wasnot gained till the service came directly under theMinistry of Communications. A few months thereafterfollowed the Revolution and only then werethe I Chan services finally abolished in favour ofthe Post Office. A number of native postal agenciesstill linger on, most of them undertaking in additionsome mercantile business and making theirprofits mainly by transmitting bank drafts, syceeand trade parcels. These establishments have allalong been allowed to function practicallj' withoutrestriction alongside the Post Office and it is expectedthat a Postal Law or some other Governmentenactment will ultimately be necessary to deal withthem. These are only a few of the special difficultieswhich the service has had to contend with inthe course of its development. Many others couldbe cited : annual floods, perpetual brigandage andpiracy, famine, plague, riot, rebellion, civil warand, from beginning to end, a debased currency.All these have made development a continualstruggle and, in view of this, the record of achievementsmust be considered extraordinary. Themanner in which communication is maintainedbetween all points is especially praiseworthy.Every available means of transport is used : contractsteamers on the coast and large rivers ; railwayswhere they are opened ; steam and motor launches,junks, hong-boats and post-boats on inland waterways; and, on the numerous overland routes,mounted or foot couriers, mules, carts, and wheelbarrows.As roads in inland China are mere pathsin dry weather and tracts of deep mud in rain,the great proportion of overland transportation isdone by couriers. Overland lines are establishedeven in most out-of-the-way places ; on many,couriers with light mail (letters and postcardsand newspapers paying letter rates) run day andnight and, whatever difficulties may have to besurmounted, these services are seldom or neverinterrupted. The daily stages for couriers varybut often rise to 100 li (33 miles) ; the speed maintainedaverages 10 li per hour. In all 6807 courierswere employed at the end of 1916. These men runfrom point to point in all weathers according tofixed schedules, incidentally braving dangers fromwild beasts, robbers, floods and often local disturbances.While they are now less interfered withby highwaymen than formerly, still every year addsto the toll of murdered and wounded.A network of courier lines exists all overManchuria and is gradually spreading over InnerMongolia. A mounted courier service across the453

POST OFFICEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAGobi Desert connects Kalgan with Urga andKiachta, the total distance of 3,620 li (1,206 miles)being done in eleven days. Sinkiang (Chinese Turkestan)has now over 50 jjostal establishments and15,690 li (5,250 miles) of courier lines. From Kuanyintang(Honan), the present terminus of the Lungflairailway, a continuous chain of day-and-nightcouriers, for the most part mounted, runs throughTungkwan, Sianfu, Lanchowfu, Ansichow, andthence via Tihwafu (Urumtsi) to Kashgar on theborders of Russian Turkestan. The total lengthof this line is 10,843 li (3,614 miles) which makesit the longest couriers' line in the world. The timetaken when there are no delays is 40 days. Heavymail matter (parcels, books etc.) for Sianfu andother points on the line is transported on mules :it amounts to an average of over one ton daily.The service of heavy mails through the Yangtzegorges to Chengtu, the capital ox Ssuch'uan, and onto Tibet shows no less enterprise. Before merchantsteamers ventured up the river to Chungking, afleet of fast post-boats was specially built to plybetween Chungking and Ichang through the dangerousrapids. Even though full advantage is takenof whatever steam service there now is, thirty-twopost-boats are kept busy, carrying over 20,000 bagsof mail matter annually. Wrecks are not uncommonbut mails are nearly always recovered. For thesake oi' speed, light mails for Chengtu and theWest are carried overland all the way from Hankowby day-and-night couriers. Hankow, letters aredelivered in Chengtu (1023 miles) in 13 days and inTatsienlu (1313 miles) in 18 days. From Tatsienlua line continues 375 miles further to Batang, thechief town of the Tibetan Marches. In normaltimes this is linked up with the Tibetan system bya line acrossthe border to Chamdo so that there isdirect overland communication from Peking toLhasa.These facts illustrate in a general way theefficiency and extent of the service. In the morepopulous and industrial districts the network oflines is very highly developed. Every town ofany size or importance is postally connected, thefastest means of transport being always availed ot,railway, steamea", launch, boat, or courier. InKwangtung province there are 1025 Offices andagencies established and 31,021 li (10,340 miles)of courier lines with 13,669 li of steamer and boatlines : in Chihli, 935 Offices and agencies and 33,048// of courier lines ; in Kiangsu, 561 Offices andagencies and 8,554 li of courier lines with 12,076 liof steamer and boat lines. Even distant andpoverty-stricken Kweichow possesses 196 offices andagencies with 15,296 li of courier lines. In furtherdevelopment, attention is being concentratedon linking up country villages round all importantcentres by a system of rural box-offices at whichspecial couriers call every two oa- three days. Thereare already several thousand of such establishedand they will bo given the status of agencies asthe increase of their mail matter warrants it.In the domestic Money Order system the PostOffice renders the public a convenience which isspecially appreciated. On account of the innumerableand ever fluctuating mediums of exchange, aswell as the dangers connected with transmittingspecie overland, money order operations are aconstant source of anxiety to the Postal Authorities,but so far they have met with unqualified success.The basis of exchange is the full value silver dollar,the same as is used for other postal purposes.Conditions in China necessitate a somewhat uniqueprocedure. Stamps to the value required areaffixed in line on the money order form. The formisthen cut in two with scissors in such a way thateach part bears one half of each stamp. One partthen serves as the Money Order and the other asthe Advice. Though cumbersome in practice theservice is winning great jjopularity ; the value ofmoney orders issued increased from six milliondollars in 1911 to almost sixteen million in 1916.Naturally the advent of railways has proved agreat boon and the Government has been far-sightedenough to recognize the value of the Post Office asa national asset not only in spreading light andlearning, but also in tending to overcome the oldinter-provincial barriers of jealousy and misunderstanding,and in forming and strengthening nationalaspirations and national unity. The principle hasbeen decreed that on all Government railwaysaccommodation shall be provided free for thecarriage of mails and parcels. On private-ownedrailways mails are caiTied by contract. Launcheslicensed under the Customs Inland Waters Regulationsmust also carry mails free, not necessarilyparcels ; Chinese steamers on the other hand areunder contract. The following table shows therecord of progress in quinquennial periods since1901.Offices and1901 1906 1911 1916Agencies 176 2,096 6,201 8,797Articles of mail matterposted 3,500,000 37,000,000 125,000,000 250,432,275Parcelsposted 42,000 400,000 954,000 2,232,100Courierlines 153,000 319,000 421,000 ^tSteamer &boat lines _ 17,000 45,000 64,700 liMoney Ordersissued $2,308,000 $5,900,000 $16,965,000454

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPOST OFFICEThe service comprises the followingOrgan^ation^ g^al districts which as a ruleand Staff*corre&pondj .u .u *with the provinces otthe country :DistrictDistrictDistrict. Head Office. District. Head Office.Chihli Tientsin Kiangsi NanchangShansi T'aiyiianfu Kiangsu NankingHonan Kaifeng Shanghai (Local) ShanghaiShensi Sianfu Anhui AnkingKansu Lanchowfu Chekiang HangohowSinkiang Tihwaiu Fukien FoochowManchuria Moukden Kuangtung CantonShantung Tsinan Knangsi NanningSsuch'uan Chengtu Yiinnan YiinnanfuHupei Hankow Kueichou KueiyangHunan Changsha Tibet* LhasaEach district is administered by a postal Commissionerstationed at the District Head Office.The seat of control is the Directorate Generalof Posts in the Ministry of Communications,Peking; The Directorate General falls into twosections, the office of the Director General and theofficeof the Postmaster General (Associate DirectorGeneral). The duties of the former relate to theformation of general policies and the functionsof "intermediary" between the executive departmentand the Minister of Communications bywhom he is appointed. The Postmaster General(Associate Director General) has full charge ofthe staff and the executive of all postal affairs.Postal Commissioners are controlled by, and aredirectly responsible to, him, and negotiations withforeign administrations are conducted through him.His office comprises the following principal departments: (1). Chief Secretary's Department; (2)Domestic Development Department ; (3) AuditDepartment ; (4) Union Department ; (5) ChineseDepartment and (6) Postal Supply Department,which last for convenience is in Shanghai. Commissionersor senior members of the staff areappointed to take charge of these departmentsand while so in charge are called Secretaries.Postal establishments apart from Head Officesare classified according to their importance and'functions as follows : First Class Offices, SecondClass Offices, Third Class Offices, Sub-offices,Agencies and Box-office Agencies, the last twobeing merely shops where stamps are sold and lettersare posted to be collected by a passing courier orpostman.The various ranks of the executive staff are :Commissioners, Deputy Commissioners, Assistants,Postal Officers, Clerks, Yu-wu-sheng {^ ^ ^ )and. * Temporarily closed since the Hevoliitiou,Sorters. The total of the whole staff as on December31st, 1916, appears as follows :Foreign Executive Staff ... 122Chinese,, ,, 4,714Agents ... 7,185Postmen ... ... ... 5,075Couriers ... 6,807Miscellaneous 1,097Total 25,000The foreign staff, which includes men of fourteendifferent nationalities holds most of the highlyresponsible posts but the more intelligent Chineseare rapidly advancing to the highest ranks. Severalare already in posts requiring considerable administrativeability, one being in charge of a provinceas Acting Commissioner and several others actingas Deputy Commissioners. Entrance to all ranksof the Chinese executive staff is by competitiveexamination; promotion thereafter follows byselection on a basis of seniority combined withconsiderations of merit. The service affords scopeand prospects for all classes of workers, whatevertheir educational qualifications. AH grades ofChinese are under guarantee by bond; the lowerranks also deposit a small sum monthly towards acash security.Before the issue of the Imperial DecreeRelationsauthorizing the formation of a nationwithforeign al post office in China, various alienAdminist- administrations had already establishrations,ed postal agencies in certain treatyports for the convenience of their nationals stationedthere. In the absence of an officially recognizedChinese Post Office these foreign agencies, especiallythose at Shanghai, may be considered to havebeen justifiable ; but China was always anxious toavoid giving ground for any increase in theirnumber and so the question of her entry into theUniversal Postal Union was kept continually inview. Within one month of the inauguration ofher service, she formally notified her intention tobecome a member of the Union and from 1st Janu-^ary 1897 undertook the necessary obligations inrespect of Union mails handed to her for distribution.Actual adhesion to the Convention,however, was postponed^ As years passed andChina came more into touch with other countries,it became necessary to conclude 'postal agreementswith various administrations. These agreementswere based as far as possible on the regulations ofthe Union Conventions so that the way was wellprepared for final entry into the Union as soonas the time for this step was considered fipe. Inthe meantime the presence and increasing numberof foreign post offices became more arid more felt.455

POST OFFICEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAFrench, British, German, Russian and Japaneseoffices were opened at numerous Treaty Ports, someeven at inland places where they were not requiredand where they continue to curtail the legitimatebusiness of the national post office. China ultimatelyjoined the Union on 1st March, 1914, theregulations of the Universal Postal Convention ofRome becoming operative from the 1st Septemberfollowing. From the latter date China furtherdeclared her adhesion to the Parcel Post Conventionof Rome.Under the agreements concluded by Chinaprevious to her adhesion to the Union, the foreignAgencies in China were officially recognized andused as intermediaries for the exchange of mailsbetween China and the various countries of theUnion ; but, when she became a member of theUnion China held this official recognition to beincompatible with her new position on the groundthat the maintenance of postal establishments ofone Union country on the territory of anotherUnion country is contrary to the principles of theUnion. A protest was lodged at Berne but withoutany practical effect. The question is a diplomaticone and can only be settled by direct negotiationswith the governments of the countries concerned.The following list shows the number ofalien Post Offices in China to date, certain havingbeen opened even after China joined the Union :France 14 Japan 125Germany 12 Russia 14Great Britain 12 United States 1The Customs postal experiment started in 1861had not only to be carried on forFinancialover 30 years against numerous'^^ 'difficulties and without the avowedsupport of the Government ; but even afterits formal recognition in 1896, without anyspecial financial help from it, The CustomsService had alone, from the beginning, to supportthe enterprise, lending to it the assistance of itsstaif and such resources as it could spare. Noother Government institution of the time couldpossibly have undertaken the task, and historywill show that the independent and quiet creationof such an Administration, so important in this*conservative country, was by no means the leastof the services rendered by the Customs to China.In 1934, the Government, confident at last of theultimate success of the National Post Office, notifiedthe Inspector General of the issue of a subsidyfor its working. The amount actually receivedwas about Tls. 330,000 a year. This was inadequate,however, for at the time of separation the postaldebt to |he Customs amounted to over two milliontaels, although only the cash advances were recorded.But when separation took place it was expectedthat the fixed allowance together with the increasedsen-vice receipts would meet all requirements. Theallowance however was stopped at the Revolutionwhen the foreign legations placed an embargo onCustoms revenue. Almost simultaneously the IChan services, which cost three million taelsannually, were abolished, and the Post Office wascalled upon to replace them without any specialprovision being made for this extra demand uponits resources. The greatest economy was practisedand with some little help from the Ministry itwas possible to carry on till receipts furtherimproved and the crisis passed. The serviceshowed a profit for the first time in 1915, thesurplus being some $250,000. In 1916 the receiptsexceeded expenditure by some $700,000 althoughnew premises to the value of $300,000 wereerected. The outlook therefore is bright and theAuthorities have every prospect of being able soonto proceed with numerous long-delayed schemes ofimprovement, especially the building of officepremises, those at present in use being nearly allrented and not providing adequate accommodation.In spite of the enormous distances and thedifficulties of communication a uniformdomestic tariff for mail matterin China Proper is adhered to, the rate being 3cents per 20 grammes, which must thus be consideredthe cheapest postage in the world.[Compiled from Annual Reports and OfficialCirculars of the Post Office.]POTANIN, GRIGORI NICOLAEVICH, bornin 1835 in a Cossack village on the Irtish, was anexile to Siberia in 1872, was pardoned in 1874, andin 1876 began his series of explorations in CentralAsia. He made four important journeys in Mongolia,S.W. China, etc., and brought home valuablecollections of natural history specimens. A goodresume will be found in Bretschneider.Bretschneider : European Botanical Discoveries.POTATO. The Dutch introduced the potatointo China, and in the south it still has the nameHo-lan shu "^MW, Holland tuber.PO TO Ll,i$ ^ :^. In the Canton dialectand probably in the old pronunciation this wouldbe l^o-to-lih, and it seems to be a transcription ofthe Syrian word batrik, that is, Patriarch. In the'T'a7ig History the king of Fu-lin was so called.In the Wei History his capital is called An-tu ^ S|5and he must therefore be identified as the Patriarchof Antioch. See Fu-lin.HiRTH : China and the Roman Orient; HiBTHand RocKHiLL : Chau Ju-kua, p. 104, note.POTTERY, KS9t'ao, a term which includes allvessels made of clay and fired in a kiln,—earthenware,stoneware and porcelain. The Chinese havemade pottery from the most remote days, .and of456

FromENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPREMAREcourse they claim for themselves the invention ofthe potter's wheel. It is ascribed to Shun or evento Huang Ti, who had among his officers a Directorof Pottery. In more historical times the founderof the Chou dynasty is supposed to have had aDirector of Pottery, and in the work calledK'ao kung chi ^X^Q of that dynasty, there is adescription of the two meithods, turning on thewheel and moulding. It is supposed that commonojay was used for this early pottery, and it isdoubtful whether there was any kind of colouredglaze on it ; but unfortunately no examples are nowleft. For the difference between pottery and porcelainsee Porcelain. The export of potteiry for1916 (as distinct from chinaware, as porcelain iscalled) was of the value Hk.Tls. 1,092,081.BusHELL : Chinese Pottery and Porcelain;Laufer : The Beginnings of Chinese Porcelain, 1917.POTTINGER, HENRY, Sir, (Bart.), was bornin 1789. In May, 1841, he was appointed by theBritish Government as Sole Plenipotentiary andMinister Extraordinary, and Chief Superintendentof Trade, and sent on a special mission to China,to succeed Captain C. Elliot [q.v.). Finding continuedaction to be necessary against continuedChinese obstruction, he went north with Vice-Admiral Parker in command of the fleet; Amoy,Chinhai, Ningpo, Chusan, Shanghai, Chinkiang andNanking were taken, and the war ended with theTreaty of Nanking.He then became first Governor of Hongkong,from August 10, 1841, to May 8, 1844. In thisofficehe was severely judged by the colony.He died at Malta in 1856.EiTEL : Europe in China.POWDER BLUE {hleu fouette), a style ofporcelain decoration in which powdered cobaltpigment is blown upon the raw surface beforeglazing.It shows best as a monochrome.BusHELL : Chinese Art.PO YEN ft'^ ^, a Mongol chieftain whose nativename was Bayan {q.v.), signifying great or noble.He was born a.d. 1237 and died in 1275.PRATT, A. E., an English naturalist who spentfrom 1887 to 1890 exploring the Upper Yangtze andother districts. His main work was the collectingof zoological specimens, but he also brought backsome five hundred species of flora, of which onehundred and fifty were new. The book in whichhe recorded his travels is To the Snows of Tibetthrough China, London, 1392.Bretschneider : European Botanical Discoveries.PRAYA, Portuguese praia, a beach. A wordused for a quay, embankment, etc., as the Prayain Hongkong. In Shanghai and elsewhere the samekind of thing is called a Bund.PRAYER-FLAGS are pieces of cloth hung upin the open air, on which are inscribed charms andexorcisms. They are considered very efficacious inLama worship, and are to be found in front oflamaseries, shrines, on private houses and by theroadside.Hackmann : Buddhism as a Religion.PRAYER-WHEELS or CYLINDERS, used inLama worship, consist of a long strip of paper,inscribed with charms and prayers and wound rounda cylinder which revolves by a handle.When thecylinder is set in motion the paper revolves and theprayers are supposed to operate. Not only are theyswung by the hand, but ithey are sometimes setrevolving in a stream or hung in the wind.Hackmann : Buddhism as a Beligion.PREFECT. See Chih fu.PREFECTURE, ]f$ fu. The largest .divisionin a province. The terms 2nd and 3rd class Prefectureswere sometimes used for Chou ^] andT'ing ^ respectively. There were on an averageten in a province, Shensi having seven only, thesmallest number, and Yiinnan fourteen, the largest.The total number was 184. The fu was abolishedby the Eepublic.See Chih fu; Government, Republican.PREFECTURE-APOSTOLIC, (Roman Catholicter-m), intermediate between a Mission and aVicariat. When a dioceise or a Vicariat is dismemberedthe new territory is generally made firstinto a Prefecture, to be raised to a Vicariat whenits evangelization has made a certain amount ofprogress.The Apostolic Prefect is usually a simple priestbut with special powers, bound to be in residence,and obedient to the Propaganda.There is only one Prefecture-Apostolic in China,that of S. Kansu.PREMARE, JOSEPH HENRY, a celebratedJesuit missionary and scholar.The time and placeof his birth are not known, though Havre and 1666are perhaps right. He sailed in the Amphitritefrom Rochelle on March 7, 1698, in company withten other missionaries. . the beginning hestudied Chinese not merely for the ordinary usein preaching, but with the desire to write, and tofind in Chinese literature a support and argumentfor the Christian faith. Such ideas were of courserepugnant to the narrower minded, and the Jesuits,in this matter of viewing the classical literature asin the matter of the rites, were much disliked andsuspected.Of all the noted Jesuit missionaries of theperiod he was the most eminent as grammarian andphilologist, with only Gaubil as his rival in profoundknowledge of Chinese..5K45:

PREMAREENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAHis most important work is the NotitiaLinguae Sinicae, one of the most satisfactory bookson the subject. His idea was a new one at thetime, being that Chinese should be learnt not bytheory and on the lines of a Latin grammar, butby practice. The subsequent history of this greatwork is interesting. Premabe was in correspondencewith FouRMONT in Paris, and thought togive him pleasure by sending him the manuscriptof the new grammar in 1728. But the pleasure wasmarred by the fact that Fotjrmont also had written agrammar, or more correctly speaking had plagiarizedone from the Spanish work of Varo. In greatgrief he hastened to have his own work, GrammaticaSinica, deposited in the Royal Library before theactual arrival of Prjemare's manuscript; he wasthen able to make a comparison between the twogrammars, shew that they were much alike witha balance in favour of his own, then publish hisown which had the priority, with the comparisonas a preface, while the Notitia was left to beforgotten in the Library.Premare was dead when Focrmont's bookappeared, but he had heard how Fourmont was treatinghis work and wrote in pathetic remonstrance. Butthe manuscript lay forgotten for nearly a centurytill Remusat discovered it, or at least three volumesout of five. Copies were made of it, and it waspublished in 1831 "by the munificence of an Englishnobleman [Lord Kikgsborotjgh] and Dr. Morrison"at the Anglo-Chinese College at Malacca. Itwas translated into English by J. G. Bridgman, anAmerican missionary, and published at Cantonin 1847.Premare also compiled, in collaboration withP. Hervieu, a Latin-Chinese Dictionary, and hetranslated a play, L'Orphelin de la Maison deTchao, the first specimen by which Europeans mightget some idea of the Chinese drama. This alsowould have been suppressed, except that Du Haldehad a duplicate copy and published it in vol. iii ofhis great work. Several tracts of his are in theNational Library; three of his letters are in theLettres Edifiantes; a fourth, found amongFourmont's papers, has been printed by Klaprothin Annales Encydopcdiques : it is a very candidand severe criticism of FotrRMONT's Grammar.The compilers of the Lettres Edifiantes did notpay the regard they ought to have given toPremare, compared with some other missionaries,and the consequence is that not only time andplace of birth are unknown but the date of hisdeath too. It was probably 1734 or 1735. (Macao,1736, is found in some books).Remusat : Nouveaux Melanges Asiatiques,vol. ii; (an English translation is given in ChineseRepository, vol. x).PRESAGES, -^ ® Z^^chi hsiung chih chao.In the West there are dying superstitions connectedwith sneezing, with finding a tea-leaf in the cup,etc. In China such superstitions are very numerous.A few examples are the following. A rook's cawingheard to the south between 3 and 7 a.m. denotesone will receive presents. Between 7 and 11 itwould mean wind and rain ; and so on. Heardfrom other points of the compass the interpretationswould be quite otherwise. When a 'flower' formson a burning lamp-wick it may, according to theshape, mean that the wife is with child, that aguest is coming, that someone is soon to die, andso on. The ears being hot will tell one many things,but all depends on the hour of the day, and thesame applies to a pricking sensation in the eyes, tosneezing, etc.DoRE : Becherclies sur les Superstitions, eto.,p. 257.PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH OF NEW ZEA-LAND, Mission of the,Headquarters :—Dunedin, N.Z.Entered China, 1901.Works in Kuangtung.This was the first independent mission in Chinato be opened from the southern hemisphere. It wasbegun as a result of 20 years' work in New Zealandamong the Chinese settlers from Canton, a numberof whom introduced the first missionaiy to his newfield by giving him a- bag of gold and many lettersof introduction. This man was the Rev. G. H.McNeur, who landed in Canton in 1901. TheAmerican Presbyterian Mission (North) handed overto him and his colleagues an organized church withthree chapels' and two boys' schools, and a plainwith an area of fifty miles by twenty, north ofCanton city, was allotted to them. Jen-ho A sWand Sam-huatien !E ^ JiS were opened in 1902 andKo-tong ;{% ^ in 1909.In June 1916, the mission reported 16 foreign458missionaries, 36 paid Chinese assistants and 351communicants'.PRESBYTERIAN MISSIONS. There are in1917 twelve Societies of the Presbyterian orderworking in China. Six of these come from theU.S.A., four from the British Isles, one fromCanada, and one from New Zealand ; also, a smallMedical Missionary Society in Holland has a smallshare in the work of the Reformed Church inAmerica Mission. The twelve Societies are :1. American Presbyterian Mission.2. American Presbyterian Mission (South).3. American Reformed Presbyterian Church(Covenanters).4. Canadian Presbyterian Mission.5. Church of Scotland Mission.6. English Presbyterian Mission.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPRESS, EUROPEAN8. Presbyterian Church of New Zealand Mission.7. Irish Presbyterian Mission.9. Reformed Church in America Mission.10. Reformed Church in the U.S.A., Mission.11. United Brethren Mission.12. United Free Church of Scotland Mission.PRESIDENT IN CHINA.At the end of theseventh century the East India Company Directorsdecided to establish a Presidency in China as inEngland.It included the entire empire and neighbouringislands. Allen Catchpole was chosen astha first president and William III appointed himking's minister or Consul for the English nation.The President had a Council of five to assisthim, and the seat of the presidency was to bedecided by this Council. Catchpole' s instructionswere dated November, 1699.Within ten or fifteen years the Presidency musthave been abolished or failed by desuetude.Eames : The English in ' China.PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC.(•'orfniiiit'/it ;Yiinn Shih-k'ai.PRESS, EUROPEAN.SeeThe earliest newspaperin English published in China was The CantonBegister, founded by James Matheson. It firstappeared on November 8, 1827, and continued aweekly issue till Hongkong became British, whenit was transferred to that place and became TheHongkong Register. This ran from 1843 to 1859.The Canton Register was edited by John Slade,and Dr. Morrison wrote constantly for it till hisdeath. In 1833 it began to issue as a supplementthe Canton General Price Current. A rivalappeared in 1835, The Canton Press, publishedweekly from November 12. It was transferred toMacao in 1839, and died there on March 30, 1844.It had a commercial supplement.On Hongkong being ceded several Englishpaper* appeared there. The Hongkong Registercontinued The Canton Register; The Friend ofChina was first issued on March 12, 1842; itssecond number was combined with The HongkongGazette, which had been issued fortnightly fromMay 1, 1841. The Friend of China was first issuedweekly, then twice a week ; its editors were in turnJ. R. Morrison, James White, Dr. Satchell, JohnCarr, and, from 1850, William Tarrant. In 1858the publication was stopped for .several monthsbecause the editor was in trouble with the government.He moved his establishment to Canton andthe paper came out as a weekly journal again, butit came to an end in 1861. Two years later it madea third start, at Shanghai, as an evening paper.In 1868 Tarrant gave place to C. Treasure Jones,but returned to his paper again the next year. Atthe end of some months, however, ill health andlack of support forced him to cease publishing.The important Hongkong paper The China Mailwas first published on February 20, 1845, edited byAndrew Shortrede. At first it appeared weekly,but on February 1, 1876, it became a daily paperand has continued so down to the present. Tbechange was made after its union with The EveningMail, which had been established in 1864. Anotherimportant daily paper of Hongkong, TheDaily Press, dates from October I, 1857. Hongkonghas had various other papers, which havebecome defunct : Dixon's Hongkong Gazette becameDixon's Hongkong Recorder in 1850, and then, onJanuary 14, 1859, simply The Hongkong Recorder.The Hongkong Shipping Lisi appeared August 1,1855. The Daily Advertiser, begun in November,1863, became, on May 1, 1869, The Hongkong Time?Daily Advertiser and Shipping Gazette; it came toan end three years later. The Hongkong GovernmentGazette, weekly, was begun on September24, 1853.In Shanghai C. Treasure Jones, sometimeeditor of The Friend of China (v. supra) edited adaily paper, The Evening Express. It first appearedon October 1, 1867, and lived for severalyears. The Shanghai Evening Courier was begunon October 1, 1868, with Hugh Lang as editor andmany good contributors among the residents. FromJanuary 4, 1871 a weekly edition was issued underthe name The Shanghai Budget and Weekly Courier.The editor died in 1875, and the paper was boughtbv the proprietors of The Evening Gazette, whichhad been founded on June 2, 1873 ; and it continuedto appear as The Shanghai Courier and ChinaGazette, under the editorship of F. H. Balfour.The Celestial Empire, a weekly pa,per, was issuedfrom the same press; it had been founded someyears earlier by a Portuguese, Pedro Loureiro{q V Balfour edited this also, and drew from)the two papers his volume Waifs and Strays fromthe Far East.The North China Herald is the most importantof the journals of China. Its first number cameout on August 3, 1850, and was a folio sheet of fouroages, and it gave a list of the 56 foreign residentsthen in Shanghai. In 1867 The North ChmaHerald and Market Report was issued from thesame ofiice.On January 5, 1867 appeared the first number459of The Supreme Court and Consular Gazette, which,however, was soon joined to the Herald, whoseNo 140 was issued with the new title The North-China Herald and Supreme Court and ConsularGazette. This was published weekly, and theeditors of it were in succession Henry Shearman.Samuel Mossman, R. Alexander Jamieson, R. S.

PRESS, EUROPEANENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAGuNDEx, G. W. Haden, F. H. Balfoub, J. W.Maclellan, R. W. Little, H. T. Montague Bell,and 0. M. Green, (1911). The need of a dailyissue was felt as Shanghai grew more important,and the editors of the Herald put out The DailyShip-ping and Commercial News, which on July 1,1864 became The North China Daily News, nowthe leading daily paper of North China, TheHerald being its weekly edtiion. Before this theShanghai Daily Times had had a brief exietence,from September 15, 1861, to April of the followingyear.The Cycle, a Political and Literary Review,came out at Shanghai weekly from May 7, 1870 toJune 24, 1871. Its' editor was Dr. R. A. Jamieson,and it was supposed to be the official organ of theCustoms. Service. The Shanghai Recorder is anothermorning paper which did not last long. Its stockwas sold by auction in January, 1867. TheShanghai Mercury was issued first on April 17, 1879by J. D. Clark, J. R. Black and C. Rivington,its first editor; it is still running, the eveningpaper of Shanghai; it issues The Celestial Empireas its weekly edition.The Evening Gazette came out in 1873, the firstnumber being dated June 2. Its publication wasstopped by a fire after the 80th number. F. H.Balfour took it up again in January, 1874, but inthe next year it was incorporated with the ShanghaiCourier (y. sup.).The Shanghai Evening Courier began itsexistence on October 1, 1868 and lasted till 1875when its editor and proprietor Hugh Lang died.It was then bought by the proprietor of TheEvening Gazette and continued as The ShanghaiCourier and Evening Gazette. The ShanghaiBudget and Weekly Courier was its weekly editionit ceased when the Shanghai Evening Courier andThe Evening Gazette were combined.These papers have all been especially English,and the American community, feeling the need ofan American organ, issued The Shanghae News-Letter for California and the United States. Itsfirst number appeared October 16, 1867. It wasissued monthly till 1871, when it passed into thehands of Hugh Lang of The Courier who unitedit in 1874 to The Shanghai Budget and WeeklyCourier, altering this title by the use of News Letterinstead of Courier. In 1875 or 1876 the first editorof the Shanghae News-Letter founded a new weeklyjournal, The Commonwealth, by John Thorne andJ. P. Roberts, which died after an existence ofsix weeks.The China Press first appeared in Shanghai onAugust 23, 1911 and is now (1917) one of the mostpopular and flourishing of morning papers.Three French journals have had a short lifein Shanghai. Le Nouvelliste de Shanghai beganits weekly career on December 5, 1370, and livedtill the end of 1872. It was at once succeeded byLe Courrier de Shanghai, which first appeared onJanuary 16, 1873 and came to an end after the thirdnumber. The Progres first appeared on March 21,1871 ; it was in opposition to the Nouvelliste, andtheir violent disputes led to the ruin of both.The Progres finished its career on January 23, 1872.L'EcIto de Shanghai appeared for a few monthsonly as a daily paper in 1885 and 1886. L'Echo deChine, the chief journal of French interests in theFar East, was founded in 1895 and is still running.Der Feme Osten, published by C. Fink, editorof the Ostasiatischer Lloyd, began in Shanghai in1902 and completed three volumes. Der OstiasiatischeLloyd first appeared in 1886 ; its publicationwas prohibited following China's declaration of waron Germany in August, 1917.In Macao there have been published A Abelhada China (The Bee of China), probably the secondUltra-Ganges paper, which first appeared in Macao onSeptember 12, 1822. In 1824 its name was changedto Gazeta de Macao, and it lived some two yearslonger. The Chronica de Macao came next, fromOctober 12, 1834 to 1837 or 1838 ; then MacaistaImparcial, founded on June 9, 1836, and suppressedby the government in 1838; Verdadeiro Patriota,1838; the Boletiin official do Governo de Macao,issued January 9, 1839, and called, after the firstnumber, the Gazeta de Macao. Other papers havebeen the Boletim da Provincia de Macao et Timor;Lndependente, etc.The Peking and Tientsin Times is published atTientsin ; it began in March, 1894, as a weeklypaper, and a daily issue was begun on October 1,1902. W. Bellingham was the first editor andproprietor.The Hankow Times was a weekly journal, thefirst number of which appeared on January 6, 1866it came to an end March 28, 1868.The Foochow-foo Courier, edited by amateursand lithographed, began on October 12, 1858 ; therewere also The Foochow Advertiser, The FoochuwDaily Echo and The Foochow Herald, the firstnumber of which was issued September 11, 1873.Besides all the aboye newspapers and journalsthere are various magazines and reviews to benoticed. The earliest is the Canton Miscellany, thefirst number of which was published in 1831. Themost important is The Chinese Repository {q.v.).Bridgman was the first editor and then S. W.Williams, whose Middle Kingdom may be consideredas an epitome of the Repository. It lastedfrom May, 1832 to December 1851. Attempts havebeen made to replace this very valuable periodical :The Chinese and Japanese Repository and ThePhoenix were both issued in London by the Rev. J.Summers ; the former was first put out in July 1863460

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPRINTINGand died two years later ; the latter was issued inJuly 1870. The China Beview, issued bi-monthly,began to appear in Hongkong in July-August, 1872N. B. Dennys was the first and E, J. Eitel thesecond editor j it contains articles by the chiefsinologues of the years during which it waspublished. It came to an end in 1901 with itstwenty-fifth volume.Notes and Queries on China and Japan wasedited by Dr. N. B. Dennys at Hongkong ; it livedfrom January 31, 1867 to November 29, 1870.The Indo-Chinese Gleaner may be mentioned,though it was published in Malacca, the Rev. W.Milne being editor. The first volume is dated1818, and twenty numbers making three volumeswere issued. Complete sets are excessively rare,but are found in Cobdieb's and Morrison'slibraries.The Chinese Recorder (q.v.) began in January,1867, and is still published as the chief organ ofthe Protestant missionary body in China.The Transactions of the China Branch of theBoyal Asiatic Society extend to six volumes dated1847 to 1859, published at Hongkong, and are nowvery difficult to obtain. They must not be confusedwith the Journal of The North China Branch ofthe Royal Asiatic Society, which has been publishedregularly at Shanghai since 1859 except during theyears 1861-63, when the Society's existence wassuspended. The Journal for 1917 is volume xlviii.The chief illustrated journal is The Far East,which was begun and came to an end in Japan.In 1876 a new .series of it was begun in Shanghai.It appeared monthly and contained photographsillustrative of China and Japan. J. R. Black wasboth proprietor and editor.Earlier still C. Langdon Davis published inHongkong in 1868 The China Magazine. He succeededDr. Dennys as editor of Notes and Queriesand he incorporated his Magazine with that paperbut without illustrations, as well as his Papers onChina, which was a monthly reprint of the bestarticles in other journals.Social Shanghai, called by Cordieti a "Journalde dames," began in 1906 and continued till 1915.The East of Asia was a quarterly magazine whichbegan in January, 1902 at the North-China HeraldOffice.The Temperance Union Weekly Newspaper isan old established paper. The National Reviewhas been an important weekly political paper in thenew China; it was begun in 1904 by W. Kirtonand carried on by W. Sheldon Ridge till it ceasedin August 1916 in the midst of its 20th half-yearlyvolume.Some more or less humorous periodicals maybe mentioned. The Shanghae Chronicle of Fun,Fact and Fiction was born in March, 1859 and diedin the next June. Hongkong had its China Punch.In April, 1871 the first number appeared of Puck,or the Shanghae Charivari, by Peter Robertson,E. H. Grimani and F. H. Balfour. Its careerwas brilliant, but it came to an end on August 18,1873, because of technical difficulties connected withengraving, etc.Among miscellaneous works may be mentionedThe Shanghai Almanac (q.v.).PRICKLY HEAT, a form of the skin diseaselichen tropicus. A lotion of zinc sulphate is said tobe the best remedy.PRIMATES; three species of this Order arefound in N. China. See Monkeys.PRIMITIVE. Chinese characters are analysedwhich may or may not give a clueinto the radical,to the meaning but shows in what part of thedictionary to look, and the primitive, which mayor may not give some indication of the sound.When the sound is indicated, the term phonetic isused rather than primitive. A simple example is^ yang ; the radical 'water' points to the meaning,and the phonetic yang gives the pronunciation ; thuswe have yang, ocean.The Chinese, to whom a knowledge of theradicals is a prime necessity, have no name for therest of the character. Marshman 'seems to havebeen the first to study the matter. He ascertainedthat the language contains 3,867 primitives, but that1,689 of them, each in combination with one radical,make seven-eighths of the language. Callery arrangedall words under 1,040 primitives, andSoothill's useful small dictionary uses about 890.WiEGER, the latest writer on the matter, defines aPrimitive as a relatively simple character, havingsound and meaning, and not reducible to othercharacters with sound and meaning. They areelements which, not being composed, compose allother characters. They may be used as eitherradicals or phonetics. In Wieger's work he uses858 'phonetic prolific elements.'Marshman : Clavis Sinica; Williams : SyllabicDictionary (Preface) ; Callery : Systerna; Wieger :Chinese Characters, 1915.PRINTING. Block-printing was first appliedto the production of books at the end of the T'angdynasty. The supposed inventor was Feng Tao[q.v.) who died a.d. 954, though it is also assertedthat the invention can be traced to the Sui dynasty(581-618). Six years after Feng Tag's death theSung dynasty was established and the printing ofbooks from blocks became common.The first authentic account of printing frommovable types dates it at the beginning of theeleventh century, but the process did not then passinto common use.461

PROPAGANDAENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAK'ang Hsi, at the suggestion of the Jesuits,ordered about 250,000 types to be cut in copper.The font disappeared through the carelessness andcupidity of those in charge; Ch'ien Lung orderedit to be recut and it was much used during hisreign.It is stated that in 1850 a Fatshan booksellercast three fonts, and having begun by printinglottery ticketsi went on to an edition of Ma Tuan-linin 120 volumes. Rebels looted his plant in 1855,and foreign surgeons extracted ten types from thewounds of the loyalists.The first fonts of Chinese type made byforeigners were cut by P. P. Thoms in 1815, forthe East India Company's office in Macao, for theobject of printing Mourison's dictionary. A smallfont was cast the same year at Serampore. In 1834,at Pauthier's request, Legrand in Paris cut3,000 matrices'. A set of these was brought toChina in 1844 and was much used by the AmericanMission Press.The Rev. S. Dyer began cutting steel punchesin 1838 and cut 1,845 before his death in 1843.His work was completed by R. Cole.Williams : Movable Types for Printing Chinese,Chinese Recorder, 1875, and Middle Kingdom,p. 600; Jtjlien : Industries de l'Empire cTiinois,p. 152.PROPAGANDA, THE, a brief way of referringto the Holy Congregation for the Propagationof the Faith, founded in 1622.It replaces in thoselands where it has authority, as in China, all otherR. C. Congregations except the Holy Office, (Congregationof the Inquisition).In China all the Vicariats are dependent onthe Propaganda; and the bishops of Macao, thoughsuffragans of the Archbishop of Goa and nominatedby the King of Portugal, receive their powers fromand correspond with the Propaganda.A Propagandist or missionary of the Propagandais one sent direct by the Propaganda and placedby itApostolic.under the immediate authority of the Vicar-PROPAGATION OF THE FAITH. SeeAssociation de la Propagation de la Foi.PROTECTORATE OF MISSIONS, THE.From the days when Louis XIV of France sent thefirst French Jesuits to Peking, the protectorate ofall Roman Catholic Missions had been a duty andprivilege, of the French government. The arrangementhad been confirmed not only by usage butindirectly in treaties. In 1882 Germany firstannounced that she would be responsible for herown subjects, including missionaries, and in 1888Germany, and Italy, following Germany's lead,obtained from the Tsung Li Yamen that passportsto subjects of those powers would only be visitwhen issued by German or Italian consuls'. Francepointed out that this was not in accord with thetreaty of 1858, articles VIII and XIII; and theYamen, between the devil and the deep sea, declaredtheir intention to abide by the former rule if passportsissued under the former conditions were presented.The struggle lasted for some time. The Germanswere insistent and the Pope was not firm, untilthe German Anzer, the new bishop in S. Shantung,received liberty from Rome to make his own choiceof a protector. It is stated that he,—like manyGerman missionaries,—would have preferred tocontinue the protectorate of France, but that hewas intimidated by the brutal urgency of vonBrandt, the German Minister.The placing of the Steyl mission, to whichAnzer belonged, under the protection of Germanyhad for one result, a few years later, the occupationof Kiaochow by Germany when German missionarieswere killed in Shantung.and iii.CoRDiER : Uistoire des Relations, etc., vols, iiPROTECTORS, FIVE,3l^ wu pa, also 3l ffiwu pei, 'five uncles.' The word translated "protector"is not used in the Five Classics, thoughthese are the books that deal with the days whenthe men so styled actually lived and performed thefunctions which gained them the title. In theFour Books Confucius uses it once of duke Huanof Ch'i (Legge, Analects, p. 146). Mencius usesit eight times, speaking in two of the passages of"Five Protectors." (Legge, Mencius, 311, 342).Of the five he particularises only Huan of Ch'i andMu of Ch'in (ibid. 57, 309). On the other hand,the Tso Chuan especially states., when commentingon the death of Mu of Ch'in, why he was notincluded amongst the "Lords of Convenants,"—phrase synonymous with "Proteotor." (Legge,Spring and Autumn Annals, 344). The Tso Chuanalso speaks of "Five Protectors" [ibid. 346) but,inasmuch as the words are put into the mouth ofa Ch'i speaker in the year 589 it would hardly referto a ruler who only died two years before. KuWkn-fu, in his admirable Jih chih lu, (v. Wylie,Notes on Ch. Lit., p. 153), gives the followinginformation (together with the Chinese authoritiesfor each statement). There are two sets of "FiveProtectors" ; one is the Five of the Three Dynasties,the other, the Five of the Spring and AutumnAnnals. The former list is made up thus :K'UN Wu %^, (Hsia dynasty); Ta P'eng:^n, (Shang) Shih Wei ic f:, (Shang) Huan of; ;Ch'i ^U^, (Chou) Wen of Chin ^ % ^,;(Chou),463

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPROTESTANT MISSIONSThere is a good deal of variety in the lists ofthe Five of the Annals. Only two names that occurin the former list are accepted by all, viz.,HuAN of Ch'i, who died in 643, and Wen ofChin, who died in 628.There are numerous cross arrangements of threeof the following six :HsiANG of Sung rtc g ^ (f^- 637) ; Mu of Ch'in^ ^ ^ (d. 621) CiiUANG of Ch'u ^ ^ ; JE (d. 591)Ho Lu of Wu ^ ^ m (d. 496) ; Fu Ch'ai of Wu^ ^ ^ (473) ; Kou Chien of Yiieh m "aJ B (d. 465).The variety of this list shows at once that thereis no fixed criterion of what really constituted a"Protector." The Tso Chua7i s. B.C. 679, commentingon an assembly of state rulers presided over byHuAN of Ch'i says "Huan's Protectorship datesfrom this." (Legge, Spring and Autumn Annals,p. 93). Legge points out that with the exceptionof a special imperial ambassador who presided,exactly the same nobles met in the previous year.Tso, therefore, seems to place the emphasis on theperformance of a function that really belonged tothe emperor.As to the utility of the institution; Chineseopinion seems to be much divided. Confucius, inhis one use of the word, speaks highly of KuanChung who raised his prince to the protectorshipand so saved China from Tartar domination. Onthe other hand Mencius in at least three places(Legge, Mencius, pp. 72, 311, 342) speaks withgreat scorn of the sham goodness of the Protectors.In a very thoughtful essay, which Ssu-ma Ch'ienesteemed fo highly that he has copied it into hispages in extenso, Chia I discusses the causes of theoverthrow of Ch'in Shih Huang Ti. He pointsout that through the Protectors, the Chou dynastywas enabled to prolong its rule over China forcenturies, and contrasts this with the sudden downfallof the Ch'in dynasty. Was it for the good ofChina that the Chou dynasty continued its nominalrule for those centuries? Wen of Chin was, onethinks, the one Protector who might have takenover the empire. His descendants on to Ting Kungwho died in 475, were by far the most powerfulrulers in China.If they had had the added prestigeof empire, some amount of suffering might have beenspared to the border states between Chin and Ch'u.The word "Uncle" is used for the "Protectors,"e.g., in the article in the Jih chih lu which hasbeen so useful in the compilation of this, note,apparently because it was the honorific title thatthe ^cings in self-depreciation used when writingto or speaking to the Protectors. [G.G.W.]PROTESTANT MISSIONS. The Rev. JoshuaMarshman of Serampore, India, is often regardedas the first Protestant Missionary to the Chinese,because, with the help of an Armenian born inMacao, he printed and published the whole Bible inChinese from the Serampore Press in 1817. (SeeBible).The work of Protestant Missions in China maybe divided into four periods :I.—Preparatoi-y period, 1807-1841.II.—From the opening of Hongkong (1841) tillthe Boxer year (1900).III.—From 1900 to the establishment of theRepublic (1911).IV.—From 1911 to the present time (1917).I.— (1807-1841). The first Protestant Missionaryto land in China was Dr. Robert Morrison(q.v.), of the L.M.S. who arrived at Canton in1807, and took up his residence at the E. I.Company's factory. At this time, it was death fora Chinese to teach his language to a foreigner, andforbidden to a foreigner to venture outside thenarrow limits set for the E. I. Company.The first German Protestant Missionary wasDr. K. F. A. GiiTZLAFF {(j-v-), who was sent outby the Netherlands Missionary Society in 1827.The first American to represent ProtestantMissions was the Rev. E. C. Bridgman (q.v.), whoarrived in Canton in 1830. (See American Boardfor Control of Foreign Missions).Other beginnings were made somewhat later bythe Church Missionary Society, the AmericanChurch Mission, the Reformed (Dutch) Church inAmerica, etc. The first church member wasreceived in 1814, but progress was exceedingly slow,and the number of deaths among the missionariesand retirements on account of health was proportionatelyvery great. The work was mostly doneamong the Chinese in the East Indies, the Straits,etc., and a good foundation was laid, especially intranslation, but it was not till the opening ofHongkong (1841) and of the five Treaty Ports (1843)that a footing in China itself can be said to havebeen secured. The opportunity these events gavewas at once seized, and more workers, and otherSocieties arrived.II.— (1841-1900). In 1843, when the firstMissionary Conference was held at Hongkong,fifteen missionaries were present ; but in 1865, whenthe China Inland Mission wasi formed to evangelizethe interior, the Protestant missionaries were 112in number, nearly all resident in the five TreatyPorts. The church members numbered 3,132.The Treaty of Tientsin (1858) had grantedpermission to foreigners to travel inland, andChristianity was to be tolerated ; while by theTreaty of Peking (1860) missionaries were permittedto buy land, to erect buildings and to reside inthe interior. These concessions having beenobtained by force majeure, it was natural that463

PROTESTANT MISSIONSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMission activities should be regarded as veilingpolitical propaganda, and this, added to the intensepride and conservatism of the literati, and thegross superstition of the common people, made workin the interior intensely difficult. A drought, aflood, a plague of locusts, even a missing chUd ora mule suddenly deceased, wasi apt to be ascribedto the wrath of the gods at the propagation ofChristianity, or to the wizardry of the missionariesthemselves.Under these circumstances everything washaphazard. The missionaries established themselvesanywhere where they were permitted to remainoftenafter much rioting and persecution; theypreached to such as^ would listen, and baptized thefew whom they believed to be sincere. Theyopened little schools and dispensaries, assisted infamine relief and other good works, and after atime active opposition would die down. ThusChina gradually became dotted v/ith Missionstations, sometimes many days' journey apart,representing every Protestant sect, and employingwidely different means and methods, but each drawingto itself a number of adherents. Foreign andChinese Christians were alike tolerated, but nomore, and from time to time outbreaks wouldoccur, and martyrdoms sometimes follow.A good deal of "overlapping" took place, andtwo or three Missions would settle in the sameplace or even the same city. In most cases convenience,and not rivalry (as some affirm) decidedthe matter; a place which would tolerate one setof foreigners, was not Jikely to object to more, andsome of the prejudice had already been lived down.Except in cases where opposite extremes of Protestantismwere represented, newcomers weregenerally welcomed by the other missionaries.In spite of difficulties the work progressed, sothat at the Third Conference held in Shanghai in1890, the number of missionaries was reported as1296, with a church membership of 37,287.Every year the number of agents and of convertsincreased; new hospitals were built; newschools were opened, developing sometimes intoColleges and in two or three cases into Universities ;all manner of philanthropic agencies were introducedsuch as schools for the blind and deaf,industrial missions, leper homes, orphanages, etc. ;Mission presses multiplied ; translation and writingof religious and educational books pushed forwardBibles, tracts and Christian periodicals were sentout in increasing numbers. All these things, coupledwith the aggressive actions of certain ForeignPowers, and the Reform Movement in Peking, hadby 1899 so alarmed the Manchu government, thenin the hands of the Empress'-Dowager, that a cleansweep of all foreigners was attempted. (SeeBoxerism). In the persecution that was opened bythe murder of the Rev. S. W. M. Brooks in Shantungon the last day of 1899, of Protestants alone221 foreigners were massacred and 1909 Chineseconverts, while much Mission property was destroyedand many Chinese lost their all or sufferedsevere persecution. The Chinese Government paidccmpensation after order was restored, so far aswas possible.That after nearly a century of missionaryactivity such a persecution was possible, led manyto search for defects in previous methods of work.The lines of least resistance had been taken, withthe result that the converts were mostly from- thehumble classes of the community. Moreover,the Christians, even when they had been educatedby the foreign teachers, were unable to take office,because as Christians, they could not take part inthe Confucian and other rites. After almost ahundred years of free Bibles, free doctoring, andcountless discourses in streeit-chapels and marketplaces, the class which led and formed Chineseopinion—the officials and literati—were as ignorantas ever of the real meaning of Christianity, and ofthe missionary's character and motives. With oneor two honourable exceptions (see Christian LiteratureSociety; International Institute), the attemptto influence the educated classes in favour ofChristianity had either been thought hopeless; orregarded as less important than the direct "savingof souls." The profound impression made on theyoung Emperor, Kuang Hsii and the Reform partyby such men as Dr. Timothy Richard and Dr.Gilbert Reid, had been followed by the coup d'etat,and the Boxer movement; and it was evident thatsome better co-ordinated methods must be evolved.III.— (1900-1911). After the Boxer movementa new respect was felt for Christianity, for themissionaries who returned as soon as possible totheir old stations, and for the Chinese Church,which as a whole stood firm in the hour of trial.The occupation of Peking by the Allied Forces,the flight of the Emperor and Empress-Dowager,the punishment of officials responsible for themassacres, and the imposition of indemnities, alsotaught the Chinese a lesson, and by the awakeningof a keen desire for Western learning, so as todefeat the foreigners on their own ground, gavefresh impetus to the movement for using highereducation as a prominent part of mission work.The missionaries themselves were convinced that fartoo little emphasis had been placed in the past oneducation, and to remedy this defect as economicallyas possible, various Societies embarked on variousUnion schemes, which, starting in the field ofHigher Education, were to have far reaching consequences{v. infra).The Report of the Centenary Conference heldat Shanghai in 1907 gave figures for the year 1905464

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPROTETas follows—Missionaries, 3,445; Church Members,178,254.IV.—The Revolution of 1911, while it upsetordinary routine work for a time, gave a greatimpetus to missions. Except in Shensi, where the Kolao Ilui got the upper hand of the Revolutionarieswith whom they had allied themselves, the foreignerswere protected. Many of the agitators were infact or in name Christians (mostly Prptestant)large numbers had been in Mission schools, or hadimbibed Western ideas from contact with Christians; and the great majority of the Chinese Churchwas in sympathy with the movement, for theycould not forgive the Manchus for the Boxer yeai\With the declaration of Religiousi Liberty,Christianity became fashionable for a time; timidconverts found it easy to avow themselves ;andit was to the Christian elements that the NewChina turned for advice as to the new educationand new laws to be established.The chief developments of the last few yearsmay be summarized as ifoUows :—1.—The Union schemes begun after the Boxermovement have extended and are still extending.They are of three kinds, (a) the coalescing ofsimilar Missions, owing to the union of Homebodies; ('/) the union of Missions from differentcountries belonging to the same denomination;{() the close co-operation of different branches ofthe Church in some special side of the work.The last presents problems which the other twodo not raise, and these have not as yet been fullysolved, but nevertheless, beginning with Highea-Education they have spread so as to embraceMedical work and training. Institutional, Industrialand latterly Evangelistic work, the last nameddating from the visit of Mr. Sherwood Eddy toChina in 1914.2.—The great increase in postal facilities andrailway communications has revolutionized Missions"as well as everything else. Chinese Christians andforeign missionaries from all parts meet and conferin a way impossible before. It seems also,, as ifthe heroic age of Chinese Missions was past, andas if business acumen is to some extent taking theplace of the initial fervour. Systematic enquirieshow to prevent over-lapping, how to promoteefficiency, how to secure wise and equitable use offunds, and the proper distribution of forces, withthe gathering of statistics, etc., show that thescientific spirit is abroad. The dangers attendanton the worship of organization and method, neednot be pointed out; many missionaries are wellaware of them, while appreciating the advantagesthat system always gives.3—The Great Protestant Missionary (.onferenceat Edinburgh in 1910 resulted infr aha mthe holding of a number of Conferences in Chinain 1913, and these in their turn led to the establishmentof the China Continuation Committee (q.v.).4.—The Chinese Church is taking a larger shareof responsibility, financial and otherwise. The riseof an educated Christian community, some membersof which belong to the third and even fourthgeneration of Christians, with the new ideasbrought in at the Revoluition, has resulted in afeeling among the Church members that they arecapable of criticizing their foreign teachers andtheir methods, and occasionally a restive spirit hasbeen manifested, and Independent churches startedin a spirit of rivalry; but the great body isi loyalto its foreign teachers and their Societies, whorejoice to see their converts beginning to shoulderthe burdens and responsibilities of the Christiancommunity.5.—While the philanthropic agencies havescarcely touched the fringe of Chinese need, theyhave been a valuable apologetic for Christianityandl it is now conceded that their greatest valuehas been educational, i.e., they are showing theChinese how to set about doing similar things forthemselves ; especially is this the case in educationand medicine. While other factors have doubtlesscontributed to the spread of Western education,it is to the missionary that the leavening of theinterior is mainly due.In the China Mission Year-book for 1917 thefollowing figures are given :—There were in 1916, 143 Protestant Missionarybodies working in China, in addition to 46 independentmissionaries. Of these bodies 26 have more thanfifty agents, the C.I.M. leading with 1,077, andthe A.P.M. coming next with 427.97 Societies are engaged in some one specialkind of work, e.g., distribution of the Scriptures,or educational or philanthropic work, and do notorganize churches; most of the remainder engagein several forms of pastoral and evangelisticactivity, medical, educational, philanthropic andliterary being the chief.Number of Foreign Missionaries 6,164Chinese Assistants ... 19,057 (1915)Communicants ... 330,026 ,,Total Christian constituency ... 511,142 ,,Centenary History of Protestant Missions,1907 ; China Mission Year Books, 1910-1917.[C.E.C]PROTET, AUGUSTE LEOPOLD, bornFebruary20, 1808, at Saint-Servan, was rear-admiralin the French navy, and met his death in the attackon Nan-ch'iao (Nanjao) in the T'ai P'ing rebellion,May 17, 1862. He was buried in Shanghai, and astatue has been put up in his honour in front ofthe Municipal Hall in the French Concession there.:>9465

PROVERBSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPROVERBS. What foreign writers havechosen to collect as proverbs are very abundant inChina; but it may be questioned whether suchsentences as "Everything is difficult at first," "Ourdaily bread depends on Heaven," "Do good regardlessof consequences," etc., which are taken atrandom from a foreigner's collection, are rightlyso called. The best known collections are those byW, Scarborough, A Collection of Chinese Proverbs,A. Smith, Chinese Proverbs, and those in variousvolumes of the China Review by T. W. Pearce,Sir J. H. Stewart-Lockhart, M. Schatjb, andMiss C. M. EiacETTS.PRO-VICAR, (Roman Catholic term), is apriest charged temporarily with the rule of aVicariat-apostolic. In some Missions the Vicarsgeneralof the Vicar-apostolic are called by thisterm.PROVINCES. See Eighteen Provinces.PR UN US. See Apricots, Plums, Cherries.PRUSSIAN BLUE. The manufacture of thischemical was first introduced into China by aChinese sailor during the 19th century. A curioususe for it is to give green tea its colour.PRYER, WILLIAM BURGES, died in 1899,while British Consul at Sandakan. He had beenthe first curator of the Museum at Shanghai, (RoyalAsiatic Society, North China Branch), and was theauthor of various papers on zoological subjects.PRJEVALSKY, NICOLAI MIKHAILOVICH,a celebrated Ru&sian explorer who was born onMarch 31, 1839, of noble parents, near Smolensk.In 1867 he joined the East Siberian Army. Hemade four great journeys in Central Asia and diedat the beginning of a fifth, at Karakol, on October20, 1888. The accounts of these journeys werewritten in Russian, but have been translated intoFrench and German. The results of his explorationswere very important to science, both togeography and to natural history.Bretschneider : European Botanical Disfcoveries;Cordier : Bibliotheca Sinica.PSALMANAZAR, GEORGE, an extraordinaryswindler, who posed as a native of Formosa andpublished the Historical and Geographical Descriptionof For/aosa, an Island subject to the Emperorof Japan, in 1704. The work was most circumstantialand most sensational; it contradicted thesober statements of the Dutch missionai-y Candidlus; it described human sacrifices, 18,000 annually,filled the island with elephants, rhinoceri, camelsand sea-horses, and illustrated all with wood-cuts.The writer not only tickled the public love for themarvellous, but also pandered to the hatred andsuspicion then felt with regard to the Jeisniits.He came to London in 1703 and was a lion fora time. He translated for the Bishop of London(Compxon) the Catechism into Formosan. At theRoyal Institution he sustained a public discussionwith Father Fontenay, for 18 years a missionaryin Formosa.Later he was sincerely penitent, and afteradmitting the fabulous nature of the Descriptionhe settled down to a quiet and respectable life ofhard work as a writer, in his humility and remorsepublishing anonymously. In Bowen's CompleteSystem of Geography (1747) he contributed twochapters on Formosa and alluded to his formerwork as fabulous. At eighty years old he wasmuch vii^ited by Dr. Johnson and was muchregarded for the earnestness of his piety and theregularity of his devotions.His Memoirs appeared in 1765 ; but to this, dayit is unknown who he really was, from what parentshe came and what was his country; though someaccountsi state that he was born in Languedoc andwas named N. F. de B. Rodes.Farrer : Literary Forgeries.PSITTACI.See Parrots.PSYCHIC PHENOMENA IN CHINA. Thereare numerous instances of recognized forms ofabnormal psychic activity in Chinese legends, andmany actual cas«s have been observed by explorersand missionaries.They may be roughly grouped as follow :(1) Multiple Peisoiiaiity [Demoniacal Possession).Cases of rapid and intermittent change of characterare frequently referred to. There is a Chinesetheory that the "animus" {hun, i^) can issue fromthe body during trance, leaving the body sustainedby the "anima" {p'o, fj^].Exorcism is a regularfeature of Taoist practice and several Chri-tianmissionaries have claimed to have successfullyapplied apo-stolic methods.(2) Autoscopic Practices.—A form of spiritpencil or planchette, consisting of a suspendedstylus which can oscillate and write characters in adish of sand by the automatic or subliminal impulsesof persons holding it, is to be seen in sometemples. Some of the Taoist classiest are said tohave been automatically composed in this way.The method of divination by stalks can be autofscopicif proper methods are used.(3) Hypnotism.—Father Dore states that atWuhu old women invoke the dead to enterhypnotised boys (Cf. Lane's Modern Egyptians).Similar methods were employed in the Boxertrouble to produce enthusiasm and insensibility topain. It would seem that there is a general beliefin the possibility of thus getting into contact with"Masters," i.e., sages.466

BNCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPUSA(4) Auto-Hypnosis.—A method of exercises forthe production in oneself of abnormal psychicconditions (ecstasy, etc.), has long been used bythe Taoists, entitled kung-fu, X:k i.e., leisure.Amiot : Mdmoires sur les Chinois; Giles :Adversaria Sinica; Historic China and OtherSketches; Nevius : Demon Possession and AlliedThemes; Dobe : Researches into Chinese Superstitions;Chatley : Chinese Philosophy and Magic;Journal Eoy. Soc. Arts, 1911; Magical Practicein China, N.C.B.R.A.S. Journal, 1917. [H.C.IPUFFINS.See Tuhinares.P'U HSIEN, a Bodhisattva. See Samantabhadra.PU K'UNG:?;S,a Buddhist monk of Ceylonor N. India, whose name was Amogha, who cameto China in 733 and was honoured by several successiveemperors of the T'ang dynasty at Ch'angan.He is noted as the founder of the Festival ofDeparted Spirits, held on the 15th day of the7th moon.PUMELO.See Pomelo.PUNISHMENTS. Those recognised by theChinese Ptnal Code at the end of the Manchudynasty were : 1. Flogging on the back of thethighs with a flat piece of bamboo. 2. Exposurein the cangue {q.v.). 3. Banis'hment to a givendistance, permanently or for a given time.4. Death by strangulation, beheading or the socalled 'lingering death.' See Law.PUNISHMENTS, BOARD OF, Jf)) %, wasestablished at the capital (K'ai-feng fu) byT'Ai Tsu, first ruler of the Sung Dynasty.(950-976 A.D.). The power of life and death wasthus taken away from the Provincial officials, whohad often abused it. (See Six Boards).PUNTI, ?Js; it pen ti; of the soil; native, asopposed to foreign ; often used for local, especiallyof southern dialects, as Punti language, dictionary,etc.PUR AN AS. A class of Brahmanic writings,containing ancient doctrines of philosophy, mythologyand asceticism.PURE LAND SCHOOL, W±m ching t'utsung, an important School of Chinese Buddhism.It is' also known as the Lotus School {Lien tsung^ ^ )and as the Short Cut, [hing ch'ao ||| 0).Johnston treats of it under the name Amidism.The teaching of this school is that moral andmental effort may be replaced by simple faith inAmitabha and constant invocation of his name(0-mi-to Fo). It is, as might be expected, a verypopular School,The 'Pure Land' is the Paradise of the West,where Amitabha reigns and receives those whohave called upon his name. But in calling it theWestern Heaven all notions of geography should beforgotten; eac^ of the Buddhas has his heaven insome region of the universe, but these regions areoutside of space. The particular doctrine of theschool is based on one of the vows made byAmitabha : "When I become Buddha," said he,"I'C't all living beings of the ten regions^ of theuniverse maintain a confident and joyful faith inme; let them concentrate their longings on arebirth in my Paradise ; and let them call upon myname, be it only ten times or less : then, providedthey have not been guilty of the five heinous sins,and have not vilified the true religion, the desire ofsuch beings to be born in my Paradise will surelybe fulfilled. If this be not so, may I never receivethe perfect enlightenment of Buddhahood."The Sutra in which the^e vows are recordedstates that the man who with steadfast faith callson the name of Amitabha (0-mi-to Fo) for a weekor even a day, may face death with calm confidence,because Amitabha will assuredly appear to him andbear him away to a new birth in Paradise ; andthe commentators assert that on the other handno amount of virtue unaccompanied by invocationsof the name will s^lffice to secure an entrance intoParadise.This contrasts strongly with the original teachingsof Buddhism, but the short cut to blissnaturally became so popular that no School ofBuddhism in China could afford to condemn it, andnearly all the monasteries to-day are tolerant ofthe Pure Land School teachings.Hui YiiAN, who lived from 333 to 416, isgenerally regarded as the founder of the School,though the doctrine was found in China at a muchearlier date. He founded a monastery in Hupei,and, because there was there a pond where whitelotus grew, the brotherhood received the name ofthe White Lotus sect. This had to be discardedlater as a name for the whole Society, since itbecame the name of a much dreaded secret politicalfaction.See Buddhist Schools.Johnston : Buddhist China.P U R P L E M U NTA I N (§1 ^ 111) rz« chin shan,a long, low hill rising to about 1,200 feet, east ofNanking and close to the city. With modern arm.sit commands the city, and much fighting took placeon it both in the Revolution of 1911 and in theuprising in 1913.PUSA. The Sanskrit word bodhisattva (q.v.)is written in Chinese p'u t'i sa t'o and is nearlyalways abridged by Chinese writers into p'u sa,467

P'U SUNG LINGENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICApronounced poo-sa in English. While properlymeaning a bodhisattva the term is roughly ap'pliedby foreigners to any god or idol.P'U SUNG LING, fiJfSS^, the author ofLiao Chat (Jhi/i I (q.v.). His literary name wasLiu-HsiEN ^ fUi, 'last of immortals' and he wasalso known as Liu-CH'iiAN, 'willow-spring.' He wasa native of Tzu-ch'uan in Shantung and was bornearly in the seventeenth century.PUTCHUK, 7fc§ mu-hsiang, the root ofAurl'Jatidia cost us or of Aflotaxis auriculata, has astrong peppery odour. It is used as a tonic andgentle stimulant. Broken putchuk is used in themanufacture of joss-sticks and the powder topreserve clothes.P'U T'O or POOTOO (If Pfe),of the Buddhists in the Chusan group.the sacred islandThe full nameis P'u t'o lo lea {^%i^%). The sacred mountainPotaloka is the hill from which Avalokitesvaralooks down. The cult of this bodhisattva spread toTibet, where a second Potaloka was created atLhasa, and to China where the bodhisattva becameKuan-yin, [q.v.) and a new Potaloka (P'ut'o) arose.The fame of P'ut'o shan dates from 847 a.d.,when a Buddhist ascetic from India, worshippingKuan Yin in the Chao-yin cave there, beheld avision of the goddess.About ten years later a Japanese monk, namedEgaktj, sent by the Empress-dowager of Japan ona religious mission to China, visited the island.soon became a favourite resort of devout pilgrimsand numerous anchorites lived in solitary hermitages.Not only were other manifestations of thegoddess vouchsafed, but miracles of healing tookplace in the waters of the sacred well near (thecave, one as late as the beginning of the 16thcentury. The Sung Emperors were greatly interestedin the island, and the Yiian Emperors sentpresents from time to time. Under the Mingdynasty the monks suffered so much from Japanesepirates that they all removed to the mainland, saveone who remained in charge of the i*uined buildings.In 1515 a small monastery was rebuilt, and in1572 a monk from Wu T'ai shan, with Imperialhelp, set about rebuilding others.ItThe Ming Emperor Wan-li presented a completeBuddhist Tripitaka to the monks. In 1665Dutch pirates, driven out of Formosa by Koxinga,plundered the temples at Pu-t'o, and set fire tomany of the buildings. These, with other depredationsby Chinese and Japanese pirates, compelledthe monks once more to abandon the island. In1688, however, they returned and under thepatronage of K'ang Hsi rebuilt many of themonasteries and temples.In the earlier period, the monks at P'ut'ofollowed the rules of the Lii or Vinaya school ofdoctrine but in 1131 the teaching of the Ch'an orDhj-ana school was introduced, and in the 17thcentury it entirely superseded the Lii rule.At the present time there are nearly a hundredmonasteries and temples on the island, besides apagoda and sacred rocks, with over a thousandmonks. The two principal monasteries are theP'u chi or Ch'un ssu first mentioned in the islandrecords in 1699, and the Fa-yii or Hou ssu. Nobuilding is older than the 14th century. TheT'ai tsu pagoda was erected by a monk in 1334,of .'tone brought from the neighbourhood of theT'ai hu near Soochow. The Fan-yin cave is famousfor possessing relics of Sakyamuni Buddha placedthere by a Benares pilgrim in 1626.R. F. Johnston : Buddhist China (1913).P'U T'O SHAN. See P'ut'o.PYGOPODES, an Order containing the Diversand Grebes. The following species are found inChina. PoDicirEDiDAE ; Podicipes philippensis, theIndian Little Grebe or Dabchick, frequents therivers and lakes, but in cold weather sometimeswithdraws to the coast. P. nijricollis, the EaredGrebe, in winter, in all the northern provinces, anddown to Amoy. P. conintus, the Slavonian Grebe.P. cristatus, the Great Crested Grebe, common onthe coast in the south ;goes north to Chihli and beyondin summer P. hoelbelli the Eastern Red-neckedGrebe. (CoLYMBroAE : Divers); Colymhus septentriondis,the Red-throated Diver and C. arcticus,the Black-throated Diver, both on the China coast.David et Otjstalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine,(Podicides).PYRUS SINENSIS.See Pears.QQAAN, according to Yule the proper form ofthe title commonly written Khan. It is alsowritten Kaan and is identical with Khaqan, whichin the Byzantine historians becomes >faya'Jo;.Khaqan (khakan, khagan, qagan) is .«aid to havemade its first appearance in a.d. 402, and to havethe same meaning as Huang Ti, (Supreme Ruler).Yule quotes Quatremere to the effect that468

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICARADICALChknghis did not use the high title of Qaan, butLa Couperie says that he did receive the title Khan.Khan is the ordinary title of Mongol chiefs,and its use has spread far and the term has becomedegraded; while Qaan is the peculiar title of thesupreme chief of the Mongols. It is, however, ofno use to try to change so old a custom, andC'henghis Khan and Khubilai Khan will alwaysbe so styled.Yule : Cuthuij and the Way Thither, vol. i,p. 149, note.QAGAN, the title of the chief of the NorthernTurks in the sixth and seventh centuries, as jabijuwas the title of the Western Turks. The word isalso written Khahhan. See Qaan.Ydle : Cathay and the Way Thither, vol. i,p. 58.QUA, as in Howqua, Mingqua, etc. A wordof respectful meaning added at the end of a namein the south, equivalent to Mr. or Esquire. It isthe word '^ kuan, an official or mandarin.QUAIL FIGHTING. QuaiLs are trained forthe .'port, and the combatants are pitted againstone another on a railed table. Millet is thrown tothem, and as soon as one picks up a grain the otherbegins the fight. It is the occasion for heavybetting. It is a popular amusement in the south.^ Chi chou taoor $H; ^ Tan h>, the foreign name being that of aQUELPART ISLAND, ^ il-HDutchman. It lies south of Korea, a large islandwith no harbours.QUEMOY, ^F^, golden gate, the mandarinpronunciation of the characters being chin men;'a small island east of the island on which Amoystands.QUENGIANFU, the name for Hsi-an fu m^Min Marco Polo. See Quid Fu.QUEUE or CUE or 'pigtail,' in Chinese,pien tzu j^ -J-.The plait of long hair worn by allni.ale Chinese throughout the Manchu dynasty(1650-1912). It,—together with the shaving of partof the head,—was forced on the people as a tokenof their submission to the Manchus. The badge ofservitude was long resisted in Fukien and Swatow,and with the fall of the dynasty in 1911 the queuedisappeared in all revolutionary districts, and lateralmost everywhere.QUIA FU, found in the Catalan Atlas (q.v.)for Hsi-an fu ®^jfj; the same as Marco Polo'sQuengianfu.QUICKSILVER.See Minerals.QUICKSILVER, VEGETABLE, ^M ts'aohung. The Pen ts'ao Kang mu (q.v.) states thatquicksilver, identical in appearance and propertieswith metallic mercury, is produced from the plantcalled Ma ch'ih hsien, Portulaca olcracea, and itdescribes the process of extraction in great detail.See Minerals.RRACCOON DOG, THE, Nyctereutcsfror.ynnide»,is founS in Manchuria and Korea, and asmaller variety on the Yangtze. It produces thefur known in trade as Chinese coon.SowEBBY : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii.RADICAL, the usual name for that part of aChinese character which is used as a key or classifierto fix its place in the Chinese dictionary. It oftenindicates part of the meaning of the character.Thus the presence of f ni 'sick,' shows in what partof the dictionary to look for the character containingit, and also indicates that the character hassomething to do with disease. Similarly with suchradicals as ^ rhin, metal, or it» hsin, heart. Inmany cases, however, the radical gives no clue tothe meaning ; often it is hard to distinguish fromthe other parts of the character ; and in some cases,being chosen arbitrarily it has been chosen badly.E.g. f^ shu, "^ pai, ^ chv, are characters withunsatisfactory radicals*.In dictionaries both foreignand native, there is a list given of those charactersthe radicals of which are difficult or impossible todiscern.The Chinese name is ^ ]5^ tzu pu. In theShuo cla-ssifiers was 540;Wen (q.v.) the number ofin K'ang Hsi's dictionary they were reduced to214. See Primitive.Williams : Syllabic Dictionary, IntroductionWiEGER : Chinese Characters.469

RAILSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICARAILS.RAILWAYS.See Grallae.History.—Railway enterprise inChina was born at Shanghai some forty years laterthan its English parent. In 1863, twenty-sevenShanghai merchants, mostly British, petitionedLi Hung-chang, Viceroy of the Province, forpermisision to build a railway connecting Shanghaiwith Soochow. Li Hung-chang is known now asthe first powerful friend of railway development.But he refused the petition, and the two cities, lessthan 200 kilometres apart, remained unconnected byrail for forty years more.Another project was immediately brought forward.The Soochow line would have carriedShanghai traffic inland ; the new proposal was toconnect Shanghai with its port—Woosung. Begunin 1865, the agitation subsided and was revivedseveral times until finally a contract was signed inAugu^•t, 1875. On January 20, 1876 the rail waslaid,—of a 26-lb. section in a track of 30 inchesgauge. On February 14 following, the "Pioneer,"2,200 lbs., ran three quarters of a mile,—the firstlocomotive trip in China. The auspicious friendlinessunder which the first operations of this linetook place took a sudden turn six months later, theoccasion being the death of a native hit by thelocomotive.In spite of this, the line was completedto Woosung before the end of the year, but theGovernment took the line over, and closed it downOctober 20, 1877. The rolling stock was shipped, toFormosa and dumped on the beach. •In the meantime, Li Hung-chang had beentransferred as Viceroy to Chihli, and the same yearthat the Woosung line was torn up he granted toToNG King-sing permission to build a tramway ofeleven kilometres from the Tongshan-Kaiping Coalmines to deep water at Hsu Ke Chuang. This permissioncovered the use of animals as motive power,but the officers in charge of the line planned theirline otherwise from the start. For example, theEnglish engineer, Kinder, fixed the gauge at 4 feet8^ inches in the settled conviction that he wasbuilding a section of what was destined to be arailway system. He proceeded to construct a locomotiveout of scrap iron and other local materials,with a view toward preparing the way for theregular use of steam power. The line was completedin 1881 and this locomotive, christened" Rocket of China," was set at work on thehundredth anniversary of the birth of the builderof the first "Rocket," George Stephenson. It iaworth passing note that the first locomotive operatedon the first permanent railroad in China was madein China; it is preserved in the Museum of Communications.In 1886 the first extension to a Chinese railwaywas begun, the tramway above mentione

jjENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICARAILWAYSas fast as the government desired. This was ,availed of, and from French and English sourcesfunds were borrowed by which the entire Belgian!loan was refunded. Under the new Franco-Britishagreement not only was this portion of the profitssaved, but the degree of foreign control was very'|In the meantime the profits of the Peking-Mukden line, augmented by the heavy traffic incidentto tho PvU.5so-Japanese War, were set aside for anew line. This line was not only built out ofChinese funds, but was surveyed and constructedby Chinese engineers, and is officered by Chinese.The construction work equalled that of any, whileIthe per mile cost was almost 30% less. Though itnow practically reaches the Mongolian border, theof railways.Other lines found in the government system arethe retrults of other foreign loans which will benoted later, and of the so-called "local movement."The Peking-Mukden, the Peking-Hankow andthe Peking-Kalgan lines were each conspicuousfinancial successes. So, to the enthusiasm for railwaysas a military arm was added the excitementover the discovery of a new source of revenue.IPrivate initiative, which had built the first few|kilometres, again came to the fore. Many linesserving important industrial or commercial regionswere started. But there was very little practical[railroad experience connected with the movement.Accounting methods were very lax, and consequentlysuspicions were easily aroused. The local linesbegan to collapse, and the central government beganto take them over as scattei-ed sections of a broadscheme of national lines covering the eighteenprovinces. Many explanations may be offered whythis should have aroused opposition to the reigningdynasty. But whatever the explanation, nationalizationof railroads was seized upon as the chiefevil purpose of the Manchus and as high justificationfor their overthrow. The Revolution succeeded,but evidently a national system under the Manchuswas one thing and a national syistem under aRepublic was quite another. For nothing more washeard of the opposition, and practically all theprivate and provincial railways have been nationalized.Foreign Loans.—Nearly four-fifths of thecapital invested in Chinese government railwayshave been secured from foreign sources. The termsunder which these sums have been secured varyconsiderably, but in essentials the contracts aremuch alike. There are the usual clauses naming theparties, the amount of the loan, the discount rateof issue, the interest rate which is payable halfyearly,and the term of loan, which runs frommaterially lowered. Thus by 1909 both the Peking- twenty to fifty years.|Mukden and the Peking-Hankow linesi, together The security offered is usually a first mortgagesome 2,000 kilometres long, were distinctly Chinese on the line, guaranteed further by the Chinesegovernment lines.government. In some cases certain governmentalrevenues are added as special security. In caseinterest or other capital obligations are not paid asspecified, the mortgagees may take over completecontrol of the property until all arrears are satisfied.The termini and general course of the line tobe built are mentioned. The government appointsa Managing Director as its representative, to superviseconstruction ; the mortgagees nominate theforeign technical staif, which nominations are con-first section ran only to Kalgan, some 210 !kilometres firmed by the Managing Director. Native appointmentsare practically at the discretion of thefrom Peking. This was in ioperation iu 1909, andwith the lines to Mukden and Hankow, definitely Managing Director. An agreement for operationestablished the integrity of a government system under a similarly framed organization is also madesometimes.The mortgagee acts as underwriter and trusteefor sale of mortgage bonds, and receives a commissionof one-fourth of one per cent. (som.etimesa lump sum) for such services, and in connectionwith interest and similar payments. Chinesematerials are to have preference if quality and termsare equal to those offered from abroad; otherwise,nationality of mortgagee is to be favoured, mortgageeto act as purchasing agent and to have a commission,commonly 5 per cent., on jjurchases abroad.Depositories and interest rate on balances arespecifiedL Provision is made for amortization ofthe loan, beginning at a certain date.The contract can be delegated only to personsof the same nationality as that of the mortgagee.Provisions are generally made for a reasonable poHt.ponement in case of war or other untoward event,and cancellation if there appears no prospect offulfilment within a reasonable period.The official text of the agreement is in thelanguage of the mortgagee.Several contracts carry the provision that thebondholders are to receive twenty per cent, of therevenue remaining after expenses, interest andsimilar charges have been paid. Among such arethe Shanghai-Nanking, the Chengtai, the Kaifeng-Honan, and the Taokow-Chinghua lines. On theTientsin-Pukow and the Shanghai-Hangchow-Ningpolines this provision was eliminated from the finalcontract by the payment of a lump sum.In certaincontracts for lines yet to be constructed similarprovisions in the preliminary contracts have beencommuted in the same way.471

IRAILWAYSENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAFOREIGN LOANS OUTSTANDING ON RAILWAY LINES IN OPERATION.LineDateof flrsissueLenderAmountAuthorizedOutstandingDec. 31, 1915h ill_ s^1Additional SecuritypledgedPeking-Makden 1899 British & Chinese CorporationDo. Do. 1909 South JlanchuriaRailwayShansi, Shensl, HonauProvincial revenues oi$27,600,000 $20,010,000 89 5°o 1905 1944and Auhui up to Tls.377,142 251,426 93 5°o 1910 192750,000.CbenfT-Tai 1903 Russo-Ohinese Bank 16,666,657 14,930,646 90 »% 1913 1933Peking-Hankow 1898 Society Finauci^re etIiidustrielle Beigeen ChineDo. Do. 1909 Hongkong & ShanghaiBanking Corp.;Banqiie de I'ludo-Chine£4,.i00,.000 Xone 90 4°o 1903 1928 (Refunded in 1909).$55,692,208 $55,692,208 94 ""o 1919 1939 Certain Provincial revenuesof Chekiang,Kiangsu, Hupei, Chihli.Do. Do. 1911 Yokohama Specie Bank Y 10,000,000 Y 10,003,00) 95 5°o 1921 1936 Surplus earnings of Peking-Hankowand Tributegrain conversion tax.SUunghni-Nanking 1904 Jardine, Matheson & $34,90,5,514 $29,955,514 90.96J 5-6 1954Co.: Hongkong &Shanghai BankingCorpoiatiouShaughai-Hangchow 1908 ( British & Chinese Cor- J p3 5°,o 1918 1938-Ningpo{ poration 17,030,208 17,030,208Do. Do. 19U ( Do. hi 6% 1934 1924 Surplus earnings of Pekin,'-MukdenRailway.Kaifeng-Honau 1905 La Compagnie Impe'riuledes Cnemins15,601,218 1.5,601,218 90-95J 6°.o1915 1935de for ChinoisTientsin-Pnkovr 1908 Dentsche Asiatische / 53,805,704 53,805,704 98|-10 5°/o1918 1938Do. Do. 19(19 Bank; Hongkong &Do. Do. 1910 > Shanghai Banking i 30,721,180 30,721,180 lOOJ 5°,o1920 1940CorporationDo. Do. 1910 ; lll,112,734 11,112,731 100 7°,o none 1912 (Term has been extendedfrom time to time.)Caatan-Kowloon 1907 British and Chinese 16,600,000 16,500,000 94 -5°o 1937CorporationTaokow-CUingbua 190.5 Peking Syndicate 7,625,148 7,625,148 90 o-o 1916 1936Kirin-Changchnn 1909 So nth Manchuria 2,328,418 2,042,300 93 6°o 1915 1934 Surplus earnings of PekiuK-MukdenRailway.Adnmiistration.—Control of the Chinese GovernmentRailways is exercised under the jurisdictionof the Chiao Tang Pu, Minbtry of Communications,The Minister of Communications is a member ofthe Cabinet, appointed ostensibly by the President.He has supervision a.s well of Posts and Telegraphs,which are also government-owned, and also ofNavigation matters.The idea of railroads in China having originatedamong foreigners, it was a matter of course thatpermission to construct should be sought throughthe departments of Foreign Affairs. For someyears foreign loans for railways were considered tobe in the field of international politics which, ofcourse, required continued oversight from thediplomats. But an appreciation of the technicalaspects of railway finance, construction and operationbegan to grow, and in 1903 the Foreign Office(Tsungli Yamen) was relieved of railway affairs andthe Board of Commerce charged with them. In1906, a separate department was formed to controlrailway, po-tal, telegraph, and navigation affairs.This department wa« called the Yu-Chuan Pu,Board of Communications and Posts. It was aboutthis time that work on the Peking-Kalgan line wasbegun and the decision was made to refund theloan on the Peking-Hankow, thereby saving thebondholder's share of profits and at the same timereducing the degree of control by foreigners. Thename of this department was changed to ChiaoTung Pu in 1912, in connection with the generalreorganization which marked the advent of theRepublic.In the reorganization just referred to it wasfound that each line was treated as a separateentity. The right of control reserved by the472

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICARAILWAYSgovernment in the loan contracts was but slightlyexercised. Each line had a different system ofaccounts, reflecting as a rule the practice of thenationality furnishing the loana. On some linesthere could not be said to be a set of accounts, butmerely a record of receipts and disbursements.In answer to the petition of Wang Ching-chun,it was decided to prescribe a uniform system ofaccounts to be followed by all of the lines subjectto the jurisdiction of the Government. A commissionwas formed for this purpose, consisting ofthe chief accountants of the several lines, certainmembers of the Ministry, with Dr. Wang Chingchunas Acting Chairman in charge. Dr. HenryC. Adams, formerly in charge of Statistics andAccounts for the Interstate Commerce Commission,U.S.A. was engaged as Adviser. Altogether, sixnationalities were represented on the Commission.The whole financial and accounting practices werethoroughly considered, and a Classification ofCapital Expenditures was issued July 22, 1914,Classifications of Operating Revenue, OperatingExpenses, New Lines and Extensions and ofAdditions and Betterments, Income Account, Profitand Loss Account, Surplus Appropriation Account,and General Balance Sheet followed rapidly, all intime to go into effect as on January 1, 1915. Supplementaryto the above and as an integral part ofthe system there were issued a set of Rules for thetreatment of Train and Locomotive Mileage and aform for Annual Reports: concerning railway statistics,etc.The system of accounts thus promulgated isthoroughly modern. One special feature is that theclassification of Maintenance charges has been drawnalong the same lines as that of Capital Expenditures.Thus, periodically, a ratio between Investment andMaintenance costs may be. computed. It isi believedthat in time such ratios will have considerablestatistical value.By means of periodical reports made up on thebasis of the classifications given above, the Ministrymay exercise considerable supervision. The principalreports which are required are monthly reportsof construction, monthly reports of Operating Revenuesand Operating Expenses, the Budget, andan Annual Report. The Ministry intends to combinethese Annual Reports into a total for theChinese Government Railways considered as onesystem. A trial report, denominated "First PreliminaryReport, Chinese Government Railways,"covering the first six months of 1915, was issuedduring 1916.For the actual administration each line is placedunder an Administrative Office. The organizationand working of each Administration Office differs60478according to the terms of the loan. It generallyreflects the practice current in the country fromwhich the funds are derived. For supervising theconstruction and operation of the railway, a foreignEngineer-in-Chief is nominated by the Mortgageeand approved by the Ministry. The appointments,functions and salaries of all other officers andemployees are arranged by the Managing Directorand the Engineer-in-Chief and reported to theMinistry. In the case of important officers, theapproval of the Ministry must precede appointment.The working of the railway closely followswhat is commonly called the departmental system.At the head of each administration is the ManagingDirector who is immediately responsible to theCentral Government. Usually there is an AssociateDirector whose duty it is to assist the ManagingDirector in the administration of the Railway.During the absence of the Director, the AssociateDirector takes charge. Sometimes a GeneralManager is also appointed to assist the Directors.Immediately reporting to the Directors are thedepartmental chiefs. As a rule, each railway hasthe following departments :The General Department.The Traffic Department.The Engineering Department.The Locomotive Department, which alsotakes charge of the Workshops.The Accounts Department.For operating and engineering purposes eachline is divided into a number of sections accordingto the length of line and density of traffic, and eachsection is placed under a district engineering ortraffic inspector as the case may bei. Below thedistrict engineers are the section foremen andgangers who look after the maintenance and repairsof the line, while below the traffic inspectors are thestation masters, train conductors, guards, etc.TheLocomotive Department also divides the line intorunning sections, each of which isi placed under alocomotive inspector, who supervises the locomotivestaff and controls the engines. As each administrationhas only some 600 to 800 miles of line, thisdepartmental system has proved quite suitable.There is no distinct department for developingnew business, such as exists in many countries.Questions of rates, fares and adaptation to commercialneeds are in the charge of the same departmentwhich supervises transportation, i.e., theTraffic Department.Physical Characteristics.—The length of railwayline in China is shewn approximately in the followingtable :

|RAILWAYSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAKILOMETRES OF RAILWAY IN OPERATION, DECEMBER 31, 1915.Xame of Line Kilometres Name of Line KilometresGOVERNMENT RAILWAYS Government System— cowr. 5,254Peking-Hankow 1,303 Government Lines in operation but technicallyPeking-Mukden 976 "under construction."Tientsin-Pukow 1,107 Kalgan-Suiyuan Extension 191Shanghai-Nanking 327 Hsuchow-Kaifengfu 270Shaughai-Hangchow-NingpoPeking-Kalgan270234Total Kilometres, Government System S.721Chengtai 243Taokow-Chinghna 162 "CONCESSIONED" RAILWAYS.Kaifeng-Honan 185 Chinese Eastern 2,050Kirin-Changchun 130 Kiaochow-Chinan 457Chuchow-Pinghsiang ... 97 Sonth Manchuria —Canton-SowlQon 143 .YunnanCanton-SamshuiChangchow-Ansoy4932465Total Kilometres, "Concessioned" 2,972Chinese Government System .5,254 PiiiVATE Railways 242Of the Government system 5,270 kilometresrepresents contiguous railroad centering on Peking.Nearly 4,700 kilometres of thisi are north of theYangtze. This contiguous system may be roughlydescribed as consisting of two main stems connectedby two cross lines, with a few branches attached.One of the stems irregularly parallels the coast ofthe Northern half of China extending from Mukdenthrough Tientsin and Shanghai to Ningpo. Theother stem is in the interior and extends fromFengchen near the Mongolian border throughPeking to Hankow. This will shortly be openedsouth of the Yangtze to Changsha.One connectionof the stems occurs between Peking and Tientsinthe other halfway to the south between Hsuchowand Cheng chou, the junction of the Kaifeng-Honanwith the Peking-Hankow. "When present plans forconstruction in the near future have been realizedSouth China will be served very much as the Northis now. A third parallel stem will serve theinterior provinces, and other lines will intersectthese and penetrate further inland. The mostimportant projects with some of the terms concerningthem are listed in the following table :PROJECTED LINES UNDER CONTRACT.CONTIl ACTINGPaUTTFromjLinkToLoan AkiiangementsApproximatejKiL0METHA«E| InterestDate Term Amount RateFour Nation Group (1)WnchowHankowKnangtnngKueichow fu90050011911 40 £6,OUO,000 5°'oLa Compagnie Gdneralc de Cheminsdeter en ChineLanchow fuKaifeng fuHonanfuKiangsu coast900700Tatung fn Chengtu fu 1600 1913 40 £10,000,000 5°ode chemins de fer en Chine / 1^Nanking Hweichow fu connections"19001914 45 £8,000,000 5%& Corporation(British Chinese < with Pinghsiang, Hangchow, AViihu, \200jKwangtechow [Banque Industrielle de Chine( YamchowYuunanfu1100h914 60 Fr. 600,000,000 6%t Yunnan fnClinngking800Pauling & Co. (London)Siems-Carey( Shasi( ChangtehClmchow(I SinyangchowShing YiChangshaChinchowSzechnan9002001000800[l914 40 £12,000,000 s°;o1916 30 Contingent 6°/o1474

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICARAILWAYSThe government railway lines have cost on theaverage about $75,000 per kilometre of line. Theyare of standard gauge, (4 ft. 8^ inches) except for243 kilometres constituting the Cheng-Tai line.This has a gauge of one metre. Rail laid originallyhad a weight of 65 lbs. to the yard, but this is beingrelaid on certain lines with 85 lb. section. Thestandard sleeper (tie) has a cross section of 6"x9".Rolling stock is of many different patterns, dueto the many nationalities involved in financing thegovernment lines, and to the variety of territoryserved. Goods wagons are of many types and sizes,varying from the wooden 10-ton, four-wheel designto those of 40-ton capacity with two four-wheeltrucks, and with the car body built all steel.Number and average capacity of various classesof rolling stock, December 31, 1915 :Number.Average Gafacity.Locomotives 629 8.932 tons (TractiveCarriages 1,280 48 seats [effort)Goods Wagons 10,652 23 tonsCovered ... 2,391Open ... 7,982Special ... 279Traffic.—Methods of railway operation in Chinaare not unlike those of other countries, althoughthere are eome distinctive features. For example,two firemen are commonly placed on each roadlocomotive in addition to the engine-driver. Traincontrol is by the staff system. Manual block signalsare installed at important stations. Operatingforces are composed almost entirely of Chinese. Onone line there are no foreign officers or employees.On other lines technical officers, a few technicalinspectors, and a few passenger conductors areforeigners. Railway schools, which are a part of therailway program in China, are designed to prepareChinese young men to work on railways.The revenues earned by Chinese GovernmentRailways during the year 1915 amounted to a littleover $57,000,000, or nearly $10,500 per kilometre ofline. These were derived) 37 per cent, from passengers,57 per cent, from goods, and 6 per cent,from other sources. Passengers are divided intothree main classes. First, Second, and Third. Onthe linesi between Ningpo and Tientsin a fourthclass, coolie, is also carried and amounts to nearlyone-fourth of the total number of passengers thesetrains carry. Excursion rates are offered at timesunder all of these classes, but the amount of businessof this character so far is negligible. Third classpa?sengers comprise over 87% of the total; firstclass less than one per cent.Rates vary considerablyon the different linesi, but, for the system, the(average in 1915 wasTotal business 1.06 cents per kilometre.First class 3.12Second class 1.72Third class 1.06Coolie class .49For statistical purposes, goods traffic is dividedinto seven classes,—Products of Agriculture, Animals,Mines, Forests, Manufactures, Materials forother Railways and Service Stores. On a tonnagebasis mineral products are by far the most important,constituting over half of the total. The great bulkof this is coal. The only lines upon which mineralsare not a leading class are those parallel to thecoast south of Tientsin.From a revenue standpoint, however, agriculturalproducts take the lead with over a third ofthe total. Mining products come second with overa quarter of the total. Under this head salt is avery important commodity, although the revenuefrom that source isi only about one-third that fromcoal. Revenue from manufactures has risen toabout one-fourth of the total.Rates vary widely not only as between classesof commodities, but also as between different lines.The average rate on all business on all lines of thegovernment system is about one and a half centsper ton kilometre. The extremes of which this isthe average are the Shanghai-Nanking line with anaverage rate of less than half a cent per ton kilometre,and the Canton-Samshui whose average goodsrate is over six cents per ton kilometre. The rateon mineral products on the Shanghai- Nanking lineaverage only one-fifth of a cent per ton kilometre.Taking the system as a whole, the lowest averagecommercial rate is on mineral products, and thehighest on animal products; the first named beingabout one cent and the latter two and three-quartercents per ton kilometre.The tariffs applying on Chinese GovernmentRailways are issued independently for each line.Accordingly they differ considerably, but in generalthey recognize some five hundred commodities.These are grouped into class commodities,and special commodities. Special commodities arethose to w,hich especially reduced rates are accorded,in order to induce movement. The special rate mayapply throughout the system or only between designatedpoints. On most of the lines special ratesas yet are not very numerous.Class commodities as a rule are grouped' in fouror five classes. These may be further differentiatedas to whether the shipment requires an entire wagonor is of a smaller quantity. The term "classes"considered in this connection signifies merely theconvenient grouping of commodities which bear thesame rate. It has nothing whatever to do with theinherent nature of the commodity, such as thestatistical grouping above. There are still other475

RAILWAYSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAdistinctions which have a bearing on rates. Ahigher rate is commonly charged for the use of acovered car than for that of an open car. As aresult shippers in carload lots favour the open carwhich, when loaded, is covered with matting, andRAMIE.See Fibres, Textile.RAMS, CITY OF. A name of Canton (q.v.).RAPE-SEED, ^^ t,'ai tzu. In Central andVV. China a number of plants are grown for theirsend with their shipments a coolie to act as caretaker.Shippers in small lots are led to favour theforwarding companies. The railroad is not an insure-of a shipment, except under special rates.Further, rebates are sometimes paid if the shipmentsof a single concern exceed certain amounts. Henceforwarding companies figure largely as go-betweens,who combine small consignments for individuals,furnish the coolie to accompany car to destination,and receive their remuneration in the rebate or bya charge. Class rates are for the most part on astrictly distance basis with a minimum of from 20"to 35 kilometres. The zone system findsi anoccasional illustration. Demurrage rates vary from$3.00 to §?0.00 per car per day, with "free time''limited to 12 hours and even as low as 4 hours.Hence shipments are commonly unloaded by stationforces into "go-downs," (warehouses) at the expenseof the consignee.Besults of Operation.—The leading results ofthe operations of the government railway system arereflected in the following table for the year endingDecember 31, 1915. The calculations are on varyingbases however on account of the status of theKalgan-Suivuan line.PenTotalKiLOMnuEOK Like.Investment Assets $409,523,352 $75,226Operating Revenue 57,063,000 10,477Operating Expenses 30,258,532 5,516Oi:)erating Percentage 53 —Net Operating Revenue ... 26,804,468 4,961Surplus after fixed charges ... 9,671,534 1,841Number of Locomotive Kilometres29,334,839 5,388Number of Train Kilometres 20,494,650 3,763Number of Passenger Originated25,230,978 4,635Number of Passenger Kilometres1,901,524,065 351,514Average number of Passengersper passenger train ... 199 —Number of Tons of GoodsOriginated 8,084,640 1,485Number of Ton Kilometres ... 2,250,774,630 416,076Average tons goods per goods train 205 —Authorities : Railway Loan Agreements ofChina, Ministry of Communications; AccountingRules, idem ; First Preliminary Report, ChineseCovernvient Railways, idem ; Second PreliminaryRcjj'jrt, Chinese Corernmcnt Railways, idemHerstlet's China Treaties; The China Year Book,1916 ; Kent : Railway Enterprise in China.oil, and according to Wilson fully 75% of the oilcommonly used is the product of two memjoers ofthe cabbage family, Brassica juncea, var. oleifera,and B. campestris, var. oleifera. The latter isTa-yu-ts'ai i^\i\^, the former Hsiao-yu-ts'ai /J^ffi^i.e. great and small oil- vegetable. Both kinds areloosely designated rape, but this was never metwith by Wilson. Throughout the entire Yangtzevalley, during the winter months, enormous areasare given over to the cultivation of these two plants.Though the latter is the earlier of the two, theother is the more widely grown. These plants arein flower in March and thereabouts and the crop isharvested in April, the seeds being crushed andsteamed and the oil obtained by expression. In thefar interior the use of the oil as an illuminant equalsits culinai-y value, and it also enters into the compositionof Chinese candles, but aisi the use offoreign kerosene oil is so greatly increasing inChina, more "rape-seed" oil is freed for exportationabroad. Thus 856,000 piculs were exported in 1912and 1,110,000 piculs, worth Tls. 3,218,000 in 1915.The crop is very useful to the people; it ripensbefore the planting of rice and cotton; itsi youngshoots and leaves are nutritious as food, fresh orsalted, the woody stems make good fuel and therefuse cake is a good manure. The yield of seedranges between 13 and 16 bushels per acre or about640 lbs., of average worth $6.19, and 8,000 lbs. ofstems worth as fuel $5.16. The yieldi of oil is 32%.All vegetables are fried in rape oil. Its principaluse in modern industry i.& as a lubricant ; its highviscosity, which can be increased by blowing hotair through it, renders it peculiarly suitable for thispurpose. It is) also used for soft soap manufacturefor greasing the ends of loaves before baking ; and insteel-plate manufacture, the heated plates beingdipped in it to harden them. The value in Londonat the end of 1915 was £34 to £36 per ton.Oil is also expressed from the seeds of othermembers of the cabbage family, notably the kales.The exports for 1916 were Rape-seed, pels. 623,984,value Hk.Tls. 2,007,595 ; Rape-seed Oil, pels. 32,584,Tls. 270,510.Imperial Institute Bulletin, vol. xii, No. 3;Wilson : A Naturalist in West China; King :Farmers of Forty Centuries.RATTAN.Various species of Asiatic climbingpalms belonging to the genus Calamus are split andused for making the seats of chairs, etc. This iscalled rattan or cane, from the Malay rotan.476

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAREFORMED CHURCHRAUX, NICOLAS JOSEPH, a Lazaristmissionary, bora at Ohain in Cambrai diocese,May 14, 1754. After the Society of Jesus wa^suppr6.=ised in 1773, the Propaganda appointed theLazarists (Congregation of the Mission) to take theplace of the French Jesuits in Peking. P. Rauxwas sent out to be the Superior of the Mission.He reached Peking in April, 1785, and establishedhimself at the Pei T'ang, He wrote a Manchugrammar and dictionary and replaced P. Amyot atcourt as interpreter. He was also appointed to theoffice of Director (not President as Faviek states)of the Board of Astronomy, being the first Frenchmanto hold that position. One of his finst actswas to procure the release of twelve foreign priestsfrom the prisons of Peking, where six had alreadyperished. He died in Peking, November 16, 1801.Favier : Peking.RAVEN'S WING is a porcelain glaze ofbright black, Hang hei ^^, shot with purple.REALGAR, or arsenic bisulphide, is foundat Tzuli, Hunan, where there is a considerabledeposit of high grade, See Arsenic.The export in 1916 was pels. 7,124, valueHk.Tls. 63,669.RECALLING THE SOUL.jg?! chao hurt, avery ancient and wide-spread superstition, in commonuse to-day. Not only is the soul of the deadcalled after but the soul of one who seems aboutto die, since it is believed that the soul can quitthe body without death occurring. The practicesconnected with this ceremony vary a good deal :some of them may be found described in Dore'sJicc/)f'rrh.p.s sur les Snperstitions, p. 323.RED BASIN OF SSUCH'UAN. A namegiven by von PiIChthofen to the portion of theProvince lying east of the Min or Fu river to neaithe Hupei boundary. It is an exceedingly rich andwell-populated region.RED CHAMBER, DREAM OF THE.Dream of the Red Chamber.REDESDALE. See Freeman-Mitford.RED EYEBROWS, #> M ^SeecA'tVi mei tsei.A marauding band which arose in Shantung inWang Mang's days (a.d. 9). They indulged inwidespread depredations under pretence of loyaltyto the Han dynasty. They were named from theircustom of colouring their eyebrows.RED GIRDLES. Members of collateral branchesof the Imperial family of the Ch'ing dyna?ity(that is, not direct descendants of Nurhachu butdescendants of his ancestors), wore a red girdle, asdirect descendants wore a yellow girdle. They werecalled GiOROS [q.v.) or in Chinese ft 31 chiiek lo.The direct descendants, if degraded for misconduct,also wore the red instead of the yellow girdle.RED ROCK, Hung yai piiiLM^- In KUeichow,20 miles E. of Yung ning chou there is aninscription painted (not graven) on a rock thusnamed, the characters of which are unknown. Itwas at first suggested by Chavannes that it' wasmerely a Taoist mystification, but there seems reasonfor taking it seriously. The Chinese have claimedfor it that it dates from the Yin dynasty (b.c. 1384-1266). T'oung Pao, 1906, p. 696, 1910, p. 391.REDSTARTS.See Buticillinae.REEDS, a[ lu; ^ wei. Phragmites communisTrin. grows wild in S. Manchuria. Its stems arecut up into various finenesses to make mats ofdifferent qualities, and are also woven whole intovery large mats for covering the rafters of housesbefore the tiles are put on. See Mats.Paper is made from Imperata arundinacea.REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA,(Dutch) Board of Foreign Missions of.Headquarters :—New York.Entered China, 1842.Works in Fukien.From 1830 to 1857, the Reformed Church inAmerica co-operated with the American Board ofCommissioners for Foreign Missions. The cause ofthe separation was not a lack of harmony, but adesire on the part of the Reformed Church toassume greater and more direct responsibility in thematter of foreign mission work.In the year 1830 the American Board sent outto Canton, Dr. Bridgman and the Rev. DavidAbeel, a minister of the Reformed Church.Mr. Abeel was sent to act as chaplain to theSeaman's Friend Society for a year, and was afterwardsto explore the islands, etc., and to ascertainwhere mission stations could best be planted. In1834, he visited England,. and his appeals led to theformation of the Society for Promoting FemaleEducation in the East {q.v.).In 1842, as soon as the treaty ports were opened,Mr. Abeel, in company with the Rev. W. J. (afterwardsBishop) Boone, reached Kulangsu, an islandopposite Amoy, where a self-supporting medicalmissionary, Dr. Cumming, shortly after joined them.In 1844, six new workers arrived, four of whomhad come from working among the Chinese, mostlyAmoy men, in Borneo.Members of the London Missionary Societyarrived in Amoy in this same year, and representativesof the English Presbyterian Church in 1850,and these three missions have ever since occupied theAmoy region, setting an example of union in Missionwork which was for many years unique.The work went on but slowly at first ; two oldmen were baptized in 1846, and another convert477

REFORMED CHURCHENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAadded in 1847,five,Even in 1850, the number was onlybut by the end of 1854 it had increased to fortytwo.The Rev. John V. N. Talmage arrived in1857, and for forty years his strong personality wasat the service of the mission.This year marked the severance of the Missionof the Reformed Church from that of the AmericanBoard, when the latter handed over its share of theAmoy work to the former.In 1862, the English Presbyterians and theGeneral Synod of the Dutch Reformed Church,united to establish a single Chinese Church of thePresbyterian order, and the Amoy Presbytery wasformed by the union of three Churches of theAmerican Mission, and two of the English Mission,independent of either parent Society and self-supporting.In 1892 this body had so increased that it wasnecessary to divide it into two presbyteries, whichmeet yearly to constitute a synod.Work was begun among the Hakkas near theCanton boundary in 1882, and it was continueduntil the field was taken over by others, the stationsbeing handed over to the English Presbyterians atSwatow.The Church built at Amoy by the DutchReformed Church in 1848, is believed to be thefirst erected in China for Protestant worship.Education.—The English Presbyterians unitewith the sister Church in higher educational workthe Union Middle School, which renewed its workwith a different status in 1914 by the name ofTalmage College, being in the charge of the ReformedChurch, while the Union Theological Collegeis in the charge of the English Mission.There are boys' boarding schools (Primary) atAmoy and at Changchiu City (:J|E ^) there are botha boys' and a girls' boarding school, as also atTong-an (1^ 3c) ^" addition to a number of dajschools.The Mission is affiliated with the Fukien Universitywhich opened its Arts Course in 1915.The Medical Work of the Mission begun in 1842by Dr. Ctjmming (later joined by Dr. Hepburn)subsequently lapsed for many years, but wasestablished on a permanent basis in 1887. Ahospital was built at Sio-khe ('J* j'^l)but from 1895it was closed for some years, through the lack of aphysician to take charge. Two hospitals were builtin Amoy, one for men in 1898, and one for womenin 1899, this latter being paid for by friends in theNetherlands. Both these hospitals were rebuilt witl^double capacity in 1915-1916, the whole of the moneybeing given by Chinese who appreciated the medicalwork. In the Philippines $6,000 was contributedand more than $6,000 in Amoy itself. The Chinesehave also guaranteed to provide for the maintenanceof the work in the two hospitals.Statistics for 1916 :—Foreign missionaries 34Chinese staff 196Communicants 2,059Baptized non-communicants 1,456REFORMED CHURCH IN THE U.S.A.,Board of Foreigia Missions of.Headquarters :—Philadelphia, Penn.Entered China, 1899.Works in Hunan.This Mission represents what is known as theGerman Reformed Church in U.S.A., formed byGerman settlers of Calvinistic faith, with someFrench and Swiss elements.This church began its work in China by sendingthe Rev. Williaji E. Hoy of their mission in Japanto establish work in Hunan. Three stations havebeen occupied, namely Yo-chou @ '}\\ , in 1901, Lakeside,where the chief school is, about four milesfrom Yo-chou, and Shen-chou fu M M JjJ » opened1904.In June 1916, the Mission reportedMissionaries 29Employed Chinese Staff ... 75Communicants 316Baptized non-communicants ... 35REFORMERS. This title is specially usedamong foreigners for a band of officials andscholars who influenced Kuang Hsii to issue aseries of edicts in 1898 for the reformation of theEmpire. Their leader was K'ang Yu-wei, and othernames were Liang Ch'i-ch'ao, Hsii Chih-ching, etc.Of these, Yang Shen-hsiu and Yang Jui (Censors),T'an Ssu-tung (Son of the ex-Governor of Hupei),Lin HsiiEH, and Liu Kuang-ti (Hanlins) andK'ang Kuang-jen (brother of K'ang Yu-wei) werebeheaded by order of the Empress-Dowager withouttrial. Chang Yin-huan was banished, Hsii Chihchingsentenced to life-long imprisonment, whileK'ang Yu-wei was to be sought for, put to tortureand killed by the 'slicing' process (ling ch'ih). Buthe is still living. (See K'anrj Yu-wei).REFORM MOVEMENT. See Kuang Hsii.REGENT, PRINCE. In 1862 and during theminority of T'ung Chih the title used was / ChengWang ||^J^3E. The term used by Wang Mang asRegent (b.c. 6) was Chii Shih ^-8|.REGENT'S SWORD, the foreign name onmaps for the Liao-tung Peninsula, terminated byDalny and Port Arthur.REGIS, JEAN BAPTISTE,a Jesuit missionaryto China, was born in France in 1664 according tothe Catalogus Patrum, through Remusat says dateand place are unknown. He began his famous geographicalwork in 1708 by the orders of K'ang Hsi,and in eight years', with the assistance of severalother missionaries, he had made maps of a large478

ENCTYCLOPAEDIA SINICAREPTILESpart of China, from Chihli to Yunnan. Details ofhis methods of work are given by Du Halde. Hehad a very good knowledge of Chinese, and translatedthe / Ching ^ ^ into Latin ; it was publishedin 1834-39 at Tubingen. He died in 1738.Remdsat : Nouveaux Melanges Asiatiques.REGULIDAE, the Goldcrests, two species ofwhich are found in China. Rcgulics japonensis isfound in Manchuria and in the northern provincesof China; in eastern Siberia it is replaced by B.cristatus; E. himalayensis has been taken byDavid in Mu-p'in and north of Ch'eng-tu. R.goodfellowi is found in Formosa.REGULUS. See Minerals, {Antimony).RE-INCARNATION. See Metem-psychosis.REMUSAT, JEAN PIERRE ABEL, was bornin Paris in 1788 and died there in 1832. When achild he was accidentally blinded in one eye. Withvery little assistance he mastered Chinese, and attwenty-three published his Esmi snr la langue et lalitUrature chinoises. In 1814 he was appointed tothe Chair of Chinese in the College de France. Hewas Member of many learned Societies in Franceand abroad, and enjoyed many honours ; but his lifewas full of intrigue and his character does not seemto have been very admirable. He wrote manyworks on Chinese and kindred subjects, a full listof which is given in Chinese and Japanese Repository,vol. i, p. 81.REPTILES. The Chinese Alligator {Alligatorsinensis, Fatjvel) is especially interesting asi it isthe last remaining species- representing the formerperiarctic distribution of the order ; and it appearsto be rapidly on the way to complete extinction.It is a small alligator, rarely exceeding 6 feet inlength, torpid, and devoid of the ferocious natureusually associated with the alligator. It appearsto be found only in the lower part of the Yangtzeriver and its affluents. Through the winter it liesdormant buried in the mud. Its existence was firstnotified by Swinhoe in 1870, and in 1879, Fatjvel,a former Curator of the Shanghai Museum, describedit.The order of turtles and tortoises is well representedin China.Many species of the family ofsoft-shelled fresh water turtles {Trionychidct) arefound in the muddy waters of the rivers and creeksthroughout "the country, Trionyx sinensis being acommon article of diet and known as 'Terrapin.'Of the true tortoises {Testudinidai) there are manyspecies. A unique genus is that represented nowby one species only, the Big-headed Tortoise{Platysternum inegacephcdum, Gray). It is occasionallyfound in South China, and is easily recognisedby its large head and long tail. Threemarine turtles inhabit the China seas, including theGreen or Edible Turtle {Chelone. mydas, L.), andthe Hawksbill Turtle {Chelone imbricata, L.), whichis the source of the tortoise-shell of commerce. Thefishing and preparation of tortoise-shell appears,however, at the present time to be mainly in Japanesehands.A large number of the Order of that elusivecreature the lizard are met with in China, from thepretty little Eremias argus, which is so common inthe arid and sandy northern wastes in the neighbourhoodof the Great Wall to the almost crocodilelikeWater Monitor (Hydrosaurus salvator, Laur.)of the extreme South. The lively little lizard,Gecko japonica, ia found practically all over thecountry, sometimes upside down on the ceiling chasingflies which it captures by means of its rapidlyprotruded glutinous tongue. Gecko verticillatus,which grows to about one foot in length, is foundin South China, where it feeds not only on insectsbut on young rats, bats and other lizards : it is abeautiful creature, the upper part of the body beinggrey or yellowish with red spots and verraiculations.Calotes versicolor is a large chameleon -like lizardfound in South China, reaching 14 inches in length,mostly tail; when irritated, or swallowing its food,head and neck become brilliant red, whilst theusually brownish tint of the body changes' to paleyellow : the males are very pugnacious and changecolour as they fight. Liolepis reevesii is anotherbeautiful lizard of southern China, about 18 incheslong when full grown, the orange eye-like blackedgedspots on the back making it a brilliantcreature. The Ophisaurus harti of Fukien provinceis a most interesting legless lizard, with curiouslateral folds, and somewhat analogous to the slowworm.In practically every loose stone wall incountry districts of Chekiang province Eumeceselegans and Lygosoma laterale may be found, representingthe ubiquitous skink family, and oftenassociated with the sapphire-tailed Tachydromusseptentrionalis. In the Yangtze delta the onlylizards that are at all common are Eumeces sinensisand Gecko ja^ionica. Less than 100 species oflizards have been described from China; so that itis to be expected that a fair number remain to bedescribed.Concerning snakes, few of the family of Blindsinakes {Typhlopidce) are found in China, probablybecause they are hard to find owing to their burrowinghabits and small worm-like appearance. Typhlopshraminus is found in South China and as farnorth as Fukien province.Two big Pythons {reticvlatus and molurus) arefound in the southernmost part of China, measuringwhen full grown upwards of 20 feet in length. Theyare reported to be eagerly consumed as an article ofdiet, 'python steaks' being reputed a delicacy. Inm.any cities; in China snakes of many varieties areoffered for sale as food ; the poisonous species are479

REPTILESENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAsold to' druggists for the manufacture of medicinesand hold an important place in the prodigiousChinese pharmacopoeia.For some men the collectionof snakes seems to be their sole occupation, differentspecies being cast indiscriminately into the samebasket— a wicker basket with a constricted neckthe opening of which is covered with a cloth.The collector usually breaks the fangs of poisonoussnakes before putting them into the basket. Whenexposing his wares to a possible purchaser he fearlesslyplunges his hand among the writhing massand pulls out a 'beauty,' expatiating on its fatnessin a way common to the peripatetic tradesman allover the world. They usually fetch pricesi up to20 Mexican cents : but for the poisonous species soldto the medicine shops up to a dollar may be obtained.Many species of the harmless! Colubrine snakesare found, from Zamenis mucosus (7 ft.)to the littleworm-like Calamaria septentrionalis. The latter iscalled by the Chinese the 'two-headed isnake' onaccount of the white collar round its tail simulatingthat round the neck, so that it is quite difficult ata short distance to be sure which is the head. Somespecies, such as Coluber toeniurus and Lycodon rufozonatitsare found practically all over the vastextent of China. The former species is commonlyfound under the wooden floor of Chinese houses,even in large cities, where it feeds on rats ; while,in the south, it is found in the darkness of caves,subsisting on bats. The numerous graves which areso prominent a feature of the Chinese landscapeafford seclusion for many snakes, though the mongoose,badger, civet and weasel often displace them.Zaocys dhumnades also has a wide distribution : itisan active snake and climbs trees readily in searchof a nestful of young birds or eggs—the butcher-birdor shrike is, however, sometimes a match for it, oneof these snakes having been seen nicely spiked on atree to serve for the bird's subsequent meals.The series of snakes with posterior poison fangs[Opisthoglypha), which are not, however, dangerousto mankind, are well represented in China, not onlyby the Dipsadince but also by the Homalofsince(oriental fresh-water snakes).The venomous Proteroglypha (with anteriorpoison fangs) are represented by terrestrial forms(Elapince) and marine forms (sea-snakeis). Amongthe former is the Cobra which is often found up tothe 30th parallel of latitude ; in fact in the sacredisland of Pootoo in the Chusan group it is one ofthe commonest snakes, though, strange to say, notspecially feared by the natives'. The Chinese varietydiffers somewhat from the Indian and is usuallyalmost black in colour with about 13 pale yellowcross bands, but the 'spectacle' mark is almostalways distinct, as is also the dilatable neck. Thisvariety is common to the South of China andMalaysia, and is usually not of a fierce disposition.Many species of sea-snakes, all of which are poisonous,are found in the China seas, often at considerabledistances from land.Of the Blunt-headed snakes a new species,Amblycephalus sinensis, has recently been describedby the Shanghai Museum.All the Vipers of China are Pit-vipers, so calledfrom having a curious little pit between the nose•and the eye ; a dangerous group of reptiles whichincludes the American Rattlesnake. The Chinesespecies do not possess rattles but belong to thegenera Ancistrodon and Trimeresurus.Ancistrodonblomhoffii is the only poisonous snake found inNorth China, but at least six other species of thesegenera are found south of the 30th parallel oflatitude, one of which, Ancistrodon acutus, growsto 6 feet in length and has a prodigious developmentof poison fangs, being called by the Chinese the'five pace snake' from the reputed rapidly fataleffects of its bite.Fukien is a rich collecting ground for reptilesas it is situated where the faunae of the Orientaland Palaearctic regions freely intermingle.For further information see Boulenger : Catalogueof Snakes in British Museum; Boettger :Mat. her p. Faun, von China; GiiNTHER : Reptilesof British India; Stanley : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S.,1914, p. 21 and 1916 p. 83 ; Stejneger : Herpetologyof Japan; Wall : Proc. Zoological Society, London,1903, vol. 1, p. 84. [A.S.]RESIN, t2 ^ sung hsiang. Most of the resinexported from China ports comes from Kuangtung,whence it goes to Hongkong and thence to northernports. There are two kinds, the dark yellow andthe light yellow, the latter being used by pewtermenfor soldering. The trade is small, 20,000 to 30,000piculs annually, but might be developed, especiallyin Kuangsi. Resin is also used at Hongkong insoap making.The export in 1916 was pels. 50,633, valueHk.Tls. 179,551.REVOLUTION, THE. Sun Yat-sen, K'angYu-WEi and others had worked for many years forthe overthrow of the Manchu dynasty, and theywere leaders of Societies having that object ; thoughsome aimed at a constitutional Monarchy and othersat a Republic. In 1911 the time was ripe forrevolution. Floods in the Yangtze valley andSheng KtJNG Pao's railway schemes, were importantfactors in preparing the people for revolt; but itwas precipitated by the accidental discovery of theanti-dynastic plot through the explosion of a bombat Hankow. The Revolutionaries decided to act atonce, and on October 10 obliged Li YiiAN-HXTNG tobecome their leader. The next day they seizedWuchang and the Hanyang Arsenal, and though thePeking government at first regarded it as a local480

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICARHENISH MISSIONaffair, within a month fourteen Provinces haddeclared their independence, mostly without bloodshed.On October 19 the Second National Assemblymet, and the government had to face their peacefuldemands as well as the armed opposition in theprovinces. The Assembly obliged the Regent toagree to nineteen articles, which, while they leftthe dynasty standing, took from it its absolutepower. The Regent even swore on behalf of theEmperor that the agreement should be observed;but the people of the South had no faith in the word'or oath of Manchua. Yuan Shih-k'at, who hadbeen dismissed in disgrace some years before, hadto be recalled, and as Premier he tried to make theManchus on the one hand understand' the temper ofthe people, and on the other to persuade the peopleto be content with a constitutional monarchy.Fighting resulted in the loss of Hanyang to theRevolutionists, with the destruction of Hankownative city ; but on the other hand they got possessionof Nanking and declared it the capital of theRepublic. An armistice followed, and a peaceConference in Shanghai, T'ang Shao-i acting forYiiAN and Wu T'ing-fang for the Revolutionaries.Meantime delegates from the revolted Provinces metat Nanking to draw up a Constitution and toorganize a provisional government. Sun Yat-senreturned to China, and of seventeen voting provincessi.xteen chose him as First President of the ProvisionalGovernment of the Republic of China. Hewent to Nanking to take up office, and Li YiiAN-HUNOwas made Vice-President.Peace negotiations came to a deadlock; partsof the provinces were out of control and sufferedmuch from brigandage, and the Manchu princeiswere divided as to fighting or yielding, whenforty-six Generals of the Northern Army united todemand the abdication of the Emperor and the settingup of a Republic. To what extent YiiANShih-k'ai prompted this action is unknown ; it leftthe Manchus no alternative, and the Emperorabdicated on February 12, 1912. He was permittedto retain his title and some personal prerogativesand the Imperial family was granted an allowanceof Tls. 4,000,000 per annum. Sun Yat-sen at onceresigned the provisional Presidency and YiiANShih-k'ai was elected the first President of theRepublic.In June-August, 1913, there took place whathas received the name of the "Second Revolution."This was a 'punitive expedition' organized by extrememembers of the Kuo min tang with the objectof removing Yiian from the Presidency. The chiefoccasions alleged for this rebellion were (1) themurder of Sung Chiao-j^n, a member of parliament,for which the government wa.'' consideredguilty ; (2) the signing of a large loan with foreignbanks without the previous sanction of Parliament.The expedition never got near Peking, but Nankingpaid f^r the revolt by three days' looting by thetroops of Chang Hsiin.The documents connected with the Revolutionare conveniently collected in the China MissionYear Book, 1912.RHENISH MISSIONARY SOCIETY.Headquarters :—Barmen, Germany.Entered China, 1847.Works in Kuangtung Province.This! Society was moved to send out workers toChina through the influence of Dr. Gutzlaff {q.v.),and the Revs. F. Genaehr and H, Koester werewarmly welcomed by him on their landing in Hongkongin 1847. They were at first wholly guided bythe advice and example of this devoted but somewhatunpractical "Apostle of the Chinese," butafter a time, Mr. Genaehr, decided to act independently,and proceeded to the mainland, andworked at a village not far from the Bocca Tigris;and this district Tung-kun "^ ^, has ever sincebeen the principal centre of the Rhenish Mission.From the beginning, the Society had many trialsand discouragements. Mr. Koester died six monthsafter arrival. The work was hindered by clanquarrels, and the T'ai P'ing rebellion, and wascompletely interrupted for two years by the warwhich broke out between England and Chinain 1856.In 1864, Mr. Genaehr and two of his sons diedof cholera, contracted through sheltering a poorwoman suffering from that disease, whose relativeshad cast her out.In 1856 the Rev. Ernst Faber {q.v.) arrivedwith other re-inforcement ; but by death, ill-healthand other causes, the staff was reduced to two in1880, and .

RHINOPJTHECUSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAalso a Leper Asylum here, which reported 256inmates in 1916.Statistics, 1916 :—Foreign Missionaries 85(of whom three were prisoners of warin Japan and fifteen in Germany,detained by the European War).Stations 6Employed Chinese Staff 99Communicants 1,743 (1914)RHINOPITHECUS.See Monkey.RHO, JACQUES, mW^ Lo ya-ko,a JesuitFather born at Milan in. 1593. He reached Macaoin 1622, and is said to have saved the Colony by hiscourage and coolness when it was threatened by theDutch. In 1624 he entered China and went withP. Vagnoni to Shansi. Called to Peking to assistin the correction of the calendar, he shared theimmense labours, the trials and the success ofScHALL. He died prematurely and somewhat suddenlyin 1638.Havret : La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fou,II, p. 29, note.RHUBARB, ;;^^'

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICARICEThe following is the complete list of the workscomposed or translated by Ricci, in collaborationwith the doctors Hsii Paul and Li Leon ; they arealmost all now lost.•^ A~]r ^''"M ?en shih kuei.^iCivi Chiao yu lu7i, 1595. (De Amicitia).M ® «B ^ ^^' ^'''' cAi fa. Nanch'ang, Kuangsi,1595. (Art of cultivating the memory).25 ^ ij la ll'o't /^w« yii t'u. Peking, 1602.(General geography).X^H*^ ^''

HiCE BIRDENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAa congee, as a diuretic in fevers, and cakes of itfried in camel fat -are used for hemorrhoids. Therice flowers are used as a dentifrice, the stalk isrecommended for biliousness, and its ash for thetreatment of wounds and discharges.The water-grown rice is named shui-mi, andlthe upland, han-mi. Rice, the Chinese staff oflife, is said {Medica Materia) to benefit the breath,remove anxiety and thirst, check discharges, warmthe viscera, harmonize the gases of the stomach andcause the growth of flesh.If taken in the form ofcongee, with Euryale ferox, it will benefit the vitalprinciple, strengthen the will, clarify the hearing,and brighten the eye. The second water in whichOryza saliva is scoured is called Hsiirh-kan f^H'^and is regarded as cooling to the blood, and diuretic.Even the rust growing on rice is made use of, beingadministered in acute paralysis of the fauces, whilethe lixiviated ash of rice straw is used as an antidotein arsenical poisoning.Red rice {0. saliva, var. praecox) is a thirdwell-marked variety, which is hardier than theothers and cultivated at higher altitudes. Theupland rice is 0. saliva, var. montana.The many uses to which rice straw is put makeit, almost as important as the rice itself. As foodand bedding for cattle and horses, as thatchingmaterial, as fuel, as mulch, as a source of organicmatter in the soil and as a fertilizer, it representsa money value which is very large. Besides theseultimate uses the rice straw is employed in themanufacture of articlets used in enormous quantities.It is estimated that nearly 200 million bags forstoring rice and beans are made annually in Japan(from which the figures for China can be imagined) ;matting, sandals, and rough rope are also made ingreat quantities, and coarse paper [q.v.). [N.S.]RICE BIRD, ^;f6^, the Yellow-breastedBunting, Emheriza aureola, frequents the rice-fieldsof China and is eaten as a great delicacy, like theallied ortolan in Europe.RICE CHINA or eyelet-hole china was firstmanufactured in the reign of Ch'ien Lung. Thesoft paste was stamped out in holes, which wereglazed over before the firing process, the glaze beingtransparent.RICE CHRISTIAN, a term used for Chinesewho profess Christianity for the sake of gettingemployment with foreigners or fcr some other suchmercenary end. There have no doubt been largenumbers of them, though not so many as might beassumed by a mere visitor to the Treaty Ports whosees nothing of China.RICE-PAPER.SeePoper.RICHARD, TIMOTHY, ^ ti ® * Zt Ti-mot'ai,was born in Wales in 1845, and reached Chinain 1870 as an agent of the English Baptist MissionarySociety. For some years he worked in Shantung,making one trip to Manchuria, but in 1876 wentto T'ai Yiian in Shansi to distribute famine relief,and afterwards devoted himself especially to workamong officials and scholars. In 1887 he left Shansiand did literary and editorial work in Peking andTientsin and in 1891 removed to Shanghai asSecretary of the Society for the Diffusion of Christianand General knowledge. (See Chrislian LiteratvreSociety). He has been one of the most active ofmissionaries in all schemes to benefit China and hashad considerable intercourse with the more importantofficials, taking a large share in Reformwork. He was the means of establishing the ShansiUniversity and the first Public School for Chinesein Shanghai. He has written little in Englishexcept translations of some Buddhist books. Thelist is The Awakening of Faith; Guide to Buddhahood;A Mission to Heaven; Conversion by theMillion; and (in 1916) Forty- five Years in China.RICHTHOFEN, FERDINAND VON, Baron,was born at Karlsruhe in 1833, and devoted himselfearly to geological exploration. In 1870 he startedon his first journey in China. The ShanghaiChamber of Commerce cfontributed largely to theexpen-e of his various expeditions, and no doubthis explorations of trade routes was of the greatestvalue to commerce. His eleven letters to the Chamber,written in 1870-2, are still a standard work. Hewent through eleven of the Eighteen Provinces., andon his return to Europe published an elaborate workon the geology of China, with an Atlas ; the bookwas in German and has not been translated intoEnglish. He died in 1905.{q.v.).RIO J UN, the Japanese name of Port Arthur,RIPA, MATTEO, a Propagandist missionaryin China and afterwards founder of the College ofthe Holy Family for the education of young Chinese(at Naples).He was born on March 29, 1682 at Eboli in thediocese of Salerno. At 18 he was converted froman evil life and felt called of God to go to theChina Mission. After study at Rome he wasordained and sent by Clement XI with severalother missionaries to carry the Cardinal's biretta toMgr. DE TouRNON. Embarking on an English shiphe reached Macao 21 months later, on January 2,1710. He visited Cardinal de TotJRNok in prison,who recommended him to K'ang Hsi as a painter.He was called to court, reaching Peking in January,1711. While working at his art he was also busyin converting the Chinese, feeling specially drawntowards the formation of a native clergy, who couldwork more effectively than European missionaries.Other missionaries did not agree with him, but he48i

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICARITES CONTROVERSYbegan the instruction of some Chinese children inhis house. In 1722 he bought a house, the firstestablishment of the Propagandists in Peking.After the death of K'ang Hsi he got permissionfrom Yung Cheng to leave the court, and departedfrom Peking in November, 1723, taking with himfour young scholars and their teacher. Arrived inItaly he spent eight years in getting, from the Popeand from the Emperor, the authorization for creatinga College for Chinese at Naples. In 1732 hesucceeded, and on July 25 of that year the openingof the College of the Holy Family took place.(SeeCollege, Chinese). He spent his last years in themanagement of the College and Congregation, anddied on November 22, 1745.He left a diffuse but interesting account of hisvoyages, his life at court and his work at Naples.It was published at Naples in 1832 as Storia dellaFondaziune della Congregazione e del Collegia delCinesi . . . scritto dallo stesso Fondatore MatteoRijja, e de Viaggi da lui fatti; (3 vols. 8vo.). Anabridged English translation appeared in Londonin 1861, entitled Memoirs of Father Ripa. Thetranslator was Forttjnato Pbandi.RITES CONTROVERSY. The famous controversyof the .nth and 18th centuries known asthat of the Chinese Rites, by which the wholemissionary body was divided, comprises two distinctquestions : the Chinese name for God, and whetherancestral worship, as well as tha^^e honours whichthe literati pay to Confucius, are allowable.I. Tfie Chinese name for God. Father MattedEicci always preferred the term T'ien-chu, y^ i(Lord of Heaven), as most appropriate for designatingGod in Chinese. But in studying the AncientClassics, he became convinced that the two termsT'ien X (Heaven) and Shangti Jt ^ (SupremeRuler), designated equally well the true God,Sovereign Lord of all things. He admitted thatlater writers, following the commentaries of ChuHsi, explained T'ien and Shangti as being thematerial heavens, but this, interpretation did notseem to him to be based upon the texts of theAncient Classics. He, therefore, conceded to hisconverts the indiscriminate use of the three termsT'ien-chu (Lord of Heaven). T'ien (Heaven) andShangti (Supreme Ruler) for designating the trueGod.Violent discussions arose over this interpretationand the practical decision of Ricci. In theyear 1704 and again in 1715, in documents!, whichwill be summed up further on, Pope Clement XI,without deciding on the meaning of the termsT'ien and Shangti in the Ancient Classics, forbadethe converts using them for designating the trueGod, on account of the danger which they offeredowing to the actual interpretation attached to them.Learned sinologues have in our days upheldRicci's opinion as to the meaning of the terms T'ienand Shangti in the Ancient Classics (see Legge :The Amotions of the Chinese concerning God and thespirits, 1852, and A letter to Professor Max Muller,chiefly on the translation of the Chinese terms Tiand Shangti, 1880).II. Ancestor WorshijJ and Honours Paid toConfucius.—These were neither Buddhist nor Taoistpractices, but those peculiar rites whereby theancient Chinese honoured their dead, and thosehonours paid to Confucius by the literati successfulin their examinations, and by officials. Those ritesconsisted in kneeling on the ground and bowing,burning incense, and offering meats before theancestral tablets. Ricci allowed them, because itseemed to him they were but the manifestations ofrespect and thanks which disciples owed to theirmasters or children to their parents, and weresimilar to those honours paid to officials, teachers,parents, and friends while still living. In regardto the honours paid to Confucius ; Ricci onlyallowed those which were compulsory for literatisuccessful at their examinations ; it is thus that hedid not permit the more solemn honours (whichsome call sacrifices) paid at the equinoxes beforethetablet of Confucius, although he did not seein these anything savouring of superstition.As they were not, however, required for securingliterary degrees, or fulfilling official functions,he forbade them to his converts. Moreover, suchtoleration was in his opinion but temporary, that is,until Christian practices were thoroughly implantedamong converts, who would then honour their deadin accord with the usual rites of the C^atholicChurch.Ricci.Several Jesuits were not of the same opinion asFather Longobakdi, who succeeded him asSuperior of the Mission, forbade both ancestorworship and the honours paid to Confucius. However,the greater part of the Jesuit missionaries atthat time tolerated such honours except in the caseslaid down by Ricci.In 1631, Dominican Friars entered China andlaboured in the Province of Fukien, whence theywere expelled in 1637. The toleration of the aboverites by the Jesuit missionaries scandalized them,and from information given by them, the Archbishopof Manila denounced the methods of the Jesuits toPope Urban VIII, as savouring of superstition.This was in 1635, but being better informed hewithdrew this accusation in 1638.In 1643, the Dominican Morales took thematter to Rome, and on the 12th September, 1645.a decree of Propaganda, approved by PopeInnocent VII, was issued, whereby the rites, &&described, by Morales, were prohibited. The Jesuitsin ChinaVeplied that the description of Morales485

RITES CONTROVERSYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAdid not tally with the real facts of the case, and touphold their cause, they despatched Father MartinMartini to Rome, where he arrived in 1654. Onthe 23rd of March, 1656, a decree of the HolyOffice, approved by Pope Alexander VII, allowedthe Chinese Rites as set forth by Father Martini.On the 20th November, 1669, further difficultieshaving been raised by the Dominican John Pol.\nco,a new decree of the Holy Office, approved by PopeClement IX, declared that the two decisions issuedin 1645 and 1656, remained in force, that is to say,in such cases as specified, the rites were prohibitedor allowed according as they tallied with the reportsof Morales or Martini.Meanwhile, twenty-three missionaries, all Jesuitswith the exception of three Dominicans and oneFranciscan Friar, were being exiled at Canton.These bethought themselves of employing theirenforced leisure in discussing the disputed subject.As a result of their combined labours, forty-twoarticles, were drawn up, of which the forty-firstapproved those who acted in accord with the permissiongranted in 1656. All signed this documenton the 26th January, 1668. On the 19th December,1669, Dominic Fernandez Navarette, Superior ofthe Dominicans, happened to flee to Macao, whencehe sailed for Europe, and published there in 1676,his. work Tratados historicos, politicos . . .yrdigiosos dr. la Monorchia de China.This impassioned work, teeming with erroneousstatements, was gladly received by Protestants andJansenists, who used it in their attack against theJesuits. Navarette did not, however, obtain fromthe Court of Rome a further examination of theChinese Rites.This result was subsequently secured at theinstigation of Bishop Charles Maigrot, Vicar-Apostolic of Fukien, and Superior of the ParisForeign Missions in China. On the 26th of March,1693, he published a mandate wherein he stated thatthe toleration granted in 1656, was obtained on falsegrounds, and accordingly could not be availed of inconscience. This mandate he forwarded to Rome,and begged Pope Innocent XII to examine thewhole question again. The two missionaries, deGuemener and Charmot, despatched by him toEurope, obtained soon afterwards, 18th October, 1700,a condemnation from the Sorbonne of the ChineseRites. The question being deferred to Rome wasexamined by a commission of four cardinals amongwhom was no Jesuit or Dominican. The Jesuits inPeking secured on the 30th November, 1700, adeclaration from K'ang Hsi, whereby he affirmed,that the honours paid to CoNFtrcirs and to ancestors,were of a purely civil and political character,and in nowise religious. Hereupon the adversariesof the Jesuits immediately accused them of having^ubmitted to the judgment of a pagan prince astrictly religious question ; in reality the missionarieshad simply requested the Emperor, as "head of theliterati and supreme legislator of China," to declareofficially what were the customs of the country.The interpretation given by K'ang Hsi gave offenceto the Court of Rome, and proved more harmfulthan useful for those who upheld the Rites.On the 20th November, 1704, the Holy Officepublished a decree, which was approved by PopeClement XI. While prohibiting the use of theterms T'ien and Shangti for designating the trueGod, it forbade also certain honours hithertoallowed in worshipping ancestors and Confucius,because such honours, as now practised, weretainted with superstition. This decree was not tobe made known in Europe before its promulgationin China by the legate sent to the East for thepurpose of terminating the controversy over theRites.The legate, Cardinal Charles Thomas Maillardde Tournon, Patriarch of Antioch, set out inFebruary, 1703, and after a short stay in India andthe Philippines, reached Macao on the 2nd April,1705. On the 6th April, he was at Canton, andarrived at Peking on the 4th December of the sameyear. K'ang Hsi received him at first honourably,but on discovering the purpose of his mission,became dissatisfied with him and ordered him toleave the capital. On reaching Nanking, the legatewas informed that the Emperor had issued a decreeordering all missionaries under penalty of expulsionfrom the country to be furnished with a placet{P'iao) authorizing them to preach the gospel, andit would be granted only to those who promised toapprove the rites of the country.The above information having turned out true,the legate, who already knew the purport of thedecree, although he had not yet received the text,published on the 15th January, 1707, a mandate inwhich he condemned the Chinese Rites, and the useof the terms T'ie.n and Shangti for designating thetrue God. K'ang Hsi banished him forthwith toMacao, where the Portuguese, opposed to hismission, which they considered derogatory to theirrights of Patronage, had him thrown into prison,here he died on the 8th June, 1710, after havingbeen awarded by Clement XI a cardinal's hat.With regard to obeying the legate's injunctions,the bishops and missionaries were divided amongthemselves. While Bishop Maigrot, the riiissionariesof the Paris Foreign Mission, the greater partof the Dominicans and a few Franciscans refusedto accept the Imperial placet, and were on thisaccount banished from the country, the FranciscanBishop of Peking, the Augustinian Vicar-Apostolicof Kiangsi, the Jesuits and others, appealed to thePope against the mandate of the legate, and meanwhileaccepted the placet, K'ang Hsi despatched to486

. InENCYCLOPAEDIA SINlCARITUAL MUSI6Clement XI a Jesuit commission for the purposeof enlightening the pontiff, and obtaining the withdrawalof the decree issued in 1704. This missionproved, unsuccessful. In March, 1709, Clement XIpublished officially this decree. On the 25thSeptember, 1710, the Pope approved the mandateof Cardinal de Tournon, and finally to cut shortall hesitation, which some missionaries still entertained,he published on the 19th March, 1715, theConstitution Ex ilia die, enjoining to observe thedecree of 1704, and requiring all missionaries labouringin China to pronounce an oath tliat they wouldobey it, failing which they could not perform anyministerial function in the field.August, 1716, the Constitution was receivedat Canton, and thence despatched to all the provinces.This time, the will of the Pope was clearlymanifested, and all the missionaries without asingle exception took the required oath. Sad to say,their obedience was not imitated by the convertsfrom the literary and official classes, who for thegreater part preferred to give up the practice oftheir religion rather than abstain from rites, thenon-performance of which would debar them fromall official functions and literary rank. K'ang Hsi,highly displeased with the Papal decision, orderedthe Board of Rites in Peking to proscribe thepractice of the Christian religion throughout theEmpire (16 April, 1717). Persecution immediatelybroke out in the provinces, where the local officials,too generally hostile towards the Christian religion,were only kept within bounds by the favourableattitude the Emperor showed to the missionaries.In 1720, Clement XI, wishing to alleviate thehardships of the Church in China, despatched to theEast a new legate, John Anthony Mezzabarba,Patriarch of Alexandria. On the 12th October, hereached Canton and secured with difficulty anaudience with K'ang Hsi, whom he appeased bypromising that the Constitution would be mildlyinterpreted. In fact, on the 4th November 1721,before starting for Europe, he granted eight permissions,whereby he thought, while maintainingfully the decree of Clement XI, to remedy all hardshipsresulting therefrom for the converts, especiallythose of the better class. Kneelings and offeringswere allowed to be made before the amended tabletsof CoNFUCTUS and ancestors, as well as before thecoffin of a deceased person, provided they werepreceded by the necessary explanations.These concessions did not end the conflict. In1723, Yung Cheng succeeded K'ang Hsi, andrelentlessly persecuted Christian converts, no matterwhat was their attitude towards the Rites.Moreover, the missionaries were much dividedamong themselves, some maintaining they could conscientiouslyuse the permissions granted byMkzzabarba, the others considering such permissionsas being contrary to the constitution Ex ilia die. Afresh inquiry into the matter was commenced atRome, under Clement XII and continued underBenedict XIV. It terminated by the ConstitutionE

TheROBINSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAthey hold in their hands two rods about a yard inlength and feathered at one end, which pday aconsiderable part in the evolutions. The singing issaid to be not unpleasdng to Western eai-s, andbeing slow and in unison, to suggest comparisonwith the early Christian plain-song. The instrumentsused in ritual music often have a specialnotation, which is highly complicated, but is necessitatedby the peculiarities of their consti-uction.:j.Buddhist and Taoist priests invariably sing orchant their ritual on important occasions, very oftensinging antiphonically in fifths, or in octaves. Sometimesone half of the singers prostrate themselveswhile the other half sings, and then rise and singwhile the others prostrate ; at other times and placeseach priest chooses his own key, but sings the sameair and words as his fellows.Van Aalst : Chinese Mmlcj Mrs. Richard ;Chinese Mjtsic; Giles : Confucianism and its Rivals.ROBINS. See Ruticillinae.ROBINSON, GEORGE BEST. When LordNapier was appointed as Chief Superintendent ofTrade in 1833, Sir G. B. Robinson, a Member of theabolished Select Committee, was made third Superintendent.On January 19, 1835, Lord Napierhaving died and J. F. Davis resigned, Sir Georgebecome Chief Superintendent. On November 24thhe removed to Lintin, very much to the satisfactionof the merchants in Canton, but without consideringthe effect on the Chinese, Lintin being the headquartersof the illicit trade in opium.He pursued what seemed to be the policy desiredby the government, a policy of strict quiescence.For nearly three years only one despatch wasreceived from the Foreign Office. Sir George wasquiescent, but the merchants called him inactiveand were very dissatisfied, causing him a great dealof trouble. At length came a despatch in December1836, in which Palmerston announced that the officeof Chief Superintendent was to be aboli^shed, andthat Sir George wa-s to hand over all papers toCaptain Elliot who would henceforth be head ofthe Commission.Eames : English in China.ROBINSON, HERCULES GEORGE ROBERT,Sir, was Governor of Hongkong from September 9,1859, to March 15, 1865, and was the first to carrythe title dissociated from those of Plenipotentiaryand Superintendent of Trade. He had served inthe army but was Lieutenant-Governor of St.Christopher when the Hongkong appointment wasoffered him. On accepting it he received the honourof knighthood.During the Second War Sir Hercules obtainedthe lease of Kowloon through (Sir) Harry Parkes,and by the Peking Convention of October 24, 1860the lease was cancelled and the Kowloon Peninsulawas ceded to the Crown as a dependency of Hongkong.Contrary however to Sir Hercules' claimsKowloon became chiefly a military cantonment.The Governor did much to improve the CivilService.First he dealt with salaries and establisheda pension scheme. He created a Marine Court ofInquiry and a Board of Examiners to give certificatesto competent masters and mates. He reorganizedthe Police Court and established a Court for SummaryJurisdiction as a branch of the Supreme Court.In regard to the government of the Chinesepopulation he took several bold and wise steps, andmade a most important addition to the Civil Servicemachinery by a Cadet Scheme, which was to providethe Colony with a staff of well-educated interpreters,eligible for promotion to the headship of somedepartments.Hardly any other Governor gave in legislationso much attention to commercial interests. Threeof his Ordinances affecting Chinese were resisted bystrikes, but his firmness gained the day each time.It was on his recommendation—though the same hadbeen made by his predecessor—that the Governmentestablished a mint in Hongkong.Of public works the Victoria Water-worksscheme is due to his energy, and he rebuilt thePraya wall. Several roads, gaols and hospitala werealso built during his tin-m of office. He made apath to the top of the Peak and built himself abungalow up there.In 1865 he was promoted to the Governorship ofCeylon and left Hongkong on March 15, 1865.Much of the progress made by the Colony under hisrule was not due to him, and he was of course muchcriticized ; but it was acknowledged that Hongkonghad had, up to that date, no more successfulGovernor.He was made first Baron Rosmead shortlybefore his death in 1897.Eitel : Europe in China.ROBINSON, WILLIAM, Sir, was born in1836 and entered ^tj;ie Colonial Office in 1854. OnDecember 10, 1891, he became Governor of Hongkong,and remained there till February 1, 1898.The Colony had its worst experience of the plagueduring his governorship, 2,547 dying of it in 1894,while the population was at one time diminished by80,000.He became C.M.G. in 1877, K.C.M.G. in 1883,and G. C.M.G. in 1897.ROC HA, JEAN DE, Hfil^ Lo Ju-wang, aJesuit Father, born in Portugal, 1566.After finishinghis course of philosophy at Goa he studied theologyat Macao for four years, then went to Chao chou,Nan ch'ang and Nanking. At Nanking he baptizedthe celebrated Hsii Kuang-ch'i (Paul Hsii, q.v.).During the time of persecution (1616) he retired to488

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICARUSSELL & CO.Kien-ch'ang, then founded churches in Fukien andKiangsu. He died in 1623 and Paul Hsii made allhis family wear mourning.Havret : La Stele de Si-ngan-fou, II, p. 18 note.ROCHER ROUGE.ROCKEFELLER FOUNDATION.Medical Board.See Bed Rock.See ChinaROCKHILL, WILLIAM WOODVILLE, wasborn in Philadelphia in 1854, and educated atSt. Cyr Military School in France. In 1884 hecame to Peking as second secretary to the AmericanLegation, and in 1887 and 1891 made two expeditionsto Tibet. He was American Minister at Peking,1905-1909, and in 1914 he travelled in Mongolia andbecame personal adviser to YiiAN Shih-k'ai. Hedied on his way out to take up this appointment,December, 1914, at Honolulu. His writings areThe Life of Buddha (1884), The Land of tjie Lamas,(1892), Diary of a Journey in Mongolia and Tibet,(1894), Notes on the Ethnology of Tibet, (1895),Chau Ju Kua (in collaboration with Hirth), andvarious papers in the R.A.S. Journal and elsewhere.Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvi.ROCK THRUSHES. See Turdinae.RODENTS. Nearly half the species of Mammalsknown in North China belong to the orderItodentia. Sowerby names ninety-nine species,under the six families, i, Sciuridae, (Squirrels,Chipmunks and Marmots) ; ii, Dipodidae, (theJumping Rats and Mice) ; iii, Muridae, (the trueRats and Mice) ; iv, Spalacidae, (Molerats, etc.)V, Lagomyidae, (Pikas or Tail-less Hares) ; vi,Leporidac, (Hares).How many of these species are found in SouthChina also cannot at present be determined.Lists of the species will be found under eachFamily name, except Dipodidae, which has beenaccidentally omitted from its proper place. It willbe found under Jumping Eats.Sowerby : Itecent Researches, etc., Journal,N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii.RODRIGUEZ, JEROME, i|& A B'^o Ju-lu,a Portuguese Jesuit missionary who reached Chinain 1605. He was first sent to Ch'ao chou jfj ^H, andthree years later to Nan ch'ang. Bad health madehim retire to Macao for a time, but in 1621-27, asVisitor of Far Eastern Missions, he travelled severaltimes over a large part of China. The dates of hisbirth and death are not known.Havret : Iju Stele chretienne de Si-ngan fou, ii,p. 25, note.ROE-DEER, Capreolus bedfordi, Jg Jig p'ao lu,found in the Ch'in ling mountains'galloping deer' ;in Shensi, in Chihli and Shansi. Wallace gives30 inches as the height at shoulder in one case, and6248967 lbs. as the weight. C. melanotis is found inKansu, and is hunted by stalking or driving. SeeCervidae.Wallace : The Big Game of Central andWestern China; Sowerby : Fur and Feather inNorth China.ROLLERS, (birds).See Anisodactyli.ROMAN CATHOLIC MISSIONS. See Vongregations,Missionary.ROSMEAD, BARON. See Robinson, SirHercules.ROSS, JOHN, D.D., was born inScotland in1841, and came to China as missionary of the UnitedPresbyterian Church in 1872. He settled at Mukden.Having learned Korean he made a pioneerversion of the Scriptures and established a printingpress with Korean compositors. But his life-workwas among the Chinese in Manchuria. He retired in1910 and died in Edinburgh, August 7, 1915. Hispublished works are Tlie Manchus, (Paidey, 1880)History of Korea, (Paisley) ; Mission Methods inManchuria, (Edin. 1903) ; The Origin of the ChinesePeople, (1906) ; The Original Religion of China,(1909) ; Primers of Korean and Mandarin, and manypapers in journals.ROSS, WILLIAM, a missionary of the UnitedPresbyterian Church of Scotland. He reached Chinain 1872 and first settled at Newchwang. He travelledextensively in S. Manchuria and sent home thefirst collection of plants from that district, includingvarious new species.Bretschneider : European Botanical Discoveries.ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, China Branch.See China Branch.RU BR I GUIS. See William of Rubruch.R U BR UQU I S. See William of Rubruch.RUGGIERO, MICHEL, a Jesuit priest, wasborn in the Kingdom of Naples in 1543. In 1577Hehe went to the Indies, reaching China in 1581.stayed in Macao and learned Chinese, then waspermitted to reside at Chao-k'ing fu, and it is statedthat he was thus the first Jesuit to teach Christianityin China ; and also that he wrote the first book inChinese in favour of Christianity. He was sent toRome in 1582 to ask the Pope to send a legate toChina, and he died at Salerno, May 11, 1607.Ljungstedt : A Historical Sketch of the PortugueseSettlements.RUSSELL & CO., an early American firm inCanton. It was established in 1824 by SamuelRussell, when the firm Samuel Russell & Co. waswound up after five years' existence. PhilipAmmidon was an original partner; AugustineHeard, and W. C. Hunter were partners in later

RUSSIAN MISSIONENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAyears. A list of the partners down to 1879 is givenin the work named below. The firm was, of course,originally in Canton, but in 1846 opened a branchin Shanghai (afterwards the chief establishment ofthe firm), then in other ports. In 1862 the firmorganized the Shanghai Steam Navigation Company.Russell & Co. made the first successful telegrapiiline on Chinese soil. This was in 1869, andthe line connected the oflfice of the Shanghai SteamNavigation Co. with their central office.1882.R. B. Forbes : Personal Reminiscences, Boston,RUSSIAN ECCLESIASTICAL MISSION.The Mission in Peking was founded in 1727 and waspolitical rather than religious. The Russian prisonersfrom Albazin {q.v.), to the number of abouta hundred according to some accounts, were takento Peking in 1685. It is of these prisoners and theirdescendants that the Mission was formed, in 1720,after several previous attempts had failed. K'angHsi gave to them a temple in the north-west cornerof the city. In 1727 by the Vladislav itch Treatythe Orthodox Church in Peking was recognized', andfour Russian priests were allowed to live in thecapital, together with six young students of thelanguage.The work of the Mission has been less evangelisticthan political and scientific. Some 150 priestsworked in the Mission up to 1860, yet the membersof the Church only numbered 200, including thedescendants of those who came from Albazin. Onthe other hand a good deal of scientific and sinologicalwork was done.After the Treaty of Tientsin (1858) the statusof the Mission was changed, its diplomatic activitiesbeing no longer needed. For fifty years a great dealof literary work was done. Archimandrite Palladixjsspending 25 years in China.The present Archimandrite Innocent (Figotjrow^SKi),made Bishop in 1902, has been very active,and there are now 32 mission churches in differentprovinces, with a baptized membership of 5,587Chinese (1916).The number of Christians in Peking belongingto the Russian Mission is between 800 and 1,000.There are also small groups of Christians in villagesnear Peking.The «taff of the mission is as follows :The Bishop, and Chief of the Orthodox RussianMission in China (Innocent Figottrowski).Two ArchimandritesThree PopesOne ArchdeaconFive DeaconsNine MonksSix NunsOne School-teacher.RUSSIAN RELATIONS WITH CHINA.The first Russian Agents sent to Peking werePetroff and Yallisheff in 1567. They broughtno presents and were not admitted to an audience.In 1619 a second Agent was sent, Evashko Petplin,but for the same reason the result was the same,except that he took back to Moscow a Chinese letterto the Czar,The Agent Theodore Isakovitch Baikoff wassent in 1654; according to instructions he refusedto kotow or to hand over his letter to anyone butthe Emperor himself. Nothing therefore was done,and he returned to Moscow by July, 1658.An Envoy was next sent, Nicolas GavrilovitchSpathar; he left Moscow on March 4, 1675.Arrived at Peking, he met P. Verbiest, whose ideasof bringing missionaries out to China by landthrough Russia, no doubt arose through this meeting.Spathar was four times admitted to audience, butaccording to Chinese accounts he refused to kotow,the letter he carried was not answered, and hisbusiness was obstructed. All he seems to havetaken back to the Czar was a Treatise on Anatomy,sent by Verbiest ! Spathar reached Moscow inJanuary, 1658.In 1658 a mission was sent under Perfileff andSetkoul Ablin. It brought back a letter in Chinesewhich there was no one to interpret and which hadhad to be translated by the Jesuits fifteen yearslater in Peking.Another mission was sent under Ablin alonebetween 1668 and 1672. Both these missions wereutter failures, largely owing to troubles on the Amur.In 1685 letters from Peking reached Moscowreferring to earlier unanswered letters and demandingthe evacuation of Albazin {q.v.). The letterswere in Latin this time and could therefore be read ;they were conciliatory in their tone. In replyRussia at once sent the Agents Nicephore VENYtr-KOFF and Ivan Favoroff to announce that anembassy would follow. Theodore AlexievitchGolovin was then appointed High AmbassadorExtraordinary, and he left Moscow in January,1686, with fifteen hundred soldiers, but it was. threeand a half years before he got in direct touch withthe Chinese authorities. He settled at Selenginskand sent Loginoff to Peking to arrange for a diplomatic,conference. This was delayed through aKalmuck outbreak, but Chinese envoys reachedNertchinsk in July, 1689 ; they had PP. Gerbillonand Peretra as interpreters, and about 10,000 men,with boats and artillery. There was much wranglingin many languages, but at la&t on August 27,1689, the treaty of Nertschinsk was signed. (SeeNertschinsl-, Treaty of).Russia, as the result of this treaty, becamestrict in the treatment of trade with China, allowingcaravans to go only every two years, fixing the490

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICARUSSIAN RELATIONSroute, demanding payment for customs duty, etc.Soon afterwards the government tried to crushprivate trading by establishing various monopolies,but in the long run it was beaten. Several missionsmay have been sent, but the role of mei'chant anddiplomatic agent were not kept much apart and itis now impossible to distinguish. In 1692, however,the mission of Ides (q.v.) was plainly official. Thecaravan of .some four hundred men left Moscow onMarch 14, 1692, and reached Peking on November3, 1693. In the letter which Ides carried the titlesof the Emperor were written lower than those ofthe Czar, and for this reason, though severalaudiences were given to Ides, the letter was notanswered and all requests were refused.There were several government caravans sentwith more or less diplomatic intent, but the nextformal embassy was sent in 1719 in under LeonVasilievitch Ismailoff. His first secretary »vasLauhent de Lange who had already been- in amission to Peking, and the physician or surgeonwas John Bell of Antermony (q.v.). The ambassadorstayed in Peking from November 18, 1720, tillMarch 2, 1721, and was received by the Emperor adozen times. He obtained the concession of a sitefor a church, an arrangement of Chines© sealedletters to be used as 'tickets of admission' for officialRussian caravans, and an agreement for trad© to becarried on at the frontier instead of in Peking,When he returned he left de Lange, who wasprobably a Swede, to represent Russian interests.But de Lange had a vei-y difficult time and spentmany months practically in prison. After a whileit was announced that henceforth no Rus.;ians wouldbe allowed in China till the boundary question hadbeen arranged.On October 12, 1725 the most important of allthe Russian embassies left Moscow. It had been inpreparation for a long time; its instructions weremost definite, and its equipment most complete. Itwas under Savva Lukitch Vladislavitch, a manof about 60, as Ambassador Extraordinary andMinister Plenipotentiary in China. He spent fullsix months in Peking, from October 21, 1726 toApril 23, 1727.Negotiations were long and difficult,but resulted in the treaty signed at Nertchinsk,sometimes called the Treaty of the Frontier, sometimesthe Treaty of Kiakhta, becaUiSe it was ratifiedthere after the boundariesi had been agreed on.This treaty allowed two hundred merchants to visitPeking every two years, while two permanenttrading-stations were established on the frontier;a priest, three curates and five or six languagestudents! were to be permitted to reside in Peking.The date of the treaty is October 21, 1727.An embassy was sent in 1733 from Peking toSt. Petersburg, the only embassy to a foreign courtduring the Manchu dynasty till the reign ofT'uNG Chxh.At a later date which is quite uncertain, butwhich Morse thinks was about 1762, the Pekingtrade was removed to Kiakhta on the Russian sideand Maimaichen on the Chinese side of the frontier.The trade there was strictly controlled by bothgovernments and was entirely by barter. In 1830it was stated to the House of Commons that thistrade amounted to £7,800,000, but this must havebeen too high a figure.In 1768 the ambassador Kkopotoff was s«nt,but was not received at Peking; he signed a Conventionat Kiakhta supplementing the KiakhtaTreaty, and another Convention was signed in 1792.Two Russian ships went to Canton in 1806they did their business, but immediately they weregone orders arrived from Peking that Russian shipsmust be excluded from Canton.At the western extremity of the frontier tradedeveloped in the middle of the nineteenth centuryat Kuldja and Tarbagatai, and was regulated by aConvention signed at Kuldja on July 25, 1851.In May, 1858, the Treaty of Aigun (nearBlagovestchensk) was signed, giving to Russia theleft bank of the Amur from the mouth of the Argunto the sea, and agreeing that the territory betweenthe Ussuri and the sea should be held in commontill frontiers were fixed. It was not a time whenChina could resist : the Taku forts had been takenten days earlier. Before this. Admiral CountPutiatine sought to make a commercial treatyopening the treaty ports to Russian trade. He wasrefused permission to travel to Peking via Kiakhtaat the Peiho he was refused permission to proceedto Peking at all; he then went to Hongkong and,like America, worked diplomatically together withEngland and France while abstaining from war.More recent relations include the temporaryoccupation of Kuldja and the leasing of PortArthur, Dalny, etc., on which separate .articles maybe referred to.The following is a complete list of all who haverepresented Russia at the Court of Peking.Bussian representatives and envoys to Chinabefore the Tientsin treaty of 1858.1567 Ivan PExnov iiiul Burnash Yalvchev, PekingCossack officers ( atamans).1618 Ivan Petline nnil Andkki Mundov, Poking 1619.Siberian Cossacks.1649 Special Russian embassy to bring con- frontier.gratiilaiions to the TsMng House onits accession to the Chinese Throne.16.54 Bavkov, envoy O/onetz), a boyav's son Poking 1656.1G55from TobolskYahykine, n boyar's son from Tobolsk.1058 Ivan Pehifiliev, envoy (jTO/iW*), a bo- Peking.yar's son (received by the ChineseEmperor).4.91

RUSSIAN RELATIONSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA1670 loNATy MiLOVAKOV and Kobiakov, Peking,local envoys (received by the ChineseEmperor).1674 Ivan PoRSHENKiKOv, commercial envoy, Peking.a boyar's son.167.5 N. G. Spafary, ambassador, interpreter Peking 1G76.of the Moscow Foreign DepartmentiPosoliky Prikaz).1686 Veniukov and Favouov, envoys (jroHi^y), Peking.forernnners of the following embassy.1683 Th. a. Golovine, "blijny okolnitchy" (a Kertchinskcourt grade), lieutenant of Briansk,— (treaty).I. E. Vlassov, "stolnik" (dapifer— , acourt grade) lieutenant of Ielatoma,—S. KoRNiTSKOY, "diak" (Chancellor),—greatand pleulrotentiaryambassadors.1602 Everhard Ysbrand Ides, merchant Peking 1693.from Gluckstadt (received by theChinese Emperor on an errand ofPeter the Great).1719 IzicAiLov, envoy plenipotentiary and Pekingminister, captain in the guard (re- 1720-1721.celved by the Chinese Emperor, ashis guest).1716-1737 Lorenz Lasge, e.x-captain in the Swe- Peking,dish army, on five occasions commercinlenvoy, at one time, in 1721and later—constant Rnssiau agentin Peking (received by the ChineseEmperor).172.5 Count (from lUyria) Savva Vladis- PikingLAViTCH (Ragnzinsky), actual state 1726-1727councillor, envoy extraordinary and (Bura treatyministerplenipotentiary (received by 1727, Kiakhtathe Chinese Emperor).treaty-1727).1762-1768 I. Kropotov, captain, ambassador to Pekingannounce the accession to the Throne (additionalof Empress Catheuike II, and later treaty-1768.)plenipotentiary commissioner (receivedby the Chinese Emperor).1790-1792 L. Kagil, general-major, governor of FrontierIrkutsk, in charge of frontier affairs.(17!*2 act.)1805-1806 Count G. A. Golovkise, ambassador Urga.extraordinarj-.18.51 KovALEVSKV, colonel of the mining en- Knldjagineer corps,—plenipotentiary.(treat)'-18jl).1857 Count E. V. Putiatine, general-adjn- Shanghai andtant. Vice-admiral, commander of theTientsinfleet in the Paciflc Ocean, minister (treaty-1858).and in 1858, Imperial Commissionerin China.1858 N. X. MoRAViEV (later Count Mn- Aigunraviev-Ajilrsky), general-adjutant, (trcaty-1858).general-lieutenant, governor-generalof Eastern Siberia.[From the 1728 Kiakhta treaty to the 1858 Tientsin treaty theconstant current relations between lliissia and China were conductedby correspondence of the Senate and the Li-fan-yiian respectieely.]Permanent Russian representatives in China185'.)-1861after 1858— {Peking).X. P. Ignatiev (later Count), general-major of the suite01 H.I. :m.,—plenipotentiary and on a special mission.1861-1863 L. Th. Baluzeck, aide-de-camp of H.I.M., colonel inthe guards, minister resident.186U-1S73 A. G. Vlanoali, general-major of the mining corps,envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary.1873-1883 E. C. BuTZow, actual state councillor, idem.1883-1886 S. I. Popow, actual state councillor, idem.1886-1891 A. M. Coumanv, chamberlain, actual state cjuiicillor,idem.1891-1897 Count A. P. Cassini, chamberlain, actual state councillor,idem.1897-1898 A. X. Speyez, state councillor, idem (did not fill hispost).1897-1901 M. N. de Giers, chamberlain, actual state councillor,idem.1901-1905 P. M. Lessar, actual state councillor, ide n.1905-1908 1). D. PoKOTLLOw, actual state councillor. Idem.1909-1912 I. J. KoRosTovE-rz, actual state councillor, idem.i9!2-1916B. N. Kroipessky, chamberlain, actual state councillor,idem.1916- Prince X. A. Kocdacheff, chamberlain, actual statecouncillor, idem.RUTICILLINAE, a subfamily of the Turdidne,according to Oates' classification, comprisingthe Kobins, Redstarts, Forktails, etc. The followingis a list of those in China as far as known,with their habitat. Henicurus sinensis commonlyfound at all seasons in the mountains of S. China.H. schistaceus, the Slaty-backed Forktail, in S.China, from Fukien to Ssuch'uan, but not common.H. scouleri, the commonest in China of its genus;in all the southern provinces up to the YellowRiver. Ruticilla aurorea, the Daurian Redstart,all over China up to Mongolia and Manchuria.R. frontalis, the Blue-fronted Redstart, in W.Ssuch'uan and Kansu. R. rufiventris, the IndianRedstart, winters in Shensi, Chihli and Mongolia,but in small numbers. R. hodjsoni, comes toKansu and S. W. China for the summer.Rhyacornis fuliginosa, the Plumbeous Redstart,in the Central provinces in all seasons ; occursas far as Chihli and even in Mongolia. R.schisticeps, the White-throated Redstart, commonin the wooded valleys of Kansu. R. alashanicain the mountains of Kansu and in the Alashan.R. erijthrogaster, Guldenstaedt's Redstart, in Kansu,but very rare. Cyanecula caerulecula, The BlueThroat, passes through China in migration. Itwinters sparsely in S.E. China. A favourite cagebird.Calliope camtschatkensis, the Common Rubythroat,very common, passing in spring andautumn. C. tschebaiewi, the Tibet Ruby-throat,seems limited to the mountains of Kansu, and isvery rare. Tarsiger chrysaeus, the Golden Bush-Robin, in the wooded mountains of W. Ssuch'uanlanthia indica, the White-broviredvery scarce. 'Bush-Robin, in W. Ssuch'uan. /. johnstoniae and/. goodftllowi, in Formosa. /. cyanura the RedflankedBush-Robin, very common throughoutChina and in Mongolia. /. rufilata occurs in W.China. Grandala coelicolor, Hodgson's Grandala,in the very high mountains of W. Ssiich'uan andKansu. Notodela niontium, in Formosa. A^.leucura from Hupei to Yiinnan. Copsychus saularis,the Magpie-Robin, in S. China up to and includingthe Yangtze basin. Kittacincla minor, the Shama,in Hainan.David et Oustalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine.492

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASAFFLOWERSSACRED EDICT, if. ^. An Editt first issuedin 1670 by the Emperor K'ang Hsi, then 16 yearsold. It consists of sixteen moral maxims which,though ordinary enough, have come to be regardedwith extravagant reverence. Yung Cheng, thenext Emperor, caused these maxims to be enlargedon in essays by picked scholars, and in 1724 it wasordered that they should be read to the public inevei-y city and town on the 1st and 15th of eachmonth.The sixteen e&says were later turned into easycolloquial,SACRIFICES, KIUMAN. This title shouldmore properly be reserved for the killing of menas offerings to the Deity, as in the case of Abrahamand Isaac, or the religious ceremonies of theAztecs. In default of a more convenient term,it is used for the burial of living slaves, concubines,and others, with the rich or royal deadthough the idea of providing companionship andservice in the other world is more prominent thanthat of appeasing anger or seeking favour.The practice must have been established inChina in very early times, but the first examplerecorded in Chinese history was at the burial ofthe Ch'in ruler Wu Kung, b.c. 678, when sixty-sixpersons were buried alive to keep him company inthe other world. In Ch'in again, when Mu Ktjngdied in B.C. 621, there were buried with him onehundred and seventy-four people. This causedthe Ode called Huang niao ^ j^ to be made(Leoge's -S'Ae Kimj, ip. 198). The fact itself isrecorded in the Ch'un Ch'iu. The practice hadbeen forbidden by Hsien Ktjng on his succeedingto the Ch'in earldom in B.C. 384, but at the deathof Ch'in Shih Huang Ti in b.c. 210, all his wivesand concubines who had not borne him childrenwere buried with him, and the workmen who hadmade his tomb were also walled up alive in it.It is further recorded that in Ch'in a young girlwas sacrificed annually (?) to the god or genius ofthe Yellow River; a practice which was for sometime imitated by Wei. The Ch'in State is notoriousin this matter, and as it was half Tartar it maybe supposed that the custom was adopted from theTurko-Scythian tribes.This view is found in a Chinese historian ofthe Sung dynasty, and is accepted by Biot butnot by DE Groot.The tomb of Ch'u Chuang Wang, b.c. 591, isstill to be seen near Ching-chou fu, and tensmaller tombs around it are said to belong to thosesacrificed at his funeral. It is also on recordthat when Ling Wang of Ch'u hanged himself inB.C. 529, a faithful follower, Shkn Hai ffi ^, buriedtwo of his own daughters in his master's grave.In a.d. 312, the tomb of Duke Huan of Ch'i(died B.C. 643) was opened, and from the numberof bones in the tomb it was evident that manyconcubines had been buried with him.Some writers assert that the practice was . inuse all over China; but the Edict of the Hanruler ^% against it may only have been directedagainst Ch'in, Ch'u and Ch'i, which, as statedabove, were guilty of the evil ; no definite examplesare given from the semi-savage States of Wu andYiieh.There is a good deal of evidence that the practicewas not looked on with approval by the people.There seem to be no instances recorded duringthe Han dynasty, but this cannot be held to provethe practice was abandoned ; especially as historyproves it was common at the beginning of thefourth century a.d. Occasional references in laterannals, together with the fact of such immolationsbeing carried on extensively in the first hundredyears of the Ming dynasty, seem to show thatthe practice had been continuous.According to De Guignes, who does nothowever give the source of his information, therewere such immolations in the early days of theManchu dynasty.The practice is not a recognized State institution,and is not provided for in the dynasticCodices of Rites.Parker : Ancient China Simplified ; Tschepe :Histoire du Royaume de, Ts'in, p. 7, 57, etc. ;De Groot : Religious System of China, vol. ii, c. 9.SADDLE ISLANDS, THE, a group some 30miles from the mouth of the Yangtze, the mainisland. North Saddle Island, being 84 miles fromShanghai. The jurisdiction over them seemsdivided between Kiangsu and Chekiang provinces.In the fishing season the islands are crowded withfishermen from the Ningpo and Wenchow districts,and large quantities of cuttle-fish are caught.There are good harbours, and the North SaddleIsland rises to 800 feet ; it might be much used asa sanatorium by Shanghai residents.Little : East of Asia Magazine, vol. iv, p. 133.SAFFLOWER, Carthamus tinctorius, jJtC i£hung hua, formerly extensively cultivated in Ssuch'uanfor its beautiful red dye, has now been oustedby artificial dyes, except for use on a small scale. But493

SAINTENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAit produces also a valuable oil, and might be cultivatedfor this purpose, especially as a dry farmingcrop in semi-arid regions. The decorticatedl cakeis nutritious as cattle feed.SAINT, |g sheng, the third and highest gradein Taoism to which men may attain, after Immortalfjljand Hero Jt•A Saints are the most eminentof the Hero class, gifted with extraordinary geniusand virtue.WiEGER : Taolsme; Dore : Recherches sur lesSuperstitions, tome ix, p. 487.S'AKYAMUNI ^M^}^' The name commonlyused by the Chinese Buddhists for thefounder of Buddhism, in preference to the nameGautama Buddha.SALAR, the 'black-capped Mohammedans' ofKansu. They are distinguished from the 'whitecapped'by not burning incense, by breakingfast at a different hour during Eamadan, andgenerally by greater devoutness and fanaticism.They are of Turkish extraction. The origin of thename is uncertain. See Mohammedanism.RocKHiLL : The Land of the Lamas, p. 39.SALfcSlENS, a Roman Catholic Congregationworking in China but not as an independent Missionthey opened an orphanage in the diocese of Macaoin 19uld ; they have also a small work near Canton inthe same diocese, where three priests minister toabout 500 Christians.Planchet : Les Missions de Chine, 1916.SALT ADMINISTRATION, THE. Taxation ofsalt in China is said to date from about 2200 B.C.,tribute salt having been introduced during the reignof Yii, first Emperor of the Hsia dynasty.The Ch'i kingdom (7th century B.C.) in which themanufacture of salt was encouraged under governmentcontrol, supplied salt from what is now Shantungto all the neighbouring inland kingdoms ;underthe administration of KuanTzu it derived a verylarge revenue from salt taxes and was reputed to be"the richest kingdom in the world."During the reign of the Emperor Wu Ti, 140-85B.C. (Han dynasty), special officials were appointedin charge of salt taxes throughout China.At the beginning of the T'ang dynasty (7thcentury a.d.) there were said to be eighteen saltlakes and 640 salt wells under the control of theBoard of Revenue. Taxes were also levied on seasalt. During this dynasty a reformer named LiuYen (762 a.d.) arose, who as Transportation Commissionerorganized a system of salt administrationon lines which may well serve as a model at thepresent time. Government control was confined to. the producing districts and transit taxes wereabolished : merchants were allowed to transport saltfor sale to any jJlace they chose, but governmentsaltwas stored in remote districts to guard againstshortage in the supply. Under this system the saltrevenue is said to have increased to fifteen times itsformer amount.Early in the Sung dynasty (960-1278 a.d.), themodern system of merchants' transportation wasintroduced. Permits Called Yin were issued by theCentral Government on payment of tax and thecountry was divided into Yin areas {Yin Ti), ineach of which a merchants' monopoly was established.This system was elaborated in the 14th centuryA.D., by T'ai Tsu (Hung Wu), the 1st MingEmperor, during whose reign Yin were also issuedin retiurii for contributions of rice to the Governmentstores. Towards the end of the Ming dynasty,however, (early 17th century), the salt administrationdecayed, a period of disintegration set in andthe revenue fell rapidly away.During the Ch'ing dynasty the salt-producingareas were divided into ten districts, each under thecontrol of a high official who was at the same timethe Viceroy of the province : the salt Taotai washowever, the actual administrator of salt affairs.Government and merchants' monopolies existed sideby side, and while the basis of the system was thesame as during the reigns of the early Ming emperors,the rates of taxation and methods of collection in thevarious districts became more and more dissimilarand extensive abuses crept in. Towards the end ofthe Manchu regime the lack of uniformity and completeabsence of centralised control brought theadministration into a most chaotic condition andinsistent demands for reform arose.In 1909-1910 a serious attempt at reform wasmade and a Central Salt Office {Yen Cheng Ch'u,the name being changed in 1911 to Yen Cheng Yuan),was established at Peking under the control of theMinister of Finance. Progress was' checked by theoutbreak of the Revolution in 1911, and no effectivereforms were introduced until the reorganization of1913 was undertaken and the present Central SaltAdministration was established.The Chinese Government Reorganization LoanAgreement was signed on the 26th April, and cameinto effect on the 21st May, 1913. By Article V theChinese Government engaged "to take immediatesteps for the reorganization, with the assistance offoreigners, of the system of collection of the saltrevenues of China," and the Central Salt Administration{Yen Wu Shu) was established in Pekingunder the control of the Minister of Finance.All administrative functions other than thoseassigned to the Chief Inspectors and District Inspectorsfall within the sphere of Chinese Salt Commissioners,one of whom is in charge of each saltproducingDistrict. These Salt Commissioners regulatethe manufacture and transportation of salt494

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINlCASALT ADMINISTRATIONand control the Preventive Forces. In nonproducingDistricts there are Chinese TransportationOfficers, who are charged with the supervision of thesupply and distribution of salt to the people bymerchants. The Government fixes a maximum priceat which salt may be sold in each area.DISTRICTS OF PRODUCTION AND OF CONSUMPTION.ChiefrroduniigUistriotsConsumption DistrictNatureof saltMethod ofManufactureFenotien Feugtien, Kiriii, Heilnngkiaug Sea SolarCiiiiii.1Chibli, E. Uonaii, X. Shansievaporation,^SuAN-n-No ... Shantung, N.-E. Hoiian, N.-E. » "Aiibul and CoreaKlANOSU Anhui, and parts of Kiangsu, „SolarKiangsi, Hunan «nd Hoiian evaporationand boilingChekiang Cliekiang and parts of Kiangsu,"Anhui anclKiangsiFUKIEN Fukien and parts of Chekiang " »and KiangsiKWANGTCNG Kwangtung, Kwangsi and » "parts of Kiangsi, Hnuan andKweichowYt-NNAN Yunnan and W. Kweiehow AVell BoilingSsilCU'DANSsflch'nan,N.-E.Yun«an,Kweichow,Hupeh and S. SUensi." »SlIANSI Parts of Shansi, Shensi, and Lake Solar(Yaucheng Honan evaporationShknsi, Kansc Kausu, and parts of Shensi„ „(Huainachili)JIONGOLIA Parts of Chilili.Sliansi, Shensi" "and KausuMunufacture.—There are two methods of evaporationby solar heat. In the salt-lake districts,the heat of the sun causes the salt to crystallize atthe edge of the lakes or in some cases on the surfaceof the water. On the sea coast the salt-pan systemis generally in vogue, the sea-brine being pumpedup by wind sails or being allowed to flow on toprepared beds or pans, being drawn from one b«dto another as it becomes more dense, until finally itdeposits salt in the crystallizing pans. The bitternbrine is in some places used to strengthen freshbrine as it is pumped up. This is the method bywhich more than half the salt in China is manufactured,salt boiling being impracticable in thegreater part of the country owing to the lack of fuel.The salt made by solar evaporation varies inpurity according to the nature of the salt in whichthe pans are made. The finest salt in China is producedin Ssuch'uan, Fukien and Kuangtung. Insouth Kiangsu and Chekiang where large reed bedsstill exist, in Yiinnan where there are forests, andin Ssuch'uan where a natural gas is found, salt isstill largely manufactured by boiling. In Ssuch'uancoal is increasingly used for the purpose. TheSsuch'uan works are worthy of special mention. AtTzeliuching, where more than two-thirds of the saltin S. Ssuch'uan is produced, borings are made, oftenthrough solid rock, to a depth of some 3,000 feet.The mouth of such a well may be no more than14 inches in diameter. Brine is drawn up inbamboo tubes some 80 feet long, by 5 or morebuffaloes working round a large drum. At feomej)laces labour and expenses are saved by sinking thewells in pairs, fo that the drawing up of one tubecauses the other to sink. From the wells the brine,which is of high density, is carried in buckets orconducted by bamboo pipes to the boiling establishments,where it is boiled by a natural earth-gas orby coal and grass-fuel. In parts of Chekiang brineis boiled in an enormous cauldron of bamboo mattingcoated inside and out with lime made from rivershells : it is suspended over a fire by ordinary ropesand can be used for some ten days, after which it isuseless for further boiling, but is broken up and soldto manure the land.Salt after manufacture is stored either at thev.-orks or in the depots and godowns awaiting sale.The cost price, exclusive of tax, varies from 40 to 50cash a catty of 1.4 lbs. in parts of Ssuch'uan, to 19or 20 piouds for a dollar at some works in Fukien.Itis purchased from the makers by transporting merchantswho generally possess monopoly rights in agiven area, and who, after payment of the salt tax,receive a Release Permit upon production of whichthey are permitted to remove the salt. Theauthorised scale is the Ssu Ma by which one piculequals 140 lbs. avoirdupois, and sixteen piculs equalone ton. The «alt is packed in bags of rush,matting or bamboo. In Kirin and Heilungkiangthe purchase, distribution and .sale is effected by theGovernment which holds a monopoly in the wholearea.In Fukien also a Government monopoly exists.In Fengtien, Yiinnan, South Shansi and SouthShensi, free trade in salt already existed when thereorganization was instituted. In Kuangtung andSsiich'uan, and in the greater part of Anhui andHonan all monopolies have recently been abolishedto the advantage of the revenue and of theconsumer.The rest of China proper with unimportantexceptions, is still divided into monopolized districts,though competition of two or more kinds of salt inthe same district is increasingly permitted. Amonopoly is either farmed out to a merchant undercontract for the payment of an annual sum or isowned by a number of merchants who possess thesole right of selling duty-paid salt in a particulardistrict. The chief instance of the latter practiceis found in Kiangsi, S. Anhui, Hunan and Hupei,the greater portion of which provinces is suppliedwith salt by merchanlts possessing rights formerlypurchased from the Government, but now becomeby custom hereditary and transferable. In th^seareas the salt is distributed and sold under Governmentsupervision.495

SALT ADMINISTRATIONENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAVested interests have hitherto proved too strongfor the introduction of such a system of free competitionthroughout the country. At present, monopoliesprevent the people from obtaining salt ofgood quality and keep up the price by artificialrestrictions. Bad and expensive salt is the chiefcause of the prevalence of smuggling, vi^hich is butinadequately kept in check by a large and costlyPreventive Force. Much progress has recently beenmade towards the reorganization of this Force; themen are better paid and better clothed, merchants'police have been transferred to Government control,and the Force is being concentrated in the districtsof production rather than, as formerly, scatteredthrough the consumption areas. The total revenueloJt by reason of the failure to control smugglingmust however still be very considerable.Taxation.—The principle of taxation now definitelyadopted is the imposition of a single directtax at source. The taxes existing in 1913 consisted,generally speaking, of a direct tax around which wasgrouped a most complicated medley of additionaltaxes imposed from time to time as neceisity aroseor opportunity offered, and seldom if ever abolishedwhen once imposed.Levied upon producer, transporting merchantand consumer indiscriminately, collected at anyconvenient point along the route which the salt hadto pass, calculated according to different scales andin various currencies, to five or even eight places ofdecimals and allocated for such diverse purposes asconservancy, upkeep of schools, the Boxer Indemnity,upkeep of gunboats, support of horsebreeding in the Manchu city at Hangchow, of theAssociation for giving alms to priests, of widows,life-saving institutions and the association for theprevention of killing of animals, they were such asto baffle the most earnest enquirer. Such anomaliesare now practically a thing of the past, and whilethe rate of taxation has been increased, the peoplehave benefited by the removal of harassing delaysand by the abolition of exactions which by theirvery nature invited extortion and abuse. The rateof taxation at present varies from $ 0.20 a picul inparts of Shantung to $3.50 a picul in Yiinnan.Saltfor the central Yangtze areas is nominally taxed at$4.50 a picul, but is in fact considerably less, as,owing to the risk which attends transportation tothese areas, payment of two-thirds of the tax ispermitted to be deferred until the salt is eventuallysold, and when losses occur exemptions are granted.In Hunan also the payment when made is frequentlyin depreciated notes. The standard of taxationlaid down in the Presidential mandate of the 24thDecember, 1913, is $2.50 a picul, to be graduallyintroduced throughout the country except inMongolia, Chinghai, Sinkiang and Tibet, "whereextraordinary conditions prevail."Revenue.—It appears probable that the revenueannually remitted to Peking up to the time of theRevolution in 1911 was about Tls. 13,000,000; thereceipts for the whole of China, including sumsretained by the provinces for local purposes, wereperhaps double that figure. There is no reason tosuppose that the salt revenue increased between 1911and 1913 and the total net revenue credited to theForeign Banks in accordance with the loan agreementfor the period 21st May to 31st December 1913amounted to $17,576,154 only. From 1914 onwards,however, the revenue has steadily increased.The revenue actually credited in the ForeignBanks during the past three years after paymentof the expenses of administration was :1914 1915 1916*$60,409,676 $69,277,536 $72,440,560Charges and Surplus.—A list of the chargesupon the Salt Revenue in 1913 is annexed to theReorganization Loan Agreement. For all practicalpurposes it is only necessary to take into accountat present the Crisp Loan (£5,000,000), the ReorganizationLoan itself (£25,00,0000), such part ofthe instalments of the Boxer Indemnity as mayfrom time to time not be covered by the receiptsof the Maritime Customs, and the issued portion(£6,000,000) of the Hukuang Railway Loan of 1911.The following sums have been paid on accountof the Boxer Indemnity :1914 1915 1916 1917$13,505,833 $23,787,463 $10,071,371 nil.and on account of other charges :1914 1915 1916$7,600,739 $10,811,619 $14,840,534The surplus placed at the disposal of the ChineseGovernment has been :—1914 1915 1916$31,304,818 $27,523,066 $52,226,185The Government has agreed to maintain a reserve,amounting to $10,000,000 with the foreign banks,in order to ensure the prompt payment of instalmentsof interest as they fall due, and to improve thevalue of the security.'[W.R.S.1SALVATION ARMY, THE, has at the presenttime only one base in China, namely, Peking, openedin 1916, with 37 foreign Salvationists in chargein 1917.SAMANTABHADRA, the all gracious, theBodhisattva called in China P'u Hsien #K. Heis only moderately prominent in Indian Buddhism.In China he is popular, and is the patron saint of*Mount Omi. He is represented with a greencomplexion and he rides an elephant. In theLotus Siitra he has the function of protecting thefollowers of the law. The Chinese pilgrims makeno mention of his worship in India.* Approximate.496

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASAN SHANSAM B I ASO FRANCOIS, ^:;^g|, Pi Fang-chi,a Jesuit Father born in the Kingdom of Naples in1582. He reached Peking in 1613, and when thepersecution chased him thence he went to Kia-ting,but returned to the capital before the troubles endedand was sheltered in the house of Paul Hsii, In1622 he was again obliged to leave this dangerouspost, and went to Shanghai and in 1628 to K'ai-fengfu and then to Nanking. He baptized manyhundreds of converts in these years. Later he wascalled to Peking to assist in the astronomical laboursof the Jesuits at the Court.He worked with great success at Yangchow,Ningpo, Soochow and elsewhere.When the Emperor Tsung Cheng died, themandarins begged him to go to Macao and seekthe help of the Portuguese for Kuang HtfNG againstthe Tartars, which mission he undertook. The newEmperor was intimat* with him, but Sambiaso usedhis influence with him and his successors only forthe protection of religion, and for the building of achurch and residence at Canton. He died at Cantonin 1649.Havret : Ln Stele chrHienne de Si^ngan-fou, ii,p. 28, note.SAMPAN, 3 M,three planks. Any smallChinese boat, not a junk, may be 5o called.SAMPSON, MOUNT, also called Sampson'sPeak, a rocky, conical hill some two thousand feethigh, east of Chin-chou (Kinchow) and north ofDairen (Dalny). It received this name in 1859 whenthe British forces were at Talien wan, one of theBritish vessels being the "Sampson."The Chinese name is Ta-ho shang or Ta ho shanSwiNHOE : Narrative of the North ChinaCampaign of 1860.SAMPSON'S PEAK. See Sampson, Mount.SAMSHU, BiJi^ thrice fired. Any fermentedChinese drink may be so called, but especially j^ fSor 'burning spirits.' See Wine.SAMSHUI HzK, a port in Kuangtung inlatitude 25'' 6' N., longitude 112° 53' E.It was opened in 1897 by the Burma FrontierConvention and is near the junction of the Northand West Rivers, and owes its existence to the largejunk and steam traffic on these streams ; trade andinid\istry centre at Sainam, three miles below. TheCanton-Samshui section of the Yiieh-Han Railwaywas opened in 1904 and the port is now a large distributingcentre for passenger traffic. The populationis 6,000. 1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 3,562,266 4,471,770Net Chinese „ 1,195,388 724,481Exports 2,009,256 2,539,985Total Hk.Tls. 6,766,910 7,736. ?56SAN CHIN, H^, a name sometimes used forthe three States of Han, Wei and Chao, into whichChin was divided. See Chin.SAN CH'ING, the Taoist Triad. See ThreePure Ones.SANCIAN.SANDALWOOD.See San shan.See Woods.SANG DE BOEUF, a celebrated ruby-redglaze on K'ang Hsi porcelain, derived from coppermsilicate. It was really a revival of the "sacrificialred" glaze of the Hsiian Te period.BuSHELL : Chinese Art.SAN KUO CHIH, H^.^- The history ofthe Three Kingdoms ^ Shu, f| Wei, and ^ Wu,which succeeded the Han Dynasty. It is a famoushistorical novel recounting a hundred years of war.SAN LI, 3g,the three rituals, a term to denotethe three works / Li, Chou Li and Li Chi. Seeseparate articles.SAN LING,= ^. Three mausolea of theManchu rulers, in Manchuria. See Mausolea.SAN MEN (BAY.) HP^,'three gates' ;so namedbecause the. bay is accessible by three passages. Itis in Chekiang, between Ningpo and Wenchow. Inthe Franco-Chinese war Admiral Courbet theredestroyed two Chinese gunboats, the frigate Yii-yuanand the corvette Cheng-king, February 15, 1885.In February 1899 the Italian minister at Pekingmade a verbal demand to the Tsung-li Yamen forthe lease of the bay, with the right to build arailway thence to the Po-yang lake. The demand,though repeated, was refused. It probably had itseffect in preparing the Boxer outbreak of the nextyear. The Minister, de Martino, was recalled andreplaced by Marquis Salvago-Raggi.Cordier : Histoire des Relations de la Chine, etc.SAN PAO, the Buddhist Triad. See ThreeNoble Buddhas.SAN SHAN, 3. lU.three hills, also called bythe Chinese Shang ch'uan Jc )]],upper stream.^. InPortuguese spelling San shan became Sancian; theEnglish call it St. John. It lies south-west ofMacao.It was at Ta mao {q.r.), the harbour on thenorth-west of this island, that the Portuguese tradersto China had their first station from 1517, thoughthey do not seem to have built dwellings on shoreit was here that Simon d'Andrade was attacked bythe Chinese after his misbehaviour in 1521. ThePortuguese were driven away and it is uncertainwhen they were permitted to return ;but they didreturn, and it was here that Xavier died in 1552,and was b^ried, till his body wa« removed to Goa.

SAN SHENGENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAIt is surmised that the interest taken in Xavieb'sgrave made the Chinese fear lest the Portugueseshould claim possession of the island. At any rate,the whole foreign trade was removed to Lampacaoin1554 and the port of Ta mao was closed.Ljungstedt : Historical Sketch of the PortugueseSettlements,SAN SHENG, the eclectic Triad. See ThreeHoly Ones.SANSINGH]^ or ILANFUft^m/^, a selfopenedtrade mart from 1905, is in lat. N. 46° ,22'and long. E. 129° 29', on the south side of theSungari in Kirin province, at the mouth of theMutan River. The country round about the townis yearly developing, the trade being in grain, beans,and furs. Some gold is also produced in the forestswhich extend south and east. The population is35,710. 1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 188,412 101,749Net Chinese „ 379,627 342,147Exports 2,135,127 527,828Total Hk.Tla. ... 2,703,166 971,724SAN TSANG. See Buddhist Canon.SAN TSUN TA FO, the Buddhist Triad. SeeThree Noble Buddhas.SANTUAO HtP iH, a port in Fukien, in lat.26° 40' N., long. 119° 40' E. It was opened toforeign trade by Imperial Decree in 1898.The harbour isi one of the finest on the wholecoast, and it was probably through political fearsthat the Chinese opened it. It is some 70 miles*south of Foochow, and thus can hardly hope fora great future, though it is the natural outlet ofa great tea district. The population is about 8,000.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 282,227 319,844Net Chinese „ 333,201 337,220Exports 3,362,603 2,270,396Total Hk.Tls. ... 4,028,031 2,927,460SAN TUNG SHENG, H^ ^, threeeastern-provinces, the Chinese name for the country calledby us Manchuria. The three provinces are Heilungchiang, Kirin and Liao-tung or Feng-t'ien orSheng-ching. See Manchuria.SAN T'UNG, Bit: the three t'ung, that is,the three books T'ung T'ien, T'ung Chih and WenHsien T'ung K'ao. See Lei Shu.SAN TZU CHING, H^

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASCIURID/EOrdos desert and neai- the Yellow River. In 1900,five of the six workers were massacred, with theone evangelist and some catechumens. The onemissionary (Mr. >s. J. Friedstrom) who escapedinto safety returned in 1902 with a wife, andafter many difficulties got back the land and addedto it—having about 10,000 acres in all, with anirrigating system. The scheme is prosperous.In 1917, the Mission reported six foreign andsix native workers, one Mongol school (thirtypupils), two Chinese schools (forty pupils), andforty communicants.SCHALL VON BELL, JEAN ADAM, ^^^T-unij Jo-wang, a celebrated Jesuit missionarywho^e name is often written Schaal. He was bornat Cologne in 1591 and came to China with P..Trigault in 1622. Sent to Peking to learn thelanguage, he made himself known at Court bycalculating several eclipses. He passed to Hsi-anfu and, treated badly at first, won .such favour intime that he built a church there from gifts sentby officials and literati. In 1630 he was recalledto Peking to help P. Rho in his astronomicallabours. Besides his immense work in this line heprepared quite a library of scientific books. TheEmperor gave him his confidence and in 1631 tenof the chief eunuchs of the Court were baptized.The year after, Schall could celebrate the Masswithin the palace itself, and it Lsi said that latermore than 140 of the blood royal, 38 princesses ofthe palace, including the widow of T'ien Ch'i, and40 eunuchs of the palace received baptism.When the Manchus took the throne Schallremained in favour and was Director of the Boardof Astronomy or Mathematics. He retained hisapostolic fervour and soon had twelve thousandconverts round him.Later he endured the bitterestpersecution and died at Peking in 1666.Havret : La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fou,ii, p. 96, note.SCHERESCHEWSKY, SAMUEL ISAACJoseph, (more correctly written Scherschewski)was born in 1831 in Russian Lithuania of Jewishparents. He became a Christian in America, andwas sent to China as a missionary by the EpiscopalChurch in 1859. He worked in Peking for thirteenyears, and was made Bisihop of Shanghai in 1877,—an office which he had once declined already.He founded St. John's College and St. Mary'sHall. His life work was the translation of theScriptures into Chinese. In hisi earlier days inChina he translated the whole of the OldTestament into mandarin. In 1881 he becameparalysed, and though he partially recovered heresigned the bishopric. He returned to America,and though unable to speak plainly, and only ableto work a typewriter with one finger, he revised hisOld Testament and then began to turn the wholeBible from Hebrew and Greek into Wen-li,—& workwhich took him seven years. He then returnedto tlie East to publish it, and was again at workon a translation of the Apocrypha when he died inJapan in 1906. He left other works behind him,including an unfinished dictionary of Mongolian,SCHEUT MISSION, properly Congregation ofthe Missionaries of the Immaculate Heart of Mai-y,^ f !l 52 |g iC> "t- It was founded in 1861 to helpyoung Belgians to become missionaries, andestablished at Scheut-lez-Bruxelles. The firstmissionaries came to Mongolia in 1865, theevangelization of that territory being handed overto them by the Lazarists. It has now 168 foreignmissionaries in China, 101,247 Christians and12,000 scholars. See Vicariats; Congregations.SCHLEGEL, GUSTAVE, born near Leydenin 1840, died in 1903 at Leyden. He reachedHongkong in 1858, as student-interpreter to theNetherlandsi Government. He visited and evenlived in some cities of South China, but most ofhis time was spent in the Dutch Indies. Heretired in 1872, and taught Chinese for some timein Leyden University, till in 1877 a Chair ofChinese was created for him there, which heoccupied till his death. He was co-editor withCoRDiER of the T'oung Pao from its first appearancetill he died. His most important work is a Dutch-Chinese Dictionary. A list of his writings is givenin the T'oung Pao, 1903, p. 407, and in Cordier'sEtudes chinois, 1899-1902, where they number 256titles.Schools.SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM. See BuddhistSCIENTIFIC BOOK DEPOT. See ChineseBook Depot.ScientificSCIURIDi€, the squirrel Family. Eighteenspecies are known in N. China and neighbouring,territories. They are given below, with their distribution.See Rodent ia.Petaurista alborufus, S.W. Kansu, N.W. Ssuch'uan; Trogopterus xanthipes, S. Shensi, ChihliScivrus vulgaris mantchuricus , Manchuria ; S. vulgarisrupestris, Saghalien ; Sciurotamius davidianus,Chihli, Shansi, Shensi, Kansu ; Sciuropterus heuchneri,Kansu, Shansi; S. russicus, Manchuria; S.russicus athene, Saghalien ; S. aluco, Corea ; Tamiopsvestitus, Chihli ; Eutamias asiaticus senscens, ChihliE. asiaticus intercessor, Shansi ; E. asiaticus ordinalis,Shensi, Ordos ; E. asiaticus orientalis, Manchuria,N. Corea ; E. asiaticus, Kansu ; Citellusmongolicus, Shansi, Shensi, Kansu ; C. mongolicusnmhratus, Inner Mongolia, Chihli ; Marmota robusta,Kansu, E. Mongolia.499

SCOTT, C. P. ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASwiNHOE, in his list of Mammals south of theYangtze, names Sciurus castaneoventris (Hainan,Kuangtung, Fukien and Formosa) ; S. chinensis,(Shanghai); -S'. m'della7uli, (Hainan, Kuangtung,Fukien, Formosa, W. Ssuch'uan) ; S. kaleensis (N.Formosa) ; besides Pteromi/s grandis and P.pectoralis both from Formosa. It will be observedthat this list is of old date, and the names have nodoubt been altered.SowERBY : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlviiSwiNHOE : Catalogue of Chinese Mammals, P.Z.S.,1870.SCOTT, CHARLES PERRY, D.D., firstbishop of the North China diocese (Anglican) wasborn in Hull, Yorkshire, England, in 1847. Hewas the great-grandson of Thomas Scott, the greatcommentator. He was educated at Charterhouseand Cambridge, was ordained deacon in 1870, andpriest in 1871, and after a short curacy in Londonwent to China under the Society for the Propagationof the Gospel, landing in Chefoo in 1874.From this port he and his one colleague madea number of tours into the interior of Shantung,in the course of which they selected Tai-an fu asa future station of the mission. The bishopric ofNorth China was founded in 1880, and Mr. Scottwas consecrated as bishop in London in this year.Returning to China in 1881, he made his headquartersin Peking, where he remained till hisretirement in 1913.SCOUTS. The. Boy Scout Movement in China.During the course of a tour round the world in1912, Sir PiOBERT S.S. Baden-Powell, the founderof the Boy Scout movement, paid a visit to Shanghai,where he inspected the troops of British andEurasian boy scouts then in existence.At the time of Sir Robert's visit there wereno Chinese boy scouts in Shanghai, neitherwas there any organization for spreading scoutideas among the Chinese, but the visit of SirRobert was partly the cause of the formationin 1913 of the Boy Scouts Association of China.At first the Association had the oversight of asingle troop of scouts formed from among thepupils of the Shanghai Municipal Public School forChinese, but the definite aim of the Association,to make scouting for boys known throughout China,was quickly realised, and during 1913 and 1914several troops were organised in Shanghai, andtroops affiliated with the Association were establishedin Canton and Hankow.A special impetus was given to the movementin May, 1915, when a Scout Rally of some fourhundred scouts from Shanghai and Canton was heldin connection with the Far-Eastern Gaines in Shanghai.At a meeting attended by supporters of thescout movement from all parts of the country, theAssociation was made a national body, with powerto affiliate and enroll local associations, and theexisting council was enlarged by the addition ofsix representatives of the great cities of China.At present (1917) there are local associations,controlling many hundreds of boy scouts in affiliationwith the national Association, in Shanghai, Canton,the Wu-Han (Wuchang and Hankow) District,Peking (Tsing Hua College), Nanking, Tientsin andSoochow. In Shanghai alone there are some sixteentroops containing nearly a thousand Chinese boyscouts, and the local Badkx-Powell Association hasunder its control a large troop of wolf-cubs, andtroops of British, French and Sikh scouts.The Boy Scouts Association of China is chieflyconcerned with the formation and affiliation of localscout associations, which control the troopsi andencourage the movement in various parts of thecountry. A handbook, entitled Policy, Organisationand Rules (price 30 cents) has been issued, andChinese translations of books on scouting are beingprepared. The policy of the Baden-Powell Association(of England) has been followed in the main,but alterations and additions to suit the customsand conditions in China have been made.The actual work of the Association is at presentdone voluntarily by an executive committee with achairman, secretary and treasurer elected annually.The Headquarters of the Association are at 35,Elgin Road, Shanghai.[G.S.F.K.]SCULPTURE. The subject ot sculpture inChina must for the present be treated with extremereserve ; the discoveries of to-day prove that thetheories of yesterday were based on false conclusions,and justify great hopes of interesting excavationsyet to be made, which may prove the existenceof a native school of importance. This article is,therefore, written rather with the idea of encouragingstudents to give time and attention to this mostimportant branch of art and archaeology, than withany thought of giving a history of Chinese sculpture—this is yet to be written.Too general has been the acquiescence in theopinion expressed by Paleologue in U Art Chinois(published 1887), thus translated : "At last we reachthe supreme moment in the history of Art in Chinathe introduction of Buddhism. We have noted inthe preceding chapters the considerable* influencewhich the introduction of this religion and theimportation of sacred statues from India, exercisedin the 6th and 7th centuries a.d. upon the art ofworking in bronze. From the very beginning thisiulluence was no less on the carving in stone. Itappears indeed that the Buddhist idols broughtfrom Nepal and the Punjab by the Chinese pilgrims,were the source from which the sculptors of theMiddle Kingdiom drew the inspiration for their500

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASECRET SOCIETIESfirst statues. Until then they had only ta-eatedttone in bas-relief, and at that a bas-relief with noprojection, no modelling ; they had not attemptedthe full relief, which frees, as it were, the effigyfrom its wall of stone ; they had been unable torise to the heights of a statue. Therefore the mostancient statues known in China are figures ofBuddhist divinities."That under Buddhist influence much sculpturalwork of value has been produced, no one will denywitness the cliff carvings at Yiin-kang in Shansi, atLung Men in Honan, at Hang-chou in Chekiang;but that it proved the sole source whence the Chinesesculptor drew his inspiration is an hypothesis whichhas, since Paleologue wrotei as above, been absolutelyrefuted.In 1907 two stone lions dating from \.v. 147were exhumed in Western Shantung ; these, whichwere until recently the most ancient statues in fullrelief known in China, stood in front of the sepulchreof the family Wu, near Chia-hsiang hsien]gi^|g ;a winged tiger of purely indigenous type was foundto e.xist in Ssuch'uan, date a.d. 209 ; and finally in1911 at the tomb of Ho Ch'u-ping an archaicgroup, consisting of a charger trampling upon abarbarian of hideous aspect was discovered by theFrench Mission composed of Comte Gilbert deVoTSiNS, Jean l'Abtigue, and Victor Segalen.This interesting statue dates from 117 B.C., thetime of the Former or Western Han.Magnificent figures which show no traces offoreign influence exist at the Liang tombs nearNanking, and the superb winged horse at the tombof T'ang Kao Tsung, which is equally free fromBuddhist elements, is indubitably the work of anative sculptor of great power.Although the Han bas-reliefs at Hsiao ShanT'ang in Shantung were noticed and remai-ked uponby Dr. Bushell at the Congress of Orientalists inBerlin in 1881, the pioneer in the study of Chinesesculpture is undoubtedly M. Ed. Chavannes, who,suppoited by the Ministere de I'lnstruction Publique,and I'Academie des Inscriptions et BellesLettres', Paris, has made most extensive researchesin China.These same public-spirited bodies have furtherextended their patronage, and so it may be hopedthat in the not far distant future a comprehensivestudy of Chinese sculpture, both indigenous andof foreign extraction, may appear.Paleologue : L'Art Chinois; Bushell : Historyof Chinese Art; Foucher : I'Art Greco-Buddhiqiie: (In Gandhara; Atjrel Stein Ancient Khdtan;Chavannes : Mission Archeologique dans la ChineSeptentrionale; Premier expose des RecherchesArcheologiques ; and La Sculpture sur j)icrre inChinv; Mis.sion Gilbert de Voisins, etc., JournalAsiatique, 1915 and 1916 ; Sf.galen : liev.ent Discoveriesin Ancient Chinese Sculpture, Journal,N.C.B.R.A.S., 1917; Stone Mortuary Shrines,Tei Sekino Kokka, xix and xx, 1908-1909; Tchang :Tombcoux des Liang; Var. Sin. 33.[F.A.]SEA-CUNNY, an old term for the helmsmanof foreign ships, generally a European.SEA-SLUGS.See Btche de mer.SECRET SOCIETIES have flourished in Chinafor many centuries. They might be originally(1) political, (2) religious, (3) a combination of thetwo, or (4) established for more personal reasons,the first class being probably the most numerous.Examples of the first kind are the Red Eyebrow)Sect {Ch'ih Mei jjf; ^ which existed about thebeginning of the Christian era, and comprised abody of rebels against Wang Mang, who paintedtheir eyebrows red; and the Ko Lao Hui {q.v.).The Vegetarian Sect {q.v.) is an example of th«second cla.ss and the famous Triad Society [q.v.)of the third. An example of the fourth Lsi theGolden Orchid Society, whose girl-members aresworn never to marry, and sometimes commitsuicide rather than break their vow. The authoritiesat one time had to try seriously to crush thisSociety.The origins of the political secret societies weregenerally actual misrule and oppres.sion causingdisaffection, rather than chivalrous attachment toa past dynasty. The religious societies are sometimestraceable to the persecutions which Buddhism,Taoism, Nestorianism, etc., suffered from time totime. A persecuted religion hid itself underground,and several such secret sects would sometimesamalgamate, giving an eclectic result. The Governmentalways had good reasons to suspect all secretassociations, and frightful politico-religious waxssometimes took place between rulers' and people,e.g., in the 18th and 19th centuries, when theWhite Lily sect rebelled in Hupei, and more than20,000 members were beheaded in four months.The rebellion spread through six provinces ; itaimed at the extermination of the Manchu dynasty,and cost untold life and money to quell.Early Protestant missionaries were much interestedin the sects, Milne writing of the Triad Societyas early as 1825. In the proceedings of theMissionary Conference of 1890, a valuable paperby Rev. F. H. James was given dealing with theSecret Sects of Shantung, of which fifty-two hadbeen studied, with a list of some of their literature.Informa.tion concerning such was obtained withgreat difficulty, those who had left the Societies,e.g., on becoming Christians, being afraid to givemuch. The establishment of a Republic and theDeclaration of Religious Liberty has rendered the501

SECUNNEEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICApreviously existing societies out-of-date, but nostudy of ire&h material on the subject has beenreported, and it is probable that as far as thehistory of the secret sects is- concerned, the confusionis too great even for the Chinese themselvesto unravel. Societies originally political becamealso religious with the addition of fresh blood, orin new conditions, and vice versa ; some died outor were persecuted into silence, to be revivedperhaps under a new name and in another place,with or without modifications in doctrine andorganization ; large societies divided and the partsdeveloped differently; while the literature wasmostly in manuscript, and often had to be hurriedlydestroyed. On the other hand, a study of thepresent-day beliefs of members of such societiesought to be valuable, as it is well known thatmany of the most spiritually-minded of the Chinesebelong or did belong to them. It is impossible tosay how many of the sects still exist ; but in 1896,they were said to average anything from 20,000 to200,000 members per province. See White LotusSociety, Jasper Pool Society, etc.Db Groot : Secretarianism and SeligiousPersecution in China; James, in Records of 1890Missionary Conference; Ball : J'hings Chinese;Richard, in Hasting's Encyclopaedia of Religion,etc.SECUNNEE.SEDAN CHAIR.See Sea cunny.See Chair, Sedan.[C.E.C.]SEISMOLOGY, It is worthy of note in thestudy of earthquakes that China claims to haveinvented the earliest seismoscope—the first instrumentin the world made in order to show thedirection of a motion of the ground.In A.D,132, the astronomer Chang Heng Jg 'fgis said to have conceived and constructed aningenious instrument resembling in form a largebronze bell, on the upper part of which were eightdragons, one for each of the four cardinal pointsof the compass, and one each for the four intermediatepoints. Each held a small ball in hismouth ; and sitting on the ground around the bellwere eight toads corresponding to them, ready tocatch in their mouths any ball set free from theteeth of the crouching dragons by a slight earthshock.Whatever may be thought of the accuracy andreliability of the mention or description of earthquakesfound in the ancient .chronicles, it is amatter of fact that from very early times (1177 B.C.)to now, Chinese records give a very large place tolandslips, earthquakes, upheavals of mountains andeven seismic noises when they are accompanied bypublic disasters. It may be thought that superstitionhas had a share in all this ; that politicsalso were not unconnected with the more or lesscomplete recording of the occurrences, {e.g. it isregularly in the capitals or court residences thatthe chronicles are most abundant) ;yet, it is strikinghow fairly the distribution of the seismic activityalong the different centuries and the differentregions agrees with what we know from otherrecords both in distant and in neighbouring timesand counitries. Moreover the most recent of theChinese earthquakes give full confirmation to theclassic dictum of Modern Seismology, // a series ofearthquakes successively occur in a certain region,the epicentres tend to array themselves along thepre-existent lines of dislocation. In fact theyaccumulate, and appeay almost exclusively along theorogenic lines of the Chinese territory. If we putaside the Chronicles of Chihli (487 entries), Kiangsu(455), Shansi (245), and Honan (226), which mightbe suspected of exaggeration owing to the vicinityof the court at diffei-ent ei)ochs, and Shengking (34),because of its short life as a distinct province, wefind that the order of frequency is as follows :Yiinnan (223 occurrences), Kansu (222), Chekiang(216), Shensi (213), Hupei (191), Fukien (173),Anhui (160), Kiangsi (153), Shantung (140), Ssuch'uan(119), Kuangtung (111), Hunan (84), Kuangsi(42) and Kueichou (28). Obviously this list doesnot record only violent catastrophes ; such arerelatively rare in China.In the geological eras, the dislocations of theTertiary period did not deeply modify the horizontaldeposits of the Palaeozoic group ; on thecontrary, the great masses of crystalline and gneissicrocks themselves, as well as the large plateaux ofthick limestone, seem to have generally opposed apowerful and sufficient resistence to subsequentdeformations and to have principally met withvertical impulses which left their actual stabilityuntouched. The quite contemporai-y seismic activityof the Hoshan mountains in Northern Anhui,(which has been almost continuous during the firsthalf of the year 1917, with a frequency of shocksor trepidations varying between two and 41 perweek), offers an example of the peneseismicityof the country for centuries and centuries as it maybe gathered from the Chronicles, and affords strongreasons for crediting the ancient records, whichsome eminent critics have seemed hitherto ratherinclined to receive only with the greatest reserve.To sum up, the more unstable regions of Chinaseem to have been always those which they are now ;i.e., Western Yiinnan, with its folded and sheeredlimestone at the south-east terminal massif of theTibetan buttress; the middle Huangho, at thesteep vertical fault where the Ts'inling shan andT'aihang shan converge, near the T'ungkuan passof the Huangho ; tlte eastern slope of the Wut'aisha.n ; the extreme prolongation of the Ts'inling502

Encyclopaedia sinicaSEMINAiRE MASTAJ*range in Southern Honan and Northern Anhui,which we have just alluded to; the T'aishan systemin Shantung and finally the volcanic and less ancientformations of the Tayuling regions, including partsof Chekiang, Kiangsi and Fukien. This sufficesto show that China is not simply to be numberedamong the aseismic countries, though by no meansis she to be classed with the semnic ones, such asJapan or the Philippines, where disasters are frequent; and among the 'peneseismic parts of theworld her place is with those where the equilibriumis neither frequently nor, as a rule, very considerablydisturbed.The attempt was first made to discover a lawof frequency for Chinese earthquakes on the basisof the different months, whether by provinces orby larger regions (North, South, and Central China),but no general result was arrived at; for the mostpart there is no regularity at all. Again, a comparisonof the distribution of earthquakes by monthsor seasons, with that of the precipitation in the sameregions, also yielded only a negative result.The question then arose whether there might notexist a certain centennial or multi-centeijpial periodicityin the earthquakes recorded over a long stretchof time, e.g., the Christian era. On investigationthere was discovered to be, not a true periodicity,but at least a time of lull, (lasting from 633 to 1266)between two equal epochs of greater activity, fromthe year 1 to 633 and from 1266 to 1899.Further,there is to be noted an approximately parallel seriesof earthquakes within these periods, if they areseparated into groups of 35 years, recalling theperiod formerly studied by LocKYEa in his researchesinto the sun-spots. Each length of 633 years can bedivided into two unequal parts of more or lessappreciable recrudescence, separated by a slight lulllaf-ting 35x2 or 35x3 years. In each cycle of633 years, it is the second recrudescence which isthe more strongly accentuated, as it is also the moreprolonged. These recrudescences, particularly thoseof the years (approximately) from 16 to 141, from212 to 247, from 704 to 809, from 1267 to 1340 andfrom 1442 to 1688 seem to behave very much likethe aiTival of successive billows or ifei>>mic wavesof varying importance having, or at least possiblyhaving their points of origin outside China.The propagation of these waves, at any rate inthe whole of the Far East, seems to conform tosome exact laws, which have been formulatedthus :—1. Law of (jeneral retardation in the advanceof the seismic ivavc :—In the general progress ofthe more or less periodical recrudescences of seismicactivity, the different regions affected (by such arecrudescence) are not simultaneously shaken ; itseems as if there is rather a succession, or even anactual alternation in the manifestations of thegeodynamical relaxations.2. Law of the echoes persisting in the middleof the same seismic wave :—In the middle of aperiod of general activity when the shocks are morenoticeably frequent or violent, this law of alternationisobeyed.3. Law of corresponding*states :— The laws ofalternating frequency thus formulated are also afunction of the seismicity proper to and characteristicof each region.These laws deserve to be put to the test of acomparative study with the seismic records of theother regions of the globe.[G.]Bibliography :—F. de Montessus de Ballore :ies Tremblements de terre, 1906 ; E. Biot : Catalogue. , . des Tremblements de terre en Chine, 1839F. Omori : .4 list of the Chinese Earthquakes,(Reports of the Imperial Earthquake InvestigationCommittee, No. 29, 1899, 85) ; J. Milne : A listof the Eartfiquafces of China, (Trans. SeismologicalSociety of Japan, x, 1887) ; H. Gauthier, s.j. :Catalogue des Tremblements de terre signales en.Chine de 1767 av. J. C. a 1895 ap. J. C, (hedepouillement des Chroniques a ete fait par leP. HoANG et revu par le R. P. J. Tobar, s.j.),Shanghai, part i, 1909, part ii, 1913.SELECT COMMITTEE, a short name for TheSelect Committee of the East India Company'sSupercargoes.See Supercargoes.SELF-IMMOLATION. See Suttee.SEM EDO, ALVAREZ DE.^^il^ LuTe-chao,was born in Portugal in 1585 and entered theSociety of Jesus at 17 years old. Having finishedhis studies at Goa he was sent in 1613 to Nanking,where he took the name of Hsieh Wu-ltt iW ^ S^Ibut after persecution and enforced exile to Macaohe returned to China as Lu Te-chao and lived inHangchow, Shanghai, etc. In 1628 he was sent toHsi-an fu for two years. Then, after six years inKiangsu, he was sent to Rome as Procureur of theVice-Province of China. Returning in 1644 asVice-Provincial, he later cared for the Church inCanton, where he died in 1658.He wrote a work in Portuguese (Madrid, 1641)which has been translated into several languages;the English translation is The History of that Greatand Renowned Monarchy of China . . . Latelywritten in Italian (sic) by F. Alvarez Semedo, aPortugh ess . . . (1655).It is from this work that most later writers tookthe narrative of the discovery of the NestorianTablet (q.v.), but other accounts are preferable.Havret : La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fou, ii,p. 31.SEMINAIRE M ASTA l. See Semimiry of SS.Peter and Paul.508

SEMINARYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASEMINARY OF SS.PETER AND PAULof Rome. This is not a Congregation but aSeminary only. It was founded in 1867 by Mgr.PiEERE AvAXZiNi, but is often* called SeminaireMastai, as though founded by Mastai-Ferretti(Pope Pius IX). Through lack of resources it hadsome difficulty in establishing itself. At first thepriests were sent to help in other missions in China,but in 1887 S. Shensi was raised to be a Vicariatand entrusted to the care of the Seminary. In1891 six Canossienne Sisters joined in the work.A Cardinal at the Seminary in Rome acts asSuperior-Major. The only vow taken is the oath ofobedience to the Superior, who is the Vicar-Apostolic.SEMINARY OF ST.FRANCIS XAVIERfor Foreign Miss^ions. See Missions Etrangeres dePot me.SENG-KO-LIN-HSIN fi ^g- ^k *ts the Mongoladvance on Pekinggeneral who opposed the Allies'in 1850-1. He built a great earthen rampart toprotect Tientsin, which received the name ofSeng-ko-lin-hsin's Folly. The British sailors knewhim as Sam Collinson. He was a Mongol princeby birth, and distinguished himself in fighting theT'ai P'ing rebels. He was defeated and killed inaction at Ts'ao-chou fu in Shantung, 1864, fightingagainst the Nien-fei rebels.SERA. See Seres.SERANG, from Persian sarhang, a commander.The word was formerly in use to denote a nativeboatswain, the chief of a lascar crew or the skipperof a small native vessel." Yule :. Hohson-Jobson.SERES, the name for the Chinese as found inRoman writers of the Augustan age. The onlyimportant instances are Pliny and Ptolemy, sinceother writers have merely followed these. Theideas of the country's position were of coursevague, but it lay .far east on the edge of the ocean,and the term beyond a doubt referred to the 'Chinese.Sera and Serice are given by Ptolemy as the namesof the capital and the country respectively. It isprobable that the name first reached the weist in theform Sericum, silk, from the Mongol form sirkek,the other terms being made from it. The name wasalways identified with the silkworm and silk, untilat la.st its use as a geographical term ceased entirely.See China.Yule : Cathmj and the Way Thither; andMarco Polo, Introd., p. 12.SERICANA. An old name for China.. SeeParadise Lost, iii, 437.SERICE. See Seres.SEROW, Nemorhcedus, an animal of theBovidce; the species so far as named, with theirdistribution, are given as follows ;--Nemorhcedus argyrochoetes, Chekiang; N.vidianus, N.W. Ssuch'uan, S. Shensi ; A', milneedwardsi,W. Ssuch'uan, S.W. Kansu ; A'^, collasinus,Kuangtung; N. rocherianus. Tonkin.Sowerby : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii,p. 68.SESAMUM SEED, ^ jg chih ma, is the productof an annual herbaceous plant, Sesamumindicum, which flourishes in tropical and subtropicalregions, and is largely grown in China inthe Yangtze valley, in Ssuch'uan, as far south asHainan, and as far north as N. Shensi, but is mostimportant in the Lower Yellow River basin. It isgenerally grown on light or sandy soils, and thelast-named region is specially favourable to itscultivation. The seed:£ vary greatly in colour, rangingfrom white through grey, reddish-brown toblack, but in Honan there are only yellow and whitegrown. In China there is only one crop, but lateand early varieties exist.The seed is sown in spring and harvested inJuly or August ; as the crop is not long in theground it does not require very much moisture.The yield •averages 80 catties per mow, the bestknown being 120 catties; this equals from 600 to1,000 lbs. per acre, a higher average figure than isobtained in India. The seeds are used in the Eastas food, consumed in the form of sweetmeats, butchiefly are pressed for their oil, which is used forburning, perfumed, or (in India) for adulteratingghee. Sesamum is shipped to Europe for use as asubstitute for olive oil in salad oils, for the preparationof margarine and vegetable butter, also inthe extraction of perfumes by the enflexirage processand the lower qualities are chiefly employed in themanufacture of soap, and also as bui-ning or lubricatingoil. The development of the Chinese tradein sesamum is Interesting. Until 1902 India exportedthe great bulk of sesamum to the world'smarkets, but in that year the Chinese exportationrose suddenly from 17,000 to 52,000 tons, the averageof the preceding years having been less than 10,000tons. From 1908 onwards China has been ahead ofIndia as an exporter, and the trade has broughtprosperity to the Yellow River regions. Thisdevelopment is undoubtedly largely due to the suppressionof poppy growing, which released verysuitable ground for sesamum cultivation. Theforeign trade began in 1894. Quinquennial figures,1900, 16,000 tons, Hk.Tls. 950,000 ; 1905, 34,000 tons,Hk. Tb. 2.350.000 ; 1910, 162.000 tons, Hk. Tls.14.377,000; 1915, 137,000 tons, Hk.Tls. 9,556,000.SETTLEMENT. See Concession.SEVEN ACCUSATIONS, THE, ]: ^ ^ or{g , ch'i ta hen or han; the seven reasons publishedfor the rebellion which overthrew the Ming504

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASEVENTH DAYdynasty. They were issued in 1618 by the Manchuruler Nurh^chu, whose reign title was T'ien Ming.They include charges of broken faith, frontier disturbances,etc. The document may be found in theTu7ig Hua Lu ^ Ip i^ ci, and a full translation isgiven in Li Ung-bing's Outlines of Chinese History,p. 285.SEVEN MALES, THE. ^ee Seven MartialStates.'not rejected. The scheme is for twelve years, viz.six years' primary, two years' intermediate and fouryears' high-school courses. At present the onlyHigh School is situated at Shanghai.In March 1917, the Mission reported :Foreign workers 103Chinese staff (not includingcolporteurs) 294Communicants 2,190SEVEN MARTIAL STATES, THE, -fc W.ch'i hsiung, translated by Parkek, in one place asThe Seven Males; a term used for the more powerfulfeudal kingdoms of the third century B.C.They, were Ch'in, Ch'u, Ch'i, Yen, Han, Chao andWei. The period is also called the Period of theSix Kingdoms,— Ch'in being then omitted.SEVENTH DAY ADVENTIST MISSION.Headquarters :—Washington, D.C.Entered China, 1902.Works in ten provinces and Hongkong, occupyingfourteen stations. It represents a denominationformed in the U.S.A. in 1845-1846, and layingspecial stress (as the name implies) on the observanceof the Saturday as the day of rest, and on thein.minence of Christ's Second Coming. It carrieson a vigorous propg,ganda in all parts of the world.The first missionaries of the Society arrivedat Hongkong early in 1902, and in December two ofthem went to Canton. In 1903 work was begun inHonan, through two members of the Britishand Foreign Bible Society, located there, joiningthe Seventh Day Adventists, and beginning workfor the latter on the spot; and six new medicalworkers arrived there from U.S.A. a few monthslater, with a small hand-press to be used in puttingout literature, a form of work systematically emphasizedfrom the start. In 1905, this printingpresswas set in operation at Shangts'ai hsien( J: ^ H ) in Honan, and was later removed toShanghai.A paper known as the Signs of the Ti7nes]\^^iMWiwas begun in June 1905, which had during 1916 anaverage sale of 53,000 copies monthly, and a paidupsubscription list of 40,000. Christian colporteursare trained in American methods of salesmanship,and are given a commission on all they sell, andforeign missionaries and Chinese evangelists followup the colporteurs as opportunities offer. Thepaper contains the world's news for the month,and Christian truth from the Mission's standpoint.About eighty books and pamphlets have also beenissued from the Mission Press.The medical work is still in its infancy butthe educational work is well organized. Its firstaim is to provide the Mission with intelligentworkers, by educating Christian boys and girls, andthe heathen are not specially catered for though64SEVENTH DAY BAPTIST MISSION.Headquarters : Ashaway, Ehode Island, U.S.A.Works in Shanghai and neighbourhood.This mission was started in 1847 with thearrival in Shanghai of the Revs. Solomon Carpenterand Nathan VVardner and their wives. Publicworship was begun in the native city in 1848 anda boys' day-school opened six months later. Achapel and other buildings were erected two yearsafter this, but the T'ai P'ing rebels compelled theworkers to retire for a time 'from their places insidethe city, and at the West Gate. They built a temporaryhouse in the Foreign Concession, but wereagain compelled to leave, owing to the ImperialForces camping near by. Mr. Wardner moved noless than ten times in search of safety, and in1856 1857 ill-health compelled the return of thefamily to the U.S.A., and the Carpenters wereleft alone.The Civil War caused home funds to fail, andMr. (now Dr.) Carpenter for some time supportedhimself by acting as interpreter, but ill-health tookhim home in 1864. From that time for nine years,a native pastor kept the work going, and thenDr. Carpenter came back, but had to retire finallyin three years, his health being completely broken.With help from two members of other missions, thework was to some extent kept alive till 1880, whenthree new workers arrived, including Dr. and Mrs.D. H. Davis, followed by a lady physician in 1883.The medical work then begun was removed to Liu-hofij M. twenty miles from Shanghai, in 1902, wherea hospital of thirty beds was put up in 1916. TheChurch at Liu-ho (organised 1908) has its own505pastor, and there is a day-school.In 1885, a girls' boarding-school was opened >^tWest Gate by Mrs-. Davis, and one for boys in 1888by Dr. Davis, who soon handed it over to otherworkers.The Shanghai work is at St. Catherine's Bridge,West Gate, where there are a new Church (built1910), two schools, a dispensary and three dwellinghouses.Statistics : January, 1917.Foreign missionariesChinese staff 20Communicants121

SEYMOUR, EDWARDENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASEYMOUR, EDWARD, Rt. Hon. Sir, (cousinof Admiral Sir M. CuLME-SEyMOUR), was born in1840. He entered the navy in 1852, and besidesmuch other service, was present as a lieutenantthrough the China War, 1857-60, his uncle. SirMichael Seymour, being Admiral ; and then servedin the operations against the T'ai P'ing rebels in1862. Forty years' later, he was Commander-in-Chiefon the China Station, and commanded an AlliedExpedition to relieve the Legations in 1900. (SeeBoxerism).His honours include G.C.B. (1900), CM. (1902),LL.D. (Cambridge, 1904), G.C.V.O. (1906), P.C.(1909), besides several Orders from foreign Government?.He retired as Admiral of the Fleet in 1910.He has written My Naval Career and Travels.SEYMOUR, MICHAEL, Sir, was born onDecember 5, 1802, son cf Rear-admiral Sir MichaelSeymour., and uncle to two other Admirals of thesame name who have ' done service in China. In1855, he was put in command of the China Station,and on the occurrence of the Arrow lorcha incident,he took the Bogue Forts and then Canton. He nextwent north and took the Taku Forts, after whichthe Chinese signed the Tientsin Treaty. He wasmade G.C.B. in 1859, and became Admiral in 1864.He died on February 23, 1887.Cooke : China; Oliphant : Narrative of theEarl of Elgin's Mission.SEYMOUR, MICHAEL CULME-, Sir, (cousinof Admiral Sir E. Seymour), was born near Berkhampsteadon March 13, 1836. He entered theNavy in 1850, and saw a good deal of service ; heserved through the second China War, includingFatshan, Canton and the Peiho (1858). He retiredas Admiral in 1901.He is the 3rd Baronet, and has the honpursG.C.B. and G.C.V.O.SHADDOCKS. See Oranges.SHAMEEN >^^ sha mien, sand flat, theforeign concession at Canton at the south-west cornerof the city. It is an island formed by the diggingof a trench on its north side. The earth dug fromthe trench was used to embank the island. Thetrench or moat is some 100 ft. wide and crossed bytwo bridges.It was a mere mud flat till 1859, when it wassecured as the Concession (chiefly through the effortsof Parkes), was embanked and surrounded by agranite wall. The Factories (q.v.) thus became athing of the past. The western four-fifths isBritish ; the eastern one-fifth is French ; to eachthere is a separate Municipal government. SeeSHANG or YIN DYNASTY, THE, M IB orShangWt IB. was founded by T'ang ^, Prince off^, a model ruler. His capital was at Po ^, inEast Honan. During his reign there was a sevenyears' drought, and he offered himself to heavenif such a sacrifice would avail. In B.C. 1401, thecapital, after several removals, was fixed at Yin gj,North Honan, whence the dynasty received itssecond name. The aborigines were gradually subdued,after which occurred the first conflicts withthe Tartars. During this dynasty, the Emperor'spowers gradually increased. The last ruler, ChouHsiN, being completely under the influence of theinfamous concubine Ta Chi JHE,. the prince ofChou ^ rebelled and overthrew the dynasty.There were 28 sovereigns, who ruled for 644 years.See Ch'ewj T'ang, Chieh, Ta Chi, etc.Dyn. Title Accession Dyn. Title AccessionB.C.B.C.^ ^ Ch'eng T'ang 1766 hI ^ Nan Keng 1433% tp T'ai Chia 1753 (g ^ Yang Chia 1408^T Wu Ting 1720 ^^ P'an Keng 1401;*: ik. T'ai Keng 1691 /> ^ Hsiao Hsin 1373/> ^ Hsiao Chia 1666 /> d Hsiao Yi 1352M E Yung Chi 1649 ^ J" Wu Ting 1324;*: IZ T'ai Mou 1637 IM ^ Tsu Keng 1265n T Chung Ting 1562 IB. ^ Tsu Chia 1258^ ffi Wai Jen 1549 K ^ Lin Hsin 1225WS.^ Ho Tan Chia 1534 ^ T Keng Ting 1219Jifl Zi Tsu Yi 1525 0^ Zj Wu Yi 1198m.^ Tsu Hsin 1506 ;fc J- T'ai Ting 1194ik'^ Wu Chia 1490 # Zi Ti Yi 1191Sa T Tsu Ting 1465 ti $ Chou Hsin 1154SHANG SHU, J^^.SHANGHAE ALMANACK ANDSee Shu Ching.DIARY,(not to be confused with the Shanghai Almanac),was published by W. T. (Tarrant), for the year1869.SHANGHAI, Ji j# the most important of thetreaty ports. It was the most northern of the fiveopened by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842 and itlong remained the northern limit of foreign trade.It is situated 13 miles up the Huang p'u H Jg whichdebouches into the Yangtze estuary. The latitudeis 31^ 14' N. ; the longitude 121°. 29' E.The early history of the native port is somewhatobscure and of little interest; yet a good manypapers on the subject or translations of the Chineserecords have been printed. It may be regarded ashaving been the port for Soochow,. at the mouthof the Woosung river, now called the Soochow Creek,but once many miles wide at this point. Till the13th century the Huangpu was a canal. There haanaturally been a great deal of change in the waterwaysof such a plain during the centuries and thereSHAMO, tj>^.See Gobi.is a good deal of confusion and uncertainty in allaccounts of the hydrography of the district.506

ENCYC?LOPAEDIA SINICASHANGHArShanghai began to be of importance as a placeof trade in the 11th century; but as far as foreignacquaintance with it is concerned its history beginsin 1832, when Lindsay and Gutzlaff visited it inthe Lord Amherst (q.v.). Ten years later (June 19,1842) it was taken by the British forces, and by theTreaty of Nanking was opened to foreign trade onNovember 17, 1845. Captain Balfour, the firstBritish Consul, fixed the limitsi of the settlement.They were, to use the present names of streets, theYang king pang or Avenue Edward VII on thesouth, Peking Road' on the north, the Huang-puon the eajt and Pukien Road on the west. Balfourwith the Tao-tai drew up Land Regulations twoyears later, and the intention was that the Settlement,acquired with British blood, money andlabour, should be a British Settlement. TheAmerican Consul, however, later on hoisted hig flagin the Settlement in spite of British and Chineseprotest, and the Settlement has ever since beenInternational.The French, however, acquired and have alwaysretained a Concession of their own.In September, 1853, the Triad Society rebelstook possession of the native city. One result ofthis was that the Customs Service had to be putunder foreign management, as it has ever sinceremained.For seventeen months the insurgents held thecity, while the Settlement suffered from theproximity of Imperialist troops. In April, 1854,the newly-formed Volunteer corps, with some menfrom the ships, attacked and fired the Imperialistcamp near the Race Course : this is the Battle ofMuddy Flat. At the end of the year the FrenchAdmiral found hi* excuse for attacking the citythe French loss was forty-five killed and wounded.The city was not taken, but a month later the insurgentsfled.The T'ai P'ing rebels threatened Shanghai inAugust 1860. Hundreds of thousands of refugeespoured into the Settlement. The energetic actionof foreign and Chinese troops, under Ward,BuROEViNE, Hope, Staveley, Protet and others,kept Shanghai safe.In 1863 the Mixed Court was established ; theShanghai Club and the General Hospital in 1864;H.B.M. Court for China and Japan in 1865. In1874 the Shanghai-Woosung Railway was opened asfar as Kiang-wan (4^ miles).Chinese authorities and torn up.It was bought by theThe Recreation Fund originated in 1862, whensome land in the old Race Course, for which somefifty reidents had paid less than Tls. 5,000, wassold for Tls. 49,000. Thisi money was handed overas a free gift to the community. The Fund nowowns all the land within the present Race Course,and it assists many Shanghai Institutions withloans.The International Settlement and the FrenchConcession are governed according to. certain LandRegulations. The first Regulations, as alreadystated, were drawn up by Consul Balfour and theTao-tai, November 29, 1845. These were in forcetill July 11, 1854, when new Regulations wereissued, by which the Municipal Council was instituted.These Regulations were amended in 1869,and again in 1898.The French Land Regulations, at least since1866, have been separate from those applying to theSettlement.The so-called American Settlement (Hongkew)and the so-called British Settlement were formallyunited under one rule in December, 1863.Shanghai has continued to increase and prosper,in spite of many difficulties—the Woosung Bar beingone. The history of a growing commercial port is,however, in itself without much interest. It is tobe noticed that de Jesus' Historic Shanghai isthree-fifths taken up with the T'ai P'ing Rebellionall the rest of Shanghai's history only fills ahundred pages.The appearance of the place if approached bywater is very fine; the river bank is a busy and,broad road with handsome buildings fronting thewater. Except the Bund, however, Shanghai hasnothing to show the visitor,—unless he comes tosee Missions or cotton-mills'. The whole district isa mud-flat with no natural beauty, while art hasdone little to improve matters, except in a^few ofthe buildings on the Bund.The following are H.B.M. Consuls or Consuls-General who have had oflfice at Shanghai, with datesof appointment.1843, Captain George Balfour, (later General SirGeorge), Consul.1846, Rutherford Alcock, (later Sir Rutherford),Consul.1854, Daniel Brooke Robertson, (later Sir Daniel),Consul.1858, Harry Smith Parkes, (later Sir Harry),December 21, Consul.1865, Charles Alexander Winchester, March 28,Consul.1871, Walter Henry Medhurst, (later Sir Walter),January 24, Consul.1877, Daniel Brooke Robertson, (later Sir Daniel),October 24, Consul-General (did not proceed).1880, Patrick Joseph Hughes, February 25, Consul.1884, ,, ,,March 1, Consul-General.1891, Nicholas John Hannen flater Sir Nicholas),April 1, Consul-General.1897, George Jamieson, November 13, Consul-General.507

SHANGHAIENCyCLOPAEDIA SINICA1899, Bybon Brenan, May 13, Consul-General.1901, Pelham Laird Warren, (later Sir Pelh,am),July 1, Gonsul-General,1911, EvERAUD Duncan Home Feaser, (now SirEverard), January 20, Consul-General.The last census of Shanghai was taken onOctober 16, 1915. It shewed a total foreign populationof 18,519 in the International Settlement and2,405 in the French Concession; total, 20,924. Ofthese 7,387 were Japanese, 5,521 British, and 1,448American.The Chinese in the Settlement and Concessionnumbered 787,920; including those outside theSettlement limits the total population of the portis estimated at nearly 1,500,000.The totals of the different foreign nationalitiesare as follows : Settle- Con- 1915Nationality ment cession TotalJapanese 7,169 218 7,337Biitish ... 4,822 699 5,521Portuguese .. 1,323 29 1,352American 1,307 141 1,448German 1,155 270 1,425Ptussian 361 41 402French 244 364 608Spanish 181 4 185Italian 114 55 169Danish 145 33 178Austro-Hungarian 123 27 150Turkish 108 2 110Norwegian 82 27 109Swiss 79 35 114Swedish 73 10 83Dutch 55 23 78Belgian 18 32 50Greek 41 7 48Persian 39 —. 39Korean 20 _ 20Rumanian 16 2 18Egyptian 8 aArmenian 5 — • 5Latin-American 5 4 9Montenegrin 2 — 2BulgarianArabian2— —2—Irdian 1,009 18 1.027Sundries 13 364 377Total ... 18,519 2.405 20.9241915 1916Net Foreign Imports ... 65.333.608 84.183,500Net Chinese „ ... 38.864,090 34.432,024Exports ^.. ... 103,975,610 121.856,816Total Hk.Tls. ... 208,173,308 240,472,340Maclellan : The Story of Shanghai; de Jests :Historic Shanghai,SHANGHAI ALMANAC.This was publishedby the North China Herald Office under slightlydifferent titles,—with or without a Miscellany,from 1852 to 1858; and for 1860, 1861 and 1863.The Miscellany was composed of articles reprintedfrom the Herald : in 1857 it appeared separatelyand then ceased.SHANGHAI LITERARY AND SCIENTIFICSociety, a Society founded in Shanghai in 1857,with Dr. Bridgman as first president.It publisheda Journal in 1858, and was affiliated the next yearwith the Royal Asiatic Society, a step which hadbeen in contemplation from the beginning.See Royal Asiatic Society, North China Branch.SHANGHAI MERCURY, THE, aneveningdaily newspaper founded in 1879 by C. Rivington,J. D. Clark and J. R. Bl\ck.SHANGHAI STEAM NAVIGATION CO.,organized in 1862 by the American firm Russell& Co., on the opening of the Yangtze to foreigntrade. The Company was unincorporated and hadboth foreign and Chinese shareholders, individuallyliable, with a capital of £1,000,000. It had astruggling existence for the first four years and thenflourished for seven or eight years, the capital beingincreased to £ 2,200,000 and the fleet to eighteensteamers.1882.R. B. Forbes : Personal Reminiscences, Boston,SHAN HAI KUAN, lU ^ IS, 'mountain andsea barrier,' a town and military station in Chihli,at the eastern extremity of the Great Wall, near animportant pass and two and a half miles fromthe sea.S HANS I, Ul ^ west of the hill, a northernprovince, with Mongolia on the north, the Ordos(iMongolia) and Shensi on the west, Honan on thesouth and Chihli on the east. On its whole eastand south the Yellow River is its boundary. Thearea is 81,853 sq. miles and the population 12,200,000,The province is a plateau, rising towards the northand crossed by mountain ranges. The famouaWu t'ai shan (q.v.) is the best known hill. TheHo shan M |U rises to 7,860 ft. The importantrivers are the Ch'in ho Jlfii fnf and the Fen ho ^ fi^both tributaries of the Yellow River. Corn,tobacco, cotton and some rice are grown; but theclimate is too severe for more than one crop in theyear. Opium was produced and was said to bethe best of native opium. Shansi had a speciallybad reputation for opium-smoking. No part of theworld has such rich coal-fields.The capital city is T'ai-yiian fu *|R ^, with230,000 inhabitants.' It stands on the north of a vastplain. Other important places are P'ing yang fu2p IS ;ff in the south, and Ta t'ung fu :^ 1^1 J^508

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASHANTUNG UNIVERSITYin the north. Near the latter are famous cavetemples of the N. Wei dynasty. The rail fromKalgan now reaches the latter place.The literary name for the province is Chin %(See Chi7i State). It is also called Shan yu |L| ;£•,right of the hill.SHANSI IMPERIAL UNIVERSITY. In1901, after the massacre of 137 Protestant missionaries(including wives and children) in Shansi in1900 by order of the Governor, (Yii Hsien), PrinceChing and Li Hung-chang invited Dr. T. Kichardto help them in dealing with the question ofindemnities.Dr. Richard proposed, and the Plenipotentiaries,the provincial authorities and the Missionsconcerned agreed, that instead of other compensationa University for Western learning shouldbe established in T'ai Yuan fu, the -capital, theGovernment paying Tls. 50,000 for ten years duringwhich foreigners were to have the management,after which time, the Chinese were to take control.Dr. Richard was the first Chancellor, and Dr.MoiR DuNC.\N of the English Baptist Mission wasfirst Principal.A six years' curriculum was planned, withcourses in 1. Law, 2. Science, 3. Medicine,4. Engineering, 5. Language and Literature.Successful students were to receive diplomas fromthe University and degrees from the Government.Only those who had already gained the ChineseB.A. or M.A. were to be admitted.W^hen the Empress-Dowager, a few months afterthe opening of the University, issued the famousedict which revolutionized the national educationand provided for a University in each province, itbecame necessary to modify Shansi University.The standard of entrance had to be lowered, and theoriginal organization became the Western Departmentof the new University established under theEmpress's scheme.Dr. Duncan died in 1906 and Prof. L. R. 0.Bevan was Acting-Principal for a year and a half,after which the Rev. W. E. Soothill of the UnitedMethodist Mission was head till the work washanded over to the Chinese on November 13, 1910.For six years, (1902-1908) the University had aspecial Translation Department, to supply its ownneed of text books. The University buildings wereuntouched in the Revolution of 1911, when a largepart of the city was destroyed. It was obliged toclose for a considerable time, but re-opened as soonasorder was restored.The China Educational Directory for 1917 givesthe number of students as 504.Richard : Forty-five Years in China.SHANTUNG, iIi ^ east of the hill This isthe most easterly of t"he eighteen provinces ; it isbounded by the Gulf of Chihli, Honan, Kiangsuand the Yellow Sea, half its boundaries being maritime.The eastern part is hilly, and lies east ofthe isacred mountain T'ai Shan whence the oldwhole province is named East of the Hill, theProvince of Shansi lU gg meaning West of the Hill.Other names are "M Ch'i and ll» ;& Shan tso, "leftof the hill."The area and population of the province are ofcourse not accurately known, but the averageestimate gives 59,00

SHANTUNG UNIVERSITYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAMission station at Tsing chou fu, a development ofthe previous Theological and Normal Training workof both missions. Two alternative courses areoffered in the Theological department of three yearseach. The Normal School has two years' work afterone year's preparatory course. There is also a BibleInstitute, three years' course.iii. The Union Medical College at Tsinan fu,the capital of the province. This was formed in1906, and teaching was done peripatetically untilthe college buildings were ready for use. TheArthington Fund (q.v.) made & grant, and landwas bought in 1908, and in the spring of 1910,teaching began in the half -finished buildings whichwere not formally opened till April, 1911. TheCollege Hospital was added in 1914, and is wellfitted up on modern lines. There are one hundredbeds. In 1916, the China Medical Board {q.v.)decided to send the junior students of the UnionMedical College of Peking, to take the earlier partof their training in Chinese at Tsi-nan, and gaveoutright ^50,000 gold for the necessary extra buildingsand equipment, and $100,000 gold for five yearsfor current expenses. The course of study coverssix years.The Canadian Presbyterian Mission in Honan,and the American Presbyterian Mission (South)each have a professor on the Medical College staff,and others are expected to join, while the Churchof England Mission in North China has for someyears had a tutor on the staff of the Arts andScience College.It having been decided to concentrate all threeColleges at Tsinan, a site of fifty acres was boughtoutside the city and the whole University shouldhave been established there by the end of 1915.Owing, to the high price of silver, building washindered, but it was completed and all workremoved there in the autumn of 1917.The outstanding features of the University are,i. The great majority of studtents come fromChristian families.ii. The teaching is carried on in Chinese,English being a secondary subject.iii. Up to the present, no Charter has beensought enabling to grant degrees, the studentsreceiving Diplomas for College, and also for postgraduatework.In February, 1917, the University reported.Foreign Professors 20Chinese Professors 15Other Chinese Assistants ... 32Students :—School of Arts and Science ... 103School of Theology 38Normal School 14School of Medicine 122SHARKS' FINS are made into " gelatinoussoups which are considered highly palatable by theChinese and are served at feasts.SHASI, '^ -rjj,sha shih, in lat. 30° 17' N.,long. 112° 47' E., on the Yangtze in the cottongrowing district of Hupei, was opened to foreigntrade, by the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1896. Ithad been a 'port of call' previously. It is in thecentre pi a network of canals, and is a good distributingpoint, but the trade has remained verysmall. The industries are cotton, vegetable tallow,etc., but are not on a large scale. The silk districtsare to the north of Shasi.The British Consulate was withdrawn in 1899,and British interests are in charge of H.B.M.Consul at Ichang. Contracts for building a railwayhave been made, but the work has been delayedthrough the. Great War.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports ...Net Chinese ,,ExportsTotal Hk.Tls.... 3,051,666 2,360,408299,735 240,1681,190,041 1,753,8494,541,442 4,354,425SHaSTRAS or s'dstras, ^ lun, discourses; adivision of Buddhist literature consisting of philosophicaland controversial works.SHEEP, WILD, or ARGALI (a Manchu?;'«« yamj, etc. Thisword), Ovi.^ jubata ^ ^striking animal with a ram's head on a deer-likebody, and spiral horns four feet long, is mentionedbv Marco Polo, RtiBRXJCK and other early travellers,and by earlier Chinese writers. It has receivedvarious specific names, but the Pamir species is nowknown as 0. poli in honour of Marco Polo.0. argaU is confined to the Altai and DaurianMountains, but a different species is found south ofthe Gobi desert, (eastern parts of Mongolia, northernparts of Shansi and Chihli), and has received thename 0. jubata. It has long hair on the neck,withers and throat, and differs from the others inthe length and spiral direction of the horns andin other points. Its dimensions are given as 5^ ft.muzzle to tail, 3 ft. high, horns about 3 ft. long.There is another Wild Sheep in S.W. Kansu, theBurhel, O. nahura, a smaller animal than thejubata, resembling the Burhel of North India.SHE KING, UliS-See Shih Ching.SHENG, ^f. A Chinese measure equallingabout one pint English.SHENG.SHENG CHING.S H ENG YANG.See Musical Instruments,See Mukden,See Mukden,510

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA SHIH HUANG TlSHEN NUNC, If ^, a legendary Emperor,supposed to have been miraculously conceived andto have reigned B.C. 2838-2698. The art of agriculture,the discovery of the medicinal properties ofplants, and the establishment of a system of barterars ascribed to him.SHENSHIHj^-i: girdled scholars, a term incommon use in China for unemployed officials,"men of family, of means and of education, living"generally on inherited estates, controlling the"thoughts and feelings of their poorer neighbours"and able to influence the action of the officials."(Morse). Missionaries seeking to rent housesin interior cities used to know the power of theshhi shih. The best translation is undoubtedly'gentry,' though Morse found this word objected to.Morse : The International Relations of theChinese Empire, p. 370, note.SHENSI, ^ g5| shan hsi, 'west of the pass.'The pass is the celebrated T'ung Kuan yj gg. Thename of the province -is identical in sound with thatof the neighbouring province, though the tone ofthe first character differs in the two cases. Theforeigner gets over the difficulty by calling oneShansi and the other Shensi ; but the latter namewould not be recognized by a Chinese.The area of Shensi is 75,290 sq. miles and thepopulation 8,450,000. On the north it has the GreatWall, beyond which is the Ordos (Mongolia) ; on thewest is Kansu ; to the south are Ssuch'uan andHupei, and to the east Honan and (with theYellow River as a dividing line), Shansi.The Ch'in ling^ ^ mountains, a prolongationof the P'un lun. divide the province, east and westin direction. Ta pai shan :;A: fl |U ,the highestpeak, is 11,500 ft. high. The crossing of this rangeis difficult. Another chain, the Chiu lung % f|,lies in the south of the province.North of the Ch'in ling the Wei river flowswestward to join the Yellow River, and is itsprincipal tributary. South of the mountains is theHan river, which reaches the Yangtze at Hankow.It is not navigable within the boundaries of Shensi.The agricultural products are those of othernorthern provinces, barley, pulse, maize, tobacco.In the Wei valley cotton and rice are grown. Tilllately the poppy was cultivated throughout theprovince. There are immense fields of coal, almostuntouched.Hsi-an fu [q.v.) is the capital, and is one of thegreat cities of China. The population is onemillion. Hsing-an ^ 3c and Hanchung ^ tfi(80,000) are other important cities.The literary name of the province is Ch'in ^;the state of Ch'in [q.v.) was here, and later Ch'inShih Huang Ti had the capital of the empire nearHsi-an fu. Another name is Kuan chung |J9 tfiSHtN YANG, ^ee Mukden.SHIH CHI, ^lE. See -S'su-TOo 6'A'ien,SHIH CHING, 1^ ^''teM. Book of Poetry orOdes, the second of the Five Classics. A collectionof over 300 Odes, said to have been compiled andedited by Confucius out of 3,000 then extant. Butthis ascription to Confucius' is first met with nearlyfour centuries after his death, in Ssii-MA Ch'ien'sHistory ; exactly as in the case of the Shu Chimj[q-v.). On the other hand there is evidence of theexistence of the collection very much in its presentform before the time of Confucius. The conclusionis that whil6 he may have made some minor changes,the compilation is not due to him ; but by hisenthusiastic praise of it to his disciples he made itimportant and thus caused it to be preserved. Itcan easily be believed, therefore, that the Odeswere not likely to have suffered by the Burning ofthe Books, being kept in memory by many.Theoretically the poems of the Feudal Stateswere collected at every royal visit and preserved atthe court under the care of the music-master.Owing to the disorders of the times royal progressesceased, and we have specimens from only some ofthe states and covering only a short part of theirhistory. Five Odes are attributed to the Shangdj nasty (b.c. 1765-1122); the rest belong to W^enWang's time and to the Chou dynasty. They areof supreme interest for what they teach us of thecustoms, beliefs and condition of the Chinese beforeConfucius. For the questions of pronunciationand rhyme in the Odes see Legge [Classics, vol. iv,p. 102)".Many translators have worked on a few Odes :ten are translated by Cibot in Mem. concernant lesChinois; in Du Halde there are eight by Premare ;Morrison gi\'es nine or more in his Dictionary, andso on [v. Cordier Bib. Sin., col. 1380).As a whole they have been translated by Legge(1876) and by Allen (1891) into English; byPauthier into French ; into Latin by La Charme(1830), etc. See Poetry.SHIH CHOU, ItSfS- The reputed inventor ofthe Greater Seal Characters, 9th century b.c. Thecharacters were used till 200 B.C.SHIH HUANG Tl, J§^^, meaning FirstEmperor. One of the most interesting figures inChinese history.He succeeded his supposed fatheras king of Ch'in ^ in b.c. 246, when he was thirteenyears old. For a long time he was under thetutelage of Liu Pu-wei who had been his father'sminister and who waged frequent war with theother states of Wei, Chao, Ch'u, Ch'i, etc. InB.C. 221, the 26th of his reign, he became de factomaster of all China, though the Chou dynasty hadcome to an end and the Ch'in dynasty been set up511

SHIMONOSEKIENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA44 years earlier. He took the proud title of HuangTi, combining the appellations of the legendaryFive Huang and Three Ti, and he ordered that heshould be known as Shih Huang Ti, First SupremeKuler, his successoi's being second, third and so on.He was a great reformer. Many of the changes hemaxie were puerile, the offspring of a superstitiousnature ; but he also ofdered uniformity of weightsand measures throughout the empire ; he adopted anew script, the I^esser Seal ; he made great roads todifferent provinces, and travelled them himself ; hedivide-d the country into thirty governments orprovinces JJJ, and swept away the feudal system.The two great deeds of his reign, known to all, arethe building of the Great Wall {q.v.) and the Burningof the Books [q.v.) followed by the burying aliveof 460 of the literati. It is his treatment ofConfucian literature and the learned that has madethis emperor's name to be execrated for twentycenturies in spite of all he did for the everlastingbenefit of the empire.He built a most glorious capital, Hsien-yangJ^ ,1^ and many palaces ; though he was alwaysseeking the Elixir of Life he also made himself av.onderful mausoleum, where he was buried at hisdeath in b.c. 210. It is said there were buriedalive with him many of his concubines, as well asthe workmen who knew the secrets of the constructionof the tomb.He was a great genius, both military andpolitical, and it was due to him that China becamea single great nation, capable of endless development.Ssu-MA Ch'ien, p] ^ ^, Shi\ Chi ^ gg, originalor Chavannes' translation; Tschepe, s.j., Histnre.du Boyaume de Ta'in. (Var. sin., No. 27).SHIMONOSEKI, Treaty of.See Treaties.SHOE,' (of silver). The silver ingot is saidto be named a 'shoe' from some resemblance to theChinese shoe, but the probable derivation of thetenr; is not directly from the shape of the object,which is as much like a boat as a shoe ; the Dutchcalled it goldschuyt, boat of gold, and the schiujthay been corrupted into shoe.The native name is 'p'^o or yiian qjuo ^c ^(TC perhaps for g) round). A shoe usually weighsabout fifty taels [q.v.) or ounces.S H K I N G . See 5Am Ching.SHORTWINGS. See Drachypteryginae.SHOU YANG MISSION. A small independentmission started at Shou-yang, in Shansi, in1892, by Mr. and Mrs. T. W. Pigott, who hadformerly worked in connection with the China InlandMission.Mr. and Mrs. Pigott were wealthy and highlyconnected people who spent their money freely inthe work and erected fine premises in the city.Thirteen other workers subsequently joined them.In 1900, eleven of these, that is, all at the timein Shou-yang, suffered martyrdom at the hands ofthe Boxers, together with two children, one beingthe only son of Mr. and Mrs. Pigott. Of thetwenty-one church members they had gatheredtogether in the eight years' work, ten suffered deathwith their foreign teachers.The surviving workers joined the EnglishBaptist Mission, which took over the station afterthe Boxer movement had been put down.SHREW, ten species are known in NorthChina and neighbourhood. These with their distributionare as follows :Blarinella griselda, S.W. Kansu ; Chodsigoahypsibia, Chihli ; C. lainula, S.W. Kansu ; Crociduraccrece, Corea, Chihli, Shansi; G. attenuata, S.W.Kansu; C. lasiura, Corea, Manchuria; Sorexamicxus, Corea, Manchuria ; 'S. sinalis, S. ShensiS. cansuhis, S.W. Kansu : S. wardi, S.W. Kansu.. SowERBY : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii.SHRIKES. See Laniidae.SHROFF, Arab, sarraf, banker. A silverexpert, employed in banks, etc., to examine dollars.It has now come to have a wider application, and isused for the employe who collects accounts for afirm.SHU, ^. The ancient name of what is nowWest Ssuch'uan, The early capital was the citynow called Ch'eng-tu. See Han Dynasty, Minor.SHU CHING, ^ M., the Booh of History;'a collection of historical memorials extending overa space of about 1,700 years, but on no connectedmethod, and with great gaps between them' (Legge).It is the first in order of the Five Classics. It isoften designated shang shu ^ ^, shang ^ beingunderstood in reference either to the antiquity or tothe value of the documents. As the work nowstands it contains fifty-eight books.There was an authoritative collection ofhistorical documents in existence after Confucius'days ; but whether it was a compilation in a hundredbooks made by the sage is doubtful, since the firstclaim to such editorship is not asserted till fourcenturies later. In any case the books were burnedby Ch'in Shih Huang-ti, b.c. 212, and someirretrievably lost. Only twenty-five years or soelapsed before 29 books were brought to light again,but it was not till a century later that the workshidden in the wall of Confucius' house gave theworld the fifty-eight books we now possess, togetherwith a preface in which one hundred books arenamed. The history of the text and commentaries512

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA SI HIAmay be studied in Legge's Classics or elsewhereLegge's conclusion is that we now have practicallyall the work as it existed at the end of the Choudynasty. As to the credibility of the records containedin it, the early portion is largely fabulous,though Yao, Shun and Yii were actual rulers; theShang ^ period is more reliable and the Chou ^records may be accepted as history. The earliestdate that can be fixed in Chinese history is B.C. 775but without exactitude in dates the history may becarried back to some 2000 years B.C.It was translated by Benoit, by Gaubil, byW. H. Medhurst, 1846; and by Legge, 1879.SHU-HAN. See Han Dynasty, Minor.SHU KING. See Shu Chi7ig.SHU HSIANG, sg(ifi],aminister of theStateofChin ^. He belonged to one of the great families,and was a personal friend of Yen Tzu, Confuciusand Tzu Ch'an.Parker : Ancient China SimjjUjied ; TchepE :Histoire du Eoyaume de Tsin.SHUN, ^, the successor of Yao, b.c. 2317-2208.He was born, according to one account, at Yii muin Honan. His father having a favoufite son bya second marriage took a dislike to Shun and severaltimes tried to kill him. Shun, however, by hisconduct towards father and step-mother, has gaineda place among the twenty-four examples of filialpiety. He attracted the notice of the EmperorYao who made him his heir, setting aside his ownunworthy son, and moreover gave to Shun his twodaughters as wives. He was first associated withYao in the rule and later succeeded to the throne.It is said of him that he had double pupils to hiseyes. Tne title Ch'ung Ilua g ^ was given him ;it signifies that he rivalled Yao in virtue. He was^ ^-^j Yii Ti Shun.SHUN CHIH, Hgy^- The title of the reigncanonized with the titleof the first Emperor of the. Ch'ing dynasty, that is,the first to reign in China. He was born in 1638and came to the throne in 1644. His reign wasoccupied with the consolidation of the Empire. Hetreated the Catholic missionaries well, and wiselyleft Chinese to Carry out the civil administration.SHUO WEN, Wi%y sfeech signs.The earliestChinese dictionary of which we have any knowledge.It was prepared, if not quite finished, byHsii ShenniF titwho died about a.d. 120. It contained someten thousand characters,—all there were in theChinese literature of those days,—in the lesser sealt^cript, arranged under 540 radicals or classifiers.The work as we have it at present no doubt differsmuch from the original ; errors have been introducedin the process of frequent revision, and it is doubtedby some whether the original was in the smallerseal character. It is an etymological dictionary, and65513though many of the derivations given cannot beaccepted by modern scholars it is of great value foretymological research.Chalfant : Early Chinese Writing; Giles :Chinese Literature.SI AN FU,^^M.See Hsi-an fu.SIANG RIVER, ?t9 in hsiang chiang, a riverwhich rises in north-east Kuangsi and flows norththrough Hunan into the Tung-t'ing lake. Itsupper waters are connected with those of the Kueiriver by a short canal, thus giving direct watercommunication, when there is enough water, betweenthe Yangtze ports and Canton. Since the introductionof steam vessels on the coast this route haslost its former importance.Little : The Far East; Richard :ComprehensiveGeogra'[)hy.SIBIINAE, a Sub-family of the Crateropodidae.The species found in China are as follows.Staphidia torqueola Swinh. ; Fukien, Yiinnan.Siva castaneicauda Hume ; Yiinnan. S. wingatii0. Grant; Yiinnan. Yuhina pallida La Touche ;Fukien, Ssiich'uan. Y. diademata J. Verr. ;Yiinnan, Ssuch'uan, S. Shensi, W. Tibet. Y.Gvlaris Hodgs. ; W. Tibet. Y. brunneiceps 0.Grant; Formosa. Herpornis tyrannulus Swinh.;Hainan, Fukien. Zosterops simplex Swinh. ; S,China, Formosa, Hainan. Z. erythropleura Swinh. ;W. China, Chihli, Manchuria. Malacias auricularisSwinh. ; Formosa. M. desgodinsi D. & 0. ; Yiinnan.M. pulchella Aust. ; Yiinnan,SICAWEI. See Zikawei.SI HIA, ^ 3C hsi hsia. This note shouldproperly appear under the heading Hsi hsia, butthe other spelling is common. The term is theChinese name for the Tangut kingdom whichoccupied what is now called Kansu. It was independenttill conquered by Chenghis Khan in 1227.The ruling house was akin to the To-pa familywhich established the Wei dynasty in China. Thename Tangut is Mongolian.The Si hia language was a very peculiar one,their script being described as the most complicatedsystem ever invented by the human mind ; the nearestaffinities of the language seem to be the Lo-lo andMo- so tongues. Only a small number of thecharacters have so far been read, and the onlymaterial available for studying the language is anincomplete Manual with glossary discovered inCentral Asia so recently as 1908. The Si hia literaturewas abundant ; for instance the entire BuddhistTripitaka was translated into that language andprinted in 1294.Laufer : The Si-hia Language, T'oung Pao.March, 1916 ; Bushell : The Hsi Hsia Dynasty ofTangut, etc., Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xxx.

SIKAENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASIKA.A handsome large deer about four feetat th© shoulder with horns reaching 2 ft. 8 in.in length and having eight points. The horns willfetch as much as Taels 300 (£40) the pair, and theanimal is therefore much hunted. Heude proposedto regard Sika as a genus, giving no fewer thanthirty-seven species for China and Japan. Herevised this list later, but his arrangement has notbeen accepted.The Peking Sika (cervus mandarinv^, formerlyC. hortulorurii) is now only found in remote partsof North-east Chihli and West Shansi. C. mantchuricusand C. dybowskii ? are found in Manchuria,and there is a smaller species C. kopschii in theYangtze valley. See Cervidce.SowERBT : Fur and Feather in North China,And Jour7ial, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii ;(Heude):Memoires concernant Vhistoire naturelle de VEmpirechinoie, tome i et seq.81 KIANG, ^ Jl Hsi chiang, west river,generally known by foreigners as the West River,rises in the eastern part of the tableland of Yiinnan,and is at first called the Pa-ta. After a southerncourse it turns north-west and leaving Yunnan runsfor a hundred and fifty miles as the boundary ofKueichou and Kuangsi, then flows across the centreof Kuangsi into Kuangtung. Till about sixty milesfrom the Kuangtung border it has the name ^ ^JS;lied Water. Later it divides and enters the sea byseveral mouths, of which the Chu kiang of PearlRiver is most important. The branch which retainsthe name Si kiang finds the sea west of Macao.Its length is about 1,000 miles.It was explored by Moss {q.v.), by Colqtjhotjnas far as the Yunnan border, (see his Across Chryseand R. G. Soc. Journal, December, 1882), and byAgassiz (see R. G. Soc. Journal, May, 1891).Gtjndrx : China Past and Present.SILK.—The art of sericulture originated inChina, and its origin is traced back to thetaost ancient times, when the Empress; Hsi Lingintroduced the rearing of silkworms and inventedthe loom. Silk was brought to Europe overland.We owe to Aristotle the first notice ofthe silkworm; the raw silk imported appearsto have been first woven in the west into thingauzes in the island of Cos, off the coast ofAsia Minor. The Chinese jealously guarded thesecret of their valuable art, but tradition says thatthe eggs of the silkworm moth were carried toKhotan about the Christian era concealed by aChinese princess in the lining of her head-dress;and that by this route the silkworm slowly spreadto India and Persia. It reached Byzantium in thereign of Justinian, about a.d. 550, through twoNestorian monks. About a.d. 1260 cotton wasintroduced into China from India, and, owing toits cheapness, cotton, cultivation was given thepreference over silk, which gradually became moreand more neglected, and finally, under the Manchus,silk was only produced in Ssuch'uan, Honan,Kuangtung, and Chekiang, for the supply of theGovernment looms and for local consumption. Itv/as subsequently, with the advent of foreigners andthe ever-increasing demand for silks for exportationabroad, that the industry was taken in hand againand continued to increase, and all the more so asthe people themselves rose with it in general prosperity,and were able to wear again the more costlysilk garmen,ts.Silk is produced by the larva of Bombyx mori,which feeds on the leaves of the White mulberry,[morus alba, especially var. latifolia). The treesare kept low by pollarding to admit of the leavesbeing easily gathered, but little attention is givento them, and they are subject to disease. Fannersin the Canton silk districts devote themselves solelyto the raising of these mulberries, and sell theleaves to the silk cultivators.White Silk is mostly cultivated in the lowlands,but in Ssuch'uan the mulberry is abundantlycultivated up to 3,000 feet altitude. The chiefsilk districts ai'e those in South Kiangsu, NorthChekiang, in the West River delta of Kuangtung,and in much smaller proportions in parts of Anhui,Shantung, and Hupei, with insignificant amountsfrom Chihli and Honan. Wusleh in Kiangsu i-said to produce the finest white silk in the world.In Wusieh, Soochow, etc., two crops are produced;the first one is the ta-ts'an {:h M)> ortaysaam, which makes the large cocoon. The secondcrop comes on about 25 days after the first; theworm is smaller, the hsiao-ts'an (/J* ^), and thecocoon is inferior in quality. Tsatlee (-fc S.) silk,-the derivation of the name is obscure—is said b;.Wells Williams to have come originally fromHupei. In Kuangtung there are six annual crops.Yellow jSilk : Most of this silk comes fromSsuch'uan, where it is produced in nearly every partof the province (apart from the Tibetan borderland).In Kiating-fu the infant worms are fed on the leavesof Cudrania tricuspidata, [Che-shu, i^ ^), forhall their lives, but for the remainder on the mulberry.Hupei and Shantung are the only otherprovinces where this silk is cultivated on a largescale.Wild Silk : formerly and since very earlytimes, produced mainly in the hills of East Shantung(the old country of Lai), but, since the opening ofManchuria to receive the surplus population ofShantung, also produced in South-east Manchuria.These silkworms, the larvae of Antheroea pernyi.feed in the open on the leaves of four species of oak.on which they are placed after they have passedthe infant stage. A little wild silk is also grown inNorth Kueichou and North-east Chihli.514

Ei^CYCLOPAEDIA SINICASILKThe oaks are Quercus mongolica, Q. dentata,Q. aliena, and Q. strrata, which grow well alike onrocky hillsides and in rich loam. Two crops' aregathered, the spring and the autumn, of which thelatter produces the most silk.In Shantung a little silk for local itse is alsoobtained from the cocoons of Attacus cynthia, whichfeeds on either the ailantkiis or ch'un ( ^Chinese pepp6r tree, Xanthoxylon, hua-chiao ()or the?^|^).In the former case the cocoons are called Yii-chien(W M), ]/" being a name of the ailanthus; in thelatter chiao-chien ( ^H).Modern Trade.—When trade with the Westbegan to develop in the 18th century silk was oneof the leading exports, and in the last years of theEast India Company's monopoly 4,000 piculs weresent away annually, and in the first years of opentrade (1833-7), 10,000 piculs were exported eachyear. In 1844, a commission was sent from Franceto inquire into the industries of China, and the silktrade subsequently grew rapidly under the fosteringcare of the Government. Then came the T'ai P'ingrebellion, which ravaged the silk districts andreduced the trade to small proportions.The exjjorts, which in 1860 had amounted toPels. 67,000, fell to 39,000 in 1867, but in theseventies, when order had been restored, and cultivationresumed, there was a great boom, and in1876, when the trade reached its zenith. Pels. 76,000,worth over £9,000,000, were exported. Unfortunately,however, this activity was largely artificial,and in the following years a striking decline setin, due to deterioration in the quality of Chinasilk arising from insufficiency of skilled labour inthe silk districts, or rather of labour enough towind the silk crop well by Chinese methods. TheChinese did not kill the chrysalis before winding silkfrom the cocoon—whence the brilliant white colourof much of the North China silk, a characteristicwhich belongs only to silk wound from live cocoons.This, especially if the weather is hot, necessitatesthe whole of the silk crop being wound off in a fewdays, otherwise the chrysalis would spoil the cocoonsby emerging. But the population of the silk districtswas so much reduced by the T'ai P'ingrebellion that there was not left a sufficient numberof competent hands to wind a large crop.There was also at this time much adulterationof better-class silk with poorer thread, and dampingto add to the weight of bales was a cause of complaintboth at Shanghai and Canton. Another causeof the decrease in demand in Europe was the generalspirit of economy all over the world in the earlyseventies ; over-speculation was another contributingcause. And before long another factor was introduced,viz. the steadily improving quality, underthe fostering care of their Government, of theJapanese silk.kIn the eighties the Japanese Government wasvery active, establishing laboratories for the studyof disease, silk guilds to supervise production, andsericultui'al schools with ambulant inspectors whoenforced regulations for the scientific inspection ofsilkworm eggs. The result was that the acreageunder silk in Japan greatly increased, the bestmodels were studied, and Japan silk became thefavourite in the United States,, which was becomingan increasingly important market. By the year1887 China silk was suffering heavily from Japanesecompetition, and their thread, which was more even,was preferred by the European buyers. Meanwhiledisease had appeared in China, and during theeighties caused severe losses : fortunately it dieddown at the end of the decade.In the nineties there was a revival in the Chinasilk trade. Steam filatures had been started in theKuangtung districts as long before as 1874, and thequality of Canton silk had improved.A very large increase in the production of silkwas predicted by exports in the early nineties, whensteam filatures were being erected in growingnumbers in Shanghai. Till then the producers hadnever reared more worms than could be dealt within the short period (10 days) which elapses' between515the completion of the cocoon and the appearance ofthe moth. Over-production would entail the lossof many cocoons, as the perfect insects eat their waythrough them to the light. The use of steamfilatures obviates these difficulties. The cocoon isbaked or kiln-dried, and the spinning of the silkcan take place at any time.By 1895 there were a number of steam filaturesat Shanghai, and, owing to the deterioration ofJapanese silk, due to carelessness following on easyprofits, Shanghai filatures were now preferred inthe world's markets.In the same year an institutionwas opened at Shuntak, on the initiative of theInspector General of Customs, for the examinationof eggs. This was followed by an improvement inthe quality of Canton silk, which was, however,only temporary. In Japan the Government tookmeasures to improve silk, establishing a conditioninghouse at Yokohama in 1897, and making theexamination of silk for moisture compulsory in 1900.By way of contrast the authorities in China had inthe preceding year vetoed a scheme for the scientifictreatment of disease at Hangchow. In 1900 theexports from China and Japan were practicallyequal at £7,000,000 (ten years before China had£8,000,000 to Japan'si £3,500,000), but since thenJapan has forged ahead, and in 1913—the last yearof normal conditions—Japan exported £25,000,000worth, as against £15,800,000 worth from China.These figures have been given to show whatmight be done in China were the Government toadopt a policy similar to that taken up in Japan.

SILKENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASsuch'uan : Silk is produced almost everywhereChina silk is intrinsically the best in the world, thesilk in 1916 was worth Hk.Tls, 30,870,000. ment its silken web with a pattern ; the figured •producers are industrious and the silk area very in the central and eastern portions of this province,large and capable of indefinite expansion. The but especially in the Chengtu plain, at Kiating, Paoning,latter point is proved by the expansion which recentand Shuuching. Hosie estimated the value ofyears have witnessed in the wild silk trade of the production in 1903 at Tls. 15,000,000, and sinceManchuria. Indeed, much progress has of late that year the Government has introduced manyyears' been made, in response to the greatly increaseddemand from abroad, but with the introduction ofreforms in sericulture, including schools in every prefecture,where pupils are instructed and eggs suppliedmodern methods the production might be vaistly to cultivators. There are now thirty steam filaturesincreased, and, above all, the quality improved. and four re-reeling houses in the province, and theThere are signs at present that interest is being industry is developing rapidly. Ssuch'uan is alsoawakened in this question, which is of vital importancea great manufacturer of silk piece goods and ofto China, since silk is the premier article embroideries!, the quality of which has improved inamong its exports.late years. The exportation of raw silk was in 1916,Present State of Indvstry.— Kiangsu : Silk is Hk.Tls. 4,320,000.cultivated in almost every village in the south of Shantung : Sericulture is the premier industry,the province, but the leading districts are Soochow, but the silk produced is inferior to that of KiangsuWusieh, Shengtse, Pin-niu, and Liyang. Wusieh and Chekiang, most of it being yellow. The chiefhas the largest production and is also said to produce silk districts ^re Ichow, Tsingchow and Tsinan.the best while silk in the world. As regards steam There are now steam filatures at Tsinan and Tsingchow,filatures, Shanghai has some twenty-five, with aat which town piece goods are also made.total of 8,000 basins employing 20,000 hands. SoochowSome silk is also produced in Hupei, and therehas three filatures' producing 1,300 piculs of is a steam filature at Hankow, which draws itsraw silk, and Chinkiang two producing 1,000 piculs supplies of raw material from the districts of Mienyangannually, but elsewhere the industry is in the handsand Hanchuan. Tangyang and Hojung yellowof the peasantry, and there is a probability that silk is well known, and there is a large manufacturesteam filatures will be more and more established in of piece goods and of satins in thesie districts, andthe cultivating districts themselves. Piece goods at Shasi and' district, the Kingchow silks beingare made chiefly at Soochow, Wusieh and Nanking :renowned. The silk production of other provincesthe industry at the latter city is however declining is small : but Changsha embroideries are of goodin favouir of Soochow, which has 7,000 looms for quality and the industry is promising there.weaving satins and' 2,000 for gauzes, controlled by Attempts have been made to promote the silk industrytwo guilds, besides which there are numerous privatein Kuangsi, Yiinnan, and Shensi, but withoutlooms. The production is estimated at over 5,000 conspicuous success.piculs yearly. In 1916 the exportation of silk piece Wild Silk : The leading provinces are Shantunggoods from the four Kiangsu ports was valued atand Fengtien. The former draws its suppliesHk.Tls. 10,670,000 and of raw silk at Hk.Tls. of cocoons from the latter, having ceased to be the32,988,000.large producer that it was many years ago. TheChekiang : The chief centres are Han'gchow, oak-grown silk trade of S.E. Manchuria (Fengtien)Huchow, Kashing, Haining, and Shaoshing. • The has made very great strides since the opening-uplargest production of raw silk is from Huchow, and of the region, and steam filatures are now beingof piece goods from Hangchow. After the Revolutiongradually introduced into the district. In Shan-the industry declined, but there has been a tung, Chefoo is the centre of the reeling industry,revival, and the provincial authorities are doing there being now forty native and three foreigntheir best to stimulate it, having set up two sericulturalestablishments at the port, which produces 14,000schools and model factories for the training piculs of raw wild silk annually. The Shantungof women operatives. There are three steam filaturespongees, woven from wild silk, are exported inin the province, at Hangchow, Dongsi, and large quantities ; they are produced in the Liutuan,Siaoshan.Chihsia, and Ninghai districts, and employ thousands'KuANOTtTNG : The climate of the West Riverof peasants at the looms. The Honan pongeesdelta is very favourable to the production of silk, are also well known ; they are woven at Lushan,and there are six yearly crops, with an occasional where wild silk is produced in the hills of the westseventh. Shuntak isi the leading district, and there of the province. Some white and yellow silk is alsoare upwards of 200 steam filatures, the first having produced in Honan. A considerable quantity ofbeen opened in 1874. Sainam is also a very active wild silk is also grown in North Kueichou, in Tsun-isilk centre, and Canton is famous for its piece district ; the quality is not, however, good.goods and embroideries. The exportation of raw China was., no doubt, the first country to orna-516

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASINK OF INIQUITYChinese silks brought to Constantinople were therenamed "diapers," but after the 12th century, whenDamascus became celebrated for its looms, the namedamask was applied to all silken fabrics richlywrought and curiously designed, and Chinesie figuredsilks were included under this class. The designsused in weaving" and embroidery axe of variedcharacter and can be traced back to very ancienttimes—the silk weaver is the most conservative ofartisans and continues to use all the old patterns.The chief centres for the manufacture of silkpiece goods, of which there are between two andthree hundred kinds, are Canton, Shanghai, Nanking,Soochow, and Hangchow. Embroideries area speciality of Canton. Canton silk piece goods aresaid to be of a finer, softer texture than thosefurther north, and the handkerchiefs are particularlygood ; certain sorts of silk not produced inKuangtung are imported from Ssuch'uan and Tonkinto be used in thisi manufacture. Details of thetexture of the principal fabrics may be found inthe voluminous Customs Report on Silk.Production.—At the beginning of the presentcentury the annual production wasi estimated atfrom 350,000 to 400,000 piculs [British ConsularReport on China, 1901). Two-thirds of the •productionof Central China are said to be retained forhome consumption, and half of that of South China.The total value of exports abroad of silk and itsproducts in 1916 was Hk. Tls. 111,000,000, being23% of the value of all exports. Of this sum, RawWhite Silk, steam filature, represented almost half(Hk. Tls. 53,770,000, or piculs 65,813).^King, in his Farmers of Forty Centuries,p. 12, gives 120,000,000 lbs. as a low estimate of thetotal annual production of silk in China; he quotesHosiE as stating the production of Ssuch'uan to be5,500,000 lbs.The crop of mulberry leaves is estimated atroughly ten tons per acre, and in one case King(op. cit. p. 314) found that 123 lbs. of leaves wererequired to produce one lb. of silk, in Chekiang.Thus 10 tons of leaves would produce 1,000 lbs. ofsilk,—the yield of one acre in a season.The China Year Booh, 1916, gives the followingspecifications as used for export purposes :1. Silk, Raw, White ...2. Silk, Raw, "White ...(steam filature)3. Silk, Raw, Yellow4. Silk, Raw, Wild ....5. Silk Cocoons6. Silk Waste7. Silk Cocoons, refuse8. Silk Piece Goods ..9. Shantung Pongeesrerceutngeof totalvalueChief ports oioriginnl export... 17 Soochow ;35°/o Shanghai 2r>°/o ;Hangchow l'3°/o... 34 Canton 5.5%; Shanghai 39°/o8 Kiaochow 36 °/o ; Chungking34° Hankow8o;JIanchuria31%20°/o61%; Shantung3 Shanghai 48°/o: Mnuchnria 36%5 Canton 36°/o ; Chefoo 17°/o0.8 Chungking 63% : Hankow 23°/o15 Canton 3S% : Shanghai 38%h Chefoo 530/p ; Kiaochow 29%10 Silk Proauct-s unclassed 1 Canton 46% ;Shanghai le",,. [N.S.]Customs Report, Special Series, No. 3, 1881,reprinted 1917 ; N, Shaw : Manchurian TussoreSilk; S. W. BusHELL : Chinese Art; H. B. Morse ;7'Ae Trade and Administration of the ChineseEmpire; Customs and British Consular Reports,passim.SILVA, FELICIEN DA, i^m^ Lin Feili,a Jesuit Father, born in Portugal in 1578. Hearrived at Nanking in 1605, and died there in 1614.Meanwhile he had been sent to Macao for hishealth's! sake, and had laboured at Hangchow andCh'ou chou jBs ^1Havret : La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fou, ii,p. 25, note.SILVER. See Minerals.SIMON, G. EUGENE, was sent to China in1860 by the French Minister of Agriculture. Hewent up the Yangtze the next year with AdmiralHope and Captain Blakiston. In 1862 he went tothe North and in 1863 to Ssuch'uan, returning toFrance the next year. He returned to be Consulat Ningpo and Foochow, then finally left China forAustralia. He died in France, September 29, 1896.His writings deal chiefly with agriculture and banking.A list of them is given in the T'ounj Pao,1896.SINAE. The name of China as known bysea,^—the name which came west by the land routebeing Seres. See China.Yule : Marco Polo, 3rd Ed. Introd., p. 12.SINIM. A name found in Isaiah xlix, 12("the land of Sinim"), and taken by many scholarsas meaning China under its name ^ Ts'in ; butmodern opinion mostly regards it as referring toSyene, (the modern Assouan). See China.SINITIC, a name used for the group of languagesspoken by races inhabiting Indo-China andWest China. It was suggested by Captain C. J.Forbes and adopted by Major H. R. Davies.Davies divides them into four families, i. Mon-Khmer; ii. Shan; iii. Chinese; iv. Tibeto-Burman.All the languages of Yiinnan and W. Ssuch'uanare grouped under these four titles.Other names used for this whole group areHimalaic, Indo-Chinese, Polytonic and Monosyllabic.Davies : Yunnan, p. 336.S!NKIANG,i^lS hsin chiang. See Turkestan.SINK OF INIQUITY, an expression used ofShanghai by the Duke of Somerset in Parliamentin 1869. It is not generally known that the accusationwas against the commercial morality of theplace. The Duke's authorities were naval officers.The Chamber of Commerce considered thequestion of officially noticing the bad language used,but wisely let the matter drop.Maclellan : The Story of Shanghai.517

SISTERS OF CHARITYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASISTERS OF CHARITY. See Fitles de laChariti ; Franciscaints-Mii&ionairen ; Canossiennes.SITTA, a genus of the Family Sittidae; theNuthatches ; 6 species are known in China. Theseare, Sitta sinensis, common in the central provincesand rare in the north; found also in Formosa.S. montium in the mountains of N.W. Fukien.S. amurensis, found in Manchuria and a* farsouth as Peking ; S. yunnandnsis and S. magnataken in Yunnan and S. villosa, common at Pekingand still commoner at Jehol.David et Oustalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine;Anabatides.SI WANG MU, ®3E-g:, a title which occursin ancient Chinese works and which has given riseto a remarkable variety of opinions among sinologues.The characters, simply translated, are west l-infjmother, meaning Queen-mother of the West; butthe puzzle is to know to whom or to what the termapplied. This article can do no more than give thevarious solutions that have been suggested.Mayers says it was a fabulous being of thefemale sex, and adds that modern writers take it asthe name of a region or of a sovereign. Legge'stranslation of the Bamboo Books renders it westernWang-moo and the chief of Wang-moo. Faber,translating Lieh Tzu, gives die Mutter des Westkoniges.Hirth translates it as mother of thewestern Icing, but again speaks of it as "a place, animaginary abode of a fairy queen" I Eitel regardsit as probably a mere transliteration of some non-Chinese name. In translation he gives both thepeople Si-wang-mu and {the chief) of Si-wang-mu.La Couperie thought it was the title of a line ofsovereigns of the Wu-sun nations. The early Jesuitmissionaries thought it meant the Queen of Sheba,and FoRKE has elaborated this theory. Chavannestakes it as the name of a barbarous tribe, and DeGroot speaks of Si Wang-mu, a mystic Queen ofthe Sien or Immortals. The latest theory advancedby a foreign scholar is Giles' identification ofSi Wang Mu and Hera (Juno).All references required in reading the above,with a study of Chinese allusions, and the expositionof Giles' theory, will be found in the article namedbelow.Giles : WhoSinica, p. 1.was Si Wang Mul AdversariaSIX BOARDS, THE, :^%liu'pu. The Boardsof the Central administrations till towards the endof the Manchu dynasty. They were (1) ^ ^Shih pu, Board of Civil Office ; (2) ^ iJK Hu pu,Board of Revenue ; (3) g igR Li pu, Board of Ceremonies; (4) ^% Ping pu, Board of War ; (5) Jfl] ^Hsing pu. Board of Punishments; (6) X pR Kungpu, Board of Works.Dependent on the Board of Ceremonies therewas also the Board of Music, |^ ]pB, Fo pu.SIX CLASSES OF CHARACTERS, p^; ^ liushu, the division of written words according to theirorigin. (The six form^ of characters, seal, grass,etc., are called liu t'i). The names of the six classesas translated by Hopkins are as follows ; i. ^ J^Hfiang hsing. Pictorial ; ii. Jg "S^ Chih shih, Indicative; iii. -^ ^ Hui i. Suggestive compounds ; iv.1^ ^ Hsieh sheng, Phonetic; v. iU'^ Chia chieh,Adoptive; vi. ^^ Chuan chu. Deflected.The above English words are those used byHopkins in translating the TAu Shu Ku ^ § iSJlf[q.v.); but he also gives in an Introduction thevarious terms used for each class by Gallery,Williams, Summers, Schlegel, Mayers and Edkins,with these scholars' explanations and those of someChinese writers. Speaking roughly the explanationsmay be given as follows ; Class I includes thecharacters which are pictorial representations ofobjects ; Class II, characters which indicate actionsor states, as H ^^^'"> three, _h shang above and "phfia below ; Class III, characters made by a unionof already known symbols, as fg t'ien, field, andji li, strength, together making ^ nan, the male,(he'who works in the fields) : Class IV, charactersin which there is added a symbol to give the sound,as gg li, a carp, made of ^ yii, fish and S. HjClass V, characters borrowed to stand for syllableshaving so far no written representative, as •^ ling,^ chang, etc. ; Class VI, characters inverted orturned round, with a new meaning, as Q hou andf] ssii. •Full references will be found in Hopkins' book.Hopkins : The Six Scripts, (1881) Wieger ; :Chinese Characters.SIX FORMS OF SCRIPT, liu t'i :^ |* , not tobe confused with the Six Classes of Charactersliu shu :^ § .These are 1. Chuan ^-, the Seal character.2. Li ^, the ancient or official text. 3. Chieh tWthe plain character. 4. Hsing ^, the cursive style.5. Ts'ao ^, the 'grass' character. 6. Sung '^ , theSung dynasty style, used in printing.Another classification is i, Ku wen "^ ^, theancient style, ii, Ch'i tzu ,^ ^ exceptional charactersamong the first, iii, Chuan or seal, iv, mu ^,the official text, v, Li chuan ,^ ^ contorted seal.vi,States.Ch'ung shu gj ^, the tadpole characters.Mayers : Chinese Header's Manual.SIX KINGDOM PERIOD.SKINS.See Seven MartialSee Goatskins; Dogskins; Hides.SLAVERY. The evils of slavery in Chinaare much lighter than those we associate with theinstitution in other lands ; there are no slave-markets518

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASQAPand no openly violent treatment of slaves. This islargely due, no doubt, to the fact that master andslave are generally of the same race, and thatslavery is an accidental condition into which anyonemight fall, whatever his birth or position.Slaves are of three kinds : prisoners of warthose who are sold or self -sold into slavery ; andthose who are born slaves.The first kind are now rare. The second arecontrary to law, but are very common. The salemay be for debt, a son, daughter, or even a concubinebeing thus sent into slavery. But the povertyof the common people is the chief cause of thisclass being numerous. In times of famine especially,large numbers of children are sold, partly to savetheir lives, partly because the price received maykeep the rest of the family alive. Many children,too, are kidnapped for the purpose of selling asslaves.The fate of such is not of necessity very hard.The boys, who are not the most numerous in thisclass, can only gain their freedom by purchase.They have their jjcculium and the master may evenset them up in trade that they may earn enough tobecome free. Girl slaves are more numerous,because there is no class of hired domestic maidservantsin China. They are seldom sold a secondtime, but at the suitable age are married off andthus become free.The third kind, those born in slavery, suppliesthe recruits for theatres and brothels. But by lawa slave girl who bears a child to her master becomesijiso facto a secondary wife ; and at a master's death,if the sons divide the property, all share equally,whether sons of wife, concubine or slave.There was formerly a class of State slaves,consisting of criminals, rebels, etc. ; but these now gointo banishment instead of slavery.BiOT : Memoir on the Condition of Slaves inChina; Chinese Repository, vol. xviii; Parker:Chinese Famihj Law, Excursus No. 6; Dyer Ball :Things Chinese.SLEEVE EDITION; corresponding to theforeign poclet edition; a small form of a bookwhich can be hidden in the wide sleeve of a Chinesegarment ; much used by dishonest students inexaminations.SLIPPER BOAT, JpUg-^ ma ling t'eng, akind of covered boat for passengers, much used atCanton. Itsi shape is somewhat like a Chineseslipper.SMITH, ARTHUR HENDERSON, D.D.LL.D., a missionary of the American Board(Congregationalists) born in Vernon, Connecticut,in 1845. He reached China in 1872, and in 1878,was appointed to P'ang-chia chuang, Shantung,where he remained till 1905, when he gave up stationwork for literary and other labours, making hishead-quarters at T'ung chou, Chihli. Dr. Smithis well known as the author of some popular bookson China, including Chinese Characteristics, VillageLife in China, China in Convulsion, etc.SMITH, GEORGE, a missionary of the ChurchMissionary Society, who reached Hongkong inSeptember, 1844, with instructions to examine thepossibilities of different stations. Before the endof 1346 health required his return to England.In 1849 he was consecrated as Bishop of the newlyformed see of Victoria in China. He returned toHongkong in 1850, spent a great deal of timevisiting the Trea.ty Ports, visited England againin 1855-6, again in 1860 left Shanghai for Japan,Unite'd States and England, returning to Hongkongin 1861, and finally retired from the duties of thebishopric and went to England in 1864.[Wylie] : Memorials of Protestant MissionariestoChina.SNAKES.See Eeptilia.SNIPES. See Limicolae.SNUFF. It is said that snuff was introducedinto China between a.d. 1660 and 1680. If so,"sr.uff-bottles" of an earlier reign than K'ang Hsicannot be genuine or cannot be snuff-bottles.N.C.B.R.A.S. Journal, vol, xx, p. 97.SNUFF-BOTTLES are made of differentvarieties of stone, often exqui.«itely carved, of porcelain,glass, etc. Attached to the stopper is atiny spoon with which the snuff is placed on thethumb-nail.See Snuff.SOAP, ^ .% fei tsao. There are now manysoap factories in different parts of China, butpreviously to the introduction of Western methodsof manufacturing the article, the Chinese chieflydepended for soap on the following three kinds ofsoap-tree, viz. : (1) Cijmnocladus chincnsis, a leguminoustree whose long brown pods contain athick layer of brown tallow, with which clothesmay be washed. Hosie states {Province of Ssuch'uan,p. 31) that the pods are also cut up veryfine and ground into a paste with such pei'fumes assandalwood, cloves, garoo, putchuk, rue, musk,camphor, etc., and then thoroughly mixed withhoney. The result is a dark substance of the consistencyof soft soap, used by the fair sex as acosmetic and by barbers as a salve. (2) Gleditsiasinensis, with black pods growing to a length ofone foot, from the tallow in which a fine latherysoap is obtained. (3) Sapindus mukorossi, thetallow of which is cleaner than that of the othertwo. From all three a lather is formed in eitherhot or cold water.Soap is also obtained from an efflorescence whichappears on the ground in the Lower Yellow River519i

LaSOAPSTONEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAregion. It is boiled for some time, the scumremoved, the useful part sinking to the bottom, andthe water drained off, the residue being mixed withalkali. This is used for washing clothes only.A substitute for soap was i tzu ^ •^, said tobe the sweetbread of animals, or according to Giles,the hog's caul.There are some thirty modern soap factories inChina, of which eight are at Harbin and eight atShanghai.. The amount imported in 1916 was ofthe value Hk.Tls. 2,555,307.SOAPSTONE.SOAPTREE.See Minerals.See Soap.SOCIETE DU VERBE DIVIN, a GermanCongregation founded in 1875. The chief seminaryis at Steyl in Holland; hence it is often called theSteyl Mission. The members take the three vowsand generally no more. They are exclusively Germanor Austrian. The same founder institutedin 1889 the Society of Servants of the Holy Spirit,a Society of Sistersi who undertake work amongwomen, manage orphanages, girls' schools, etc. TheSteyl Mission in China has the Vicariat of S. Shantung;the European priests number 66 and theChristians 86,150.SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OFChristian and General Knowledge. See ChristianLiterature Society,SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OFUseful Knowledge in China ; a Society founded inCanton in 1834. At a meeting of residents,November 29, the Society was constituted on iheproposition of Mr. Gutzlaff and Mr, Matheson;James Matheson was made President, Bbiocmanand GiiTZLAFF, Chinese secretaries and J. R.Morrison, English secretary. J. F. Davis, Esq.,H.M. Chief Siiperintendent in China and all theforeign consuls were invited to become honorarymembers.A full account of the business at this and asubsequent meeting, with regulations of the Society,et

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASOUTH CHIHLI MISSIONLand was bought in the same year, the Governor ofthe Province assisting in the negotiations, and thegentry subscribing liberally.The University was founded on three earlierInstitutions. First, a school opened under a Chineseteacher in Soochow in 1872, which afterwards•enlarged into Buffington Institute with the Rev.A. P. Parker as first President. All teaching wasdone in Chinese.In 1899, this school was merged into the Anglo-Chinese College, Shanghai, with Dr. Parker ashead. This Anglo-Chinese College had been startedby Dr. Y. J. Allen in 1884, and was itself a unionof two smaller schools. A third institution was aschool opened in 1896 in Soochow by Dr. D. L.Anderson in response to the growing demand forEnglish. This school closed during the Boxer rebellion,was re-opened in 1901 as the AcademicDepartment of the new University, and Dr.Anderson was its President till his death in 1911.After this the two colleges at Shanghai and Soochowwere united at the latter place, the head of theformer, Dr. John W. Cline, becoming President.The University offers four years' courses inArts, Science and Law, and grants the degrees ofE.A., M.A., B.Sc. and LL.B. The Departmentof Law is situated at the old Anglo^Chinese Collegein Shanghai. There are three middle schools, inSoochow, Shanghai and Hu-chow, leading to theCollege course. The Bible School at Sungkiang,and all the Primary and lligher Primary Schoolsof the Mission are branch schools of the University,to which they are designed to lead up.The Soochow University campus covers fourteenacres. The principal buildings are Allen Hall andAnderson Hall, and there are six residences and fourdormitories on the campus, as well as seven dormitoriesoutside. There is also a water plant whichserves the whole Methodist Mission community.The students run a school for poor boys, (ninetypupils) in which they teach without remuneration,and for financing which they are responsible.In January, 1917, the University reported :Foreign professors 11Chinese professors 18Other Chinese assistants ... 4Students in the three MiddleSchools 530Collegiate students :Arts and Sciences 71Law 14See Methodist Episcopal {South) Mission.SOUTH CHIHLI MISSION.Headquarters :—Ta-ming fu (:^^)^) Chihli.Entered China, 1896.This undenominational Mission was begun bythe coming to China of Pastor and Mrs. HoraceW. HouLDiNG, from the U.S.A. in 1896. Spendingthe winter in Tientsin, a conference of missionariestold Mr. HouLDiNG of Kuang-p'ing fu and Tamingfu in extreme Southern Chihli, with approximatelytwenty hsien cities wholly unoccupied. Upon hisfirst tour into this region, on October 17, 1897, hemet a solitary Chinese Christian from near Shanghai,baptized many years before by the London MissionarySociety in Tientsin, who for eighteen years hadbeen in Ta-ming fu praying for a missionary tocome. This incident fixed the headquarters of thefuture mission, and, though permanent residencecould not be effected until after the Boxer outbreak,a great deal of itinerating was done by Mr.HouLDiNG, by barrow and on foot, both in SouthChihli and South-western Shantung, while with ateacher accompanying him he pursued the study ofthe language. Eighty thousand portions of Scriptureswere sold, and there was a widespread distributionof tracts. Driven out by the Boxers in 1900, withthe loss of all their personal property, in 1901 Mr.and Mrs. IIotjlding returned with a party offourteen new missionaries, representing seven diversedenominations, incorporated as the South ChihliMission, when Pao-ting fu became their temporaryresidence, property being there given to the Missionby the Chinese government in perpetual lease.In the winter of 1902-3 Ta-ming fu was firstoccupied as a residential station, and the followingautumn all moved there. To a small propertypurchased just before the holocaust of 1900, whichhad not been destroyed,— one of two in the wholeof North China to be spared,—adjoining propertywas now easily added by pui-chase, making a commodiouscompound of some three English acres.In 1903 Tze chow ^ -/^ was opened, especiallyas a railway station on the Peilian railway was thenbeing built ; Weihsien was made a station ; andTs'ao-chow fu. Shantung, was also opened this year,work having been begun there five years before inresponse to an appeal from the city itself.In 1904 Lin-ming kuan |^ JS Bfl ^^'^s opened asa residence station by tlie purchase of the palaceonce occupied by the late Empress-Dowager.In 1905 Kuang-p'ing hsien }^^M and Kuangp'ingfu^ ^ }^ were opened, and also Ts'ao hsieni-i Shantung, and K'ai chow in Chihli, which lasttwo have since been handed over to two MennoniteMissions respectively.In 1906, centrally located property was purchasedin K'ai-feng fu, ^ ^ /($ the capital, thefirstcase of purchase by Protestant missionaries inthat then very anti-foreign city. After residentwork of a year or two the place was sold and thework handed over to the American Baptist Mission,South.Since the return in 1901 more than threescoremissionary workers have come, and several Missiong531

SOUTHERN BAPTISTENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAhave hived off from the S. C. M., notably theMennonite work in South-western Shantung, theEbenezer Mission of Honan and the NationalHoliness Association in W. Shantung.A somewhat distinctive feature in the work wasbegun in 1904-5, when nearly fifty small farms werebought up close outside Ta-ming fu city and not farfrom the Wei Eiver, for a Schools-Campfus, callednow by the foreigners "The Farm" and by theChinese "The Gospel Villages." This constitutesa traot of over 100 English acres, a place for schoolsand for summer conferences, and a rendezvous forthe workers during the heat of summer withoutleaving the heart of the field. To this end, somethousands of forest and shade trees were set out,and there are orchard fruit trees, vegetable gardensand a dairy. Any possible income is to go to theschools, and opportunity is thus given to studentsfor self-help. At one end is the Girls' School, andnot far from the centre the Boys' School and Trainingschool work, with the Chapel, the Headquarters'Offices, Printing Press and Colportage Building,Receiving Home for Missionaries and residences.The Mission is entirely evangelical, and all itsindustrial and other activities have the one aim ofbringing the Gospel to the Chinese. It is a "faithmission," its agents' salaries not being guaranteedby any Board in the home-land ; the missionariesshare J)to rata in what remains after the generalmission expenses have been met, within a modestmaximum. No Chinese are directly engaged by th

IENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASOUTHERN BAPTISTadvances have been made in the decade 1907-17.During this period the Mission has built in Shanghaithe Eliza Yates Academy for Girls, the GraceBaptist Church, the Ming Jang School for Boys,and Kading Church ; in Soochow, a new churchedifice, the Yates Academy for Boys, the Wei LingAcademy for girls, and the Women's Bible School;in Chinkiang, tvsro new residences (besides assistingto build a number of churches) ; in Yangchow, twohospitals and a physician's residence, and a Girls'Academy; and in Nanking a residence for aphysician.In October, 1907, the Mission, in co-operationwith the East China Mission, A.B.F.M.S., openedin rented quarters in Shanghai a Seminary, ofwhich the Rev. R. T. Bryan, D.D., was the firstpresident. The seminary was transferred to newpermanent quarters at the Point soon afterwardsand the College shortly thereafter was also opened.The Rev. F. J. White, D.D., of the A.B.F.M.S.,is now the president of these joint institutions.Shantung Mission.—The work began in 1860,when the Rev. and Mrs. J. L. Holmes and theRev, J. B. Hartwell arrived in Chefoo, and in1861, Mr. Hartwell proceeded to Teng chow, fiftymiles west of Chefoo. The gentry were exceedinglyhostile, and though one house had already beenrented before they were aware, they prevented anyother being rented or sold to the foreigner. Inthe autumn of 1861, the province was overrun byNien-fei ^ ^ {(I-f^-)- Mr. Holmes believed themto be connected with the T'ai P'ing rebels, withwhom he had had intercourse in the south, and, witha member of the American Protestant EpiscopalMission, went out to expostulate with them. Bothmen were murdered, their bodies being found a weeklater. The state of the country was terrible, villages•were burning every night, and the city gates werebarricaded for some time. When they were opened,the little chapel was filled with wounded whomthe foreigners tended, thereby removing a greatdeal of prejudice among the common people.Next year, the first church was organized, probablythe first Protestant community north ofShanghai.In 1863, the Crawfords arrived and attemptingto occupy a house which had been procured througha native, the gentry got a mob together, but ariot was happily averted.Tho Civil War caused funds and reinforcementsto fail, and the work was hindered by the workershaving to find other ways of supporting themselvesIn 1867, robbers again ravaged the region, and in1870 the missionaries had to retire on Chefoo becauseof the excitement occasioned by the Tientsinmassacre.In 1885 Huang-hsien ^ J|g, and P'ing-tu^^were occupied as foreigners' centres, the latter placebeing opened through two lady workers. In 1902,the prefectural city of Lai-chou M "^^ entered,'Miand Chefoo, which had been closed since 1875, wasre-opened in 1906. The latest station to be occupiedis Lai-yang ^ |^, (1915).The vi'ork has always been mainly evangelistic.Schools for boys and girls were started in Teng-chowin the early sixties, but in the period 1883-1893 thepolicy of the Mission was so changed that all schoolswere closed and all native assistants dismissed. Itwas hoped by thus avoiding all extraneous inducementsto the Chinese to accept Christianity that areal spiritual church might be built up. Finally,the Gospel Mission broke off from the parent Society,and the old lines of work were renewed on thereturn of Dr. Hartwell from U.S. A., in 1893, aftereighteen years' absence. Next year, a boarding schoolfor girls was opened in Teng-chow, and later on thenative church opened a school for boys. Huanghsienand P'ing-tu both have middle schools, theformer making a speciality of industrial work.There are girls' schools at P'ing-tu and Chefoo. In1903, a training school for preachers was startedJt was removed to Huang-hsien in 1906 and thereis also a school for women helpers in Lai-chou fu,opened in 1906.Medical work is carried on at Huang-hsien,P'ing-tu and Lai-chou fu, each place having ahospital. A medical class is conducted at Huanghsien,During the decade 1907-1917 the membership ofthe njission has increased many-fold, and of the fiftysevenchurches reported in January, 1917, elevenaxe the result of the propaganda of the nativechurch itself in Western Shantung, Manchuria, andShansi, the preachers being wholly Chinese. In1915, the Christian community built itself a churchin the country between Chefoo and Teng-chowcosting $10,000 Mex.Interior Mission.—This was started in .1904 bythe Rev. and Mrs. W.W. Lawton, (from Chinkiang)and the Rev. Eugene Sallee who settled at Chengchow§5 jitl in Honan, being guided in their choiceof a centre by the fact that at that time no Protestantmissionaries or native evangelists wereworking within a considerable radius of this city.K'ai-feng fu, the capital, was opened in 1908.Po-chow ^ ^ in Anhui, is the third centre,having been transferred from the Gospel Missionin 1910.In addition to evangelistic and church work,there are at Cheng-chou a hospital, and Women'sBible Training Home (both built in 1909), and aboys' school (bought in 1916). At K'ai-feng futhere are a girls' school (built 1910) and one forboys (built 1915), both of them of higher grade.528

'SOYAENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCAStatistics for 1917 :—SOYA.Foreign Missionaries 170Chinese Staff 733Communicants 19,503See Bean, Soya.SOY : made from the bean Soya his'pida, ofwhich there are many varieties. A sauce which iscalled in Chinese chiang yu ^ y^, is pronouncedsho yu in Japan. Being imported into Europe fromJapan it has become known there as soy or somesimilar name.The value of this bean especially in cases ofdiabetes has been recognised in Europe, at least inFrance ; but thq Soya bread does not seem to bepopular. T-oung Pao, 1894, p. 140.SPAIN AND CHINA.with China.See Spanish RelationsSPALACIDAE, a Family of the Rodentia, consistingof the Molerats. The following are thespecies known in Northern China.Myospalax cansus, in Kansu; M. c. shanseius,in N. Shensi and Ordos ; M. fontanieri, in ChihliM. fontanus in Shansi ; M. fsilurus, in InnerMongolia; M. smithii, and M. rothschildi, both inS.W. Kansu.SowERBY : Recent Researches, etc., Journal,N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii.SPANISH RELATIONS WITH CHINA.The Bull of Pope Alexander VI gave to Spain in1493 all lands discovered beyond a longitude onehundred leagues west of the Azores. Spain wasthereafter fully occupied with the American continent,while Portugal turned eastward and foundjedthe trade with China.In 1521 Mageli/AN landed inthe Philippines and Spain actually took possessionof them in 1565. In 1598 the Spaniards soughttrade with Canton, but the Portuguese from theirvantage ground worked against them with theChinese, just as they afterwards did against theEnglish and Dutch. Permission was given to theSpaniards, however, to trade between Manila andPinal (q.v.), a port twelve leagues from Canton.They introduced two valuable things to China, theMexican dollar and vaccination. In 1571 Legaspi,having conquered the Philippines, compelled thenatives to restore to some shipwrecked Chinese theirproperty. The result of this kindness was thatChinese products were brought from Fukien an/d\paid for with Mexican silver. As to vaccination,it was introduced in 1803.The history of these relations is disfigured bytwo great massacres of Chinese in the Philippines.In 1602 there were 20,000 Chinese in Manila and only800 Spaniards. Rightly or wrongly the Chinese weresuspected of plots and were nearly all killed. In1639, the Chinese being 33,000, another massacre |took place, in which, in four months, about 22,000Chinese perished.The Spaniards opened a factory in the Northof Formosa, but it was destroyed by the Dutch.A diplomatic mission started for Peking in1580, but was turned back to Manila from Canton.They sent no other embassy till 1847, and their firsttreaty with China is dated 1864, when the treaty ofTientsin was signed, being very similar to theBritish Tientsin treaty.A second treaty, in 1877, dealt entirely withcoolie emigration to Cuba.Morse : International Relations, etc. ; Martin :China.The following is a complete list of the Representativesof Spain, resident in Peking, from thetime when the Legation was first established to thepresent day.H.E. Seiior Qtjevedo 1868—1869Don Adolfo Paxot 1870—1870Seiior Perera 1871—1872Senor Farodo 1875—1875Don Carlos A. Espana 1877—1880Don TiBURCio Rodriguez 1881—1883Don Leopoldo Alba Salcedo ... 1884—1886Don TiBiTRCio Rodriguez 1886—1889Don Jose Delayat 1892—1894J. B. de CoLOGAN 1895—1902Don Manuel de C.\rcer (Charge d'Affairesfrom 1902—1905, Minister Plenipotentiaryfrom 1905—1910),, Don Luis Pastor y de Mora ... 1910 to dateSPIRITS, (distilled). See Wine.SPOONBILLS. See Herodiones.SPRING AND AUTUMN ANNALS. SeeCh'un Ch'iu.SQUEEZE. A slang term meaning the commissiontaken by all servants buying for theirmasters, extortion, peculation, etc. The first recordeduse of the word in this sense is in a letterfrom Catchpole {q.v.) to the Directors of the EastIndia Company.SQUIRREL. See Sciuridce. .SSUCH'UAN, yg ;ij,four streams; the largestby far of the Eighteen Provinces. Its area is218,533 sq. miles, and its population from fortyfiveto fifty millions. It owes its name to the riversYa-lung, Min, Ch'ung and Chia-ling. On the westit adjoins Tibet, and the boundary is not distinct.In the west are lofty ranges of mountains up to19,000 feet high, and there is high ground to thenorth, the land sloping to the south-east. Thesacred Mount Omei (10,150 ft.) lies on the edgeof the western ranges. The one-fourth of theprovince which is not mountain is a tableland ofred sandstone, known as the Red Basin. This524

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASSU-MA CH'IENis broken by many small hills and contains fewplains, the Ch'eng-tu Plain {q.v.) being the mostimportant. The principal rivers are those namedabove, together with the Yangtze, which has a longcourse within the province and is navigable in theeastern part.Silk, tea, rice, sugar, hemp, wax, timber,oranges, etc., are the chief agricultural produce,and there are coal, iron, petroleum and other minerals.The Ssuch'uan flora and fauna are very rich.The population to the west and south is chieflynon-Chinese, but consists of Lolo, Mantzu, Si fanand other tribes, some more or less independent.There are also many Tibetans.Ch'eng-tu {q.v.) is the capital; it has a populationof about half a million. Sungpan, Tachienlu,Kiating (150,000), Chungking {q.v.), Wanhsien(140,000) and Batang are other places of importance.Chungking is the only open port.The literary name for the province is |g Shu.SSU HAO, gg ^.See Four Leaders.SSU I KUAN, -^ tg. Four TranslationsCollege; an old College for the situdy of foreignlanguages. The character |^ i is instead of theearlier H i foreigner, and the expression Ssu I ^ |^would mean all non-Chinese languages.The College in its modem form was foundedin the Yxjng Lo reign, a.d. 1407, and was put underthe supervision of the Han lin Yiian.It had chargeof all intercourse with foreign nations and one ofits principal duties was to train -interpreters. Altfirst eight languages were taught. K'ang Hsicaused vocabularies of these tongues to be made,but only portions were published. Manuscriptvocabularies are exceedingly rare.HiRTH : The Chinese Oriental College, Journal,N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xxii.SSU-MA CH'IEN, fl j^,^ was the son ofSsu-MA T'an, and his successor in, the. office ofGrand Astrologer. (See Ssu-ma T'an). On thesou devolved the work of completing, if not thewhole work of writing, the Historical Memoirs Jj^ IEfor which the father had done much in the way ofcolleating mat-erial. The work was not only thefirst attempt made by the Chinese to give a completeview of the whole of Chinese history /to the .dateof its writing, but has been the norm of all thesucceeding "dynastic histories," and in completesets of these it always occupies the first place.Its value is great, not only when compared with itssuccessors, but when compared with any earlyhistory.Its greatest worth to-day may be thoaightto be a demerit in itself : it has preserved intacft,and not g,ssimilatedj much of the material extantwhen it was written, but now only to be found inits pages. Neither father nor son could havewritten so thrilling a story of the struggle for empirethat ensued after the death of Ch'in Shih Huang Tias >did Lu Chia, or such a masterpiece of historicalphilosophising as did Chia I on that same struggle.But for Ssu-MA Ch'ien's embodiment of both theseworks they would have been lost.The work is divided into five main divisions,subdivided into 130 chapters thus :Principal Annals12 chapters.Chronological Tables ... 10 „Treatises 8 „Feudal State Annals ... 30 „Biographies 70 „One sad event in Ssu-ma Ch'ien's personalhistory must be related. In b.c. 99, a friend of thehistorian's, Li Ling, obtained the command of 5,000troops with which to make a subordinate attack onthe Hsiung-nu Tartars. The emperor had misgivingsat the semi-indlependent command whichwas thus entrusted to Li. Li's superior in commandprobably had more than misgivings. At any rate,when Li with his 5,000 was opposed by 80,000, thegeneral sent him no help. Few more heroic retreatsin history have been recorded than that in whichfour hundred out of the five thousand won their wayback to the shelter of the Great Wall ; amongst them,however, was not their captain. The emperor wasfurious, and his time-serving courtiers heaped contumelyon the vanquished hero, who had beencaptured, but was still aJive. Ssu-ma Ch'ienbraved both emperor and courtiers and made aspirited defence of his friend. For this he washanded over to the Board of Punishment for suitablesentence. Unable to find either a powerfulprotector or even money enough for the customary"fine"—or bribe, whichever it may have been,—^hewas condemned to the most humiliating of mutilations.In later days, in a very pathetic letter to afriend who was condemned to the same punishment,he explains why it was that he chose the humiliationrather than suicide : filial piety compelled him toprolong his life in order to complete the greathistory for which the father had made such preparation.One advantage that Ssu-ma Ch'ien possessedover almost all of his fellow-countrymen who havewritten history was that of an adventurous nature,which delighted in travel wherever travel could addto the lore he collected. Although he made no suchuso. of the geography as does a modern hisitorian, hedid use the legends and local stories he was thus ableto collect.He was born about b.c. 145 and died between86 and 74.Chavannes : Memoires Historiques de Se-maTsien; Wylie : Notes on Chinese Literature;Giles : Biog. Dictionary; Warren : Chavannes'Edition, etc., N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii ; $ |E, c 130.[G.G.W.]525

SSU-MA KUANGENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASSU-MA KUANG, 11 .^^, a celebratedwriter, born a.d, 1019 in Honan. He was Ministerof State for some years, but retired into privatelife at Lo-yang to do the great work of his life,the History of China from the 5th century B.C. tothe 10th century A.D. It was finished in 1084 andentitled ^fh^M. Tzu Chih T'ung Chien. Heproduced other historical works and a dictionary,and died in 1086.SSU-MA T'AN, m^n.was the father ofSsu-MA Ch'ien and sharer with his' son in the greathistorical work noticed under the latter name.He collected much of the material, but it isimpossible to say whether he did any of the actualwriting. Both father and son held the office calledjlC & ^ T'ai -S7tt7i Kung, translated Grand Astroloe-ueby Chavannes. (Legge's terai is Grand Recorder;Biot's, Grand Annalist). While the sonwas a very ardent Confucianist, the father was anequally strongly convinced Taoist (in days whenTaoism was of a pure type scarcely known to-day).He held a high opinion of his office,—higher, itwould seem, than most of his contemporaries.After a large number of victories which resultedin great additions to the empire, the emperorWxj Ti, wished to offer up a special thanksgiving.To that end, an ancient form of service on T'ai shanwas revived. The Grand Astrologer had no smallshare in the preliminary arrangements and woulddoubtless have taken a considerable part in theservice itself. He was journeying in the emperor'ssuite to the sacrifice when he was seized with anillness that soon terminated fatally, (b.c. 110).Chavannes : Memoires historiques de Se-matsien, vol. i, c. 1 (i) ; Giles : Biog. Diet.; Mayers :Chinese Bender's Manual; Wylie : Not>es on ChineseLiterature; ^ gC, c. 130.SSU PU HSIANG, ^'^^ Chinese nameB^^yfor the Elaphure, {q.v.).SSU SHU, 29 §. See Classics.STANDING COUNCIL, THE; the supercargoessent out annually to Canton by the EastIndia Company prior to 1770 constituted a Councilwith this name. See Siipercargoes.STAR-ANISE OIL, (see Aniseed). The treeflourishes best in a moist climate, and especially onhillsides with a red clay-schist soil. The plantsshould at first be well sheltered from the sun, andthen require a great deal of attention until the8th or 10th year. The fruit appears between the10th and 15th years, and during a period of 20 to25 years the trees are in their prime, and) shouldproduce two crops a year. Five tons of green fruitsper hectare (2.47 acres) is a good yield for a matureplantation. The farmers are now beginning to distilthe leaves if the crop is bad ; these yield a tenth •as the fruits.as much oilThe export in 1916 was pels. 10,473, valueTls. 232,864. The import amounted to Tls. 243,763.Journal d' Agriculture tropicale, 1914, pp. 14, 40.STAR BEACH, the foreign name for Hoshigaura,the finest watering-place in Manchuria, sixmUes west of Dalny (Dairen) and connected with itby an electric tramway.STARLINGS. See Stumidae.STAUNTON, GEORGE THOMAS, Sir, son ofSir G. Leonard Staunton, was born near Salisbury,May 26, 1781, In 1792, he accompanied his fatherto China as page to Earl Macartney. Before embarking,and on the voyage, he learned Chinesefrom the two interpreters, who were Chinesestudents from Ripa's Chinese College at Naples.He was the only foreigner in the embassy whocould speak to the Emperor direct. In. April, 1798,he became a writer in the East India Company's626factory at Canton. In January, 1801, he succeededto the baronetcy, and in 1804 was promoted to besupercargo. The next year he translated intoChinese a treatise on vaccination, thus introducingthe subject to China. It is also said to have beenintroduced by the Spanish in 1803. In 1808, hebecame Interpreter and in 1816, Chief of the factory.In that year, he was appointed a 'King's Commissionerof embassy' to proceed with Earl Amherstand Sir H. Ellis- to Peking. (See Amherst Mission).He returned to England that year, and later wasa member of the East India Committee. In 1823,ho and H. T. Colebrooke founded the Royal AsiaticSociety, to which he presented 3,000 Chinesevolumes. He died in London, August 10, 1859.His works referring to China are 1. MiscellaneousNotices relating to China and our CommercialIntercourse with that Country, (1822).2. Notes of Proceedings and Occurrences during theBiitish Embassy to Pekin, (1824). 3. The Lamentationof Sir G. Stan-Ching-quot, Mandarin of theCelestial Empire, (in verse), 1834. 4. Remarks onthe British BelaiiDns with China and the proposedplan for improving them, (1836). 5. An Inquiryinto the proper Mode of rendering the word Godin translating the Sacred Scriptures into the ChineseLanguage, (1849). 6. Observations on our ChineseCommerce, (1850). He edited Mendoza's Historyfor the Hakluyt Society he translated from Chinese;Ta Tsing Leu Lee under the title The Penal Codeof China, and the Narrative of the Chinese Embassyto the Khan of the Tourgouth Tartars. He alsorevised Gutzlaff's Life of Taou Kwang.[Boase] in Dictionary of National Biography.STAVELEY, CHARLES WILLIAM DUNBAR,was bom in England on December 18, 1817.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAST. JOHN'S UNIVERSITYHe entered the army, and for three years from 1848he was Assistant Military Secretary at Hongkong,where his father was in command. He was in theCrimean War, and in 1860 commanded a brigadein Michel's Division and was present at thetaking of Taku. In 1862, he was left in commandof those British forces which remained in China,and he kept the district round Shanghai clear ofrebels within the stipulated 30-mile radius. It washe who nominated Gokdon,—with whom he wasrelated by marriage,—to the command of theEver-Victorious Army. He retired through illness,but afterwards served in the Abyssinian Expedition.He was made K.C.B. in 1865, G.C.B. in 1884, and.died in England on November 23, 1896.STEAD, CAPTAIN, master of a British transport,the Pestonjee, sent in 1841 direct fromEngland to Chusan. When he arrived the Britishhad already evacuated the islands, but he did notknow it and landed on the mainland, where he wastaken captive. The Commissioner Yu Kien hadhim tied to a post, flayed alive and cut to pieces.This was represented to Peking as a brilliantexploit, and Yu Kien was rewarded for it with atwo-eye

ST. JOSEPH'SENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAiv. School of Medicine, five years' courseleading to the M.D. degree.V. School of Chinese Literature pnd History,four years' course. (Diploma).vi. Graduate School, minimum course, twoyeaxs,' leading to a Master's degree.There is also a Middle School with a four years'course.The University has its own Athletic Association,and Fife and Drum Corps. Military Drillis compulsory, and the 3rd and 5th Troops ofShanghai Boy-Scouts belong to it.The St. John's Echo is a monthly periodical inEnglish and Chinese, managed entirely by thestudents. The University Christian Associationmaintains an elementary school for boys in theneighbourhood with one hundred and sixty-fivepupils, and does other social and religious work.In November 1917, the University reports :Foreign Professors 15; Foreign Instructoi*s 10;Chinese Professors 11 ; Chinese Instructors 16.Nrunber of Students :Theology 4Medicine 29Arts 150Science 92Middle School 222ST. JOSEPH'S INSTITUTION, an Institutionin the French Concession in Shanghai managed bythe Societe des Auxiliatrices or Auxiliary Nuns.It was founded in 1871, and includes a Europeanschool with 337 scholars, an orphanage (Orphanageof Providence) with 120 Eurasian orphans, and aparish school. The number of nuns engaged isthirty-nine. The Institution is assisted by boththe French and the International MunicipalCouncils.ST. PETERSBURG, TREATY OF.Treaties.SeeSTONECUTTERS' ISLAND, an island in theHongkong waters between Victoria and the mainland.It is a mile long and a quarter of a mile wide.There are three batteries on it for the defence ofthe harbour on the west. It was rented to theBritish together with Kowloon [q.v.).STONE CHIME, THE, i^ ^E. See MusicalInstruments.STONE DRUMS.^&e Drums.STORKS. See Herodiones.STRANGE STORIES FROM A CHINESEStudio, the title under which Giles has translatedLiao chai chih i, (q.v.).STRAW BRAID, ^ ff Jgts'ao mao pien, isproduced mainly in the region adjacent to the lowercourse of the Yellow River, although the industryextends as far south as Kiaochow. It is mostly avillage industry, the braid being plaited by womenat their doors. There are several kinds of braidon the market, viz. : white, mottled, yellow, orimitation Tuscan. Mottled is produced by the useof the whole length of the top joint of the straw,instead of breaking off at the junction of the bladewith tlie sheath, as is done when a white plait isrequired, the pai't of the stalk beneath the sheathbeing naturally bleached by being hidden from lightaad aij. Yellow is made by working from the topend of the straw and discarding the white end.White cOmes chiefly from Laichow, Wuting,and Tai-an, in Shantung, and from Lu-an, inShansi, and' some from Chihli. Mottled is fromTaming and Ichow, (Chilili) and Nan-lo, etc.,(Honan) ;yellow from Yutien (Chihli). Some goodbraid is produced at Huayang near Chengtu inSsuch'uan,The export trade began with small shipmentsto England in the late sixties. By 1872, 13,000piculs had been attained to ; in 1880, 49,000 piculswere exported, and the trade reached its zenith in1887, when 151,000 piculs went to Europe andAmerica. This prosperity reacted injuriously onthe dealers and the peasants, who began malpractices,such as winding coarse plait on the centre,with fine ooitside, dampening bales to increase theirweight, etc. The result was that foreign buyersdeclined to do business. In 1890 the export hadshrunk to 80,000 piculs, and dealers began to realizethat they must alter their policy, especially as theJapanese were making superior braid. Accordinglymore care was taken with the plaiting and, althoughthe export was still only 80,000 piculs in 1900, thevalue had doubled (Hk.Tls. 4,370,000). In 1910,135,000 piculs, worth Hk.Tls. 7,700,000 were exported,but since then there has been a decline,due to a change in the prevailing hat fashions.Straw braid is mostly made into straw hats(especially at Luton, England), but also into workbaskeits,picture frames, fancy mats, etc. It hassupplanted the European braid, by lesser cost ofproduction. An improvement in the trade wouldbe the increase of "splits."The export in 1916 was pels. 57,080, valueTls. 3,143,275. [N.S.]Customs Reports.STRIGES, the Order consisting of the Owls.The chief species found in China with their distributionare as follows :Strix Candida, the Grass-Owl, has been foundin Formosa. It also occurs in Fukien. Ninozjaponica travels through China. Athene bactriana,Hctton's Owlet, {Athene plumipes Swinhoe), iscommon from S. Shensi to Peking. Further southit is replaced by Glaucidium whitelyi, the Large528

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASUGARBarred Owlet, which is wide-spread in the southernhalf of China. G. brodiei, the Collared Pigmy-Owlet, is resident in the wooded mountains ofS. China; it has been taken at Mu-p'in, in SouthAnhui, and in Fukien. G. 'pardalota is found inFormosa. G. passerinum orientalis, Tacz, is foundin Chihli. Bubo ignavus, the Great Horned Owlor Eagle Owl, is common throughout China andMongolia. B. coromandus, the Dusky HornedOwl, has been taken on the Lower Yangtze.Ketupa fiavifes, is met with near Hongkong,and on Lower Yangtze. Asio otus, the LongearedOwl, is found throughout China; it iscommon in N. China. A. accipitrinus, the ShortearedOwl, passes through China on migration andwinters in South-East China. Scops stictonotus,the Chinese Little Scops Owl, migrant throughChina. S. glabripes, the Bare-footed ScopsOwl, is found in the southern half of China,especially in the east. S. umbratilis is met within Hainan. S. semitorquesy the Plume-footedScops Owl, has been found in Mu-p'in. Syrniumnivicola, the Himalayan Wood Owl, is very rarein China because of the lack of woods. S. davidihas been taken at Mu-p'in but is rare. S. indraneeoccurs in S. China from Fukien to the LowerYangtze. Scops latouchii has been described fromthe interior of Fukien. Ptynx fuscescens is foundin Manchuria and N. China.David et Oustalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine.STRONACH, JOHN, a missionary of theLondon Missionary Society, born in Edinburgh in1810. He reached Singapore in March, 1838. In1844 he removed to Amoy, and from 1847 to 1850worked in Shanghai as one of the delegates on theDelegates' Version of the New Testament. He wasalso appointed to work on the Old Testament, butsoon withdrew from the committee and, withMedhurst and Milne, produced a separate versionin 1853. He then returned to Amoy, and workedthere till his retirement in 1876. He died in 1888in Philadelphia. See Delegates' Version.(Wylie) : Memorials of Protestant Missionaries.STUPA, a Sanscrit word used for ancientBuddhist monuments in the form of solid domes.The term tope is derived from it and has a similarmeaning.STURNIDAE, a Family which includes theStarlings and Mynas. Nineteen species of theseare known in China. Spodiopsar cineraceus is thestarling most commonly met with. In autumn andwinter it is seen in great numbers all over China ;inthe summer it retires to Mongolia. S. sericeusinhabits the southern provinces all the year roundbut is not very abundant. It is found from Chekiangto Ssuch'uan and as far north as S. Shensi.S. malabaricus occurs in Yunnan. Sturnia dauricais seen on the Lower Yangtze, in W. China andChihli and in W. Mongolia at migration time. S.sinensis, the Chinese Myna, comes in large flocks Insummer from Indo-China to South China. S.violacea, the Red-cheeked starlet, has been taken atShaweishan on passage. Graculipica nigricollis, theBlack-necked Myna, is found in the south of China,including Fukien, and is resident there. /Ethiopsarcristatellus, the Chinese Crested Myna ; calledby the Chinese pa ko A $• It is easily taught totalk and is a favourite cage bird. It is found inall parts of the south except in the hills, andextends northwards as far as Shensi. ^. albocinctusand Acridotheres tristis are both found in Yiinnan.(EULABETIDAE). Eulabes intermedia occurs inChina and Hainan.David et Oustalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine,Sturnides.SU CH'IN, ^^, a native of Lo-yang, theimperial capital, in the fourth century B.C. He wasthe typical Chinese diplomat. He and Chang Iwere servants in a school, where they managedtj pick up some education. They then studiedtogether under Kuei-ku Tzu, the Philosopher ofthe Devil Valley. Su first offered his services tothe Ch'in state but was rejected:. After furtherstudy he went to Yen and persuaded the ruler toattempt an alliance among the various States formutual piroteation against the great Ch'in power.He was sent as ambassador to five other Courts, andsucceeded in forming the league known as theSix Kingdoms (q.v.). He then made Chao hishead-quarters, and held Ch'in in check for fifteenyears. He made an enemy of Chang I, probablythrough jealousy, and this enemy succeeded laterin undoing Su's work.SUGAR. Tang (i^): Saccharuvi ofjicinarum,divided into red-cane var. rubricaule, used forchewing, and var. sinense, which is much morewidely cultivated for crushing. The former growsto a height of eight feet ; the latter to ten or asmuch as fifteen feet. The principal sugar growingdistricts are Kuangtung, Fukien, and Ssuch'uan,also Kiangsi, Hunan and Chekiang.Besides its ordinary uses, sugar is clarified andcrystallised as H ^, etc. ; made into figures forfeasts; prepared with milk as |L ^; and barleysugar is made, ^ ^ .Sugar cane is a very populararticle of diet, and is esteemed for its tnissic andstomachic properties.Culti cation.—The land is planted once a year,during the first, second or third months, the canematuring in about ten months. Each mow of land(l/6th acre) is planted with 1,100 or 1,200 bunchesof cane in rows about one foot apart, each bunchconsisting of five to nine stalks of cane.If planted67529

SUGARENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAtoo closely together the sun does not penetratesufficiently and the cane suffers. In the first yearthe crop is raised from cuttings which are steepeidin water for three days and then covered over withsand or straw and watered once a day. In thesecond and third years the crop is grown from theold roots, which are allowed to remain, banked upwith mud, afteo- the cane is cut. In the fourth yearthe roots are stubbed up and the land is plantedwith some other crop. The fertiliser almost exclusivelyused is bean cake (from Manchuria), the costof which is about Tls. 7 per mow for good levelground, but Tls. 9 for poor and hilly land. Eachmow will produce about 700 catties of sugar, about55 bunches of stalks being required to produce100 catties (one picul) of juice.Sugar "candy" is obtained from white sugarby purifying under a boiling heat with water, alittle lime, and white of egg. It is then pouredinto round wide open-mouthed jars with slips ofbamboo bent about inside, and allowed to cool. Incooling the sugar crystallizes in large lumps ofcandy over the slips and the jars are then overturnrsd'to drain off the water. The lumps arechipped with a knife into flat pieces and bleachedin the sun. on bamboo trays, for two or three days.It is then colourless and like rock crystal. Thiscandy was at one time exported to Bombay. Itschief centre of manufacture is Changchow, nearAmoy, where the water is said to possess somechemical qualiity which favoiu-s its manufacture^.The juice is expressed from the cane between twogranite or hardwood rollers placed vertically,through which the cane is drawn by cogwheelsturned by bullocks. A stone basin beneath receivesthe juice which, without any attempt at clarification,is afterwards boiled in open iron pans ; the firesare fed with cane refuse.While boiling the juiceis constantly stirred and all dirt removed as itcomes to the surface. The boiled juice is tihenpoured into earthenware jars with a small pluggedhole in the bottom of each, and when ilie jars areabout 8/lOths full, the top is carefully closedover with earth andi the plug from the bottom isremoved. The jars are then placed in the openair, where they remain for from 30 to 40 daysaccording to the weather, until the con|tents arequite dry. The sugar so obtained is sorted intothree grades : the first, or uppermost in the jarbeing white, the middle green, and the lowermostbrown sugar. The drippings which are merely leftin the sun to dry gite the black sugar.In 1867 only about 90,000 piculs of all sorts(white, brown, and candy), were exported fromChina, the value being under half a million taels.The imports were just double this figure, and, inshort, the trade was almost too small for noticeChina supplied herself almost entirely.It was shortly after this that development began,and in the years 1871-1875 the annual average exportationwas half-a-million piculs. South Formosabeing the chief contributor. In 1876, 1^-millionpiculs were exported, but Chinese sugar had tocompete against sugars produced in the Philippinesand Java, and also those refined in Hongkong ; andthe trade, which reached its high-water mark in1884 (over li-million piculs) soon began to decline.There was no process of selection of cane; theplantations were in small lots, the methods ofextraction were so poor as to waste 40% of thematerial (Amoy Customs Trade Report, 1877), andthere was no co-ordination among planters nor anyGovernment assistance. Even the small island ofBarbadoes exported 60% more sugar than the extensivefields of Formosa, where good machinery androads were unknown.The large exports of 1883-84 were due to thefailure of the beet crops in Europe, and after theirrecovery Chinese sugar declined rapidly, especiallythat produced on the mainland (as opposed toFormosa), as shown by the following figures :1887 1897 1907Piculs 766,000 620,000 111,000At the same time sugar imports increased at anextraordinary rate :1887—Piculs 271,000—Hk. Tls. 1,200,0001897—Piculs 2,297,000—Hk. Tls. 10,223,0001907—Piculs 5,723,000—Hk. Tls. 26,201,0001913—Piculs 7,111,000—Hk. Tls. 36,304,000The sugar imported into China comes fromHongkong, where there are two large refineries,from the Dutch Indies, and from Formosa, where,since the Japanese obtained possession of the island,the industry has received great encouragement fromthe Government, forming an object lesson to theChinese as to what might be done with their ownindustry. In Fukien several modern mills havebeen erected in the last few years, but foreign competitionis very difficult to meet, though the Chineseclaim that native sugar is intrinsically sweeter.Sugar produced from beet is being experimentedwith in Manchuria, where both the Russians andJapanese have started th£ industry, the soil beingvery suitable for beet growing.[N.S.]SUICIDE is extremely common in China ascompared with western lands. Of course there areno statistics of the subject for the whole country.Five missionaries in five cities of four differentprovinces once reported the number of attemptedsuicides where their help had been called in torescue the persons. The number in one year was1,200 in a city population estimated at 580,000.This gives one attempt at self-murder in every 480people each year, and if extended to the wholecountry would give a total of over 800,000 casesper annum.530

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASUMERIANSuch figures are not of further value than toprove that the evil is very great. It must be bornein mind that these were attempts only, not completedsuicides; on the other hand, they are only thosecases where the missionaries' help was sought, andcannot be the full tale.As to the causes of suicide, they differ muchfrom those acting in the West, Weariness ofexistence, fear of suffering as in incurable disease,or of dishonour as in bankruptcy, or misery andstarvation as in times of famine, do not prompt theChinese to seek death. The causes are more oftenanger and revenge ; and the low value placed on alllife (as seen in wholesale executions, etc.), must alsobe considered.Women are the more common self-murderers,v/hich is largely due to the marriage system, combined,of course* with the narrow outlook on life,due to lack of education. A wife slighted onaccount of a concubine, a concubine oppressed by awife, a daughter-in-law ill-treated by her motherin-law,lightly destroy themselves, whether in a fitof anger or for the sake of revenge.Men are less prone to such merely angrymotives, but often commit suicide deliberately tobring an enemy or oppressor into trouble with thelaw.One class of suicides, more excusable from theforeign point of view, is that of beaten generals.A defeated general can hardly do anything elsethan commit suicide^ for otherwise he may be almostsure of being degraded and condemned to death,while his whole family may suffer with him ; bykilling himself he may be praised as a faithfulservant. There are innumerable instances of suicidesof this kind, one late and well-known examplebeing that of Admiral Ting, after he had surrenderedWeihai wei to the Japanese in 1895.Women who destroy themselves rather than losetheir chastity, or widows who kill themselves toescape a re-marriage forced on them, are held inmuch honour.Officials condemned to death were often allowed,as an act of imperial clemency, to commit suicideinstead of dying under ihe hands of the executioner.Formerly opium was the usual means of selfdestruction,or women would throw themselves intoa well ; now, amongst the poorer classes, the easilyprocuredlucifer-matches or kerosene oil are oftenused to end life.SUID/E. The probable number of species of thepig Family in China is five; with their distributionthey are as follows :Sus paludosus, the Yangtze Valley; S. gigas,Manchuria; S. coreanus, South Corea; S. melts,Kuangsi, S. China; S. moupinensis , N.W. Ssiich'uan,Kansu, Tibet, S. Shensi.SwiNHOE names S. leucomyHax (Shanghai) and6^. taivanxis (Formosa).SwiNHOE : Cat. of Chinese, Mammals, P.Z.S.,1870: SowERBY : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii.SUI DYNASTY, THE, lt||E, was founded byYang Chien who ruled the reunited empire, withhis capital at Ch'ang-an. His fame was such thathe received a Turkoman embassy. During a severefamine he made a pilgrimage to T'ai Shan to prayto Heaven for his people. Yang Ti removed thecapital to Lo-yang ; he made a successful expeditionagainst Korea, and he instituted the literary degreeof Doctor {Chin-shih fgi)- His general Li YiiANrebelled with the aid of K'itan Tunguses, and afterdeposing the Emperor and murdering the son whosucceeded, he founded the T'ang dynasty inA.D. 618.Dyn. Title Accession Reign Title Adopted% ^ Wen Ti 589 gg ^ K'ai Huang £81-tg Jen Shou 601m ^ Yang Ti 605 ;^^ Ta Yeh 605^^^'Kung Ti Yu 617 ^^ I Ning 617SS^MKung Ti T'ung 618 ^M Huang T'ai 618SUIFENHO, I^^M. in ^irin province, isa station on the frontier of the Russian maritimeprovince, 144 miles east of Harbin ; lat. N. 44"? 30'long. E. 131°,. 0'. It is the Russian Pogranitchnaya. It is of no importance commercially. Thepopulation is 1,290. 1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 5,714,949 15,845,098Net Chinese „ 2,057 nilExports 16,234,007 14,578,811Total Hk.Tls. ... 21,951,013 30,423,909SUI FU, ^ M )j^ -^^'w chou fu, an importantdistributing mart on the southern border of Ssuch'uanat the point of junction of the Min river andthe Chin sha river or River of Golden Sand.SULPHUR,^ee Minerals.SUMERIAN, the primitive script of Babylonia,from which in course of time were developed allthe varieties of Cuneiform. It was originallypictorial, but had already taken on conventionalforms in the time of Uie earliest extant specimensof the language, that is, between 3000 and 4000 B.C.Some scholars have found so much similarity betweenSumerian and Chinese writing that they have conjecturedthe two races to be kindred tribes whoonce lived together in the highlands of Central Asia.The latest exponent of this theory is Dr. Ball,lecturer in Assyriology at Oxford, who has publishedan essay towai'ds a comparative lexicon of the twolanguages. In spite of unmistakable similaritiesthe verdict of sinologues at present is 'not proven.'Ball : The New Accadian, (Proc. Soc. Bibl.Archaeology), 1889-90; and Sumerian and Chinese,1913.531

SUM ERUENCYCLOPAEDIA SINtCASUM ERU. The central mountain of the universe,round which all heavenly bodies revolve.See K^un lun.SUMMER PALACE. There are two spotsnear Peking to which foreigners give this name,Yiian ming yiian and Wan shou shan.The Yiian ming yiian HJ 55 @, literally 'round,bright garden,' is an enclosure some four and ahalf miles in circuit, lying about seven miles northwestof Peking. Early in the eighteenth centuryYrNG Cheng built his palace and laid out thegrounds,—twenty years' labour. His successorCh'ien Lung put up buildings* and made gardensin the style of the Trianon at Versaillesi TheJesuit missionaries Benoit and Attiret have leftan account of their labours on these halls andgardens; it will be found in Lettres Edifiantes.It covered an area of twelve square miles.To the outside world the palace is only knownby its destruction in 1860. When the Allies hadforced Peking to open its gates and had receivedthe foreign prisoners dead or alive whom the Chinesehad so barbarously treated, Lord Elgin decided toburn down the Summer Palace. This waisi less anact of vengeance than just punishment, falling onthe Emperor himself and entailing no loss on thecommon people. It was said to have been mosteffective.Wan shou shan j^ ^ ill , 'hill of a thousandlongevities,' is another park lying less than a mileto the south-east of the Yiian ming yiian. Thebuildings here also suffered in 1860, but theEmpress dowager spent enormous sums in repairingit and it is now one of the great 'shows' for touristswho visit Peking.SUMMERS, JAMES, was born about 1830;on June 7, 1849, when a teacher in Hongkong, hevisited Macao, and was arrested for not uncoveringwhen the procession of Corpus Christi was passing,and he was kept imprisoned in the Senate House.The Governor Amaeal refused to release him atCaptain KEpraL's demand, whereupon Keppel landedsome marines and, with Captain Staveley, releasedSummers by force, one Portuguese being killed andthree wounded.In .January, 1853, he was appointed Professorof Chinese in King's College, London. Summersbeing only 24 years old, Hongkong did not regardthe appointment with satisfaction ; being interestedbecause of the need for student-interpreters.Chinese Eepository : vol. xviii, p. 669Norton-Kyshe : History of the Laws . . . ofHongkong.SUN-BIRDS. See Nectnriniinae.SUN BRIDGE. See T'ai-yang ch'iao.SUNFLOWER, Helianthus annuus, L., is grownin many provinces of N. China, but only on a smallscale and in a desultory way. The seeds yield dryingoils, which can be converted into solid fats byhydrogenation, and the field of usefulness of thisoil islikely to extend in the future, so that the sunflowermight be worth attention for the Chinesefarmer, as it will grow on any vind of soil. The seedsare eaten, raw or roasted, as a delicacy in greatquantities all over China. Those striped blackand white seem to be the favourite kind.SUNGARIA, the north-eastern part of Sinkiang,lying north of the Eastern T'ienshan; alsoknown as T'ien shan pei lu '^ ^:^^ or Northroad. It is a plateau dotted with lakes, andgenerally barren; from 1,500 to 6,000 feet in altitude.Its southern part, on the northern slopes of theT'ienshan, has good pasture land. The most importanttown is Urumtsi (Ti-hua fu), its ancientcapital. It was conquered by China in 1757 andhas been held ever since.SUNG DYNAStY, THE, 5fe|E,an importantdynasty which was founded by Chao K'uang-yin^ ^ JIL 3'"d had its capital at K'ai-feng fu. Ithad continual strife with the K'itans, and the thirdEmperor had to pay tribute to the Hsia kingdomof the North-west. Ssii-MA Kuang and WangAn-shih made the earlier part of the Sung periodillustrious. The first ruler established the Boardof Punishments in the capital, thus lessening thepowers of provincial officers.In 1125 the Chin ^ Tartars, having overcomethe K'itans, took all North China, made theircapital at Peking, attacked K'ai-feng and carriedthe Sung Emperor away captive. From 1127 thedynasty is called Southern Sung j^ ^, since itpossessed only the provinces south of the Yangtze.The capital was first at Nanking, later at Hangchow.The Mongols were called on for help, andthey ultimately destroyed the K'itan power. Theythen proceeded to conquer the Southern Sungdynasty, and in 1280 established the Yiian orMongol dynasty in its place.The Sung period was great in literatm-e, philosophyand art. Chu Hsi and many such famousnames belong to it. It lasted 320 years, under20 rulers.Dyn. Title Accession Reign Title AdoptedA.D..A.D.± ii T'ai Tsu 960 31 ^ Chien Lung 960It t*i;- ^ T'al Tsung 976 M UCh'ien Te 963K ^ K'ai Pao 968;*: 2p T'ai P'ing 976Hsing Kuo 976mWt Yung Hsi 984#^ t^ Tuan Kung 988^ il Shun Hua 990^ ^ Chih Tao 995532

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASUNG YUNmSOUTHERNDyn. TitleIK.^Chen TsungiZ ^ Jen TsungYin TsungShen Tsung^ ^ Che Tsungm m Hui TsungAccession Reign TitkA.D.1022 ^ mmmmm ^mm.m^E1063 ^ 2p1067 gE ^1085 7C IS1100 Mf\*mmmm mmiX: ^ Ch'in Tsung 1126 Jf ^Hsien P'ingChing TeTa ChungHsiang FuT'ien HsiCh'ien HsingT'ien ShengMing TaoChing YuPao YiianK'ang TingCh'ing LiHuang YuChih HoChia YuChih P'ingHsi NingYiian FengYiian YuShao ShengYiian FuChien ChungChing KuoCh'ung NingTa KuanCheng HoCh'ung HoHsiian HoChing K'angSUNG DYNASTY.Dyn. Title Accession Reign TitleA.D.^ ^ Kao Tsung 1127 Jt'^ Chien Yen$3 H Shao Hsing^ gf Hsiao Tsung 1162 ^ ^ Lung Hsing$2 IM. Ch'ien Taonm Shun HsiShao HsiAdoptedKuang Tsung 1189 B gfi^ ^ Ning Tsung 1194 g yt Ch'ing YuanM ^ Chia T'aim K'ai Hsim % Chia TingS ^ Li Tsung 1224 % ^ Pao Ch'ing$3 % Shao TingS^ ¥ Tuan P'ingM E Chia Hsi•St t^ Shun YuTiWi PaoYuKM K'ai Ch'ing^ ^ Tu Tsung^ ^ Kung Ti^ ^ Tuan Tsung^ ^ Ti Pingj^ a Ching Ting1264 .^ ^ Hsien Shun1274 M W. Te Yu1276 j^ i^ Ching YenA.D.10041008100810171022102310321034103810401041104910541056106410681078108610941098]1011101110211071111111811191126AdoptedA.D.1127113111631165117111901195120112051208]22512281234123712411253125912601265127512761278 M % Hsiang Hsing 1278SUNG (LIU SUNG) DYNASTY, gij 5^ |E-A short dynasty founded by Liu Yii, a general ofthe Eastern Chin. It belongs to the Epoch ofDivision between North and South. The North wasruled by several Tartar tribes,—Wei by T'obaTartars, Hsia by Hsiungnu, Northern Yen byEastern Tartars, Western Liang and Chin ^ byTangut Tartars. The Sung nilers held the South,with the capital at Nanking, for 59 years. Duringthis period eight rulers held sway, several of whomv.ere murdered.Dyn. Title Accession Reign Title AdoptedA.D.A.D.^ !^ Wu Ti 420 7%. ^ Yung Ch'u 420^}}538^)ShaoTior Ying-'gl^i) yang Wang 423 Jl: 2p Ching P'ing 423424 7C M Yiian Chia 424% % Wen Ti#^^ Hsiao WuTim. ^ Fei Tim ^ Ming Ti454 # m Hsiao Chien 454;^ @a Ta Ming 4577ic % Yung Kuang 465465 %. m Ching Ho 465465 ^ j|§ T'ai Shih 465T'ai Yii 472tf^i Ts'ang WuWang 473 yd ^ Yiian Hud 473* Chu Yii 477477m. ^ ^ gg Sheng MingShun Ti 477SUNG P'AN, )|S^, a semi-independent subprefecturein Ssuch'uan, lat. 32°' 38' N. and long.103°' 36' E.SUNG SHIH, an appellation of Fa Hsien, g-.v.SUNG, STATE OF,?^, one of the smallerfeudal States of the Chou Empire, but one of themost orthodox and 'high-caste.' The iief was givenby the Chou conqueror to the Viscount of Wei ofthe conquered dynasty, that the Shang sacrificesmight be continued;. It was the only Dukedomthat was granted by immediate enfeoffment.Confucius was by descent of Sung origin.The state lay south of Lu and east of Cheng,at the northernmost headwaters of the Huai Riversystem, its capital being the present Kuei-te fu.It became the Protector State (the third) in B.C. 6,but was much thwarted by its rival Ch'u. TheSung gave the much-admired example ofDuke ofchivalry in not allowing the enemy Ch'u troops tobe attacked while crossing a sti'eam.From B.C. 400 Sung was dependent on Ch'i andwas extinguished by that State in 285.Parker : Ancitnt China Simplified; Legge :Shu Ching, p. 376, note.SUNG YUN,5Kig, a Buddhist layman,sentto India in a.d. 518 by the Prince of Wei to studyBuddhism at its source. He was accompanied bya priest named Hui Sh^ng, and they brought back175 books. They went as far as Kandahar and

SUN WENENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAstayed two years in Udyana. The story of thejourney has been translated into English by Beal(Travels of Fah Hian and Sung Yun), into Frenchby Chavaknes [Voyages de Sung Yun dans l' Udyanaet Gandhara, B.E.F.E.O. July to September, 1903);and into German by Neumann [PilgerfahrtenBuddhistischer Priester von China nach Indien,Leipzig, 1833).Edkins : Chinese Buddhism.SUN WEN. See Sun Yat-sen.SUN YAT SEN ^, J^flU, Sun I-hsien, theformer being the Cantonese pronunciation and thename most known to foreigners. The second andthird characters are the hao or literary name, hisining or given name being Wen ^. He was bornNovember 12, 1866, in the Hsiang shan district atChoi Hang, a remote village in Kuangtung, about50 miles north of Macao. His father was aChristian and employed as a preacher by the LondonMissionary Society. He made two long visits tothe Hawaiian Islands. For a time he studiedmedicine under Dr. Kebr of Canton, but enteredthe College of Medicine at Hongkong in 1887, theyear it was established. He was the first graduateof that College, and he began to practise in Macao.Having joined the Young China party he got intotrouble with the government and narrowly escapedai-rest in Canton. He had to flee, and went firstto America, then to England. In London, onOctober 11, 1896, he was seized and held prisonerby the Chinese Legation. By the help of aEuropean servant he managed to let the BritishGovernment know of the illegal doings and was setat liberty. He then travelled far and wide, preachingrevolution and incurring perpetual risk to life andliberty : it is said that at one time the Manchugovernment was offering £100,000 for his capture.His work at last resulted in the Revolution of 1911and his own appointment as Provisional Presidentof the Republic of China.During the last five years he has had his sharein political life, and has once more been an exile,from the Second Revolution till the death ofYiiAN Shih-k'ai. His star seems to have waned.Cantlie and Jokes : Sun Yat-Sen and theAwakening of China; Stjn Yat-sen : Kidnapped inLondon.SUPERCARGOES used to travel backwardsand forwards on the East India Company's shipswhich were under their care. In 1770 the Companyordered that they should reside permanently inChina, yet they still retained the name. The chiefof them constituted the Select Committee of theEast India Company's Supercargoes, generally calledThe Select Committee ; the annually arriving supercargoeshad formerly constituted the StandingCouncil. They had charge of all the Company'sinterests in Canton and took care that privatetraders did not reside there.In 1767 the French had made a similar change,sending ten supercargoes to reside in Canton insteadof being sent out annually.Eames : The English in China.SUPERINTENDENT OF TRADE, THE,was first appointed in 1833, by The China TradeAct, 3 and 4 Will, iv, c. 93, s. 5. The Governmenthaving abolished the monopoly of the East IndiaCompany had to create some means of control overBritish subjects generally who afterwards mighttrade in China, to replace the juirisdiction which theCompany's supercargoes had had over those whoserved the Company or traded under the Company'slicense. The Act provided for Chief, Second andThird Superintendents to be appointedi; forbadthem to engage in any trade transactions, and empoweredthe Crown by an Order in Council to levydues on British ships entering any port, wherewithto pay the salaries of these officials.In 1833, the commission being dated December10, Lord Napier, W. H. C. Plowden andl J. F.Davis wei'e appointed as first, second and thirdSuperintendents of trade in China respectively. OnLord Napier's arrival Mr. Plowden was absentfrom China, and so Mr. Davis became second andSir George Best Robinson became third Superintendent.J. H. Astell was secretary to the Superintendtents,Dr. Morrison was Chinese Secretary,C'aptain Charles Elliot was Master Attendant, andT. R. Colledge was surgeon to the establishment.In February, 1835, the Commission was composedof the following: Sir G. B. Robinson,J. H. Astell and Captain C. Elliot as firsit, secondand third Superintendents; A. R. Johnston,secretary and treasurer; T. R. Morrison (Dr.Morrison's son) and C. GiItzlaff, Chinesesecretaries ; T. R. Colledge, surgeon ;etc.On February 27, 1842, Sir H. Pottingerremoved the whole establishment of the Superintendencyto Hongkong. After the Treaty of Nankingand the cession of Hongkong the office wascombined with that of Governor and Commanderin-Chiefof the island.On the appointment of a British minister toreside in Peking the office of Chief Superintendentof Trade was added to that of Envoy-extraordinaryand- Minister -plenipotentiary. It was held first by(Sir) Frederick Bruce, at Shanghai for a timeand then at Peking. Eames, writing as a lawyer,sitates that the office is still held by the BritithMinister to Peking, the section of the China TradeAct creating the office never having been repealed.As a matter of fact however Sir Harry Parkes wasthe last Minister to use the title ; it was dropped athis death in 1885.534

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASWATOWEames : The English in China; Morse : InternationalRelations of the Chinese Empire; ChineseRepository, passim; Lane-Poole : Life of SirHarry Parkes.SUPPLEMENTARY TREATIES.Kiahhta,1768, contained minute stipulations for arrest andextradition of criminals. The principal of extraterritorialitywas here accepted with Russia nearlyone hundred years before any other power.Hoomun chai, 1843, contained provision foralso "General Regulations under whichextradition,British trade is to be conducted at the five TreatyPorts of Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo andShanghai."Peking, 1869. A Supplementary Convention tothe Treaty of Commerce and Navigation of June26th, 1858, was signed on 23rd October, 1869. ThisConvention was not ratified.Peking, 1880. This Supplementary Treatydetailed the procedure to be observed betweenChinese subjects and citizens of the United States,granting permission to officials of the latter toattend trials and cross-examine witnesses.Tt eaties.See Hoomun chai Treaty; Kiakhta, Treaty of;Morse : Trade and Administration of theChinese Empire; Hertslet : China Treaties.SUPREME COURT AND CONSULARGazette, published weekly in Shanghai fromJanuary 5, 1867 to December 31, 1869, when it wasincorporated with the North China Herald, (q.v.).SUPREME COURT FOR CHINA, H.B.M.,was established in September, 1865, under an Orderin Council dated March 9 of that year. It waspartly made necessary by the T'ai P'ing rebellion,which had attracted large numbers of low adventurersto China, whose outrages and lawless actshad often gone unpunished. The extension of tradehad besides made intercourse between merchants,landowners and others much more complicated thanin earlier days.Shanghai is the headquarters of the Court, andthe judicial functions of the British Consul atShanghai were transferred to the Supreme Courtthe Consuls at other ports retain judicial authorityas Provincial Courts, but when cases of importancearise the Judge or Assistant Judge of the SupremeCourt goes to try them. Sir Edmdnd Hornby wasthe firstChief Justice.The jurisdiction of the court originally extendedto British subjects and property in China, Japanand Corea, but is now confined to China.There is also in Shanghai the Court of ForeignConsuls [q.v.) ; and America has its District Courtfor China.(See United States District Court).Except the British and American Consuls eachConsul tries the subjects or citizens of hisnationality and hears civil cases.SUSLIK or Ziesel, genus Citellus; see Rodents.SUTRA, IS ching, a part of the BuddhistCanon consisting of the works which give the actualutterances of S'akyamuni.SUTTEE. Self-immolation on behalf of thedead, especially practised by widows. The Chineseterm used is J^hsiin, the same as is used for thebui'ial of the living with the dead. The connectionthat when the latter practice was gradually discountenancedisits place was taken by sutitee. Ex-amples are given already in the Han records andthey become more and more common in later annals.The underlying idea is that the woman is the propertyof the man, and that it is her duty to followhim into the next world. The suicide is often donewith the greatest deliberateness and even, with muchostentation. Quite recent examples are given, as,for instance, in Doolittle's Social Life in China,c. iii, where the suicide has been a public spectacle.Any method of quitting life is used, death by firenot being common as it was in India, because thecremation of the dead has never been the universalpractice.Suttee has frequently been rewarded withimperial honours, generally in the shape of a p'ai-louwith the characters fflf fl\ chieh lieh, chastity-ardour,or JBi ^l chung lieh, fidelity-ardour.The custom was at its worst development inthe Yiian and Ming dynasties. In 1729 Shih Tstjng(Yung Cheng) tried to check suttee by an Edicti'l which he refused in future to honour the victims.See Sacrifices, Human.De Groot : The Religious System of China,vol.iv.SWALLOWS.SWANS.See Hirundinidae.See Anseres.SWASTI KA, the mystic diagram ifi , It is ofextreme antiquity, being foundi in the Ramayana,and its distribution is extremely wide over the oldworld and the new. In China it appears to be aBuddhist importation ; it is one of the 65 mysticsigns found in the foot-print of Buddha. It ispractically a charm, and is described as 'the accumulationof lucky signs possessing ten thousandefficacies.' It is used for, or called by the name of,^ ten thousand. Buddhists call it the seal ofBuddha's heart, ^ iC> Ep Fo hsin yin.Gaillard : Croix et Swastika en Chine, (Var.Sin.); China Review: vol. xxi, p. 124; NationalReview : July 17 and October 16, 1911.SWATOW, Jjljshan t'ou, was opened toforeign trade by the Treaty of Tientsin. It is atthe mouth of the river Han, near the frontier of530

SWEDISH MISSIONS ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAthe Kuangtung province, in lat. 23° 20' 43" N. andlong. 116

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICASYMBOLrSMfield was vacated, but in 1906, a station was peacefullybuilt in Ma-ch'eng city. In the meantimeIchang, Shasi -Jj) fjj, and Huang chou ^ jfH , hadall been occupied. At King-chou ^\ >H a TheologicalSeminary and Boys' Academy is maintainedin connection with the Swedish American MissionaryCovenant.Medical work is done at nearly all the stations.Missionaries in 1917 48SWEDISH MISSION IN CHINA. See ChinaInland Mission.SWEDISH MONGOL MISSION.Headquarters :—Stoclcholm.A small undenominational work carried on atHalong Osiso, Mongolia. The station was openedin 1899, and has three foreign workers in 1917.SWIFTS. See Macrochires.SWINHOE, ROBERT, was born atCalcuttaon September 1, 1836 and entered the British ConsularService in 1854. He retired in 1873 and diedin London on October 28, 1877.He was a keen student of Natural History andwas the first to give proper attention to the studyof Chinese Birds. For a list of his numerouswritings on this subject see Ornithology.SYCEE, m Ufisi ssit, fine silk. Chinese lumpsilver is so called because it may when heated bedrawn out into silk-like threads. See Shoe.SYLVIIDAE, a large Family of birds whichconsists of the various Warblers. The followingare found in China. Tribura taczanowskia, N.E.Chihli. T. luteiventris, not common; found inMu-p'in. T. russula, and T. melanorhyncha, bothin N.W. Fukien. Urosphena squamiceps, Swinhoe'sEeed-Warbler, Canton and Formosa and in Chihliby Dr. Weigold. Sylvia curruca; N.W. Chinaand Mongolia. S. aralensis; rare; in' theAla shan. Philacantha nisoria; very rare; atPeking. Horornis cantons; Formosa, Shaweishanand East Siberia. H. canturi'ens; southernprovinces and islands. H. sinensis; S.E. Chinato the Yangtze valley. H. pallidipes; S.E. China.H. brevipennis; at Mu-p'in and in central andeastern provinces. Herbivocula schwarzii; inpassage at Peking. Acrocephalus sorghophilusE. China coast. A. agricola; abundant; all overthe Great Plain. A. tangorum. A. orientalis;in eastern Siberia, Mongolia, the valley of theYellow River, and, in the summer, widely in Chinaproper. A. bistrigiceps ; in the summer, roundPeking. Dumeticola affinis; at Mu-p'in, in Kansuand in eastern Siberia. Locustella certhiola; Chinagenerally and' in Manchuria and Mongolia. L.ochotcnsis; L. styani; L. fasciolata; Amoy, Kiang-Bu; in summer in Manchuria. L. lanceolata; invarious parts from Canton to Peking. Arundinaza'edon; in eastern Siberia and in Chihli. A.68537davidianus; rare; at Mu-p'in. Cisticola cursitans;eastern provinces, from Hainan to Tientsin. C.volitans; in southern Formosa and S. China.Lusciniola sinensis; Hankow and Chinwangtao.Drymoepus extensicauda ; in S. China, Kiangsi andSsuch'uan. Suya striata; in Formosa, the LowerYangtze, Fukien, Ssuch'uan, and Shensi. S.superciliaris ; in S.W. Yunnan and Fukien.Rhopophilus pekinensis; in Chihli and in Shensi.Orthotomus longicauda, the Tailor-bird; in thesouthern provinces. Burnesia sonitans; common;in S. China, Hainan and Formosa. Eoreitesbrunneifrons ; at Mu-p'in at 12,000 feet altitude,H. major; fairly common; at Mu-p'in, at a greataltitude. H. robustipes and H. acanthizoidesconcolor; in Formosa. Herbivocula armandi; inthe mountains of N. China and Mongolia.Horaitesacanthizoides ; in W. Ssuch'uan, and N.W. Fukien.Phylloscopus sub-affinis; N.W. Fukien, Kueichou,Mu-p'in and W, Ssuch'uan. P. fuscatus; commonin passage all over China. P. xanthodryas ; atAmoy, and in Kansu. P. coronatus; common; allover China, P. occipitalis; S. China, P. trochiloides;Fukien, Kuangtung. P. tenellipes; centralChina, Kiangsi and Fukien. P. plumb eitarsus;very common in Kansu and in passage at Peking.P. borealis; common in passage in China properand Mongolia. Cryptolopha tephrocephala ; C.burkii; C. ricketti; C. sinensis; these are all foundin W, China, Mu-p'in, and N.W, Fukien, Abrornisfvlvifacies; common from W, Hupei to Mu-p'inand in Fukien; in Formosa. A. affinis; in Kansu.David et Oustalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine.SYMBOLISM. "One of the most distinctiveand striking features of Chinese Art is the symboliccharacter of its expression.From the earliest times the Chinese artist hasexerted his skill with the intention of producingnot merely objects pleasing to the eye, but at thesame time emblems conveying a definite meaning."This statement being indubitably correct, aserious study of Chinese Art pre-supposes a certainknowledge of symbolism, a subject, as yet, imperfectlytreated in any European tongue.The ancients, those virile artists of the Shangand Chou periods, with bronze and dried bones astheir medium of expression, depicted, in a symbolicmanner, the Forces of Nature. The symbolismemployed has been the study of Chinese liiteratithroughout the ages, and about a.d. 1107 a workcalled the Po Ku T'u fS "^ jg, the famous Classicon bronzes, was published, which contains besidesvoluminous illustrations, most valuable informationconcerning the symbolic meaning of various forms ofornament. The simplest, and the one most frequentlymet with not only in ancient but also in modern artis that commonly known as the "meanider" or keypattern.The Chinese call it the "cloud and thunder

SYMBOLISMENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICApattern."As the author of the Po Ku T'u pointsout, this design was evolved from archaic pictographsrepresenting clouds and thunder. Themeander in its primitive form, such as foundon bronzes attributed to the Shang period',consists of a non-continuous pattern formed byseparate pairs of a simple spiral figure. Latertho separate elements became joined togetherand elaborated, till in the course of time the"thunder" pattern was often represented by a mostintricate form of decoration. To an agricultluralpeople such as the Chinese this emblem possesseda significance of supreme importance. Rain wasessemtial to their very existence, and the symbolfor thunder typified the downpour that brought theheaven-sent gift of abundance.Knowing this, it is possible for us to appreciatethe eulogistic remarks made by Wang Fu, thecompiler of the Po Ku T"u, concerning a certainbronze cauldron of the Chou dynasty, which tothe uninitiated might appear commonplace and evenugly. He says; "The lozenge-shaped spaces areoccupied by the 'cloud and thunder' surrounding asmall nipple in the centre. For the nipple nourishesmankind, while clouds and thunder fertilize growingthings. The K'uei dragon, moreover, exerts arestraining influence against the sin of greed. Herewe have a single vessel, yet all the eternal principlesare there complete. How excellent was the philosophyof the ancients"!Besides the meander, characteristic forms createdduring this early period which have surviveduntil the present day are, the various dragons ; the"glutton" or T'ao T'ieh ogre manifested by afearsome head ; and the Pa Kua /V, §b°^ eighttrigrams, which latter group is constantly employedia.^ a decoration and perhaps surpasses in antiquityall other designs. Legend dates its origin about5,000 years ago, when it was revealed to themythical Fu Hsi f^^ by markings on the back ofa creature called the "dragon-horse." (See Pa Kua)."Examination proves that the range of decorativemotives employed by the ancient Chinese waslimited. I(t is difficult to find any ornamentedbronze of great antiquity that does not bear one ormore of the three commonest symbolic forms, themeander, the T'ao T'ieh or the primitive dragon.This repetition would be monotonous did they notrecur in endless variation and combination."The symbols met with in early Chinese Art areall of indigenous growth; not until the era of thegreat Han dynasty which reigned for about twocenturies before and two centuries after Christ dowe find direct evidence of Western influence. "InB.C. 126 the famous minister Chang Ch'ien returnedfrom his mission to the Indo-Scythians, and broughtback with him much alien knowledge collectedduring his travels. He had learnt something ofBuddhism and had come in touch with Grecian culture.He also carried back to China several plants,of which the grape-vine and pomegranate figui^elargely in symbolic art.After the beginning of our era this transmissionof ideas was aided by a still more potent agencythat of religion. Missionaries of various faiths andespecially of Buddhism, received a welcome inChina, where they inevitably became apostles notonly of their respective creeds but also of theirnational culture. Buddhism was established inChina about a.d. 67, but for several centuries madeno great headway. A revival took place about themiddle of the fifth century and the wholecountry was flooded with examples of BuddhisticArt ; this not only introduced a whole worldof alien mythology which for centuries provideda favourite theme for Chinese painters, sculptors,and designers in every branch of Art, but italso directed the very expression of these new ideasalong lines of Western tradition. To the presentday Greco-Indian and Persian elements and emblemsare found mingled with the purely native decoration."To enumeirate the symbols which have becomeconventionalized in Chinese Art and which are indaily use on many common articles—especially thegarments of children—is here impossible ; suffice itto say that the emblems of happy import (whichthe symbols invariably are) are believed themselvesto convey the blessings they represent.In additionto concrete emblems there exists another class ofsymbol. "The Chines^ language being monosyllabicand having but few vocables to express a vastnumber of written characters, it offers great scopefor the employment of the rebus. This class ofsymbolism is varied and large. Referring to thebone, carvings of the Chou dynasty we have proofof its extreme antiquity."Yetts : Symbolism in Chinese Art, 1912, (allportions of above article which appear in quotationmarks have been taken from this valuable pamphlet);BuSHELL : Chinese Art; Gulland : ChinesePorcelain, etc. [F.A.]SZEMAO ,W-|p, in south-west Yiinnan, in lat.22°. 47' N., long. 101°, 2' E., was opened in 1897by the Gerard Frontier Convention of 1895. It issituated in a well-cultivated plain 4,600 feet abovesea level. The trade is with Rangoon and Tonkin,the chief imports being raw cotton and tea, andit is an important entrepot for salt. The town was,before the great Mahommedan rebellion, a greatcaravan centre, but its best days are past.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports lV4,286 158,547Net Chinese ,, —Exports 33,065 25,628—Total Hk.Tls. ...''207,35r"l84;r75538

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA T'AI P'ING REBELLIONTTABLET OF YU. See Yu, Tablet of.TA CHI in B, concubine of Chou Hsin, lastruler of the Shang dynasty 1130 B.C. She isregarded as the most licentious and cruel of womenin Chinese history. As the previous dynasty fellthrough the wickedness of the concubine Mo Chi,so the Shang dynasty fell by Ta Chi. It is saidthat when Wv Wang took her captive her beautywas such that no one was willing to strike the faitalblow, till Wu Wang's aged councillor T'ai Kuno,covering his face with his hands, put her to deaAh.TACHIENLU, fS Ws ^ ,si town in Ssuch'uan,the Tibetan name of which (imitated in the Chinese)is Tarchendo. It is at an altitude of 8,850 feetand is on the road from S. Shensi to Tibet. Thepopulation is 20,000.tzii,TA CH'IN.SeeTaTs'in.TADPOLE CHARACTERS, |4 4 ^ K'o tona name given to an ancient Chinese script andused of other archaic and obsodete styles of character.An example of ^ S\- (sometimes written ^ ii|-)characters may be seen in Legge's Classics, vol. iii,a reproduction of the inscription on the Tabletof Yii.Han Yii, in a poem which Legge translatesin the same volume (pp. 68, 69), refers to thesecharacters as ff- if P^ ^, 'tadpoles with doubledupbodies.'TAEL, probably from Hindi tola, a weight,through the Portuguese ; an ounce ( ^ Hang) ofsilver. It varies in different localities.The most important taels are the k'u-p'ing ^ 2jltacl, the hai-huan ^ |3 tael and the Shanghai tael.The k'u-p'ing tael is the Treasury or Board ofRevenue tael. It contains 575.8 grains of silver,(fineness 1,000) for the receiving rate, the payingrate being 0.2 per cent, lighter. K'u-p'ing taels100 equal Shanghai tiiels 109.6, and 100 hai-kuantaels equal 101.642 k'u-p'ing taels. All dues to theGovernment are paid in this currency exceptCustoms duties and dues levied in kind or in coppercash. The hai-huan tael is the cuiTency in whichduties are levied by the Maritime Customs. Itcontains 583.3 grains of silver, (fineness 1,000) andis -only used for account-keeping, all payments beingmade in the local currency; thus at Shanghai forduty hai-kuan taels 100 the merchant pays 111.40Shanghai taels.The Shanghai tael or "Shanghai conventioncurrency" is the standard of international exchangefor North China and the Yangtze basin. . It contains565.65 grains of silver (944 fineness), and the conventionis that of such taels 98 will settle a liabilityof 100 taels "Shanghai convention currency." Offine silver (1,000 fineness) the weight would be524.93 grains.It is to be noted that 1,000 fineness would boonly 987 fineness by the the Western standard ofchemically pure silver.There are also Tsaoping, Peking, Hankowtaels, etc.Morse : The Trade and Administration ofChina; Wagel : Chinese. Currency and Banking.TA HSiJEH, :^ ^.See Great Learning.TAI PAN ;^ 5J, great manager. The managerin a foreign business house. The term was formerlyused for foreign Consuls.T'AI P'ING REBELLION, THE, began in1851 and was not suppressed till 1865, after elevenprovinces had been ravaged and some twentymillions of lives lost.The author and leader of the rebellion wasHrNG Hsiu CH'iiAN ^\-^ ^, a native of Kuangtung,born in 1813. He was sicldy and had visionson reading some Christian books later, he interp'retedhis visions thereby, and thought he had a divinecall to rule over China. All his life and hiswritings, however, show that he had no idea of thespiritual nature of Christianity.For more than •ten years he and a few followerstaught the new religion as they understood it,discarding idols and the Confucian tablet; andHung himself spent two months with Roberts, anAmerican missionary in Canton. The governmentattempted, of course, to quash the growing movementearly; but owing to incapable officers and.useless troops they were easily resisted and beaten,while their severity to the innocent population wasa help to the rebel cause.After a time Hung began to seclude himselfand to deliver decrees received, as he said, from theHeavenly Father and the Heavenly Br9ther.His followers advanced to Nanking where hewas to be proclaimed Emperor. To the governmentthey were Ch'ang mao tsei M ^}^ long-haired,robbers; but Htjng called his dynasty T'ai P'ingor "Great Peace" dynasty, and himself T'ien Wang,"Heavenly King." Five leading generals wereappointed as North, East, South, West and AssistantKings. The ai-my was at first remarkably welldisciplined and well-behaved. They broke out fromYung-an in Kueichow, where they had sufferedsiege for five moniths on April 7, 1852; they wentdown the Siang valley, taking city after city, andtook Yochow on the Yangtze; then they occupied539

T'AI P'ING REBELLIONENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAHanyang and Wuchang, then Kiukiang and Ankingon March 8 they encamped before Nanking ; ten dayslater it fell, and all its defenders were slain.Chinkiang and Yangchow suffered the same soonafter, and thus the Government lost the use of theGrand Canal.The cities which had not fallen to them in theirmarch were Kueilin, Changsha and Siangtan ; buttheir forces had grown in the eleven months fromunder ten thousand to over eighty thousand. Thebrutality of the demoralized imperialist troopsaccounted for this in part ; besides, the peoplenaturally turned to the victorious side.It was at Nanking that they first came underforeign inspection. Sir George Bonham, Governorox Hongkong, accompanied by T.T. Meadows, wasthe first to visit them. Various other foreignersafterwards spent some time among them gettinginformation, for it must be remembered that therewas at this time much to hope for, both because oftheir remarkable success and because of theirreligious tenets.An immediate march on Peking in full forcemight have brought the Manchu rule to an end'.Hung, however, only sent a division whose size wedo not know ; in six months these troops hadtraversed four provinces, taken twenty-six cities,defeated the imjjerialists in every engagement andencamped within twenty miles of Tientsin. Theexpedition was, however, a failure; the troopsreturned re infecta.From this time degeneracy began. Sevensouthern provinces were separated from the controlof Peking, yet received no organized governmentfrom the rebels. At the same time the country wascontinually ravaged for supplies and reinforcements.Both armies lived off the land and the sufferin.gsof the people became more and more severe. Bythe slow advance of imperialists, who were evenworse in their treatment of the population than therebels were, the latter were by 1860 limited to thecountry round Nanking and Anking. Dissensionssprang up among the leaders, the Eastern king withtwenty thousand adherents being beheaded, andother leaders deserting. From 1857 to 1860 theimperialists pressed closer round Nanking, trustingto famine and disease doing their work. It is saidcannibalism was common in the city. The ammunitionran short. But Hxjng's spirit was still firm ;ho appointed eleven other kings, including somevery able men, and on May 6, 1860 they broke out,scattered the besieging armies, captured Chinkiangand some other cities, then returned to Nankingwith plenty of guns and ammunition. Soochow andHangchow were in their hands, and they sought toregain control of the Yangtze.Shanghai was threatened in August, and mighthave fallen except for French and British troops.It is noteworthy that French and British were atthe time marching against Peking !The imperialists now sought foreign aid, withthe result that Wakd {q-v.) captured Sungkiang.He organized a large force which received the nameof The Ever Victorious Army, Ch'ang sheng chiin.Ward was succeeded by Btjrgevine (q.v.), and inApril, 1863, Charles George Gordon (not Peter,as Williams' Middle Kingdom persists in dubbinghim) was appointed to the command. The force,after purging, numbered three thousand, with foursmall siteamers and a number of native boats. Itattacked and took various cities of strategic importance,till at last Soochow surrendered. Many otherengagements followed, however, for the rebels becamemore stubborn as their cause grew more hopeless ; butby May, 1864, Gordon's work was ended and theEver Victorious Army was disbanded. He had ledit to the capture of twenty-three cities, but morethan once he gave up his command in indignationat the treachery or dishonesty of governmentofficials, only returning to his thankless work froma high sense of duty.The Chung Wang (q.v.) still defended Nanking,but the wall was breached by a mine in July,and the leaders and seven thousand rebels put todeath, the T'ien Wang, Hung, having committedsuicide three weeks before.Two bodies of rebels were still holding out inChekiang. Tseng Kuo-fan drove them fromHuchou, and they slowly retreated southwards, andwere gradually destroyed in the spring of 1865.The beginnings of the movement were full ofpromise, but after some years it was a growinigcurse and scourge in the' land. It destroyed, butrebuilt nothing, and protected none. In its latestyears all semblance to even a distorted Christianityhad disappeared ; it became pure savagery.The literature on the subject is immense, includingtranslations of T'ai P'ing books, tracts,ritual, etc. Perhaps the most important readingmust be done in contemporary magazines andnewspapers.CoRDiER : Bibliotheca Sinica, col. 645 et seq.Blue-books relating to China ; Gallery and Ivan :L' Insurrection en Chine; the same in English.;Meadows : The Chinese and their RebellionsLiN-LE : Ti-Ping Tien-Kwoh; Bjiine : The TaepingRebellion in China.TAIREN.See Dairen.T'AI SHAN, ^ III, in Shantung, is the chiefof the Five Sacred Mountains of China, and iscalled the Eastern Peak ^ ^. It is situatednorth of the prefectuxal city of T'ai-an fu, 4,500feet above sea-level. The mountain was ancientlyregarded as a divinity, and was elevated by a SungEmperor to the rank of the Equal of Heaven. Afterthe introduction of Buddhism this mountain deity540

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATALISMANSwas allotted the function of meting out rewardsand punishments in the next world. The sacrificesof fling Jij- and shan j^ to Heaven and Earth madeat the summit and foot of T'ai Shan were firstoffered by the Emperor Wtj in 110 B.C. They wererepeated from time to time by emperors of differentdj nasties. The religion is now almost whollyTaoist, the most popular object of worship beinga female divinity, the daughter of the mountain,called Pi hsia yiian chiin ^ ^ 7G fl' , the 'goddessof coloured clouds,' or the 'goddess of dawn.' Herwoi'ship dates from A.D. 1008, when a large stoneimage was discovered on the summit. A jadereplica, made by imperial orders and erected on theplace of discovery, drew countless worshippers.During the Ming period the goddess enjoyed thegreatest popularity. Her supposedi tomb is shownin a pavilion near the summit.A stone stairway of nearly 7,000 steps windsup the mountain to the top, and is bordered bytemples, monuments, inscriptions and shrines. Arough stone monument is said to have been erectedin B.C. 219 by Ch'in Shih Huang Ti. A temple tothe Jade Emperor, Yii Huang, the supremedivinity of the Taoists, is on the summit^ as wellas a Confucian t«mple, erected in 1714.MouLE : T'ai Shan, (Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S.,vol. xliii) ; Stanley : T'ai Shan (East of Asia,vol. iv); Chavannes : Le T'ai Chan; Tschepe : DerT'ai-schan und seine Kultstdtten, 1906.T'AI-T'AI, ±:k- Properly the title for thewife of an official who has a button.The island of Formosa {q.v.)T'AI WAN MM-T'AI YANG CH'IAO, *F^^,Sun bridge;a mountain in Lolo land, W. Ssuch'uan, estimatedby Baber at 20,000 ft. in height.Baser : Travel? and Researches in WesternChina, p. 115.TAI-YUAN FU ^MM^^^ great-plain city,is in lat. 37° 53' N., and long. 112° 29' E., on thenorthern border of one of the central plains ofShansi, of which province it is the capital. Theplain abounds in fertility and the hills surroundingit are rich in minerals. The population is 230,000(Richard).TAJIK.See Ta shih.TAKIN, a strange animal of the BovidaeFamily, related to the musk-ox and placed by somenaturalists between oxen and sheep, by othersbetween goats and antelopes. There is one speciesin N. China, Budorcas bedfordi, discovered byAnderson in 1909-10 in S.W. Shensi.It has seldom been killed in China by foreigners,the first case probably being that killed by Meares.B. bedfordi of Shensi is the most specializedform, the chief difference being colour. The animalis very difficult to describe; many pictures of itare given in Wallace's book.In Shensi it is called P'an yang, rock goat;in Kansu Yeh niu, wild ox. Measurements aregiven by Wallace, one being 52 inches, height atshoulder.SowERBY : Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlviiWallace : Big Game of Central and Western China.TAKLA MAKAN; the great desert of theTarim basin, especially the western part, is knownby this name.TAKU, ;^ JSj ^ village at the mouth of thePei-ho, on the southern side, sixty-seven miles fromTientsin. The village is a very poor one, and theonly foreign residents are those connected with theCustoms, the Pilot Corporation and the LighterCompanies. The water on the Bar ranges from twoto fourteen, feet at the Spring tides, and vesselsconstantly have to wait outside. A railway fromthe town of Tang-ku (two miles further up theriver), runs to Tientsin : it was completed in 1888.Taku is noted for several engagements betweenits forts and foreign naval forces. On May 20, 1858,Sir Michael Seymour forced and passed them,taking Lord Elgin to Tientsin, where the Treatyof Tientsin was signed the next month. In June of1859 they were attacked again, but with disastrousresults to the British. A third attack was madeon August 20, 1860, the forts being captured fromthe land side. In the Boxer Rebellion the fortswere once more taken by gunboats of the foreignpowers, June 17, 1900; and by the Peace Protocolof 1901 China was required to raze them,TALAY, a name used by Odoric for the Yangtze.No other traveller of his time mentions it by541this name. It is the Mongol word dalai or talai,the sea, and the Mongols used the word as the nameof the Great River.Yule : Cathay and the Way Thither, vol. ii,p. 206.TA LIEN WAN, ;^ il ®,Ta-lien Bay, thebay on the south of whioh Dalny or Dairen issituated. Ta-lien is on the other side of the bay,7 miles north from Dairen. In the expedition of1860 it was the base or depot of the British forces,while the French were at Chefoo. See Dairen.Wolseley : Narrative of the War with Chinain 1860.TALISMANS £^ hua fu, the written charmsprepared by Taoist priests. They are generallymore or less unintelligible to the uninstructed, andmight be regarded as mere distorted scrawls; theyare however subject to rules and consist of a specialhandwriting, which has been analysed and fullydescribed by P. Dore. In his work will be found150 examples, figured, dissected and translated.There is endless variety in the objects of talismans

TALLOWENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAthey are against all manner of sickness,—cough,colic, deliriuln, etc. ; against fire, according to thedirection of the compass, and ad omnia !Provincial coins of the K'ang Hsi and ShunChih periods were produced at twenty-five mintsand bear corresponding characters on the reverse.For some unknown reason twenty only of theseK'ang Hsi coins have talismanic power whenstrung together.DoRE : Rccherches sur les Superstitions, tome v,partie 1.TALLOW, VEGETABLE, ^i^ chiu yu,jffiyielded by Sapiuin sebiferwn, the "Tallow tree," amember of the Spurge family, which occurs in allthe warmer parts of China, and is remarkable forthe beautiful autumnal tints of its foliage. Thi.'jtree is known by several colloquial names—in SouthChina it is the Ghiu-tzu shu ;te -J- ^; in centralparts the Mou-tzu shu ^^^; in the west theCh'uan-tzu shu. The seeds furnish tallow ; fchokernels when crushed yield an oil, on© of theproperties of which is to turn grey hair black ; therefuse of the seeds is a valuable manure for thetobacco plant ; the bark is used as a medicine, andthe leaves provide a black dye. The fruits, threecelledand blackish-brown when ripe, are spreadin tjie sun to dry, where they open and the threeelliptical seeds appear, covered with a white substance,which is removed by steaming and rubbingthrough a bamboo small-meshed sieve. The fat iscollected and melted, and moulded into cakes, inwhich state it is the Pi yu of commerce. The seedsare crushed and the oil extracted is Ting yu. Whenthe fat and oil are not separated but crushed andpressed together, the rnixed product is named Mouyu. In China all three products are used in candlemanufactuire, the pi yu having the highest meltingpoint ; when it is employed, only a very thin coveringof insect wax (used on the exterior of all Chinesecandles) is necessary. All these products areexported to Europe for use in soap making. Theaverage amount exported is about 200,000 piculs,valued at about Hk. Tls. 10 per picul. Vegetabletallow comes from the hilly region of W. Huporand) S.E. Ssuch'uan, from Kueichou, Hunan andKuangsi. The export for 1916 was pels. 256,960,value Hk.Tls. 3,011,695.BowRA : Customs Trade Reports, Ningpo, 1868Wilson : A Naturalist in W. China, vol. ii, p. 67.ANIMAL, ^ J^ niu yu. That which isexported from Chefoo is made from the melted,down tails of Shantung sheep, but the bulk isbeef tallow. There is a large export trade, whichbegan to be important in 1909. The leading portsare Tientsin, Tsingtao, and Hankow.The export for 1915 was 113,000 pels., valueHk.Tls. 1,162,000, and for 1916 was pels. 306,003,value Hk.Tls. 5,055,071.TALLOW TREE.See Tallow.TAMAO, also known as Tamau, Tamou, etc;tlie harbour on the north-west of the island ofSancian, St. John, or San shan, the only spot whereforeign trade was permitted till 1554, when Lampacaowas substituted. The name is sometimes 'used forthe whole island. It is the Portuguese corruptionof Ta ngao or Ta ao, i%'^, great bay. In 1522the Portuguese were driven from the place becauseof the doings of Simon d'Andrade {q.v.). It is notknown when they again began to trade there. SeeSan shan.{q.v.).TAMO, the Chinese name for Bodhidharma,TAN FU, ^ ^, also known as Krr Kung -j^ ^{ancient duke) and T'ai Wang jfc 2{gT^^at princeor ki?ig T'ai), the grandfather of the founder of theChou dynasty. He was ruler of the small State ofPin gj, near the modern Hsi-an fu. According toMencius he paid tribute to the barbarians (HsiungnuTartars), but was at last forced by their oppressionto move to Ch'i i^, calling his principalityChou, probably in B.C. 1327. It is supposed thatthe Chou ancestors had for centuries adopted asemi-Tartar style of life.Legge : Mencius, p. 51 ; Hirth :of China.Ancient HistoryT'ANG DYNASTY, THE,Jg|E ,one of themost glorious in Chinese history, was founded byLi YiJAN, a general of the Sui dynasty, with hLscapital at Ch'ang-an. He made peace with theTurks, encouraged learning, and partially suppressedthe Buddhist monasteries. T'ai Tsung, afterstrengthening the army and driving back theTurkomans, devoted himself to leaxning. Theempire was divided into ten provinces. In 630 hereceived embassies from many tributary states.Hecrushed the Turkic power, but was uiisuccessful inan invasion of Korea. In his reign Nestorians andMohammedans settled in China. His son KaoTstTNG completed the conquest of Korea, and droveout the Tibetans, who had made inroads on the,en-pire. At his death his wicked empress, Wu Hou,seized the power and ruled for twenty years, duringwhich time the K'itan Tartars and the Tibdtanswere conquered. In 734 HsiiAN Tsung divided thecountry into fifteen pirovinces. He instituted theHanlin Yiian, and he fell under the charm ofYang Kuei fei.In 765 a formidable rebellion occurred, to suppresswhich the Emperor called in the Ilighurs.Under Hsi Tsung another rebellion broke outwhich was quelled by the assistance of the Turks.The incapacity of later Emperors plunged theEmpire into disorder, and the throne was seized byChu Wen.542

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATANG SHANAs regards intercourse with other parts of Asiaduring this dynasty a Chinese genei^l successfullydefeated the Mohammedans in 684, and fleets sailedto the Persian Gulf against the Arabs, who began anactive propaganda both in the south and north-west.The T'ang dynasty period has been regarded asthe golden age of art, poetry and literature.Chineseart, greatly stimulated by Buddhism, found itsgieatest exponent in Wu Tao-tzu ; Li po and Tu fuwere the greatest poets of the time.In 785 the Hanlin Academy was founded and thePeking Gazette is stated to have started about thesame time.'Men of T'ang' is the term used in Kuangtungas 'Men of Han' is used in the resit of China.The dynasty lasted 287 years under twentyrulers.Dyn. Title. Accession Reign Title AdoptedKao Tsu J613T'ai TsungKao Tsung627650Chung TsungJui TsungWu Hou(The EmpressWu, usurper)Adopted the dy nasticStylo ^ Chou n lieuof' Jg T'ang fromA.D. 690.H ^ Su Tsung7Cof all time.f^ Tai Tsung^. ^ Te Tsun^655661664666m ^ Mu Tsung^ Chingj*t Ch'ieniij-FengII. MTsung Chang 668^ ^. Hsien Heng 670\-^ j^ Shang Yiian 674?:k^ Wu Tsung'^M I Feng6761^ |g T'iao Lu 679I Tsung7jcYung Lung 680f'k ^ Hs: Tsungi^ K'ai Yao 681^ ^ Yung Shun 682gl.=t Hung Tao 683684 j^ ^ Ssu Sheng 684684 ^ g)l W^en Ming 684 Bg684^^ Kuang Tse 684g fit Ghui Kung 685fi(. ^ Yung Ch'ang 689|lif,7| T.sai Ch'u 689^ :^ T'ien Shou 690'in g: Ju I 692Dynasties.^M Ch'ang Shou 692^ ig Yen Tsai 694s^ ig Cheng Sheng 695^mn^ T'ien T'seWan Sui 695iSl^a^C Wan SuiT'ung T'ien 696jjii^r^F; Shen Kung 697gJ. ^ Sheng Li 698>X ig.Chiu Tsu 700:k&Ta. Tsu 701618 ^ ^ Wu Te627 j.^ fjjCheng Kuan650 4^ fliiYung Hui^ g Hsien Ch'ing%l ^^ Lung SojgR @. Lin TeDyn. Title. Accession Reign Title AdoptedJ^i ^ Chung Tsung |i^ t| Shen Lung 705(resumed the throne)Ji:tl# g Jui Tsung 710 ^ ^±miSCorTC) Hsiian (or Yiian)^ Tsung orgj9^^713^5e^ Shun Tsung§5 Hsien TsungTsungWen Tsung^ Hsiian Tsung78011 f|'P,7CA.7C305 7j^^8O67C jm821;^®825 as827;*:^841 -t li847;*: ^860JE54ii874 tl ^mm^ W-.889 ti laChing Lung 707Ching Yiin 710T'ai Chi 712Yen Ho 712Hsien T'ienK'ai YiianT'ien Pao756ig'#. Chih TeChanged in 761 toCh'ien Yiian^, the 1st yearShang YiianPao Ying763 HJ-^. Kuang TeYung T'aig Chao TsungTa LiChienChungHsing YiianCheng YiianYung ChengYiian Ho713713742756758760762763765766780784785305806Ch'ang Ch'ing 821Pao Li 825T'ai HoK'ai Ch'engHui Ch'angT'ai ChungHsien T'ungCh'ien FuKuang MingChung HoKuang Ch'iWen TeLung ChiTa ShunChing FuCh'ien NingKuang HuaT'ien FuT'ien YuBH^^ Chao Hsiian Tiorg^ or Ai Ti 904?c»f& T'ien Yu827836841847860874880881885893901904905T'ANG DYNASTY, LATER. See FiveTANGERINES. See Oranges.T'ANG SHANj a poetical appellation for theirprovince used by the Cantonese. It is in memoryof the glories of the T'ang dynasty, and theCantonese use T'ang jen H A. as other provincesuse Han tzu ^ ^. See Han, Sons of.TANG SHAN ENGINEERING COLLEGE,The. This institution was founded in 1905 on therecommendation of Mr. Claude Kinder, c.m.g.,then Engineer-in-Chief on the Imperial Railways of543

TAN GUT SCRIPTENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICANorth China, andi under the auspices of Ho Yen-meiand YiiAN Shih-k'ai, as a railway school in Cjonnectionwith the Peking-Mukden Line. Mr. D. P.Griffiths, now Acting Chief Engineer of theShanghai-Hangchow-Ningpo Railway, was appointedas Principal, with three British professors. Buildings,including lecture halls, dcrmitcries and residences,were erected at a cost of about $100,000,to accommodate upwards of 200 students. Thestudents were admitted by examinations held in theprincipal treaty ports. A four years' course (twoyears in general science and two years technical) wasoffered. Work commenced in 1906. At the end of1908 Mr. Griffiths left and was replaced as Professorof Civil Engineering by Dr. Herbert Chatley,•afterwards of the Nanking-Hunan Railway. At thesame time the Board of Communications (now theChiao T'ung Pu) took over the administration andattempted to widen the scope of the work to covermost branches of engineering. Laboratories, workshops,and additional lecture halls were built anda fair amount of equipment was installed. TheRevolution in 1911 interrupted the develcpanent andsince then the authorities have restricted the worktv) that originally planned, viz. : instruction inlocation and permanent way engineering. Thereare now over one hundred graduates from thiscollege, mostly holding junior positions on Chineserailways. Within the last few years, owing tofinancial restrictions, unrest among the students,political disturbance and faulty management, theearly standard has not been wholly maintained, butit is still one of the best purely Chinese technicalschools,[H.C.]TANGUT, SCRIPT. In 1036 Li Yuan-hagproclaimed himself an independent ruler in N.W.China with his capital at Hsia chou (now Ning-hsiafu) with Hsia as the title of his dynasty. Chineseannals call the dynasty the Western Hsia, ® 5Hsi Hsia; it lasted till overthrown by ChenghisKhan in 1227. Contemporary records state that anew script was modelled on the ancient Chinesescript called Li shu, but the clue to the methodused remains to be discovered. This is known asthe Tangut script ; examples may be found on coinsand in a six-language inscription in the Nan-K'ouPass, in a bi-lingual inscription at Liangchou,Kansu, etc. Chin^ Review^, vol. xxiv, p. 65.TANK A, g ^ tan chia. egg people; the nameof a tribe of aborigines, driven in early times tolive on the water; now the 'boat population' ofCanton. It is a mistake to suppose that the nameis derived from the shape of the boats, which areoften called 'egg-boats.' For centuries the peoplewere forbidden to live ashore, but in 1730 YungCheng permitted them to live in villages close tothe river. They were however still forbidden tointermarry with the Chine.se and might not competeill the examinations.Giles : A Glossary of Reference.T'AO CH'IEN, PS ^, A.D. 365-427, a wellknownpoet, who in spite of poverty would notoccupy an official post but preferred a life devotedto poetry, music, wine, and chrysanthemum-growing.Giles : Chinese Literature, p. 128.TAOISM,—//is^ory.—Chinese scholars havenever doubted that Taoism was an indigenousgrowth, traceable back through Chuang Tzu andLieh Tzu to Lao Tzu and the Yellow Emperor,(B.C. 2697). But some foreigners, struck with thedisparity between Taoist doctrines and the typicalChinese mind, have sought an extra-Chinese originfor them. They have been ascribed to early Indianinfluence, Brahmanistic or early-Buddhist, Taobeing sometimes identified with Dhdrma; someearly missionaries believed in a Jewish origin ; whileChaldea has also been credited with handing onmystical doctrines to China, together with astrologyand other occult arts.According to Ssu-ma Ch'ien, practically theonly authority on the matter, Lao-Tzu, an oldercontemporary of Confucius, gave such a newdirection to certain ancient teachings that henceforthfor centuries they were known as ^^;i5^(fi|)i.e. "the doctrine (or craft) of the Yellow Emperorand Lao Tzu." After Chuang Tzu became famous,they were also known as "the Doctrine of ChuangTzu and Lao Tzu," while the use of the termTaoism to designate them seems to have come inabout the time of Huai Nan Tzu, (died B.C. 122).The age of Lao Tzu was a time of great intellectualactivity, which lasted till the accession ofCh'in Shih Huang Ti. The pressing problemwhich faced all the numerous schools of thoughtwas a political one; viz., how to save the country,which through the weakness of the Emperor andthe clashing of the feudal states was in a terriblecondition. As is well known, Confucius, whowas' an admirer of the reigning house of Chou,believed in one eternally-best social order,— "absolutismtempered by ancient precedents,"—emphasizedthe necessity of a strong central government, andglorified Yao, Shun and other benevolent autocratsof the olden time.Lao Tzu however preferred Shang methods tothose of Chou, and considered the simple "way" ofthe Five Emperors as better still. The YellowEmperor and Shen Nunc, the Divine Husbandman,were superior to Yao and Shun. The remedy forthe times was not a stronger central government somuch as less government of all kinds. Confuciusbelieved in the power of human nature to remainupright if properly taught; Lao Tzu believed itwould keep straight if left to itself. This is his544

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATAOISMfamous doctrine of Wu-wei, (Inaction or Nonassertion),which seems to have withheld him fromtrusting, as Confucius did, in th© aid of literature.Neither Lao Tzu nor any of the many schools whoclaimed to expound 2'ao edited the ancient lit-eraturein their own interests, and Lao Tzu has never beencredited with any other work than the 2'ao Te Chingof five thousand characters. For some three or fourhundred years, i.e. till the First Emperor ascendedthe throne, other schools—Hedonists, Legalists,Rigorists, Militarists, Eclectics, etc., with thefollowers of Mo Tzu and HsiiN Tzu continued todispute with the Confucianists, (whose doctrineshad been supported: and developed by Mencius),and with the Taoists proper, (whose beliefs hadbeen expanded by Lieh Tzu and Chuang Tzu) ;but with the burning of the books and scholars inB.C. 213—214 Confucianism was eclipsed, and anadulterated Taoism triumphed for a space. Thenew ruler and his chief ministers were under Taoistinfluence, of the more magical and grosser type, asis seen in the expedition sent to the Fairy Isles ofthe Eastern sea, and in the sparing of the / Ching,the one classical link between the Confucianists andTaoists, on the ground of its being a book ondivination.The Ch'in dynasty fell in B.C. 206, yet underthe early Han Emperors, Lao Tzu's doctrine wasstill favoured. The First Emperor, who hatedConfucianism, had a number of prominent ministersof Taoist proclivities, and there is record of variousflourishing centres of the cult especially in Shantung,to this day« a Taoist stronghold. Wen Ti,(B.C. 179 to 156), encouraged the search for theorthodox classics, and wished to restore theConfucian teaching and ceremonial, but his consortwas a lover of Taoist teaching who dislikedConfucius, and brought up her son and grandsonin the same ideas. It was apparently to please herthat the Tao Ti Ching was made a sacred text, andin her son's reign it was decreed a schod-book forthe whole Empire. Her grandson, Wu Ti, though hewas an enthusiastic patron of the newly-recoveredclassics, and instituted the first literary degrees inB.C. 136, yet for the greater part of his long reignwas also devoted to the magic and wonder-mongeryof the Taoists. After the recovery of the classicsand the revival of Confucianism, Taoism tried toadapt itself to the changed conditions. It got up aset of classics in imitation of Confucianism, andit developed systematically the search for the elixirof life, the philosopher's stone and so forth. Thechief agent in hastening this deterioration wasChang Tao Ling (q.v.) whose descendants stillsupply the so-called Taoist popes. He was believedto have attained immortality, and to have bequeathedhi-i secret to his d^cendants, and many ChineseEmperors favoured Taoism in hopes of profiting bythe same.The dtbdcle of Taoism was completed' by thecoming of Buddhism, from which new rival it beganopenly to borrow. The Taoists now set up aTrinity consisting of Lao Tzu, P'an Ku (theChinese Demiukge) and the Pearly Emperor (seeYii Huang). They built temples and monasteries,the monks being at first allowed to marry, but inthe tenth century that permission was rescindedS.A Heaven and Hell were set up, and, though Taoitself has never been represented by any image, apantheon as large as that of the Buddhists, andever-growing, was introduced. After this transformationa long tug-of-war took place between the tworeligions, sometimes one being favour at court,sometimes the other, and sometimes both in disgracetogether.For examples, in 555, the first emperor of thenorthern Ch'i commanded the two to discuss theirtenets, as he was determined to suppress one. Asa result, all the Taoist monks became bonzes savefour, who suffered martyrdom.The first T'ang Emperor prohibited both Taoismand Buddhism, secularized all priests and orderedbooks, images, and temples to be destroyed, thoughthis edict was withdrawn after three years.In 741 the T'ang Emperor, HsiiAN Tsung,authorized the opening of colleges for the specialstudy of the Taoist philosophers, and institutedexaminations, similar to the Confucian ones, in.connectioji with them. It was this emperor whogave Lao Tzu's work the name of Tao Te Chingand wrote a commentary upon it, and even orderedtha>t it should be substituted for the Analects andthe Chou Ritual in the provincial examinations forthe degree of Chii jen (^^A) I" 753, however,the / Ching replaced it.Wu Tsung (841-847) was a Taoist devotee whobecame dumb through taking Taoist elixirs, withthe result that his successor banished Taoism fromthe court, and brought back Buddhism, which hadbeen proscribed.These confusing transitions end with the advent'of Wang An-shih, the social reformer, and theSung philosophers, especially the great Chu Fu Tzu.The third Sung Emperor had been completelyobsessed by the Taoists, who provided him with"letters from heaven" and so forth, though he wasnot unfriendly either to Buddhism or Confucianism.But Jen Tsung (1023-1064) gave orders that nomore building or repairing of temples was to go on,and Chu Hsi, who was well acquainted both withTaoism and Buddhism, used all his influence todiscredit them both, and succeeded.From that time the two have been content todwell side by side, borrowing and lending idea« andmethods of working on the credulity of the69545

TAOISMENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAmultitude. Khubilai Khan burnt all the Taoistbooks except the Tao Te. Ching; in the SacredEdict of X'ang Hsi, or rather its amplification,Buiddhism and Taoism are both condemned as falsedoctrine along with Roman Catholic Christianity.The popular Taoism of to-day is concerned withthe worship of idols, mainly national worthies fromthe Shang dynasty downwards, with the exorcisingof demons, the writing of charms, incantations forrain, and other methods of turning a dishonestpenny.On the other hand, it would be a mistake toinfer that all Taoist monks are unworthy; bothsides of Taoism naturally lead to seclusion from theworld and ascetic practices in the case of seriousdevotees. The nobler Taoism, quietist, transcendentaland mystical, has never wholly perished.Not only is Chuang Tzu, its noblest exponent,widely read for his style and beauty, but a smallnumber of the elect, chiefly disappointed officialsand the like, keep up the old Taoist tradition, asfor example in the Lao Shan monasteries in Shantung.Taoist monasteries are, however, few whencompared with those of Buddhism and are graduallybecoming fewer.Yet the influence of Taoism on China has beenvery great; many of the secret sects are more orless imbued with Taoist influence; and the Boxermovement of 1900 with its hypnotism and the invulnerabilijtyof those possessed of charms is thelatest instance of its power.Doctrine.—The word Tao has been in use inChina from the earliest times with the meaning ofa road or way. Long before Lao Tzu, the ancientsused it metaphorically ; the course of nature wasTao; the ruler's proper way of ruling, and thepeople's obedience to the ruler, were Tao; the teachingof these things was Tao; and as ethical andpolitical ideas grew, the connotation of Tao grewalso. It is not certain how far the idea had beendeveloped by the time of Confucius, but it was aswell known to him as to Lao Tzu. Tao and its correlativeTc, (the virtue which results from the cultivationof Tao) occurred in the ancient / Chinrj and LiChi, and Kuan Tzu (see Kuan Chung) had perhapsalready written a famous treatise oa them, thoughthe extant work bearing his name is, at least in itspresent form, certainly not genuine. Tao was thecommon starting-point of all the schools of thoughtwhich arose at that time. The differences werethose of interpretation. Wherever Lao Tzu got hisideas from, in his mind Tao includes not only thecourse of nature and the right way of conductinghuman affairs, but is identified with the Absoluteitself. Many equivalents have been suggested forTao—Logos, God, Reason, Nature, the Way, Providence,the Absolute, etc., but none is quitesatisfactory; e.g. in St. John's Gospel Logos isrendered by Tao, though, as Balfour points out,the Logos was conceived in Alexandria as anemanation from God, while in Taoism the Divineemanates from Tao. An obscure passage in theTao Te, Ching says, ''Tao appears to have beenbefore God," and Chuang Tzu says, "It is Taowhich makes God a spirit." The word nature, iftaken as including, first the nature of God, second.Nature in the physical sense, and third, the natureof man, is perhaps as good an equivalent as anyother. Lao Tzu seems unconscious that he uses Taoin two senses, i.e., as a substance from which thecreation is developed, as well as the formativeenergy in creation.Terse and vague as are the teachings of Lao Tzuwhich have come down to us, they include muchthat is noble and valuable, and the sage's chiefideas and aims are not obscure. He seems, likeConfucius, to have accepted, unquestioningly thereligion of the time with its various sacrifices, itsancestor-worship, and its systems of divination. Atleast, he neither commends nor condemns thesethings ; his aim is to reform the Empire. He hopesby calling attention to the nature of the Tao toinduce a correspondence with that nature in men,whose heai't and conduct are to be rectified, throughconscious and constant imitation of its perceivedworkings. Politically, Lao Tzu is a democrat, whowould trust the people and is not afraid of changes,but his doctrine of Inaction has never been thoughtpracticable, for if carried to its extreme it wouldlead to anarchy.Philosophically, he was a monist,a transcendentalist, and a mystic; ethically, hepraises as the three best jewels, humility, compassion,and moderation. Just as much as Confucius,Lao Tzu believed in a past Golden Age, and in theinherent goodness of human nature. He believedit was possible for all men to be so filled with Taothat they should be perfect spontaneously and unconsciously,as Tao Itself is.If the book which bears the name of Lieh Tzu[q.v.) really in the main represents his ideas, hegreatly improved the metaphysical side of Lao Tzu'steaching, especially with regard to cosmogony.Along with much valuable matter, the book containsa number of wild stories about "gemmy food" andother marvels, showing that the Master's teachingwas already becoming adulterated.Chuang Tzu, the noblest of the Taoists, isconcerned to maintain the pure doctrines both asagainst Lieh Tzu and the Confucianists, whoseapparent materialism wounds his idealistic spirit.The ethics of Lao Tzu he accepted without alteration,but he developed the system of Lao Tzu in-toa complete philosophy. He is a true mystic, andpreaches that absorption in the Tao is man's truegoal. Yet he is not a pantheist, for he does notregard the human spirit as annihilated by this546

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATAOISMprocess, but as thereby filled to its true fulness andraised to ineffable bliss. Chuang Tzu's ideas areelevated, his style is exquisite, and the text of hisbook is in the main as he wrote it. He is read byall scholarly Chinese with delight, and it is to histeaching that the sincerest Taoists turn most forsupport and edification.The book known as Kuan Yin Tzu, thoughfathered on Yin Hsi, (q.v.) is probably the workof a writer of the Sung dynasty, who may beregarded as the last of the great Taoist thinkers.It shows throughouit the influence of MahayanaBuddhism.HuAi ,Nan Tzu (q.v.), whose book is one ofthe standard Taoist works, was an exoteric writer.The later Taoists divide their teaching intoInner and Outer, i.e., the mystic, dealing with thecultivation of the inner nature, and the magical,dealing with outward actions and ceremonies. Innerand Outer together being designed to confer corporealimmortality on a being spiritually fitted for it.The mystic side is substantially the doctrines ofLao Tzu and Chuang Tzu as outlined above.With regard to the magical side, Lao Tzu is notresponsible for the turn given to his teaching, forno encouragement for occultism is given in theTao Te Ching. The wild stories of Lao Tzu'simmortality are admittedly a later imitation ofBuddhist wonders.But from earliest times there had been Wu-ists[q.v.) and exorcists in China, custodians of thesecrets of the arts of healing and divination.Medicine especially had gone hand in hand with7^ao doctrines. The Chinese Hippocrates, PienCh'ueh ^g|, supposed to have been the physicianof the Yellow Emperor, was a "Taoist." From curingdiseases to preventing them was an easy step, andfrom thence to go on to a hope of sublimating thebody so as to escape death altogether, was notunnatural in primitive times. "The elixir of lifeand the genii originated as medical ideas." Thusthe ancient medical works of China are said tothrow considerable light on obscure points inTaoism.The successors of these early doctors andwizards fastened on a few obscure sayings scatteredthrough Lao Tzu's teaching to justify their practicesand their hopes. Even in Chuang Tzu, and muchmore in Lieh Tzu, marvellous and miraculous doingsof eminent Taoists are related, and! by the time ofHuAi Nan Tzu in the second century B.C., occultresearches for elixirs of life and means of transmutingbaser metals into gold had been systematicallysuperimposed on the mystic teachings of theTaoists. The Han Emperor Wu Ti was especiallysuperstitious in these matters, and the hopes offavour at court gave an immense stimulus to thisside of tlie cult. From the time of Chang Tao-lingthese beliefs and practices have sunk lower andlower, and though occasionally sincerely followedwith the hope of obtaining personal immortality,they are mainly used as a means of supporting thepoorer sort of Taoist monks.Among the many things capable of aiding thebody to become immortal are plants or parts ofplants, especially the seeds and the resin of theevergreen pine and cypress, various fruits, fungi,and flowers. In the non-animate world cinnabar,gold, jade, and other substances are also thoughtcapable of bestowing immortality. Long andrhythmic breathing, accompanied by certain kindsof posturing and gymnastics, is also practised inorder to fill the body with the vital ether of theuniverse.Literature :The most comprehensive collection of Taoist writingsis the Taoist Thesaurus (j^ijgt^it ), an abridgededition of which runs (according to Faber) to eightyquarto volumes.This however includes a number ofnon-Laatzean works, claimed by Taoists as theirown, e.g. Micius. Moreover, Pan Ku, the author01 the Han Shu, claims that the first "Taoist"writer was I YiN ^ ^, the famous Prime Ministerof T'ang, founder of the Shang dynasty ; he considersWen Wang's advisers, Lii Shang g ^(or T'ai Kdng), and Yii Hsiung ^ |^ as Taoistauthors, and also Kuan Chung [q.v.), who wa.smade Premier of the Ch'i state in B.C. 685. It isevident that "Tao doctrine" was for centuries avague term including a number of schools of whichLao Tzu's was the one which at last succeeded inabsorbing the rest, becoming greatly modified itselfin the process. In ante-Ch'in times, Taoism perhapscovered everything anti-Chou.Taoist canonical writings alone number somehurdireds; the exact figure is unknown. After therecovery of the classics and the consequent revivalof Confucianism, the Taoists, realizing the advantageof a written standard, set up a canon of theirown. Their doctrines being known as Inner andOuter, they elaborated a double set of canonicalworks, each part having five "ching" and four"books." The names of these twenty-six works aregiven by Fabeh in the China Review, vol. xiii.They include the Tao Te Ching, but not theworks of Chuang Tzu, Lieh Tzu, or Kuan YinTzu, which were not called c?iing till the T'angdynasty, the earlier meaning of ching being ratherthat of a standard text-book, than including anyidea of sacredness or revelation. Neither do thetwenty-six include the / Ching, although that bookin expressly claimed by Taoists as their own.In addition to these works, the students of themjstical side are advised to study the Tao Sh?tCh'iian Chi ( iS |5 i^ ^ ) and the students of themagical side Chu P'in Ching Ch'an {tS S, M M),certain ritualistic manuals including incantationsand instruction in occult matters.547

TAO KUANGENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAOutside the canon there are numerous writings,and new ti'acts even yet occasionally appear in thename of this or that god. Generally speaking, thenewer a Taoist book is, the fuller is it of grosssuperstitions and idolatry.While higher Buddhist literature, none of itof Chinese growth, has greatly influenced Taoistwritings, it is only the inferior China-born popularBuddhist books which show the reaction of Taoism.The writings of the magical side of Taoism arenot of high ethical value, but have filled Chineselighter literature with wonderful stories and poeticalimagery. Nearly every beauty-spot in the landhas its legend of some Taoist saint, genius, or fairy.See Tao Te Ching; Lao Tzu, etc., etc.[C.E.C.]Watters : Lao-tzu, a Study in Chinese Philosophy;Faber : The Historical Basis of Taoism,China Review, xiii, pp. 231-247 ; Giles : Religionsof Ancient China, Remains of Lao-tzu, etc.Parker : China and Religion; Studies in ChineseReligion, etc.TAO KUANG, ^ ^, the title of the reignof the sixth of the Manchu sovereigns, the secondson of Chia Ch'ing. He was born in 1781 andsucceeded to the throne in 1820. He was naturallylazy and his reign was full of trouble for the Empire.Besides various risings, the WaJ with England beganin 1840, and by the Nanking Treaty of 1842, thefirst five ports were opened to foreign trade. Thecost of this war gave great opportunity for raisingdisturbances in the country. He died in 1850.TAO SHIH, it db. The Chinese term for aTaoist priest.T'AO SHUO f^Wt, Description of pottery, acelebrated work by Chtj Yen, known also asChtj T'ung-ch'uan. The writer was a scholar andantiquary and a voluminous author, who personallyexamined the processes of porcelain manufacture atChing-te chen and other places. The T'ao Shuo isa series of extracts from Chinese works connectedby a running commentary. The works quoted fromare generally named.It is the first work written specially on thesubject : it was issued in 1774. It is still the chiefauthority among Chinese stujdents of the subject.A complete translation was made by Dr. S. W.BusHELL in 1891, which was first published in itsentirety in 1910. The intention was to accompanythe translation by twenty-one coloured plates, buta mere IL'^t of these is given, and to see them thereader is referred to another work, which is noteasily attainable, Bushell's Chinese Porcelains ofDifferent Dynasties.BusHELL : Description of Chinese Pottery andPorcelain, Oxford, 1910.TAOT'AI, itn- The Intendant of a Circior Tao, of which there were under the Manchud95 in China Proper. He had control of several!prefectui-es, etc. After the Revolution the Taot'aibecame the Taoyin .^ f* See Government,Republican.TAO TE CHING ji ^. f^. The "Canon ofReason and Virtue" (Suzuki), a work conitainingabout five thousand characters, (less than the Gospelof St. Mark), said to have been written by Lao Tzuand given to his disciple Kuan Yin Tzu (q.v.)when the sage was finally leaving China for theWestern regions.It is now generally divided into eighty-onechapters, but according to Ssu-ma Ch'ien the authoronly divided it into two parts, the first treating ofTao, and the second of Te. These two expressions,toj;ether with the contents and authorship aresubjects of constant debate amongst foreign criticsand translators.Broadly speaking, Tao may be defined as theformative Principle of the Universe, to which man'snature should conform, and Ti as the same Principlejn activity, to which man's actions should correspond.The work was at first known as "Lao Tzu,"but later as the "Tao Te Sections." It was formallyadopted as a "Canon" in 666 a.d., and /the EmperorHsiiAN TsuNG wrote a commentary on it a.d. 719.Though Lao Tzu is constantly associated by theTaoists with Huang Ti, as one of the first Teachersof Taoism, it is not till Ssu-ma Ch'ien that wcdefinitely hear of a book supposed to have beenwritten by him. For various critical reasons, Gilesconsiders the Tao Te Ching "a clumsy forgery ofthe Han dynasty," and thinks Ssu-ma Ch'ien onlyknew it by repute. Legge, Faber and others considerit as genaiine ; most Chinese scholars seem toaccept it.. If compared with the writings ofCnuANG Tzu, or with Lieh Tzu, it appears tobelong to an earlier period when Taoism had notas yet. definitely mixed itself up with the alchemyand magic so conspicuous after the time ofHuai Nan Tzu.The book does not mention Lao Tzu nor is thereany proper name in it, though there is muchmention of the ancient sages ; it undoubtedly containsM8a number of sayings handed down from ancienttimes; but it is so vague and so terse as to admitin parts of various plausible translations, andtogether with noble utterances there is much that isalnjost unintelligible.It has been often translated. The RoyalSociety of England has a manuscript Latin translationpresented in 1788, the date of which isunknown, and the author likewise, though internalevidence points to his being a Portuguese. Hetranslates Tao by Ratio.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATA TSMNOther translations are : Paul Carus : 1898P. J. Maclagan : China Review, xxiii-xxiv; T. W.KiNGSMiLL : China Review, xxiv ; C. S. Medhurst :Chinese liecorder, November^ 1899, January, 1900;T. W. Heisinger : 1903 ; E. von Zach : Romanisedtext of the Manchu translation ; Franz Hartmann :(German) ; Wilhelm : (Gorman) ; Alexandre Ular :1902, (French), Paris; Alexandre Ular: 1903,(German) Leipzig; Henri Borei. : (Duitch) Amsterdam.See Taoism; Philosophy.T'AO T'lEH g^. a glutton of the time ofYao, banished by Shun. The term is now usedgenerally for a glutton, and an ogre with this name,having a huge belly and a thin face, is often seenon bronze and other vessels.TA PAO TA© or TAPAUTAU, ;^ gg S Bigdried-fish island ; the Chinese quarter at Tsingtau.TAR BAG AN, Arctomys bobac Schreb., theMongolian name for a very important rodent,otherwise called Marmot. There is a great demandfor the fur, two million skins per annum being sentfrom Mongolia and Manchuria by rail to Europe,where they are converted into imitation marten andsable furs. The chief interest in the animal is,however, that in all probability it is subject toplague, and that the great outbreak of bubonic andpneumonic plague in Manchuria in 1910-11 originatedwith it. In April, 1911, the Chinese governmentforbad the hunting, conveying or selling of tarbaganskins. See Plague.Report of the International Plague Conference,1912.TAR CHEN DO, the Tibetan name of the towncalled by the Chinese Ta chien lu {q.v.).TARIM, a river of Chinese Turkestan, whichrises in the Pamirs and flows through the desert for1,150 miles, to fail at last in the sand and reeds ofLob nor. Its basin constitutes the chief portionof Chinese Turkestan {q.v.).TAR PAN, Equus caballus. See Horse, Wild.TARTAR, more properly Tatar, the Chineseform being ^'S% ta ta erh. The name is looselyapplied both by Chinese and Western writers, tothe tribes inhabiting Central Asia and to theManchus. The main body of the Golden Hordewhich invaded Europe in the middle of the thirteenthcentury under Batu Khan was Turkish, and onlythe leaders were Mongol. The latter alone wereTartar, but Europeans gave the name to the wholearmy, so that Turk and Tartar became synonymous.Thus 'Taitary' was used as the name for Turkestanand neishboMTing countries. But the Turkish tribesdo not recognise the term, and even resent it. Itwas properly the name of a petty tribe or tribes ofthe north-east corner of Mongolia, probably Tungusic;then it came to be used by the Chinesewriters of all Mongols, then of all northern racas,even Russian. Its first appearance in Chinese worksis in the T'ang dynasty, in the tenth century, butParker speaks erroneously of its use in the secondcentury. The term Tartar is also used by foreignersfor the jjjf^ Ti, a general name for the non-Chinesetribes of the north, who long resisted Chinesecivilization and were sometimes practically mastersof China. The Chinese early writings divide theminto nineteen barbarian tribes, the most powerfulbeing named Ch'ih Ti ^ i'; or Red Tartars, Pai Ti^ 3(;^ or White Tartars, Ch'ang Ti ^"^ or GiantTartars ; beside the Jung ^ Tartars who dwelt inthe mountainous parts of the present Honan. Theseare all sub-divided, six tribes of the Red, three ofthe White, and so on : the names may be found inTschepe's work. They were at the height of theirpower in the seventh century B.C. when, under theheadship of the Red Tartai's, they occupied thehills of Shansi and Shantung for more than athousand li, as neighbours to the States of Wei,Chin, Lu, Ch'i, Sung and Cheng. These States,and still more the Staite of Ch'in to the west, wereall more or less affected in manners and in bloodby their constant intercourse with the Tartars ; infact Ch'in and Chin may be called half-Tartarwhether with regard to the people or the royalhouse. In course of time the Tartars were eitherabsorbed in Chinese civilization cr pushed nx)rth'beyond the Great Wall.Tschepe : Histoire des Trois Royaumes, p. 157 ;Parker : A Thousand Years of the Tartars; Legge :Ch'un Ch'iv, Prolegomena; Howorth : Hiidory ofthe Mongols, vol. i, p. 700; Martin : The Lore ofCathay.TA SHIH,;^ ^, the early Chinese term forArabs or Mohammedans generally. The- Tazi orTay of Western Asiatic writers.Hirth and Rockhill : Chau Ju-hua, p. 119.TA SHIH CHIH, one of the Boddhisattvas.See Mahdsthdmaprdpta.TA SHUN, ;^)®.The name of the dynastywhich Li Tzu-ch'eng sought to found in 1644.L! Tzu-ch'eng.SeeTA TAO HUl, (Society of Big Swords). SeeBoxerism.TA TE SENG, •*^:k^^ Seng is properly aBuddhist priest. Ta-te, great virtue, is found onthe Nestorian Tablet and elsewhere as a title similarto our Reverend : Alopen is called Ta-te Alopen.Ta-te-seng may therefore be rendered as Nestorianpriest.TA TSMN or TA CH'IN, i^ ^ greatChina.This country is noticed in Chinese works of -thflLater Han dynasty (a.d. 56-220), the Chin ^ dynasty(265-419), and the T'ong dynasty. (61&-905\; but54«

TATUNGKOWENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAChinese editors say that the Likan or Likien ^ ff^ IF > etc., of the Former Han writings is the samecountry. The latter najne appears in the Shih Chic. 123 B.C. It is the Chinese name for theRoman Empii-e; but only the eastern part, which16. IEthe Chinese were acquainted with, that is, Syria.The capital is given as An-tu, Antioch.In the T'ang annals the name is replaced byFu-lin {q.v.), which may stand for the Byzantineempire or the city of Constantinople,The reason for the rame, (Great China), maybe simply that the Chinese recognized that theRoman empire was to the west what China was totheeast.Yule : Cathay and the Way Thither; Hirth :China and the Roman Orient.TATUNGKOW ;A: ^ ^, a small port inShengking, opened to foreign trade by treaty withJapan in 1903.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 23,906 8,444Net Chinese „ 10,990 2,879Exports 40,894 21,978TA YU, ;^ i^ The Great Yii, appointed by theEmperor Shun to drain the great flccds from theEmpire. This was accomplished after nine years'incessant toil. He succeeded Shun in b.c. 2205, asfirst Emperor of the Hsia dynasty, :TAZI.See Ta shih.TC H EN G K 1-TON G, Bfi ^J^, Ch'en Chi-t'ung,a native of Fukien, who studied at the FoochowArsenal. M. Pkosper Giquel took him to Francein 1876. He was very intelligent and of mostagreeable manners. Of China he knew comparativelylittle, having only seen Fukien, and hebecame a thorough Frenchman in his manners andstyle of life. He wrote quite a number of light andbrilliant books in French. He w§s made Brigadier-General by the Chinese in 1884, and at the requestof the French government he was appointed militaryattache to the Chinese Legation at Paris, andseveral times he acted as charge d'affaires. Hisofficial pay being insufficient for the position heheld, he borrowed a good deal in the name of theLegation ; China refused to recognise the•loans andTotal Hk.TIs. ... 75,790 33,301TAD GAS, a name found in the History writtenby Theophylactus Simocatta, a Byzantine writer ofthe 7th century. It is the name of a 'nation notto be paralleled on the face of the whole earth forpower and population.' Taugas is China, as firstpointed out by De Guignes, but the name has givenrise to discussion. De Gxjignes, followed byPelliot, supposes it to indicate the Ta Goei orTa Wei dynasty, but Yule says it representsTamghaj, a name used by old Arabian and Persianwriters for a great nation of the far east of Asia.Yule : Cathay and the Way Thither.TAYLOR, JAMES HUDSON, M.R.CS.,F.R.G.S., the fouuider of the China Inland Mission.He was born at Barnsley, Yorkshire, in 1832, andwhen 21 years old was sent out by the ChinaEvangelisation Society as their first representative.He arrived in China in March, 1854. He worked inShanghai, Swatow and Ningpo, leaving the societyin 1855 to become an independent worker. In 1860failure of healtli made a return to Englandnecessary ; and it was during his stay there that theneed became clear to him for a new and specialagency to evangelize interior China. None of theexisting Societies could be moved to this great undertaking; he then founded the new mission, and in1866 left England on the Lammermuir with 13n-.issionaries. From that date till his death he wasidentified with the ever-growing and successfulpioneering mission, which numbered 828 agentsvhen he died in Changsha in May, 1905.See China Inland Mission.TcHENG was recalled, leaving Paris on April 17,1891. He was degraded, though Li Hung-changdid what he could to defend him. A letter fromTcHENG in self-defence will be found in The NorthChina Herald, March 25, 1892.The following are General Tcheng Ki-tong'sworks : Les Chinois peints par eux-memes; LeTheatre, des Chinois; Les Contes chinois; LesPlaisirs en Chine; Le Roman de VHomme Jaune;Mon Pays; Les Parisiens peints par un Chinois.CoRDiEa : Histoire des Relations de la Chine,etc., vol. iii, p. 68.TCHEOU-LI, LE.See Chou Li.TEA, ^ ch'a, Fukienese ta, is the name of thebeverage made from the leaves of the tea-bush, aplant of the genus Camellia, natural order Ternstroemiaceae,of which there are two kinds, Chinatea and Assam tea. Chinese teas are of two species,Thea bohea and Thea viridis. Fortune in 1843found that the black and green teas of Fukien andChekiang, prepared chiefly for foreign consumption,were produced by different processes from T. viridis,while the black and green teas of Kuangtung wereproduced from T. bohea. The plant grows in arich soil between the 23rd and 35th degrees oflatitude. There was considerable discussion as towhether tea was indigenous to China, especially aswild, tea was discovered in Assam about 1820. ButProfessor Andreas ICrassnow, after visiting thetea-growing districts of Asia, was of opinion thatthe tea-plant was indigenous to the whole monsoonregion of East Asia, and that there were twovarieties, the Assam and the Chinese.550

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATEAApart^from mere traditions, the earliest accountoi the cultivation of tea in China dates from thesixth century a.d., and a tax was levied on it in theeiglath century. Marco Polo makes no mentionof the use of tea in China. The Dutch in the17th century introduced tea to Europe. The Englishfirst began to drink it in the middle of the17th century, receiving it from agents in Java. Thefirst tea-house in London was opened in 1657, theprice of tea ranging from £6 to £10 a lb.The Chinese tea-plant was first introduced intoCeylon in 1839. A disease attacking the Ceyloncoffee plantations in 1881 led to a failure in thecoffee crop, and tea was grown instead'. Graduallythe competing Indian and Ceylon teas caused adecline in the China trade.The tea-plant is a bush from three to five feetin height, grown in small fields and in patches onhill-sides. The leaf is plucked from the end ofApril onwards. The first crop consists of younghalf-opened leaves which produce the delicate teacalled Hyson. The second and most important cropisgathered during May, while the third crop yieldsan inferior kind of tea. The green leaves are firstexposed to the air for two to three hours by dayor all night to dry them, then they are' spread oniron pans in the drying house and heated, beingkept in motion, for five minutes. They are thentaken out of the pans and rolled backwards andforwards oa a table by hand till all the juice isprct^sed cut and the leaves are twisted.This processis also helped by treading. They are then spreadout on sieves and exposed to the air out-of-doors forthree to four hours. After this they undergo asecond heating for nearly an hour till they arequite dry and curled. Some kinds of tea leavesundergo three or four heatings. To colour greenteas, the Chinese sprinkle Prussian blue ground topowder mixed with gypsum on the leaves at thelast roasting. [According to another account blacktea and green differ only by their preparation, theformer being sun-dried before roasting, the lattercarefully kept from exposure to the sun afterpicking]. The tea-leaves are then sorted intogrades, tea-dust being taken out by the finest sieve,"broken Pekoe" by the next, and so on. Thetea is then packed in lead-lined chests and markedwith the chop. In large factories, machinery isused to roll the leaves.BricJc Tea, consisting of tea-dust steamed andpressed into hard cakes resembling wood or stone,is prepared at Hankow for the Russian market.In some districts of Russia these tablets are sometimespassed as currency. A coarser kind of brickteaincluding tea-stalks is sent to Mongolia, wherethe people stew it in a pot together with butterand mutton fat. Bricktea of a coarser kind is alsoprepared at Ya-chou in Ssuch'uan for use in Tibet.The tea trade with Tibet at the end of the Manchurule was estimated at 19,000,000 lbs. per annum,8,000,000 being a subsidy from the Chinese Emperorto Tibetan monasteries.The petals of scented flowers such as the Oleafragrans, rose, tuberose, jasmine, azalea, or orange,are dried and mixed with tea-leaves of certain kinds.Mr. H. T. Wade in his article on Tea inTwentieth Century Impressions of Hongkong andShanghai, gives the following list of teas :BLACK TEAS.—A. Northern : Keemun (Anhui) ; Ningchow, Moning, (Kiangsi). Oo^acks—Sunyang, Yungloutong, Tongshan, Ichang, Cheongshukai, (Hupei). Oonahms—Oonfa, Liling, Nipkasee,Wunkai, Lowyong, Shuntam, (Hunan).B. Southern : Congou—J^&nyong, PacklumSouchong, Soomoo, Suey Kutsj Oolong, ScentedCa'pers, Scented Orange Pekoe, Pouchong, KoolooFlowery Pekoe.GREEN TEAS.—Moyune, Tienkai, Fychow(Anhui) ; Pingsuey, Hoochow, Wenchow, (Chekiang).BLENDS.—Sownee, (Shanghai packed) ; Gunpowder, (Siao Chu, small leaf) ; Imperial, (Ta Chularge leaf) ; Hyson, Young Hyson, Hyson SkinTwankay.Congou comes from the Amoy pronunciation ofX ^ kung fu 'work or labour.'Souchong comes from hsiao chung /]» Q, meaning'small sort.'Paovchong ^ % means 'wrapped sort.'Pekoe is derived from pei hao ^ ^, meaning'white down,' and is the name given to the delicateflavour of tea made from young leaf buds coveredwith a whitish down.Oolong is derived from wu lung J^ ^ 'blackdragon,' so-called because a black serpent was saidto have been found coiled round the stem of a teabushyielding that particular flavour of tea.Caper is the name given to a particular teaplant,the buds of which probably resemble those ofthe caper-plant.Bohea is derived from the Amoy proniunciationof Wu i and is both the name of the hills in Fukienand of the fine quality of tea grown there.Hyson is the name of a kind of tea. There arevarying explanations of the origin of this term.Some say that it was the name of the daughter of atea-merchant Li, who named after her the particularkind of tea that she had helped to sort. Anotherexplanation is that it is a corruption of yii ch'ien^ hII 'before the rain,' and that it was the namegiven to the tea made from half-opened budsgathered before the spring rains.Twankay is derived from Tun kh'e, a tea centreabout 15 miles south-west of Huichow in Chekiang,and is the name given to the tea sent from there.551

TEA-OILENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPu-erh tea is the product of a variety of the'true tea plant (var. assamica) which flourishes inPu-erh fu, S.W. "Yunnan. The leaves are steamedand pressed into cakes, and carried all over China,being esteemed as a medicine—a digestive andnervous stimulant. Other plants furnish so-called"teas," used medicinally. Such are Argemonemexicana^ or Chio-tzu ch'a ; Koelreuteria paniculata,I:uan ch'a; Hi-biscus i osa-sinensis , Hung-hua ch'afrom Kiangsi. Instead of tea, the poorer classesoften make a decoction of the leaves of Pyracanthacrenulata (Buisson ardent), the tea-shrub, Ch'a-kuot-^u ^M'J', of several species of Spiroea, of theWeeping Willow, and even of willow chips, whichE. H. Wilson describes as the worst tea he hadever tasted.The fall in exports of China tea since 1888 mayhi seen from the following figures :Annual Average Annual Average Annual AveragePeriod. of Tea e.tported of Tea exported of Te.i exportedfrom India. from Ce>lon. from China.lb& lbs. lbs.1888-1892 ... 105,529,000 ... 48,750,000 ... 242,213,0001893-1897 ... 135,408,000 ... — ... 234,507,0001898-1902 ... 172,689,000 ... — ... 192,427,0001903-1907 ... 210,611,000 165,500,000 ... 200,320,000The export of Tea in 1916 was as follows :Black tea PcLs. 648,228 Hk.Tls. 18,970,992Green tea 298,728 14,231,307Black brick tea ... 396,339 7,976,736Green brick tea ... 163,816 1,742,479tablet tea 26,669 665,135Tea dust ..'. ... 7,594 54,905Tea leaf, unfired 1,229 18,863R. Fortune : Wanderings in China; Ball : AnAccount of the Cultivation and Manufacture of Teain China, (1848) ; Hollingworth : Principal TeaDistricts in China, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. x; ImperialMaritime Customs : Tea, 1888.TEA-OIL is expressed from the seeds of Theaeasanqua, known as the Ch'a-yu kuo tzu ^ifij^^or Tea-oil fruit, a relative of the true tea plant,jfrom which it may be readily distinguished by itshairy shoots. It is a shrub, common in the sandstoneravines of north-central Ssuch'uan, butcultivated in the hilly parts of S. Hunan andKiangsi, and in N. Fukien, and especially inKuangsi. The average exportation is not large(12,000 piculs 1913 to 1915), but in exceptional yearsthe production is much greater. Thuts in 1911 nearly100,000 piculs were exported from Wuchow, Hankow,Foochow, etc., for use in China and abroad.The value is from Tls. 8 to 12 per picul.The export in 1916 was pels. 5,080, valueTls. 50,029.Wilson : A Naturalist in W. China, vol. ir,p. 98.TEAPOY or TEPOY, a word which ^as nothingto do with tea. It is an Anglo-Hindustani wordtipai meaning tripod, and is used in India for anytripod including small, three-legged tables, or anysmall tables. Yule : Hohson-Jobson.TELEGRAPHS. The first attempt to introducetelegraphs into China was made in 1865 by anEnglishman named Reynolds. He began to put upa line from Shanghai to the mouth of the Huang p'u ;but poles and wires were removed by the people withthe connivance of the officials, and the attemptfailed.In 1869 the American firm Russell & Co. putup a short line from the Shanghai Steam NavigationCo. Wharf to their central office.The Great Northern Telegraph Co. put downa cable from Hongkong to Shanghai in 1871, theShanghai end being landed secretly. Land lineswere first sanctioned in 1881, the earliest being fromShanghai to Tientsin. It was not extended toPeking till three years later, after which progresswas rapid.The Chinese Telegraph Administration and theWa Hop Co., two private Companies, were formedin 1882.In 1908 the Ministry of Communications tookcontrol of all land lines. There are now over 40,000miles of line, with over six hundred telegraphstations.China Year Book.TEMPERANCE. Using this wofd in respectof alcoholic liquors, it is generally acknowledgedthat the Chinese are a temperate race. Some,however, have asserted that this is simply a resultof the extreme poverty of the masses.There has been much legislation on the matter.The first known instance is in the beginning of theChoui dynasty, B.C. 1122, when Wu Wang or theDuke of Chou issued the Announcement aboutWine, (Legge's Shu Ching, p. 399), making it acapital offence to assemble for drinking. The firstHan ruler fined each person four taels of silver ifthree or more were found drinking together. Inthe T'ang, Ch'en, Northern Chou and Chindynasties more or less stringent laws against distillingor drinking were issued.Ament : Chinese Recorder, vol. xv, p. 191.TEMPLE OF EARTH. This Temple, in thenorth of the Tartar city of Peking, with its squarealtar, conesponds to the Temple of Heaven in theSouth with its round altar, and is only second to itin importance and magnificence. The Altar is ofdark-coloured marble and the colour prevailing inthe Temple is yellow. Earth is worshipped at thesummer solstice, when sacrifices similar to thoseoffered to Heaven at the winter solstice are made;but there is no burnt offering. See Temple ofHeaven.552

MarcoENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATERM QUESTIONTEMPLE OF HEAVEN, THE, with thecelebrated Altar to Heaven, is south of the Tartarcityof Peking, and is an enclosure of about 737acres. It contains a Hall for the rehearsal of theceremonies, the Hall of Fasting where the Emperorspent the night before sacrificing, the Hall ofI'rayer for the Yeai-, a Treasury, a slaughter housefor the sacrificial animals, and other buildings,besides Altars, etc. A plan will be found inWilliams' article named below. The existing Altarto Heaven was built by Ch'ien Lung. It is entirelyof white marble in three circular terraces, and inits measurements and proportions the numbers 9 and5 predominate, these being supposed to be thenumbers appropriate to Heaven ; the predominantcolour* in the Temple is blue. According to thereligious calendar issued at the beginning of thedynasty in 1644, Heaven is to be worshipped at thecircular Altar at the Temple of Heaven at thewinter solstice.Williams : State Religion of China during theManchu Dynasty, Jounial, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xliv.TEMPLES in China are, of course, of variouskinds. The generic name is ^% miao ; this is alsothe special term for large Buddhist temples notinhabited by priests, and also for small roadsideshrines, etc.A Buddhist monastei'y is called ssu ^, and anunnery an f^, while ^^t'ang may stand for either.A Taoist monastery or nunnery is csXled huanS!|Ji ,but such are sometimes Taoist no more, in spiteof the name, having passed into Buddhist possession.Another term for Taoist monasteries, though notfor nunneries, is hung ^ ; but this term is also usedfor the spiritual shrine of an emperor, of Confuciusand of others.Ancestral halls of piivate families are calledtz'u m•Other, names for Buddhist monasteries arelun jo i^ ^ ,and seng chia Ian lin fg^ 2S H ^^ both,being Sanskrit terms reproduced with Chinesecharacters.T E M U C H I N . SeeChenghis.TEN DUG, a district described by Makco Poloas lying between Tangut and Shang-tu ; he speaksof the lower waters of the Yellow River as comingfrom it. It is the land both sides of the river,it.c'.uding part of the Ordos and the district north.This, according to Polo and other writers, is theland of Presteu John. The city Tendnc is nodoubt the modern T'u-ch'eng ± i^ or Toto calledTogdo or Tokto by the Mongols.Yule and Cordier : Polo, vol. i, p. 285;PiOCKHiLL : Diary of a Journey through Mongoliaand Tibet, p. 18, note.TENGYUEH, 8| ^ t'cng yiieh,called Momeinby the Burmese, is a market town in Yunnan. It70553was opened in 1899 by the Agreement supplementaryto the London Convention of 1894. It is 180 milesfrom Bhamo, with which place trade is carried onby mule-transport. The Shan principality of Nankao,in which Tengyiieh stands, was conquered bythe Chinese in the fourteenth century, and the townwas built as an outpost soon afterwards.Its elevation is 5,400 feet, and its averagerainfall is about 65 inches, most of it being inJune—September. The population is about 9,000.The trade is small, the chief exports being silk,orpiment and musk. 1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 2,192,422 1,711,670Net Chinese ,,— —Exports 747,012 628,376Total Hk.Tls. ... 2,939,434 2,340,046TERM QUESTION. The question whatChinese terms are best to translate God and Spirit,or rather the Hebrew and Greek words so renderedin English, a question which from the year 1840onward has divided missionaries, has resulted in amass of literature and has never been decided.The Roman Catholics of the 17th century metwith the same difficulty and Jesuits and Dominicansdisputed the matter for nearly a century, till it wasstttled by a Papal Bull in 1715; it wa.s ordered thatthe term Shang-ti Jc. ^ (Supreme Ruler) should be(Lord of Heaven)avoided, that T'ien Chu ^ ^should be used for God and Shen ^ for Spirit.The Protestants' difficulty cannot be thussettled by authority. It was not to be expected thatthe Chinese language should contain terms whichwould connote that which the Christian means byGod and Spirit ;pagan terms, as was the case 2,000years ago, must be gradually filled with the newmeanings taught by Christianity. But the difficultyconsists in choosing the most suitable and lea.st.objectionable of the names already in use. Oneparty considers the _b ^ Shang-ti of the Classicst.) be the God of a monotheistic period in Chinaand therefore appropriate to be used now forJehovah; but there are idols worshipped to-daywith this title ! Another party uses Ji^ shen; butthis word is in common use as a plural, meaningall kinds of spirit beings. Some have used ^ %

TERNSENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAThe controversy among Protestants was at itsheight about 1850. Mokrison, Milne, Marshm\nand Bishop Boone were the chief pleaders foriSAen jg^ as the equivalent of Geo; ; while Medhurst,GiiiZLAFF, Legge and others defended the titleShanq-ti Ji^ for the true God and used shen forfalse gods. Letters on the subject, replies, defencesand strictures were printed in great abundance.It may be said that considering how stronglymen felt on the question, the controversy wa* conductedin a very becoming manner.To-day there is little dispute on the subject,though even in 1913, Dr. C. W. Mateer publishedin the Chinese Recorder, and separately, an elaboratestudy. The Meaning of the word Shen. But BibleSocieties issue the Scriptures with either tenn atthe buyer's choice. It is noticeable that while inold days Shang-ti and Sheng shen ^ jf wenttogether for God and Holy Spirit respectively, orels3 Chen Shen and Sheng Ling ^ g ,probably themost commonly used combination to-day is Shang-tiand Sherg Ling. See Rites Controversy.TERNS.THIBET.See Laridae.See Tibet.THINAE. See China.THIRTEEN CANONICAL WORKS. SeeClassics.THIRTEEN PROVINCES. See EighteenProvinces.THOMAS, ANTOINE, a Jesuit missionary,born at Namur in 1644. He reached China, in 1682and was called to Peking to assist Verbiest at theBoard of Mathematics.As for the confusion between the names of thismissionary and P. Pereyra, see Pereyra.P. Thomas died in 1709 in Peking.BosMANS : Ferdinand Verbiest, Louvain, 1912.THOMAS, SAINT, The Apostle, supposed bysome to have preached the gospel in China. TheChaldean Breviary says that 'the kingdom of heavendescended on the Chinese by means of St. Thomas,'but there is no support to this assertion and it isnow generally regarded as an error due to ignoranceof geography in early times.The images of a swarthy, bearded personagefound in temples and named Ta Mo naturally madesome people at various times think them to beimages of the Apostle ; but it is well known thatthey represent the foreigner from India calledBodhidharma, Chinese P'u-t'i-ta-mo, who came to.China in the sixth century a.d.THOM, ROBERT, was born in Glasgow onAugust 10, 1807, and after a business training hespent some years in Venezuela, Mexico and Francehe landed in China in Februarv, 1834. He learnedChinese very quickly, and in 1839 published, underthe pseudonym 'Sloth' a translation of a Chinesetale. His translation of /Escp's Fables intoChinese has been highly praised.In 1840, he entered the Government service asinterpreter, and did very good work at Amoy,Chusan, Chinhai and Canton. From October, 1841,to May, 1842, he was civil administrator of thecity and district of Chinhai. In March, 1844, hev/as appointed first consul at Ningpo, but thestrain, fatigue and exposure of the previous threeyears had so injured his health that he died onSeptember 14, 1846.His published works ai-e The Lasting Resentmentof Miss Wang Keaou Lwan (translation, 1839),Chinese and English Vocabvlary (1842), The ChineseSpeaker, Pt. I, (1846).THOUSAND CHARACTER ESSAY,^^Xch'ien tzu wen, a composition containing exactlyone thousand different characters, arranged four toa line, each sentence being complete in itself butgenerally having no connection with the next. Itis the second book learned by the Chinese schoolboy.The story goes that Chou HsiNG-ssu ^^S3a great scholar of the sixth century a.d., wasordered, when in prison, to make a compositionwith a thousand different characters jumbledtogether and supplied to him. He made this essaywith them in a single night, but the effort turnedhis hair white. It is therefore often referred toessay.as the pai t'ou wen Q ^ 3SC white-head .There is also a Thousand Character Essay forthe special use of girls, made in the Tao Kuangperiod.THREE HOLY ONES, H ^, son sheng.These are Buddha, Lao Tzu and Confucius, oftenrepresented together. This eclectic triad is oftenseen in temples and still more often in pictures,and it is commonly said that the three religionsare one.The term is also used in^a strictly Confucianconnection. According to Mencius, the son shengwere Yii, Chou Kung and Confucius ; but thereare other combinations.DoRE : Superstitions, tome vi ; Mayers : ChineseReader's Manual.THREE KINGDOMS, THE, H S ^ankuo.The name of a period which extended from 221 to265 A.D. The empire after the fall of the Handynasty was divided into the three kingdoms ofWei |g|, Wu %, and Shu @. Wei comprised thecentral and northern provinces ; its capital was atLo Yang. Wu consisted of the provinces south ofthe Yangtze, now called Hunan, Hupei, Kiangsuand Chekiang ; its capital was Nanking. Shuincluded the western part now named Ssuch'uan,and had its capital at Ch'eng-tu.554

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA T'lEN HSIATs'ao Ts'ao was prime minister, but reallythe ruler in Wei, and his son, Ts'ao P'ei, put theEmperor to death and ascended the imperial throne.Wu was governed by Sun ch'uan, and. Shu bya prince Liu Pei who claimed to be descended fromthe Han emperors and to be rightful heir to theirthrone. His dynasty is called in history theiMinor Han or the Shu Han dynasty, and is consideredas being the lawful line in this period ofconfusion. Chang Fei and Kuan Yii (afterwardsdeified as God of War) were his generals ; and hisprime minister was the celebrated Chu-ko Liang.Liu Pei attacked Wu, but was defeated. Hedied and his son Hou Chu made peace with Wuand prepared an expedition against Wei, firstconquering the Burmese, to be safe in the re^r.The expedition failed, and although some baittleswere won lateo:", the character of Hou Chu deterioratedafter Chu-ko Liang's death; Wei overcamehim, took him prisoner and dubbed him "Duke ofthe Shu Han dynasty wasPleasure" ^ |^ ^ ;ended, and a new dynasty, known as the WesiternChin ^, A.D. 265, was founded by Ssii-MA Yen.The period is one of the most famous andromantic in Chinese history and stands first inpopular interest. The historical novel San huo chihis one of the chief Chinese works of fiction ; andplaywrights and storytellers draw chiefly from thisperiod.For lists of rulers see under separate titles.Tschepe : Histoire des Trois Royaumes (Var. Sin.).THREE NOBLE BUDDHAS, THEjHS;^^San Tsiai Ta Fo. This term, though very widelyused, has different significations according to theschool employing it.The appellation 1$. {Arya) is the right of everyBuddha and Bodhisattva. Therefore the "ThreeNoble Buddhas" may be used of any triad ofBuddhas ; and in point of fact is also applied totriads consisting of, or containing Bodhisattvas.The most widely-accepted combination in China isthe following— (i).^ M ^ M ^ ,S'akyamuniBuddha; (ii).g^ gjg fi£ ^ -Jfe in i^, VaiduryaBuddha ; (iii). |2? ?^ pg ff^ , Amitabha Buddha.THREE PRECIOUS (ONES), THE, H SSan jjao. The Sanscrit Triratna; the Trinity ofBuddhist doctrine, Buddha, Dhanna (the law), andSangha (the congregation of the faithful). InBuddhist temples images symbolising these areworshipped.THREE PURE ONES, THE ^jg san ch'ing,the Taoist triad. They live in different heavens,and the name of the occupant of the first or Jaden'.ountain is uncertain, but the popular name forthis supreme one is Yii Huang, Jade Ruler, andhe is held the master of the gods. (See Yiian ShihT'ien Tsun). The second Pure One is Tao chunj^3?> Nothing is said of his origin. He. control^the relations of the yhi and the yang.The third ofthe triad is Lao Tzu. In the organization of thethree heavens, the attendants on Yii Huang areSaints, those of Tao chlin are Heroes or 'true men,'and those of Lao Tzii are Immortals.DoRE : Recherches sur les Superstitions enChine, vol. vi, p. 7.THREE RELIGIONSr, THE, (or systems ofDoctrine) ^ f^, San chiao, a common Chineseexpression for the system of the literati, Confucianism; the system of Shih or S'akyamuni, Buddhismand the system of Tao, Taoism ; for which theChinese names are respectively Ju chiao ^ ^.Shih chiao |^ |j(, and Tao chiao MWL- See eachseparately.THREE RITUALS, THE, 3. il san ZJ, a termused for the three works / Li, Chou Li and TA Chi.See separate articles.THREE STOCK LAW, THE.THREE TRAITORS, THE.Three.THRUSHES. See Turdinae.See Law.See Traitors, TheTl, ^, barbarous tribes on the northernboundaries of China. They used dogs in huntingand fire for warmth and the Chinese characterwould seem to be made of these two points ( -J^ dog,'K fire). See Tartars.Tl, ^, Emj)eror, etc. See Imperial Titles.TIAO, f^. Properly a string of one thousandChinese cash, but in some districts it denotes fivehundred actual coins. There are always a certainnumber short, regarded as 'discount.'TIBET or THIBET. The Chinese name isTsang or Hsi Tsang ^ M; i^ the Ming dynastyit was called j^WtB, ^^'« «-'" Tsang, from thenative designation Us Tsang; meaning Central andPure. The native U or Wu seems also to have beencorrupted by the Chinese into Wei ; hence W Mis now used as the general geographical name forthe whole country.The name Tibet, which has beenused in Europe since Marco Polo's days, is representedin Chinese by jg .fi^ ^ T'u-po-te, probablythe Mongol sound of the native name. TheTibetans call themselves Bod and their countryBod-jul (land of Bod) which the Chinese identify a.»Fo-Kuo ^g^.Tl CHIH, M^ earthly branches. See Cycle.T'lEN CHU, ?cS India; also called Hsi, ^Chu, western Chu.T'lEN CHU CHIAO, 5^±tSc, Lord of Heavenchurch. The name of the Romas Catholic Church inChina, as Yeh su Chiao, Jesus Church, stands forProtestantism.T'lEN HSIA, 5S T under the heavens, aJusual terra for the world, meaning originally China.555

T'lEN KAN ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAT'lEN KAN, 5^^ heavenly stems.TMEN SHIH, 5^ ^ig . See Master of Heaven.See Cycle.T'lEN T'AI, ^ -^^ a School of Chinese Buddhism,so called from tlie district in Chekiang whereits founder lived. It dates from the end of thesixth centuiy, when Chih I founded the T'ien-t'aimonastery. He revolted against the exclusivenessof the Contemplative School (Ch'an Tsung), andadmitted some value in every form or expressionof Buddhist doctrine. Hence the school is broadand many-sided. It produced not only importantdoctrine but a great monastic system and a numberof famous wi-iters. In the period of the FiveDynasties the monasteries suffered severely and thescriptures were almost lost. The school was,however, re-established from Korea and contributedliterature to the Tripitaka until 1270, but itswritings lost their distinctive character after theninth century.Chih I selected the work known as the LotusSutra as worthy of special study and veneration,and he wrote two commentaries on it. See Chih I.Edkins : Chinese Buddhism.T'IEN-T'AI SHAN 5^ >§, III,the earliest seatof Buddhism in East China is in Chekiang, about50 miles S.W. of Ningpo. It rises to a height ofnearly 4,000 feet. Its oldest monasteries werefounded in the fourth century. It gives its nameto a School founded in the 6th century.See Buddhist Schools.Edkins : Chinese Buddhism; Hackmann :Buddhism as a Religion.TIENTSIN,5^>^ , the most important commercialcentre north of Shanghai, is in Chihli, atthe junction of the Pai ho jlijQ and the GrandCanal. It was opened to foreign trade by theconvention of Peking in 1850 and there are separateconcessions for all the Great Powers. The populationis about a million.As to its relations with foreign powers ; it wasoccupied by the French and British in 1858 and1860. After the Boxeo- rebellion it was again inforeign occupation for two years. A treaty withGreat Britain was signed there in 1858. In 1870it was disgraced by the 'Tientsin Massacre' {q.v.).Since the Boxer year the place has been greatlydeveloped and improved. It is now an importantrailway centre, the line from Pu-k'ou (Nanking)running to it and the line from Mukden to Pekingpassing through it. This line also passes Tungkuat the mouth of the river, and is of great use, sincethe Pai ho is difficult for navigation at all timesand is frozen for some months every year. In thePeace Protoool of 1901 provision was made for aBoard of Conservancy to be established, and theriver has been greatly improved. The railway,however, carrieg 50 per cent, of the traffic.Enormous quantities of salt are evaporated out atTientsin, and there is a lai'ge export of coal.The place has Public Gardens and a very fineRace-couirse. 1915 1916Net Foreign Imports ... 52,859,966 57,606,509Net Chinese „ ... 22,333,528 26,703,768Exports 49,859,964 48,710,122Total Hk.Tls. ... 125,053,458 133,020,399Since the post was established in 1860 thefollowing have been British Consuls or Consuls-General at Tientsin.1860, Dec. 4, James Mongan, Acting-Consul.1861, Dec. 20, „ Consul.1877, Nov. 9, Chaloneh Alabasteh, (later. SirChaloner), Consul. Did not proceed.1880, Feb. 25, Arthur Davenport, Consul.1885, Dec. 23, Byron Brenan, Consul.1893, June 15. Henry Barnes Bristow, Consul.1897, Sept. 27, Benjamin Charles George Scott,Consul.1899, May 13, William Richard Carles, Consul.1900, June 9, „ ConsulGeneral.1901, Mar. 22, Lionel Charles Hopkins, Consul-General.1908, Sept. 1, Sir Alexander Hosie; Consul-Gensral.1912, Oct. 1, Harry English Fulford, c.m.g.,Consul-General.TIENTSIN ANGLO-CHINESE COLLEGE,The, was built in 1899 and opened in 1902. In1904, Sir Ernest Satow, the British Minister,opened the College Museum and Library. Tbofounder of the College was Lavington Hart, D.Sc.(London) and B.Sc. (Paris), formerly Fellow andLecturer of St. John's College, Cambridge. It wasconnected with the London Missionary Society,which was not able to finance it in addition to itshigher educational work in Peking, and it wastherefore made self-^supporting. The fees beinghigh ($140 a year), it appeals chiefly to the upperclass of students.There are three Departments—^(q) Preparatory(b) Middle School; (c) Collegiate; each with a fouryears' course.The last named has both Arts and ScienceDivisions.At the present time (1917) the London MissionSociety supports five men in this work, of whomfour give all their time to it, and there are thirteenChinese assistants.The number of students is 410.TIENTSIN MASSACRE, THE, took place onJune 21, 1870. For some weeks there had beenrumours of impending trouble, threats againstforeigners and even assaults. But the Chinese556

.theENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATIENTSIN, TREATYofficials made no effort, to say the least, to avertthe trouble, or preparation to deal with it when itarose. On the contrary the evidence shews thatthey were more or less cognizant of what wasproposed and that they more or less approved'.It was stated that the people's belief in thekidnapping of children by the French Sisters ofCharity was the cause of the attack; but it is tobe noted thait the first ou^reak was not againstthe Hospital or the Cathedra] but against theConsulate; and further, that other nationalitiesthan French also suffered.When the attack on the French Consulatebegan, the Consul, M. Fontanier, in uniform, madehis way to the Yamen of the Special CommissionerCii'uNG Hou. Here help was refused, and as heleft the soldiers and mob killed him. It was saidby the Chinese that the Consul fired his revolver ata mandarin, but better evidence shows there wasno truth in this accusation. After the Consul hadgone to the Yamen the mob broke into the Consulateand brutally murdered Monsieur and MadameThomassin, the Abbe Chevrier and a Chinesepne.st. Thomassin was an attache to the FrenchLegation in Peking, and had only returned fromFrance the day before, accompanied by his newlymarriedwife. The Consulate was then fired, andth.-3 Roman Catholic Church. Meanwhile theHospital of the French Sisters of Charity wassurrounded and all the Sisters were dragged intostreet, stripped naked that the mob might besure of their sex,, then horribly and shamefullyEiutilated, cut to pieces and thrown into theburning building. Other outrages were not spared,but are best left undescribed. It is supposed thatmore than a hundred orphan Chinese children alsoperished in the flames.A Russian merchant, nameu Protopopoff, withhis wife whom he had married only ten days before,were met as they rode through the town, and theman, was killed at once; the wife escaped for themoment, but her horse fell in leaping an open sewerand she also was murdered.A French merchan,t, M. Chalmaison, tried toreach the Hospital in hope of defending the Sisters,but he was hacked to pieces in the street. His wifethen fled to the house of a native Christian, but atnight she returned to her home dressed in Chineseclothes, hoping to find her husband's body. After afruitless search she tried to make her way to theSettlement, but some trained soldiers discovered herand killed her in the street.The Sisters were burnt so that only a fewcharred and unrecognizable portions of their bodieswere found. In the case of the other murderedpeople it should be placed on record that some werefound stripped quite naked, some were shockinglym.utilated and some were so disfigured as to beunrecognizable.The list of the victims is as follows :Two priests and ten Sisters of Charity, all ofthe Congregation of the Mission of St. Vincent ofPaul, commonly called Lazarists.Father Claude Marie Chevrier, Director ofthe district of Tientsin and Procurator in thattown, Father Vincent Ou, (Chinese), MarieTherese Marquet (Belgian), Superior, MarieClorindb Andreoni (Italian), Marie PaulineViollet (French), Marie Joseph Adam (Belgian),M\RiE Anne Pavillon (French), Amelie CarolineLegras (French), Marie Seraphine Claveline(French), Marie Anne Noemi Tillet (French),Marie Angclique Lenu (French), Alice 'Sullivan(Irish).The massacre, but still more the unsatisfactoryway in which investigations were afterwards conducted,caused a great deal of unrest in all partsof North China where there were foreign interests :indeed it became a question whether foreignerswould be able to stay in some places through thefollowing winter. After long delay, voluminouscorrespondence and much discontent and remonstrancefrom the foreign public, the matter wassettled by the beheading of twemty more or lessguilty prisoners—though even at the last the Chineseauthorities tried to have the executions take placeaway from Tientsin,—the banishment of twentyfivemore, the payment of Taels 210,000 for damageto property, and for the murdered persons thefollowing amounts :The Consul Fontanier Tls. 30,000The Secretary S. Simon 20,000M. and Mme. Chalmaison ... 20,000The Secretary J. and Alme.Thomassin 50,000The Catholic Mission 130.000250,000(In the Blue-book, by a clerical error thisamount is several times quoted as Taels 25,000).The Prefect and sub-Prefect of Tientsin werebanished to the Amur Province, with hard labour.Blue-Book, Chma, No, 1 (1871) ; The TientsinMassacre, North China Herald Office, Shanghai,1870 ; The First Martyrs of the Holy Childhood,by a Priest of the Mission, (translated from theFrench by Lady Herbert).TIENTSIN, TREATY OF. This was signedat Tientsin, June 26, 1358, by the Earl of Elginand Kueiliang, and was ratified at Peking, October24, 1860. Sir Frederick Bruce, proceeding toPeking for the ratification of this treaty in 1859, wasobstructed at Taku. The British and French,557

T'fEN TSU HUlENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAtrying to force a passage up the Pei-ho, werechecked, and this led to a joint expedition in 1860.Peking was occupied and a Convention made.The treaty agrees that Great Britain may sendambassadors, ministers, etc., to Peking, Chinabeing allowed the corresponding right. Consulsmight be sent to open ports or to other cities.Toleration for Christianity was agreed on. Travelwa.s permitted throughout China, and rent ofhouses, churches, etc. The Yangtze was opened totrade, Chinkiang with two other ports later,(Hankow and Kiu-kiang) being opened, with Newchuang,Chefoo, Taiwan, Swatow and Kiung-chow.The character 55 t (barbarian) Wcis to be no longerapplied to British subjects, and many traderegulationswere arranged. By a separate articletwo million taels indemnity were to be paid, butthis was annulled by the Convention mentionedabove and eight million taels agreed on instead.T'lEN TSU HUl. See Anti-foothinding.T'lEN TZU.See Son of Heaven.T'lEN WANG, ^ i Heavenhj King. SeeHung Hsiu-ch'iian.TIFFIN, Arab. Taffanun. The midday mealor luncheon.TIGERS, Felis tigris, ^ ^ lao hu. In DuITalde the tiger is mentioned as being common inMongolia and Manchuria and as occurring nearPeking. In 1682, according to Verbiest, 60 tigerswere killed in Liao tung in one day by K'ang Hsi.It is asserted that they are still found in theImperial Hunting Grounds in North Chihli. Theyare met with in Fukien, Kiangsi, Kuangtung,Kuangsi and Manchuria. They have been huntedby a few foreign sportsmen at Foochow, Amoy andSwatow, one hunter having shot nineteen in all.The average length has been stated as nine feet formales and eight for females. The greatest measurementreported is twelve feet, nine inches. Manchurianand Korean tigers are perhaps the largestknown. The fur is long, soft and woolly.In Chinese mythology the tiger is often foundas a mount for the destroyers of evil spirits, sucha^ Chang Tag-ling, and HsiiAN Tan, the god ofriches, is also sometimes represented riding a tiger.The beast itself is also counted divine and itspicture is often seen stuck on the walls of houses,bearing the Taoist seal of Ch'eng Htjang, andsometimes with the character 3£ wang, king, on itsforehead. The tiger as guardian is often seenpainted on the walls of magistrates' offices and onprivate houses. Its claws or the ashes of its burnthair are potent and expensive talismans.TIGER'S TAIL, THE, a point of land juttingout into the harbour of Port Arthur and separatingthe West and East Basins.TIMELIINAE, a sub-family of the Crater o-podidae, which includes a number of the Babblers.Alci'ppe davidi is found in Western China. A. ihueti David, the Fukien Quaker Thrush, is found \in Fukien and probably ranges through the southernprovinces. A. fratercula is found in Yunnan.A. morrisonia belongs to Formosa. Schoeniparusolivaceus has been taken at Ichang. S. genestieriis found in S.W. China. S. superciliaris , David'sQuaker-Thrush, occurs from Fukien to the LowerYangtze valley. S. brunneus is found in Formosaat all seasons. Proparus guttaticollis the FukienTit-babbler, is found in Fukien. P. ruficapilla,P. cinereiceps, P. striaticollk , P. fucatus, P.swinhoii, P. bieti occur in W. and S.W. China.P. jormosanus is found in Formosa. Stachyridopsissinensis 0. Grant, the Chinese Eed-headedBabbler, is found in S. China to the LowerYangtze valley. ^S". prcecognitus Sw. is found inFormosa and S. goodsoni Rothsch., in Hainan.Mixornis rubricapillus Tick., the Yellow -breastedBabbler, is found in Yiinnan.David et Oxjst.\let : Les Oiseaux de la Chine.TIN.See Minerals.TING JU-CH'ANG, TfkUi,a native ofAnhui, who fought against the T'ai P'ing rebels.He rose gradually till in 1888 he became Admiral.In 1394 he fought a disastrous action against theJapanese fleet, and retired to Port Arthur; thence,oa its investment, to Wei-hai-wei. Being here fullyinvested by the enemy he surrendered, stipulatingfor the lives of his officers and men, and then committedsuicide, 1895.TING YAO, S ^, Sung porcelain made atTing chou in Chihli. It is chiefly white, but onevariety is dark reddish brown, and another, veiyrare, is black.BusHELL : Chinese Art, vol. ii.TI-PAO, if^i^ land warden, the official headof a village, nominated by the magistrate fromamong the village elders but dependent on the goodwill of the villagers. He acts as constable and isresponsible for the behaviour of all in his village,and for the due payment of land-tax and tribute.He is also official land-surveyor, and on everytransfer of land he examines deeds and boundaries.This may bring in a good many fees and gratuitiesand also gives him much power over fellow-villagers,so that the office is in practice often bought.Several small villages may be joined under onetl-pao or a large village may be divided into severalwards, each with its tipao.TITLES.See Nobility; Imperial Titles.TITLES OF HONOUR ; there were six denotingconnexion with the Emperor, Grand Preceptor,558

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATONESGrand Tutor, etc., and six similar in connexionwith the Heir Apparent, ^ -J-. The lowest,^^^J;^T'cii tzu shao ^Jao,—Junior Guardian of the HeirApparent, gives the title g % Rung pao to thebearer. For list see Mayer's, Chin. Govern., p. 14.See Guardian.TITS. See Parinae.Tl TSANG, i^ ^, a Buddhist bodhisattva orpusa, the 'patrmi saint' of Chiu-hua shan in Anhui,one of the chief places of pilgrimage jn BuddhistChina. About a hundred thousand- pilgrims visitChiu-hua every year. His name in Sanskrit isKsHiTiGARBHA meaning 'earth-womb' or 'earthtreasury,'translated Ti-tsang in Chinese. InEnglish he is .wmetimes called 'Lord of Hell,' orpreferably 'Ruler of the Dead.' In Japan his nameis Jizo.Different views of Buddhist matters will betaken according as they are studied from Buddhistscriptures and by intercourse with enlightenedmonks, or from a closer point of view amongignorant priests and superstitious people. Somewrite of Ti-tsang in ecstatic, almost New Testamentterms, as one who has sworn to take uponhimself the sins and burdens of all creatures anddevote himself, at the cost of any anguish and toil,to the salvation of mankind. To others he is the'bonze impostor' who introduced the system ofpaying priests to release the dead from hell, a systemon which a swarm of lazy priests can live at ease.Both Johnston and Dore should be read.As to his origin, he is known in Indian Buddhism,but is not prominent there. He was earlyknown in Central Asia, but whether his cult becameimportant there first or in China is doubtful.Because of his connection with the dead it wouldseem that it was in China that he first became soimportant ; but his dominion among the dead hasa parallel in the Zoroastrian angel Srosh.Johnston : Buddhist China, ch. viii ; Dore :Recherches sur les Superstitions en Chine, tome vi,p. 148.TOBACCO, Nicotiana tabacum, ^ or j^ yen.It is supposed to have been introduced to Chinaabout 1530, but later dates are also given, up to1600 ; and it is not known whether it came byJapan or the Philippines. The earliest charactersused for it were ik E ^ or ?I4 Q -^ , the Amoypronunciation of which is tam-pak-co. Its use wasstringently prohibited by the last Ming EmperorTs'uNG CHENG, but in vain.The plant is now cultivated in every part ofthe country. In the rice-belt it is a spring crop,in the colder regions it is grown in summer. Insome parts of the Yangtze Valley three crops areraised. In Kuangtung" 1,800 tobacco plants areplanted per mou, yielding 3^ pels, of leaves, requiringan outlay of Tls. 30, while the market value ofthe best leaves ranges from Tls. 12 to Tls. 25 perpel. In this district the preparation of the leavesii as follows :—first the ribs are removed, then theleaves are sprinkled with ground-nut oil andmolasses and pressed into packs, which are firstcut into squares and later into shreds of greatfineness. On the Yangtze there are three types(1) The large leaves are dried on screens, kept flat,and packed into bales to form Ta yen i^^ large,tobacco; (2) the smaller leaves are dried in thesame way to form erh-yen Zl ^, second-classtobacco; which when treated with rape-oil and redearth hung-Vu JlC jt is pressed and shaved intofine shreds and used for smoking in water-pipes.This is the well known shui-yen -^ J^ ; (3) So-yen^> ^ or cord tobacco is prepared by cutting offthe leaves with a piece of the stem and hanginsthem up on the rafters to dry. They are V^cn rolledinto rough cigars and smoked in long pipes.The principal exporting ports are Hankow,Hangchow, Wenchow, Amoy, Swatow, and Canton.Nicotiana rustica is cultivated up to 9,000 feetaltitude in W. Ssuch'uan.The foreign tobacco imported to China in 1916was :—Cigarettes, Hk. Tls. 25,998,080, and tobacco,Hk. Tls. 3,275,760 ; and the export was cigarettes,Tls. 489,128; tobacco leaf, Tls. 1,136,516; tobacco(prepared), Tls. 1,908,255.TOBA DYNASTY, 3:^^15 T'o-pa shih. SeeNorthern Wei Dynasty.TOLO, the Chinese name for the Papal LegateCardinal de Totjrnon. The Chinese charactersused for the name are not known. See de Tournon.TOLO PALL, Pfe ^ ^ ^ t'o lo ching p'ei,palls supposed by Buddhists to make the deadhappy in the next world. Such palls were complimentarypresents of the Manchu Emperors toManchu and Mongol princes, and they were buriedwith the corpse. In Tibet they are kept in thelamaseries and let out on hire.In different places Giles seems to derive theword from the Sanskrit, dharuni, a charm, and fromthe Manchu toro, glorious.TOMBS, IMPERIAL, S,ee Mausolea.TONES, ^ [sheng, sound or voice). Neitherthe English nor the Chinese word is in any waydtst-riptive of the peculiar inflections of the voicewhich in Chinese, and in kindred languages such asSiamese, Annamese, etc., are an integral part ofevery spoken word. The word "tone" as used inEnglish may apply to a whole sentence, but inChinese the "tone" is contained within the limitsof one vowel sound.The tones are so embedded in the Chineselanguage that the majority of those who use them559

TONESENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAdj not known what "tones" are; and the educatedknow them, not from the study of the language asthey hear and speak it, but as coming under s^theory derived from books, and essential to finewriting.It is not considered necessary to indicate thetones in the Chinese written language, except incases where a character alters its meaning with itstone, and not always then. In this Chinese differs,e.g. from Siamese, where the tone is always shownin writing, either by diacritic marks or by the choiceof certain vowels. The Chinese way of indicatingtone is by a circle or semicircle at one of the fourcorners of the character ; foreigners generally preferthe number of the tone to be placed at the topright hand corner.Everything connected with the subject of tonesin general is confused and confusing and seemscapable of endless argument. Their origin isobscure. Possibly they are a survival of someuniversal characteristic of primitive speech. Onthe one hand, they are found among tribes whohave never risen to a written language ; on theother hand highly intellectual peoples have them,and even the ancient Greek accents are said to bemarks indicating certain sound-values correspondingto "tones." In the case of China it is an openquestion whether the ancient language hs,d anytones at all, such eminent native authorities asKtj Ning-jenEf|- ^ a (1603-1682) and ThanMao-t'ang P5 jSg E (1735-1815), taking oppositesides.The former declares that, at the time theOdes were written "there were only distinctions ofslow or rapid, light or heavy, in the pronunciation ofcharacters which developed afterwards into thetones," while the latter considers that in the Bookof Odes we have three tones. Both writers agreethat the tonal system of the Chinese language wasnot completed before the fifth century of our era,but as a matter of fact the tones in use in colloquial,as distinguished from the conventional tones asfixed for literary purposes in the Wu Fang YuanYin (q.v.), are and always have been undergoinggradual changes. To give the best-known example :Pekingese Mandarin has within the last fourhundred years reduced its tones from five to four,the words formerly under the suppressed tone havingbeen scattered among the other four.The distinction between "even"( f.) and"oblique" { JJ^) tones seems the most fundamentalone; it is the only one recognized in poetry, andmay have been native to the most ancient Chinese,or based at an early date on some other dead-andgoneintonation-value.The third tone to be evolved is believed, tohave been the abrupt or entering ( ^) tone. Inthis view, the even tone was the vowel pronouncedquite naturally and in the simplest form, theoblique, the vowel prolonged, and the abrupt, thevowel shortened by adding an ending of one of thestopped consonants k. t. p.At the present time four is the smallest numberof tones found in any dialect, while there may beeight, or even twelve, in others, some of them withminor sub-divisions also.In Mandarin :—the tones are1. Upper even, Ji ^ shang p'ing; 2. lower even,"]n' 2p. hsia -p'ing; 3. rising, Ji Wt. shang shcng4. departing, ^ ^ ch'u sheng ; 5. entering, \ ^ju shmg. It is the last which disappeared fromPekingese, and is in process of decay in the otherMandarin dialects, where its final consonant hasdropped off ; and in many places the words supposedto be in this tone are indistinguishable by ear evenby Chinese. In other districts sufficient difference ,is still heard to justify a final "h" in romanization.In the south the tones are more numerous andare often divided into two sets, an upper and alower ; but a more general arrangement is evenand oblique, the former containing the two leveltones, and the latter all the rest with appropriatenames for each.It may be noted that there are tones in K'angHsi which cannot now be distinguished inMandarin, but are well marked in the south.The common idea that tones were introducedinto Chinese as a make-weight against the paucityof sounds lacks confirmation, e.g., they are fewestin Peking which has a very limited syllabary, andn any in Canton which has a much lai'ger one. . Theyare in fact most numerous in the neighbourhood ofpeoples who use tones, and tend to become fewerwhere the neighbours have tone-less speech. Infact, as the aboriginal languages still used in Chinaall have tones, it is possible that if the Chinese diidnot acquire them from the people they conqueredsouth of the Yangtze, at least they developed themgreatly through this contact.How far a careful study of the tones is necessaryin acquiring a good knowledge of the spokenlanguage is a disputed point. It is more necessaryin learning some dialects than others and a personwith a sensitive musical ear will acquire unconsciouslywhat another may have to strive for.Whenthe student has learned to distinguish the tones asuttered by his teacher, and to relegate any newword to its proper tone "pigeonhole," his difficultiesare by no mean's ended. For the tones are differentin different districts though called by the samename, and they vary in combination. Moreover theChinese are poor helpe'rs in the matter, most ofthem only being able to pronounce a given word inits true tone but unable to say what tone it is, and,if pressed, giving the conventional tone of theWu Fang Yilan Yin, which constantly differs from560

ipapersENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAT'OUNG PAOthat of the modem pronunciation. Lastly understress of excitement or strong feeling of any kindthe foreigner is very likely to revert to the emphasisand intonation of his nativ^ tongue and ruin histones; though every Chinese can express all hisfeelings within tonal limits.As the tones tend to become fewer when theirspeakers are in touch with tone-less languages(e.(7.the Chinese sounds taken into Japan and Koreawith the characters are utterly tone-less), the futureof the constantly modifying Chinese tones wouldseem to lie in the direction of final disappearance.It is true that a wrong tone in any important wordof a sentence may sometimes be quite misleadingt3 a listener, but tones are not necessary parts ofChinese speech, for any sentence which a Chinesecan understand when it is spoken (with propertones), he can equally well understand when sung,i.e. without any tones at all.Quite recently the Eousselot apparatus hasbeen utilized in the U.S.A. to record the pitch ofevery portion of the vowel-note comprising a tone,by physical measurement of the air-waves set inmotion, after which the whole movement isaccurately plotted on carefully-prepared charts.[C.E.C.]Legge : Shih Ching, prolegomena, pp. 100-102Edkins : Shanghai Grammar; Wade : Tzu Erh Chi;Parker : Philological Essay, (in Giles' Dictionary,1st ed.) ; Bradley : On Plotting the Inflections, etc.,1916; and Tone-Accents of two Chinese Dialects,Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvi, p. 38.TONGUE-PIERCING, a practice in usage inHainan and on the opposite peninsula of Lei-chow.On the birthday of the God of War, a man with histongue or cheek pierced by a steel rod 5 or 6 feetlong is carried in procession with the image, afterwhich he makes his offering at the temple and therod is taken out. Another voluntary victim takeshis place, some twenty or more taking turns.China Review : vol. xxiv, p. 245.TOPE, See Stupa.TOPEE, the Hindustani word topi, a hat, usedby Europeans for the special kind of hat, the pithhat, which protects from the sun. See Sola.TORTOISE, % huei. This is a sacred animalin China, and is an emblem of longevity. Themarkings on its carapace were supposed by theChinese to have been the origin of their writtencharacters. In ancient times the tortoise was oneof the principal media used in divination.A vulgar name for it is wang pa, probably jfe A'forget eight,' that is, the creature that forgets theeight rules of right and wrong. Hence icang fais a very abusive term. The form of the animalroughly drawn on a wall, has the signification'commit no nuisance.' See Wang pa.TORTOISE-SHELL, tai-mei ^ ^ is obtainedchiefly from the logger-head turtle, Cheloniainibricata, found in the Malay Archipelago andIndian Ocean, and is imported at Canton for carvingpurposes. After being softened by dry heat, theplates are split and welded together, ready for thecarver's tools. Bushell : Chinese Art.TORTURE.Both prisoners and witnesses aretortured, in prison and in court, some tortures beinglegal and otheo-s not, though the distinction is notclear.In the Penal Code the instruments of tortureaje described, being three grooved boards for compressionof the ankles and five sticks for squeezingthe fingers ; but other methods, legal or not, arecommon, such as twisting the ears, making aprisoner kneel on chains, beating on the mouth tillm.astication is impossible and the teeth are loosened,beating the ankles till the bones are sometimesbroken, etc. These and other tortures may be founddescribed in the works named below. Williamsasserts that imprisonment and torture cause probablymore deaths among prisoners than othermeans.The chief check on torture is the fear amagistrate has of his superior, who would take theopportunity of an accusation either to 'squeeze' himor remove him. In 1905 an Imperial Edict wasissued to ameliorate the severity of torture. TheRepublic has already made some improvements inthis matter.Williams : Middle Kingdom, ch. viii ; Gray :China, ch.ii.TOU MU, :?^^, mother of the North Pole,astellar goddess of the Taoists, honoured also byBuddhists. She was mother of the Nine Jm HuangA ^> "human sovereigns," who reigned in the firstepoch of the world. YiiAN Shih T'ien Tsun tookthe whole family and gave them the palace of theTou shu in Ursa major.Among other names she is called Mo Li chih^%\]%, and her birthplace was in India. She istherefore Maritchi of the Brahmanic mythology,borrowed by Taoism. Her image in the templeshas three eyes and eighteen arms.DoRE : Becherches sur les Superstitions, tomeix, p. 565.T'OUNG PAO, MWi> Archives pour servir d.I'etude de VHistoire, des Langues, de la Geographicet de r Ethnographic dc VAsie orientale. A journalfounded in April 1890, the first editors beingGuSTAVE Schlegel and Henri Cordier, who carriedit on to 1903, (vol. iv, N.S.), when Schlegel diedand E. Ch.wannes took his place.It is the most important foreign Journal dealingwith Chinese subjects. Its volumes contain manyof the greatest value by the most eminent71561

T0UR60UTHSENCYCLOPAEDIA. SINiCAsinologues. The journal is French, but includesarticles in English and German.TOURGOUTHS. See TurguU.TOURNON, CHARLES THOMAS MAIL-LARD DE, born at Turin, Deceinber 21, 1668, wasmade Patriarch of Antioch in 1701 before hisdeparture for China as Legate a latere in 1702.Heappears to have been a man of much beauty ofcharacter, but neither physically nor by experienceand age was he fit for the difficult task he had todo. He was the bearer of the Constitution ofClement XI Ex ilia die, which condemned theChinese rites; this threw him into opposition withthe Jesuits at the Court, who had the ear of theEmperor. Then the Portuguese at Macao did notrecognize his authority, since his credentials had notpassed the Royal Chancery of Portugal in accordancewith the jtis patronatus; and though by judicioussilence this difficulty might have been got over,his arrogant assumption brought him a good dealof trouble.At the Court his chief opponent was Pereyra,to whom the Emperor was much attached Thenarration of the plots and intrigues by which hewas surrounded, of the persecution which cut shorthis days, is very sad reading ; but his mission initself was an impossible one : he bore the messageliomn locuta est to an Emperor who cared nothingfor the voice of Rome. The Pope condemned whatK'ang Hsi approved, and it resolved itself intothe question of where obedience was due. On theone hand the Papal Bull was most clear and uncompromisingin deciding against the rites ; on the otherthe Emperor emphatically said that in such a matterthe foreigner was not competent to form a correctopinion ; while such learning as foreigners had ofChinese matters, in the Jesuits at the Court, wasnot in agreement with the Pope's decision.As Legate, de Tournon magnified his office ; alittle compromise, judicious silence at times, and,in a word, more worldly wisdom, would havesmoothed his own path considerably and perhapswouJd have caused the wreck of the missionarywork to be less complete than it became. After along struggle and much suffering in Peking, he wassent down to Macao (June, 1707) with instructionsto the Portuguese to keep him in custody. He wasconfined in the Franciscan convent, and here heincreased his difficulties by his assumption andassertion of authority which was not recognized.He was excommunicated by Mgr. Cazal. Hisreward was sent him in the form of a Cardinal'sbiretta, which he put on his head on January 8,1710, with as solemn ceremonies—maimed rites—asthe circumstances permitted ; but on June 8 of thesame year he died, at the early age of 43. SeeRites Controveuy.Jenkins : The Jesuits in China; Favieb :F-ektng; de Moidrey : La Hiirarchie Catholiqueen Chine, p. 41.TRACT SOCIETIES. In the beginnings ofProtestant Missions in China, the Tract Societies ofLondon and of New York made grants, first toindividual missionaries, and later lo certain centres,and the Religious Tract Society of London, beside.smaintaining an agent of its own in Shanghai, stillgives a yearly grant in aid to the various TractSocieties operating in China.These are : 1.—Canton Tract Society (no recordof date of founding.) 2.—Hongkong Tract Society(also without date), now chiefly concerned withEnglish sales. 3.—Chinese Tract Society, Shanghai,formed in 1894 by the union of the East China TractSociety (started under another name about 1844 bythe London Missionary Society and Church MissionarySociety missionaries) and the Chinese ReligiousTjact Society (formed in 1878), both operating inShanghai. 4.—Religious Tract Society of Northand Central China, formed in 1915 by the amalgamationof the Central China Religious Tract Society,(started in Hankow in 1876 under another name)and the North China Tract Society (organized in1883 in Peking). The headquarters are at Hankow,with a sub-agency at Tientsin. 6.—West ChinaTract Society, Chungking (1889). 6.—North FukienTract Society, Foochow, (1891). 7.—ManchurianTract Society, Mukden, (1906). 8.—South FukienTract Society, Amoy, (1908).TRADE. Foreign trade began in China asexchange of presents with the tribes on the north,or as tribute from vassals, both of which, as Parkerobserves, are merely trade in its earliest form. TheHsiung-nu Khans sent camels, horses, and carts,receiving in return silk, clothing, buckles, hair-pins,embroidei'y, etc. From Korea came pearls, sables,and wood, and flax and hemp from the Tunguses.Frontier fairs are mentioned as early as B.C. 140,and clandestine trade was carried on.In the reign of Wtj Ti, the great Emperor ofthe Early Hans, intercourse began with Parthia,Mesopotamia, and the Greek dynasties of Bactriaand Afghanistan. It was in Bactria that the famoustraveller Chang Ch'ien (b.c. 160-110) saw Chinesegoods in the markets, and from this time trade wascarried on by the overland routes, reaching thecountry called by the Chinese Ta-ts'in (and in theMiddle Ages Fu-lin), which according to Hirth wasthe oriental part of the Roman empire, viz., Syria,(and later Egypt and Asia Minor) with Antioch asthe destination of the traders.Sca-Toute.—China first found herself with anunbroken line of coast under the Hans, and an activetrade between Alexandria and the Far East hadbeen in existence for some centuries before the562

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATRADEChristian era, and trade existed between Canton andIndia at an early date. China sent to Ta-ts'in silk,furs, and iron, receiving in exchange glassware,asbesto.«, woven fabrics and embroideries, drugs,dyes, metals and gems, which North Chinaobtained overland through Parthia, while theRomans, to avoid passing through the territory oftheir enemies, sent them by sea. During the firstfive or six centuries of the Christian era the southernkingdoms traded with Ceylon, India, and the RedSea ports, and about a.d. 450 the art of glassmakingwas introduced to the Sung country byartisans from Ta-ts'in.Arabian merchants are first heard of in a.d. 628,and good accounts of the trade routes by sea aregiven by them in the middle of the Sth century.They established trading colonies in various portsalong the southern coast of China, and developed athriving commerce, with large Mahometan communitiesliving in the midst of the Chinese.Trade was carried on for many centuries by thesea-rout€, and the Chinese, who under the Yiiansextended their dominion into Indo-China, becamefamiliar with the whole coast of Southern Asia, andwith the neighbouring islands as far as Timor.The journeys of the Ming eunuchs in the 15thcentury show that an important commerce existedbetween the empire and these territories, thevaluable musk, camphor, porcelain, copper, andtaffetas of China being exchanged for precious stonesfrom Ceylon, spices and perfumes of Arabia, clovesfrom the Moluccas, sandalwood and other valuablewoods from Cambodia and Malaya, elephants'tusks and peacock feathers from India and Burma,and even foreign gauze, printed cottons and otherclotlis.Under the Mings also trade continued withSamarkand and Persia, which obtained silk andsatins, musk and rhubarb from China. TheJapanese too carried on clandestine commerce withChina, using the islands adjacent to the coast asentrepots during the intervals of warfare whichbroke out after the abortive Mongol invasion.Unfortunately Mongol attacks by land andJapanese piratical raids by sea later on caused Chinato adopt a policy of exclusion, which was accentuatedwhen Europeans appeared on the scene early in the16th century. The Portuguese were the first, underAndbade, in 1517. Ningpo, Foochow, Amoy andsome Kuangtung ports were opened for some time,but after trouble had arisen in 1557 trade becameconcentrated at Macao. The Spaniards traded withFukien from Manila from 1575, and many Chinesesettled in the Philippines, until their massacre bythe Spaniards. The Dutch were considerably later,having settled in Formosa in 1624, whence theytraded with the Fukien ports until 1664, when tradewas confiaed to Canton. The first English expeditionwas a little later, but no trade of any importanceexisted until 1684, when a footing was obtainedat Canton, attempts to open at Amoy and Ningpchaving failed.In 1702 a beginning was made at Canton ofwhat was afterwards known as the "Hong" system,and in the 18th century trade developed under theaigis of the East India Company. The French camein 1728, the Americans in 1784, and Swedes, Danesand the Hanseatic towns gradually took a share inthe trade.Bussian E elation s.—The. first Russian visit toPelcing was in 1567, but both this and a second visitin 1619 were repulsed because they brought notribute. But in the 17th century the Russiansadvanced to the basin of the Amur, and, after yearsof frontier warfare, the Russians obtained the rightto commercial intercourse by the Treaty ofNertchinsk in 1689. From 1694 on caravans wentto China at regular intervals. The chief Russiangoods sent to China appear to have been sables andother valuable Siberian furs, while China sent inexchange precious stones, damask, nankeens, besidesrhubarb and tpbacco. Tea is first mentioned in1715. This trade soon found favour with theRussians (as with the Tibetans in their still colderclime), and a century later it is recorded that5 million pounds were sent by the overland routefrom Hankow up the Han River and thence acrossShensi to Mongolia. Russian trade was kept in thehands of the Russian Government for many years,but illicit competition ruined the Crown caravans,and Chinese and Russian merchants came into directcontact, to their mutual advantage.As ^lORSE states in his Trade and Administrationof the Chinese Empire, p. 282, the componentelements of the old trade are not well-known, butChina wanted very little that the West could supply.In cotton manufactures, which now constitute sucha high proportion of the import trade, the West wasmonly able to compete with cheap Asiatic labour afterthe development springing from the inventions ofArkwrigiit and Wiutney, and in the 18th andearly 19th centuries the movement of cotton clothwas from China to Europe and America in the shapeof nankeens to provide smallclothes for our grandfathers.Woollens were wanted, but only in smallquantities, and quicksilver (for vermilion making,etc.), and lead (for tea-chests and bullets), theamount of which was not much greater. In 1820the East India Company imported only the followingarticles : cotton (75,000 piculs) ; iron (10,000) : lead(14,000) ;pepper (7,500) ; sandalwood (10,000) ; broadcloth(12,000 pieces) ; long ells and worleys (129,000pieces) ; camlets (16,000 pieces), and cotton goods(5,000 pieces). Private traders imported mostly thesame goods, and in addition opium, tin, steel, andStraits produce, such as spices, rattans, black and

TRADEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAred wood, myrrh, gums, etc., and a few occidentalluxuries (clocks and watches are first found in thelist for 1827). The value of tlie import trade variedfrom Spanish Dollars 14,000,000 to 23,000,000 from1820 to 1834, gaining annually.The suppression of the E. I. Company's monopolyresulted in a trade boom, which was howeveronly temporary, and was succeeded by a period oflosses and disappointment owing to exaggeratedhopes being unrealised. The "adverse balance oftrade" against China was the feature of this period,and excited alarm on the part both of the Chineseand of foreigners, the former seeing only the drainof silver and the latter feeling that much morebusiness might he done, to the profit of all concerned,if Chinese products were given a free outlet.In the decade after the first war this trouble wasacute, but it adjusted itself thereafter with the,rapid growth of the silk trade at Shanghai, (hithertosiik had gone out exclusively from Canton), after theopening of that port. In a few years silver wasflowing more copiously into the country than it hadever flowed out.The course of direct trade with Great Britain,of which records exist, is interesting. In 1837 theimports were valued at £900,000 ; the opening of thefive ports (Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo andShanghai) in 1843 and 1844 was the signal for aburst of energy, which resulted in overtrading. In1845, £2,400,000 worth of goods were imported fromEngland. The consequent depression of 1846 wasinevitable, and in the four following years tradefound its level, with imports of one and a halfmillion. This was a disappointment to foreignmerchants, but it was realised at last that noincrease could be expected until freer intercoursewith the interior had been obtained. In 1851,however, tlie northern markets participated morefully, and the effects of the opening of the northernports began to be felt. This development of Britishtrade in manufactures which seemed so hopeful inthe years 1851-1852, received a severe check, at atime when hopes were very high, by the outbreak ofthe T'ai P'ing Rebellion in 1853. The effects of thisgreat movement were felt in 1854, when Britishimports fell to one million, and the lost ground wasnot recovered until 1858, when the figure was£2,900,000, an increase of one million since 1850.Then came the opening of six new ports (Chinkiang,Newchwang, Chefoo, Taiwan, Swatow and Kiungchow)by the Treaty of Tientsin, followed by aremarkable increase of British exports to China,which rose to £4,500,000. This access of prosperityled to exaggerated ideas being entertained of theimmediate prospect of improved trade, as had beenthe case when the first ports were thrown open.There was again overtrading and disappointment.Eelief came from an unexpected quarter, viz. fromthe arrest of the supply of raw cotton by theAmerican Civil War. Nevertheless the glut of cottongoods, accumulated in the years 1859-1861, was notdisposed of until late in 1862; and these events sothrew the trade out of its accustomed channels thatthe genuine results of increased foreign intercoursewere not realised until 1865. After this the courseof trade was steady.In 1864 the Imperial Maritime Customs beganthe publication of statistics, and valuable TradeBeports were issued, which show the developmentof trade from that date.Up to 1872 the value of Imports far exceededthat of Exports, but in that year the tide turned infavour of the latter, owing to the great depreciationin the value of Imports. Besides this, anotherfactor favoured Exports, viz., the revival of thelsilk trade after the downfall of the T'ai P'ings,which checked the development of the foreign piecegoods trade. The silk trade reached its zenith in1876, when the value of silk exports reached£10,654,000. At the same time, as vast tractsdevastated by the rebellion were recovered tocultivation, the cotton fields of the Lower Yangtzeregion were again opened up, and the price of nativecotton cloth (which, though coarse, was more durableand warmer than its foreign rival) fell to its formerlevel. The demand for the foreign article becamerestricted to the poor, who could not afford to paythe higher price for the native cloth, (which wasultimately, however, more economical), and to thewealthy, who preferred the more delicate textureof foreign cloth for underclothing. Distrust wasalso engendered for foreign cloth owing to wholesaleadulteration of the latter at this time.The percentage of the various Imports andExports for the first five years of the seventies wasas follows :Imports.Exports.Opium 39.07 Tea 53.32Cotton 31.90 Silk 37.22Piece Goods -.Woollens 6.72 Sugar 1.98Metals 4.78 Sundries 7.48Sundries 17.53 (Cassia, matting, chinaware,paper, firecrackers,etc.).The expectation of vast profits referred toabove was sadly disappointed. Prosperous yearswere followed by reaction, and trade underwent'fluctuations, which upset the over-sanguine calculationspreviously entertained.In 1879 it was pointed out that foreign tradehad for years been steadily increasing : new articlesof trade had been coming forward year by year andhad established themselves in growing demand. Adesire to take advantage of Western arts andsciences was surely gaining ground among theChinese, and this was leading to the necessity for564

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATRADEcloser intimacy with the outside world, and a consequentappreciation of many ideas and applianceshitherto regarded with indifference or contempt.The establishment of Legations and Consulatesabroad at this time gave opportunities to those bestqualihed to judge of knowing what room there wasfor improvement in China. It was also at thistime that a number of enlightened officials began torealize the usefulness of railways. Efforts weremade even at considerable personal risk to introducethem into the country, but the Court above and thepeople below were as obstinate as before. Neverthelessthe germ of a desire for improvement hadbeen planted, and before many years this innovation,so vital to the interests of the country, was actuallyintroduced. The year 1879 was not only repletewith commercial prosperity, but significant in promisefor the future, and marks a stage in the forwardprogress of China.Unfortunately progress was not maintained inthe next few years, but the elements were present,and in 1886 the volume of trade reached a recordpoint : in cottons the turn of the tide had nowcome.It was in the late seventies that Sundry Exportsbegan to attract notice. The chief of thesewas straw braid, which was coming into favour inthe West for basket-work as well as for makinghats. A demand for Chinese hides sprang up duringthe Eusso-Turkish war, for military use, and wasfostered by the terrible famine in North China in1876-1877, when thousands of cattle were killed formeat. Wood oil and nutgalls also claim attention,though the extension of trade in the latter did notassume much importance until 1888, when theuniversal mourning in Germany caused exportationto that country, where the galls were used for dyeingblack.These products continued to grow in importanceas they were now sent out in a more convenient andportable form than in the past, and were preparedto some extent to resist the deterioration of thevoyage by sea, being at the same time packed inreduced bulk by hydraulic machinery and so costingless in freight. The trade in hides and skins, wool,bristles, feathers and raw cotton was energeticallypushed, and in the 1890's—a period of awakeningin China—forged ahead, so that by 1897 "Sundries"provided half of the total export table, and in lateyears 70 per cent.An import in which remarkable progress wasshown was that of kerosene oil, first introduced in1863. Ten years later the oil was beginning to finda market, and by 1879 over 4 million gallons wereimported. In 1886 nearly 23 million gallons wereimported, the use of native vegetable oils forilluminating purposes having been largely superseded,especially after the Yangtze floods of 1884,which destroyed the oil-bearing crops. This importequalled that into India, but China soon beganto take much greater quantities, the Kussian importbeginning in 1888, and soon reaching one-third ofthe total, and prices falling, while the oil wasbetter packed in secure cans, which latter were alsovery acceptable to the Chinese poorer classes. In1896 Sumatra oil entered the field, and with the useof tank steamers, the trade developed with astonishingrapidity, although unfortunately for consumersprices increased. The establishment oftanks at the leading ports was not undertaken untilthe end of the 19th century, but the rival companieshave now tanks installed at many ports.Figures of import :1903. 85 million gallons; 1904. 156 milliongallons ; 1911. 235.8 million gallons (valued atTls. 34,800,000).A feature of the 'eighties was the rapid developmentof the import trade with Japan, which sentespecially cotton piece goods, (often made of Chinesecotton) and cotton woven fabrics, matches, soapof foreign type, sulphuric acid, umbrellas, etc.,all of which competed with other foreign goods.Japan also exported to China, in addition to themarine products which had long formed a staple oftrade, coal, timber, copper, paper, medicines, fans,dye-stuffs, etc. China in return sent cotton and.sugar, and little else.In 1876 the total value of the trade with Japanwas under Tls. 6,000,000 ; in 1882 the 6 million figurewas reached and in 1887 the 7 million figure. 1889was a year of great advance, China shipping muchcotton and sugar to Japan, the trade with which(import and export) reached over 13 million taels.From 1895 the import figures were augmented bythose of Formosa trade, and the advance made wasvery rapid, 1899 (the bumper year of Chinese trade)showing figures of Tls. 53,000,000, two-thirds beingimports. The leading items among the latter werecotton yai-n, coal, matches, and fishery products,and, although the list of other imports was beginningto extend, no single article was as yet ofimportance. China's export trade was almost confinedto raw cotton, beans and beancakes, and alittle wild silk and cocoons.With the turn of the century the trade withJapan began to assume very important dimensions.In Imports 1903 saw an advance from 35 to 50millions of taels, in 1910 the figure was 76 millions,which had increased to 119 millions in 1913, andreached 160 millions in 1916. In Exports 1902 exceeded1901 by 12 millions (from 16 to 28); 37millions was the total in 1908, rising to 77 in 1915and ll2 in 1916. To the last figure beans and otheroil-seeds, with oil and refuse cake, contribute41 millions, metals (antimony, iron, and copperthe last melted-down cash), 26 millions, cotton 13565

TRADEand hides and skins 7 millions, making about70 per cent, of the whole export trade. Of the160 million tae.ls of imports, cotton yarn has 33,cotton piece goods 30, (chiefly sheetings, shirtings,drills, jeans, and Japanese cotton cloth), sn~ar 11,timber 8, coal, fish and matches 18—almost equallydivided. Thes3 seven items therefore take abouttwo-thirds of the import trade, and are also longestablishedon the list, but there are many othergoods of less standing which are gradually growingin importance. Thus iron and steel manufacturesare increasing, clothing (modern), drugs, umbrellas,mirrors, stationery, cigarettes, etc., which enterinto competition with Chinese goods, and such itemsas chemical products, machinery, window glass,electrical, photographic, and telegraph materials,etc., which have hitherto been imported fromEurope, but, owing to the war, are now being producedin Japan, for the Chinese market.The most remarkable development of the exporttrade in the early years of the present century wasthat which took place in tEe trade in oil-yieldingseeds and in the oil extracted from them. Therehad been for many decades a coastal trade betweenManchuria and Kuangtung in soya beans, whilegroundnuts were sent from Shantung to the sameprovince, the refuse cake being used as fertiliserfor the rice and sugar plantations. In the late1890's trade in these seeds with foreign countriesbegan, beans and beancake going at firstENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAto Japan.Later on a European demand sprang up for soyabeans, and groundnuts, rape-seed, and especiallysesamum from Honan soon began to go out in greatquantities. In 1896 the trade was still in itsinfancy, but by 1899, when railways were beginningto operate, ten million taels worth of beans and cakewere sent out ; in 1908 the value of exports of seedsand cake of all kinds was Tls. 34,000,000, and inthe following year this figure was almost doubled.1913 was the record year, with Tls. 83,000,000 forseeds and oils. Although there has been a slightset-back during the war, the trade will doubtlesscontinue to develop in response to the ever-growingdemand in Western countries for these valuablefertilisers, cattle-foods, and oils, which are used i^^many industries.Change in method of doing business.—The earlynineties were marked by alteration in the mode ofconducting business in China, due to the long continuedfluctuations in exchange. This appliedespecially to the import trade. In 1891 there wasa 12% fall in the gold value of silver, followed bya 9% fall in 1892 : bank failures and generalrestriction of credit were a feature of this period,which introduced the system of indent, goods beingno longer held on stock or ordered to meet therequirements of the market. The "merchantprince" gave way to the commission broker, andbusiness became modernised, fortunes being nolonger made in a short time, and profits having tobe contended for with greater keenness.Decline of the Tea Trade.—In the early yearsof the 19th century the amount of tea exported fromChina to W. Europe and America was about2159,000 pieuls, worth about £4^ million. At the timeof the ending of the E. I. Company's monopoly theannual exportation had increased by about 80,000pieuls ; after the opening of the Treaty ports by theTreaty of Nanking the figure was soon almostdoubled (600,000 pieuls in 1845) and ten years later,so great was the demand, there had been a further60% increase. In 1857 (the date of the firstCustoms Reports), tea, with an exportation of oneand a quarter million pieuls, contributed three-fifthsof the value of all exports. In 1886 the recordfigure of almost two and a quarter million pieulsv/as reached, giving a value equal to 43% of allexports. But the proportion of Chinese tea consumedin England had decreased from 93% in 1865to 59%, and Indian tea was beginning to supplantthe Chinese product. Easy and sometimes fabulousreturns stimulated over-production, which depressedprices, and these further depressed quality to a pointwhere younger rivals could step in. Owing to lackof careful cultivation and preparation the qualityrapidly degenerated, and many of the old famousdistricts became stocked with old used-up trees,grown at a time of prosperous over-production.Adulteration also bore its part in the decline, andsuch malpractices as cramming dust into chests.By 1890 tea had dropped greatly in value, and thedecline was progressive, although the Americanmarket took increased quantities. In 1901 the lowwater mark was reached with an exportation ofonly Pels. 1,157,000. In the next year, in responseto appeals from merchants, the duty on tea exportedwas reduced by half, and since then there has beensome recovery, Russia taking more and more tea.In 1911 Pels. 1,324,000 were exported, worthTls. 37,000,000, and in 1915 Tls. 55,000,000 worthwent out. But permanent revival will only followon the introduction of improved methods of cultivation.Chinese sugar has suffered a similar fate; theexports up to the 1880's were very important, butprimitive methods of cultivation, with resultantpoor quality, led to the Kuangtung sugar beingsupplanted by the products of Java, Manila, andFormosa, and the sugar refined at Hongkong.566Metals.—Imi^oris. China has never been alarge importer of metals, for the native supply,though little developed, has sufiiced for the comparativelysmall needs of a country where manufactureson modern lines have been until recentyears non-existent. Apart from lead for tea-chests,

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATRADEquicksilver for mirrors, tin for "joss-paper," andold iron (the worn-out horse-shoes, nails, hoops, andscraps of Europe), no metals were formerly importedinto the country. Most of the tin was, besides,merely Yiinnan tin transhipped at Hongkong, whereit became technically "foreign." About the year19D2, however, there was an increase in the metalimport trade. In 1905 a large amount of copper(Tls. 31,000,000 worth) was imported, but this wasalmost all for the requirements of mintage, in whichthere was at the time great activity, and the tradeafterwards subsided to the normal low figures. Asiswell known, China has very large copper deposits,mostly unworked. The imports of iron were in1902 Tls. 4,000,000, but had risen by 1913 toTls. 12,000,000, including some galvanised iron,which is coming into increasing use. Rails andsome constructional iron and steel for the railwayswere also imported in increasing quantities for someyears, but the Hanyang Ironworks now turn outrails for many of the lines, besides girders, bridgework,etc. The exportation of pig iron from Chinahas been carried on for some years, and Japan islikely to take large amounts of ore in future years.Cotton Goods,— 1886 saw the turn of the tidein the cotton trade, which had not prosperedhitherto as it should have done. The most notablefeature was the rapid development of the importationof cotton yarn, which by 1887 contributed 30per cent, of the whole trade, the article havingbecome very popular with the Chinese weavers.Indian yarn increased from one million taels worthin 1885 to ten millions in 1891, and gradually oustedthe Manchester yarn, but after this it began tofind a formidable competitor in the Japanese product,which not only was favoured by lower freights,but was similar to the Chinese yarn. Besides,owing to proximity, orders for particular yarnscould be carried out in the right time to suit themarket.Figures of Yarn Import.(In millions of Taels).1894 1897 1899 1905 1910 1913 1914 191&,Indian 19.0 26.5 36.3 47.5 36.4 36.4 29.6 25.6Japanese .5 6.4 16.9 17.8 23.4 32.5 33.4 34.0China is now the largest yarn market in the world.In 1894 it was reported that the Chinese marketwas singularly inexpansive owing to the high priceof textiles caused by low exchange ; a new featurewas the increase of native cotton mills, which hadfirst been established about 1890. When the rightto import machinery was conceded by the Treaty ofShimonoseki in 1895, an extraordinary impetus wasgiven to native industries, especially to cotton spinningand weaving, which were aided by the fall inthe gold price of silver. American goods, however,increased, having the advantage over English goodsof lower freights and protection, which enabledAmerican manufactui'ers to export the balance o£their out-turn and sell it at attractive rates in China,the English manufactures having to use a lowerclass of cotton, which required heavy size to spin.It was now becoming evident that, with theincreased importation of yarn, and the establishmentof mills in,' China, the lower grades werelosing ground in the country, and that improvementmust be looked for in the finer makes. In these theUnited States did not compete with Great Britain,and the quality of Japanese goods was poor.American goods reached their zenith in 1905,when, owing to the extraordinary conditions broughtabout by the Russo-Japanese "War, there was agreat demand for cotton goods for war equipment,and besides, the buying power of the Chinese wasenhanced by the money spent by the armies. Theseabnormal conditions scon ceased, and there was areaction, followed by recovery in 1909, whenJapanese goods, whose quality had steadily improved,began to forge ahead, at the expense of theAmerican, while British goods have remained steadyfor many years. Japanese grey and white goodsincreased nine-fold from 1902 to 1913; their sheetingsnow practically control the market in Manchuriaand North China, and their imitation nankeensare steadily increasing. Among new featuresis the importation of Russian cotton prints, whichhave been pushed by the use of liberal methodsthis trade may have great importance in the future.The following figures show the growth of thePiece Goods trade :—Pl.\in Cotton Fabrics(Shirtings, sheetings, drills, jeans and T-cIoths).1867Pieces : 3,738,965 Value : Tls. 10,537,427(72 per cent, of all cottons)1905Pieces : 28,702,693 Value : Tls. 90,484,885(48 per cent, of all cottons)1916Value : Tls. 40,836,719(30 per cent.)Fink Cotton Fabrics.1867Pieces : 781,359 Value : Tls. 2,467,075(17 per cent, of all cottons)1905Pieces : 10,821,885 Value : Tls. 27,509,419(15 per cent, of all cottons)1916Value : Tls. 31,872,758(23 per cent.)In 1913 the per centage was as follows :Yarn 39.8 (in 1916 46.8 per cent.)Plain Goods 37.6Fine Goods 22.6567

TRADEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAPresent State of Foreign Trade.—Owing to thegreat war at present raging, conditions of trade areabnormal, and, for a consideration of present conditionsit is well to compare the latest availablereturns with those of 1913, the last normal year.1913 saw records established in both imports andexports, and illustrates the fact that, barriershaving been broken down, which had for so longhindered development, and railway mileage havinggreatly increased, nothing could hinder a greatincrease in the volume of commerce.Classification of China's Imports and Exports in1916 according to the plan adopted by the InternationalConference of Commercial Statistics heldat Brussels in 1910 gives the following figures :ImportsTls.226,207122,559,839I.—Living AnimalsII.—Food and BeveragesIII.—Materials, Raw andPreparedIV.—Manufactured Products314,703,625 76,352,556v.—Gold and Silver, Unwrought,and Goldand Silver Coins 56,991,437ANALYSIS:ExportsTls.5,261,148129,409,25297,779,755 270,774,41073,868,714Tls. 592,259,863 555,666,080IMPORTS.II.—In the above is made up chiefly of :Fish, Crustacea, and Shell-fish Tls.13,835,293RiceTeaSugarOther articles of food (chieflyGinseng, Tls. 4,437,411;and Seaweed and Agaragar,Tls. 1,814,486) ...IIL-—Is made up of :33,789,0557,409,28736,720,38013.230,789Tls, 105,064,804a. Bran Tls . 3,370,514b. Timber 13,924,920c. Oils, Mineral, and their derivatives34,338,631d. Coal and Coke 9,308,911e. Cotton 8,456,065IV.—Is made up chiefly of :a. Colours, Dyes, and Paints ... Tls. 4,255,458Cigars and Cigarettes 26,958,547Leather and Prepared Skins 7,974,343Thread, Cotton 64,253,446Piece Goods, Cotton 75,252,251Paper 9,680,076Iron and Steel Bars, Rods,Plates, etc 6,610,158Iron and Steel, other manufactures14,575,765Locomotives and Tenders ... 14,365,059Other Machinery and Machines 11,221,280Opium 10,508,996EXPORTS.II.—Is chiefly made up of :a. Eggs ... Tlsb. Vegetables, Dried, Fresh, etc.c. Fruitsd. Teae. Oils, VegetableIIL—Of :—a.b.c.d.e./.Tls. 245,655,37912,331,47722,622,5244,000,81443,560,41725,377,703Tls. 107,892,935Skins and Furs (undressed) Tls. 24,113,574Hair and Feathers 7,116,358Oil-cake 27,345,330Copper 9,066,681Tin 8,630,164Iron and Steel 5,174,974Other metals (including Antimony)18,176,702Textiles :Wool 12,194,665Silk 90,042,152IV. -Of :—Cotton 17,627,080Jute, Hemp, Flax, and Ramie 5,074,416a. Medicinesb. Furs (dressed) and LeatherManufacturesc. Grasscloth, Embroideries, andClothingd. Silk Piece Goodse. Cotton Piece GoodsTls, 224,562,096Tls. 3,841,0874,848,2294,376,36520,019,9663,657,528Tls. 69,399,041Tls. 36.743,175568

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATREATIESA simpler analysis of China's Exports is, however,given in the following summary of the chiefItems :Silk and Silk ProductsTeaOil-seeds and productsMetals and MineralsSkins, Furs, and Leather (prepared or otherwise)Eggs•28,885,00012,331,000WoolCotton12,208,00017,627,000Other important articles are Bristles, Tls. 5.5million, Tallow, Tls. 5 million; Straw Braid, Tobacco,Vegetable Tallow, Mats and Matting; eachover Tls. 3 million.laneousTls. 111,012,000... 43,560,000... 81,204,00045,248,000And for Imports :I.—Opium10,300,000II.—Cotton Goods136,700,000III.—Woollens, Mixtures and MisceLIV.—MetalsV.—Sundries :a. Cerealsh. Sugarc.d.Fish,etc.34,400,00036,300,00027,400,000Fuel, etc.Kerosene .. 31,800,000Coal ... .. 9,000,000Matches .. 8,500,000Timber and Eailway and•Building MaterialsTobacco and Cigarettes ...6,800,00026,100,00098,100,00049,300,00032,000,00031,000,000Tls. 390,300,000These leading items constitute three-quartersof the total imports (516 million taels, which arethe net figures, excluding treasure imports).A comparison between the 1916 figures and thoseof 1913 (the last normal year) is of interest. InImports there has been a decline, owing to the war,from Tls. 570,000,000 to Tls. 516,000,000. Thisfalling-off is in the following goods :Opium (now extinguished) Tls. 31,000,000Cotton Goods 46,000,000Woollen Goods, etc 5,000,000Dyes 14,000,000Metals 3,000,000On the other hand, the following articlesincreased :Railway Materials, Sleepers, etc. 18,000,000Tobacco and Cigarettes 14,000,000Cotton, Raw 6,000,000Kerosene Oil* 6,000,000Rice 16,000,00072Other articles which are wanted in increasingquantities every year are electrical materials andmathinery, photographic and printing materials,safes, soap (although soap factories are being builtyearly), motor cars, safes, wines and spirits, showingthe advance in the requirements of modern civilisation.The principal loss is, then, in cotton goods andin the material required for dyeing them, and therecan be little doubt that these will revive after thewar, and that China, whose export trade doubled inthe ten years from 1906 to 1916, will become anever-growing purchaser of foreign goods, especiallywhen order has been re-established and the Governmenthas set itself to the task of encouraging tradeand extending communications, as has been done inIndia, whose export trade is treble that of China.[N.S.]Parker : China and China Past and Present;Morse : The Trade and Administration of theChinese Empire; Cahen : Some Early Russo-ChineseRelations (translated by Ridge) ; Wells Williams :The Middle Kingdom; Odell : Cotton Goods inChina; Customs and Consular Reports.TR AG OPAN, RED, a very handsome speciesof the Pheasant family, Ceriornis temminchii, foundin S.W. China up to S. Shensi, but nowhere abundant.See Gallinae.TRAIN-BANDS, M W^'^an lien.The localdrilled peasantry of a district called out in timesof emergency and afterwards disbanded again.They received afms, quarters and food while serving,but no pay.TRAITORS, THE THREE. The Chineseconsider three men in the Han dynasty as thegreatest traitors in their history : Wang Mang,TuNG-CHO and Ts'ao Ts'ao. (iSee under each name).TRAPPISTS. There is only one Trappistmonastery in China, the Cistercian Abbey of NotreDame de la Consolation at Yang-chia p'ing in themountains west of Peking. It was founded by theliberality of the family Stolberg and some membersof the Mission of Peking in 1883. The Monasterybecame an Abbey in 1891. There are (1915) 12European Fathers, 18 Chinese priests, and 60 otherChinese. .Limagne : Les Trappistes en Chine; Planchet :Les Missions de Chine, p. 52 (1916); BulletinCath. de Pekin, June 1916.TRAVELLER. See Great Traveller, The.TR EATI ES. Hertslet gives, up to 1907, thirtytwotreaties between Great Britain and China, andsixty-eight between other Powers and China, makingone hundred. He gives besides twenty-two treatiesrelating to China made between Foreign Powers.The following is a complete list of these, but569the more important or interesting ones are to befound as separate articles, and for the completetext readers may consult Hebxslet or RocKmLL.

TREATIESENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAI. TREATIES WITH GREAT BRITAIN.Treaty of Nanking, 1842.1.2 Declaration respecting Transit dues 1843.3. Eegulations for British Trade atTreaty Ports, 1843.4. Convention of Bocca Tigris, 1846.thefive5. Agreement about British Subjects enteringCanton, etc., 1847.6. Treaty of Tientsin, 1853.7. Agreement containing Rules of Trade, etc.,1858.8. Convention of Peking, 1860.9. Agreement respecting Customs Seizures, 1365.10. Convention to regulate Engagement of ChineseEmigrants, 1866,11. Supplementary Convention of Commerce, etc.,1869.12. Chefoo Agreement, for settlement of YiinnanCase, etc., 1876.13. Memorandimi respecting Official Intercourse,etc., 1880.14. Additional Article to Chefoo Agreement(No. 12) : Opium, 1885.15. Convention relating to China and Tibet, 1886.16. Agreement respecting Opium Trade at Hongkong,1886.17. Convention relating to Sikkim and Tibet, 1890.18. Additional Article to Chefoo Agreement(No. 12), 1890.19. Eegulations appended to Sikkim-Tibet Convention(No. 17), 1893.20. Convention for Execution of Convention of1886 (No. 15), 1894.21. Convention respecting Junction of Chinese andBurmese Telegraph Lines, 1894.22. Agreement modifying Convention of 1894(No. 20) , 1897.23. Exchange of Notes respecting non-alienationof Yang-tzu Region, 1898.24. Convention respecting Extension of HongkongTerritory, 1898.25. Convention respecting Weihaiwei, 1898.26. Final Protocol for Resumption of FriendlyRegulations, 1901.27. Agreement respecting New Chinese ImportTariff, 1902.28. Treaty of Shanghai respecting CommercialRelations, (The Mackay Treaty), 1902.29. Convention respecting Chinese Labour inBritish Colonies, 1904.30. Convention revising Convention of 1894(No. 21), 1905.31. Agreement respecting Whangpoo Conservancy,1905.32. Convention respecting Tibet, 1906.H. TREATIES, ETC.. BETWEEN CHINA ANDPOWERS OTHER THAN GREAT BRITAIN.(ARRANGED UNDER COUNTRIES.)AUSTRIA-HUN GARY.33. 1869. Commerce, etc. (Peking).1901, Resumption of Friendly Relations.1902. Customs Tariff.1905. Whangpoo Conservancy.BELGIUM.34. 1845. Letter, Be^gian Trade.1865. Commerce, etc. (Peking),1901. Resumption of Friendly Relations.1902.1905.Customs Tariff.Whangpoo Conservancy,BRAZIL,35. 1881. Commerce, etc. (Tientsin).CONGO FREE STATE.36. 1898. Most-favoured-nation Treatment.COREA,37. 1899. Amity and Commerce.DENMARK,38. 1863. Commerce, etc. (Tientsin).FRANCE,39 1844, Commerce, etc, (Whampoa).40.41.42.43.44.45.46.47.48.49.50.51.52.53.54.55.1858.1858.1869.1865.1866.1884.1885.1885.1886.1887.1887.1888.1895.1895.1895.1901.1904.1905.GERMANY.do,(Tientsin),(Seoul).Tariff and Commercial Regulations,War Indemnity, etc.Tonnage Dues.Chinese Emigrants.Peace, etc.(Not ratified).Cessation of Hostilities.Peace and Commerce., (Tientsin).Commerce, etc,do.Boundary, China and Tonkin.Telegraph Lines.Purchase of Land, etc., by Missionaries,Boundary, China and Tonkin,Commerce, etc.Tonkin-Yiinnan Railway, etc.Kuang-chou wan.Resumption of Friendly Relations.Customs Tariff.Whangpoo Conservancy.56. 1861. Commerce etc.57. 188058. 1880,59. 1898,1901,1902,1905,ITALY,do.Tonnage Dues,Kiao-chou,Resumption of Friendly Relations.Customs Tariff.Whangpoo Conservancy.60. 1866. Commerce, etc. (Peking).1901. Resumption of Friendly Relations.1905. Whangpoo Conservancy.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATREATIESJAPAN.61. Withdrawal of Troops from Corea.62. 1895.63. 1895.64. 1896.65. 1896.1901.1902.66. 1903.67. 1905.1905.88. 1907.70.71,MEXICO.Peace.'(Shimonoseki).Retrocession of Liao-tung.Commerce, etc. (Peking).Settlements, etc.Resumption of Friendly Relations.Customs Tariff.Commerce, etc. (Shanghai).Manchuria.Whangpoo Conservancy.Railways in Manchuria.1899. Commerce, etc. (Washington).NETHERLANDS.1863. Commerce, etc. (Tientsin).1901. Resumption of Frieijdly Relations.1902. Customs Tariff.1905. Whangpoo Conservancy.NORWAY. .See under Sweden and Norway.PERU.1874. Commerce, etc. (Tientsin). Immigration.PORTUGAL.72. 1862. Commerce. (Not ratified).1887. Relations,JMacao, etc.73. 1887. Commerce, (etc. (Peking).74. 1887. Opium ( Trade, Macao.75. 1887. Collection (of O^^ium Duties, Macao.1904. Commerce.((Not ratified).RUSSIA76. 1689. 1Boundary, etc.77. 1727.do.78. 1768. ] Frontier Offences.79. 1851. Commerce, Extradition, etc.. Hi andKouldja.80. 1858. Protection of Riverine Trade on81. 1858.82. 1858.83. 1864.84. 1869.85. 1881.86. 1836.87. 1892.88. 1898.Ussuri, Amur and Sungari.Commerce, etc.(Tientsin).do.(Peking).Boundary (Tcliuguchak).Overland Trade.Re-establishment of Chinese Authorityin Hi, (St. Petersburg).I'ort Hamilton and Corea.Telegraphic.Port Ai'thur and Talienwan.89. 1898. do.1901. Resumption of Friendly Relations.90. 1902. Manchuria.1905. Whangpoo Conservancy.SPAIN.91. 1864. Commerce, etc. (Tientsin).92. 1877. Emigration, Cuba.1901. Resumption of Friendly Relations.1902. Customs Tariff.1905. Whangpoo Conservancy.93.99.100.SWEDEN AND NORWAY.1847. Commerce, etc.1904. Customs Tariff.UNITED STATES.1844. Customs Tariff,1858. do.1858. do.1868. do.1880. Chinese1894.1901.1902.1903.1905.(Canton).(Wang-hia).(Tientsin).(Shanghai).(Washington).Immigration into UnitedStates.Commercial Intercourse and JudicialProcedure.Emigration. (Expired),Resumption of Friendly Relations.Customs Tariff.Commerce, etc. (Shanghai).Whangpoo Conservancy.III. TREATIES BETWEEN FOREIGN POWERSRELATING TO CHINA.101. 1896.102. 1898.103. 1898.104. 1899.105,106,107108.109.110,111.112,113.Great Britain and France. Privilegesin Yunnan and Ssuch'uan.Great Britain and Germany. BritishOccupation of W^eihaiwei.Great Britain and France. TradeMarks.Great Britain and Russia. RailwayInterests.1899/1900. Great Britain and France. HankowConcessions.1900. Great Britain and Germany. Policy.1902. Great Britain and Japan. Alliance.1902,1903.1904.1904.1904.1905.(Expired).France and Russia. Integrity of China.Great Britain and Italy. Trade Marks,do. Portugal. do.do, Netherlands, do.do. Belgium. do.do. United States do.114. 1905.do. Japan. Alliance.115 1905. Japan and Russia. Peace.116 1905. Great Britain and Denmark. TradeMarks.117. 1905. Great Britain and Germany. TradeMarks.118. 1906. Great Britain and Russia. TradeMarks.119. 1907. France and Japan. Integrity of China,120,121,122,1907.1907.1907.1907.etc.Japan & Russia,Manchurian Railways,do. Integrity of China.Great Britain and Russia. Tibet.do.Expeditions to Tibet.ScientificHertslet : China Treaties, (1903) ; Rockhill :Treaties and Conventions— China and Korea, 1894-1904, (1904) ; Cu.stoms : Treaties between China andForeign States, 2 vols., (1908).571

SocietyTREATY OF HOOMUN CHAIENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATREATY OF HOOMUN CHAI, SUPPLEMENTARY. See Hoomun Chai Treaty.TREATY OF SHANGHAI, THE, commonlyknown as the Mackay Treaty, was signed at Shanghai,September 5, 1902, by Sir J, L. Mackay,Lu Hai-huan and Sheng Hsuan-htjai. The Treatyregulates a number of commercial ma)tters, as theabolition of likin, the protection of trade-marks,the opening of Changsha, Wanhsien, Anking, Huichou and Chiang men to foreign trade etc.TREATY OF SHIMONOSEKI, The treaty ofpeace after war with Japan was signed at Shimono-Beki, April 17, 1895, by Count Ito, Viscount Mtjtsu,Li Hung-chang and Li CIhing-fang. The chiefai'ticles agreed on were the independence of Koreacession to Japan of the southern part of Feng-t'ienProvince, of Formosa and of the Pescadores; anindemnity of two hundred million taels to be paidby China to Japan ; Shasi, Chungking, Soochow andHangchow to be opened to Japanese trade, and thetemporary occupation of Weihaiwei by the Japanesetill China had performed her obligations accordingto the treaty.Russia, Germany and France having objectedto Japan's possession of Feng-t'ien, or Liao- tung,a Convention was made between China and Japan,November 8, 1895, by which that territory wasretroceded to China and thirty million taels werepaid by China to Japan as compensation.TREATY OF THE BOGUE. See HoomunChai Treat!/.TREATY PORTS are the ports where bytreaty foreign Powers may establish Consulates andforeign merchants may reside and trade, and whereduties on exports and imports are levied accordingto a tariff fixed by treaty. They now include,however, some ports opened, not by treaty, butvoluntarily by the Chinese Government, on the samefooting as the others.Some treaty ports have national Concessions,on which municipal and police administration isin the hands of the Consul of the lessee Powerothers have Settlements or 'reserved areas forresidence,' with municipal organization, but whereChina issues the title-deeds ; others, especially themore recently opened ones, have neither concessionnor reserved area, though there are a few placeswhere the Chinese have established 'InternationalSettlements.' A full list of them will be found inthe Customs Beiurns or in the China Year Book.The more important are given under separate headingsin this work,TRIADS in the three religions. See ThreePure Ones, Three Holy Ones, Three Noble Buddhas.TRIAD SOCIETY, THE, ^.^-^ (i.e. Heaven,Earth and Man), also known as Heaven and EarthSociety and the Hung League, is the most famousof all the secret sects of China. Its own records donot agree as to the date of its inception, one setgiving 1674, the twelfth year of K'ang Hsi, whileanother gives sixty years later under Yung Cheng.Both agree as to the primal object, extinction ofthe dynasty—and the motive—revenge. It is saidthat a band of military monks at the ShaolinMonastery in Fukien had assisted K'ang Hsi inputting down an insurrection in a tributary stateand had been at first rewarded, but that later twounworthy officials represented the monks and theirfollowers as dangerous to the throne, with the resultthat the monastery was surrounded and burnt, onlyfive inmates escaping. These five uniting with anofficial named Ch'kn Chin-nan pU j£ i^, who was indisgrace for taking their part, established a Societyunder the names of the Hung (Deluge) Society, or•the Triad Society or the of Heaven andEarth. The official was an ardent student ofTaoist occultism, and thus both Buddhist and Taoistelements appear in the ritual. The new Societyfought for the Ming cause in Fukien, but wasunsuccessful, and the scion of the Ming house whomthey had set up disappeared.Other rebellions followed : one in Formosa in1787, as the result of oppression of the Society bymilitaiy officials, one in 1814 in Kiangsi, one inCanton in 1817, where there were numerous executions.In 1832, the Triad members were again introuble for assisting the Yao tribes against thePeking government. By this time, they had alsoestablished themselves in Siam, in the Dutch EastIndies and in India.In 1850 they were again in rebellion in Kuangtungand Kuangsi and hence were supposed to bein league with the T'ai P'ing rebels, but this isincorrect. Hung, the leader of the latter, was nevera member of the Traid Society, although like themhe adopted the Ming style of clothing and headdress,and he would accept no members of theSociety who would not turn Christian. The Triadmembers were certainly encouraged by the T'aiP'ing movement, and fought from 1850-1856 inKiangsi and Fukien. Sometimes parties cut offfrom one would join the other, e.(/. the Triad Societyheld Shanghai city in 1853-1854 for fifteen months,and when compelled to evacuate it joined the T'aiP'ing forces. They were never anti-foreign.The organization when carried beyond Chinalost a good deal of its political meaning and becamemore of a Friendly Society. Nevertheless theBritish and Dutch authorities disapproved of it, asit screened its members from the law, and sometimeslevied blackmail. At first registration only was insistedon, but later suppression was found necessary,even in California, Siam, and Australia. In 1845membership was made a penal offence in Hongkong,

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA TS'AI. STATE OFwith a punishment of branding on the cheek andthree years' imprisonment, but this soon became adead letter, and in 1857 a band of 800 coolies, probablyall Triad members, worked loyally for theEnglish against the Manchus.In 1887 all Chinese secret societies were prohibitedby the British, as the result of their incessantquarrels amongst themselves. At this time therewere 155,440 Triad members in the Straits Settlementsalone. The pioneer missionaries, Milne andMorrison, with othe-rs, had begun to write aboutthem as early as 1825, but the accidental finding bytJio police in 1853 r.t Padang (Sumatra) of a numberof their books and paraphernalia led to much moreinformation being searched out than had beenobtained before. Schlegel, at that time the officialin charge of the matter, wrote a book embodyinghis discoveries, and inclined to the view that"Freemasonry early divided into East and West,and that the Triad Society was an Eastern developmentaf the same," a view which has not been sustainedby others, who find resemblances to Masonryin various Chinese sects without postulating anyhistorical connection.The Triad Society was at first composed of fivesections under five Grand Lodges, being one each forthefive "Patriarchs" or monks who escaped when theShaolin Monastery was burnt, but in course of time agood deal of admixture has taken place. There is avery complicated ceremonial for the initiation whichis called "Entering the Hung doors;" thirty-sixoaths are taken, and an elaborate certificate given.There are many degrees of membership with appropriateritual ; the members test each other by certainhand signs and sentences, and by fanciful arrangementsof .teacups and other common objects, andcommunicate in cryptic fashion by using numbersinstead of certain characters, by maiming or substitutionof others, etc.Portuguese and Malays are sometimes admittedto the brotherhood, and certain modifications of thesigns have been introduced for their benefit.See Secret Sects.[C.E.C.]Stanton : . China Beview, vols, xxi, xxiiSchlegel : Thian Ti Ilwui.Ball : Things Chinese (under Secret Societies).TRIBUTARY STATES.TRIGAULT, NICOLAS, ^m#See T'u Ssu.Chin Ni-ko,a Jesuit Father, born at Douai in 1577. He reachedNanking early in 1611, then passed to Hangchowand Peking. Sent to Rome as Procureur, he wentby land from Cochin to Goa and from Ormuz toAlexandria. After visiting and obtaining giftsfrom various European princes, he returned toChina in 1618 at the head of twen/ty-two missionaries,among whom were Rho and Schall. Haworked at Nanch'ang and Hangchow, in 1623established himself at K'aifeng fu, then passed toShensi, whence he was recalled to Hangchow in1627; and in that city he died in 1628. His tombmay still be seen there.Havret : La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fou, ii,p. 57, note ; Moule : Chinese Recorder, vol. xxi,p. 599.TRIPITAKA.See Buddhist Canon.TRIPODS, THE NINE. Tradition says thegreat Yii, receiving tribute of metal from the NineProvinces, made therewith nine vases or tripodti.According to the Tso Chuan they bore delineationsof all the objects of nature, that people might knowthe gods and evil spirits. According to the Shih chi^ IE , however, they bore maps of the Nine Provinces,with records of population and property.They were made in B.C. 2202 and, according to theTso Chuan, w^ere removed by the founder of theChou dynasty to his new capital Lo j§ |g inB.C. 1122.TROGONIDAE, a Family of the OrderTrogones, the Trogons, a tropical group of birds.There are two members of this group in China.Harpactes yamakanensis Rickett, from centralFukien, where it lives in the wooded mountains.H. hainanus 0. Grant, from Hainan.TRUCINS. The Mongols applied the termTuin to Buddhist priests, being probably an Uighurword ; and this is the only suggested origin ofTrucins, spoken of by the Archbishop of Soltaniaas "a sovereign bishop, such as the Pope is with us."Yule : Cathay and the Way Thither.TRUMPETS. See Musical Instruments.TRUTIUS. See Trucins.TS'AI DAM, a word which may be Tibetan,ts'ai, salty, dam, a plain ; or Mongol, tsayidam, broadexpanse of country; the name of a plateau lyingwest of Koko nor, but lower, at an elevation of9,000 feet. It is between the Altyn-tagh and Kunlun ranges. Its extent is about six hundred milesfrom east to west, and a hundred or a hundred andfifty from north to south. The population isestimated at four thousand to sixteen thousand.It was once a vast lake.RoCKHiLL : Land of the Lamas.•TSAI LI CHIAO, THE, :^i^^, a sect ofmodern origin, with headquarters at Tientsin, anda large following in North-east China, Mongoliaand Manchuria. In 1896, it was stated that halfof the Chinese at Tientsin belonged to this sect.Its teachings are negative and include the prohibitionof tobacco, wine and opium. See White LotusSociety!TS'AI, STATE OF, ^, a small feudal State ofthe Chou Empire, lying south of Cheng. It was573

TSAI YUAN CONSPIRACYENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAgiven with the title of Marquis to one of Wtr Wang'syounger brothers, who was soon banished {ShuChing, V, 17). The State was destroyed by Ch'uB.C. 446.Its capital is recorded to have been movedmany times, but it was probably not much morethan a walled village. Confucius spent three yearsin Ts'ai during his wanderings.Parker : Ancient China Simplified; Hirth :Ancient History of China.TSAI YUAN CONSPIRACY, a plot of three,the Prince I (TsAi YiiAN), Prince Tuan Hua andthe Imperial clansman Su Shun, the last being theinstigator and leading spirit. It was a conspiracyto secuii'e the regency for themselves on the deathof HsiEN Feng. The plot included the killing ofYehonala, the favourite concubine of Hsien Feng,the famous Empress Dowager of later days, and alsothe massacre of all foreigners in Peking. With theaid of Jung Lu and Prince Kung, Yehonaladefeated the conspirators and had them sentencedto death ; Su Shun was beheaded and the other twowere allowed to commit suicide. A full accountis given by Bland and Backhouse.Bland and Backhouse : China under theEmpress Dowager.TSAM BA,ground into flour.The Tibetan tedrm for roasted barleyTSAO, ^. See Jujubes.TSAO SH tN, >j± illjl, Tsao chun >)±Jl^, etc. SeeKitchen god.TS'AO, STATE OF, i^, a petty fief of theChou dynasty, given to a brother of Wu Wang withIt lay north of Sung, by whichthe rank of Earl fg.State it was extinguished in B.C. 486.Parker : Ancient China Simplified'.TS'AO TS'AO, W !^ or Ts'ao Chili Tf ± jfij.A native of Kiangsu, born a.d. 155. By greatenergy and after much fighting against rebel chieftainshe rose to be Minister of State in 208, andgradually then absorbed all real power, the EmperorHsien Ti being a mere puppet in his hands. Hisdaughter became Empress of Hsien Ti and his sonbecame first Emperor of the Wei dynasty. He isregarded as the type of a bold, ambitious andunscrupulous Minister. He led enormous armies,having, it is said, a million of men under arms atone time. He died a.d. 220.TSENG CHI-TSE, #|EJ?. The second sonof Tseng Kuo-fan, and known to foreigners asMarquis Tseng. He was born in 1837 and succeededto the title in 1877. He taught himself a certainamount of English, and in 1878 was appointed Envoyt3 England and France. In 1880 he was Ambassadorto Russia, and won much praise for thediplomatic skill by which he obtained the restorationof Kuldja to China. He occupied various postswith success till his death in 1890. He was veryenlightened and progressive, and was much regrettedby all foreigners who knew him. Besides hisofficial successes he was noted among the Chinesefor his calligraphy.TSENG KUO-FAN, -f^S, a native ofHunan, born in 1811. He spent many years infighting the T'ai P'ing rebels and the Nien fei inShantung, and in 1869 became Viceroy of Chihli.He was strongly in favour of peace with foreignnations, was incorruptible and died poor in 1872.TSINANFU, nmM Chi nan fu,the capitalof the Shantung province, opened by the Chinesevoluntarily as a Foreign Commercial Settlement in1906. It is on the Tientsin-Pukow Railway, 340kilometres from Tientsin, and is connected by railwith Tsiugtao, 412 kilometres. It has also an outletto the Chihli gulf by a canal (146 miles). It is5 miles from its port, Hukow, on the Yellow River.The population is supposed to be 300,000 and includesa large number of Mohammedans. It hasbeen for many years an important centre ofmissionary activity.The place is noted for some magnificent springsin the south-west suburb, the streams from whichflow through the city into a lake on the north side.TSINANFU INSTITUTE, THE, at the capitalof Shantung, was erected in 1904-5 by the EnglishBaptist Mission with money provided by theTrustees of the Arthington Fund [q.v.).The work done is a continuation and expansionof a similar institution begun by the same missionin Tsing-chou fu in 1887 (See English BaptistMission), and is an attempt to influence on social,educational and evangelistic lines all sections of thecommunity, especially the educated classes.The chief building is a large EdaicationalMuseum, open daily free of charge. In the varioussections are exhibited natural history specimens,geographical globes and models, historical chartsand diagrams, models and diagrams giving elementaryinstruction in physiography, geology and astronomy,models illustrating means of transport andcommunication, and a thousand other things.All the models and diagrams have been producedby Chinese assistants under foreign direction. Duplicatesof models, etc., are made by trained men foruse in other parts of China, thus extending theinfluence of the institution.The other buildings of the Institute consist oftwo lecture halls, the larger seating six hundred,Reading Room and Library, Reception Rooms forsocial work, Workshops and Assistants' Room, etc.In all they cover 24,000 square feet floor space ; and074

•ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNlCATSINGTAUthere is in addition a Branch Institute for soldiers,opened 1913 near the barracks about three milesfrom the main Institute, which covers 5,(X)0 feet ofrioor space, and contains a Lecture Hall, ReadingRoom, Recreation Room and class rooms.The Educational work centres round theMuseum, and special lectures to students are givenonce a week on all kinds of important subjects as,e.g. J The Value of Afforestation, Social Progress,The History and Work of the Red Cross Society,Plague Prevention, etc.Lantern Lectures open to all are given regularlyat busy times. A special department for Governmentstudents was opened in 1912, consisting of RecreationRoom, Students Reading Room, Library andClass Room.The Social work is part of the daily programmeof the Institute, while at special times small gatheringsof officials and others are invited as need andopportunity arise. One day is set apart for womenvisitors.Evangelistic work consists in addresses givenevery hour during those parts of the day whenvisitors are most frequent, special meetings for thepilgrims who pass through the city at certainseasons, Bible classes for students and for women,as well as more informal work.The Soldiers' Institute provides a place ofhealthy recreation for the men, and its ReadingRoom is open to civilians of the neighbourhood.On Sunday short educational and evangelisticaddresses specially suitable to soldiers are given.All the current expenses of this branch are met bythe general commanding and his officers.The head of the Institute is the Rev. J, S.Whitewricht.Since its opening, in 1905, the Institute hasrecorded 3,000,000 visits.In 1916, the number of visitors was over 300,000,of which 23,000 were women, including numbers ofgirl students from government schools.(French System ofTS'IN CHE HOANG Tl.See Ch'in Shih Huang Ti.TSMN DYNASTY.TSIN DYNASTY. See Chin Dynasty.Romanisation).See Ch' in Dynasty.TSINGHUA COLLEGE, THE, ^ ^ ^ ^.In 1908 the United States reduced the amount ofthe Boxer indemnity due to them by the Protocolof 1901. The reduction was from twenty-fourmillion dollars to thirteen millions approximately,leaving nearly eleven millions to bo returned toChina. The American President having expressedthe desire that Chinese students should be sent toAmerican Universities, the Wai-wu Pu, or Boardof Foreign Affairs, announced that from the timewhen the return of the indemnity began, one hundredstudents should be sent to the States each year forfour years, and at least fifty each year afterwardstill the indemnity payments ceased. Regulationshaving been drawn up by the Wai-wu Pu andapproved by Mr. Rockhill, the American Minister,the remission of the portion of the indemndty beganon January 1, 1909.In the Regulations it was provided that theWai-wu Pu should establish training schools inChina to prepare students to enter AmericanUniversities. A first batch of forty-eight students,however, were selected by examination from allexisting schools.For the College the government set apart thepark near Peking formerly belonging to Prince Tun,situated about three and a half miles from Hsi-chihmen by rail or seven by road. The name Tsing Huawas then chosen for the institution and buildingwork was begun on August, 1909. In April, 1911,though the buildings were far from finished, schoolwork was begun with four hundred and sixtyscholars. After a session of ten weeks seventythreeof these were sent to the States. The nextsession was only two or three months long, theRevolution making it impossible to carry on theschool. The interruption lasted six months, butfrom the spring of 1912 the work has gone onsteadily.The College is divided into a high school anda middle school, the course in each lasting fouryears. According to the Bvlletin of 19:^6-17 therewere thirty-four Chinese and eighteen AmericanProfessors, and a total of 563 students in the twoschools. A magazine is published monthly, inChinese and English alternately, called the TsingHua Journal.TSINGTAU, (^ $ich'ing tao, 'green island';a town situated at the entrance to Kiaochow Bayon the southern coast of Shantung, and till latelythe seat of government of 'German China.' Itreceives its name from the small island near, knownto foreigners as Arcona Island. It was occupiedby Germany on November 14, 1897, was leased toGermany on March 6, 1898 for ninety-nine years,and lost by Germany on November 7, 1914, bycapitulation to the besieging forces of Japan andGreat Britain.Until about 1892 it was a poor fishing-village,but, as its military value was not unknown, theChinese sent a garrison there and began to makesome-fortifications. Russia needing a winter anchoragefor her fleet, Kiaochow Bay was lent to her,but she only used it for a few weeks in the springof 1895. In 1897 China, having lost Port Arthurand Wei-hai-wei, decided to make Tsingtau thebase for the Pei Yang fleet.It is probable that Germany had long wishedfor the possession of this harbour; it is even said575

tSINlGTAUEncyclopaedia sinicathat the unfortunate gunboat the litis (q.v.) wason her way to occupy it when she was wrecked.In November the murder of two German priestsin Shantung, PP. Nies and Henle, gave excusefor violent action, and after having come to termswith Eussia and other Powers on the matter,Germany landed troops from three war-ships andtook possession of Tsingtau on November 14. Itwas so unexpected a movement that the populacerejoiced in the band which headed the troops andthe Chinese soldiers at drill politely offered theuse of the drill-ground if that was what theGermans had landed for ! Admiral Diedeeichswas the hero of this exploit. Captain Truppelwith more soldiers arrived, and took charge of bothcivil and military government in February, 1898.Prince Henry of Prussia was despatched fromGermany to take part in the affair, and it was ata farewell banquet to him at Kiel that the Kaisermade his notorious reference to the 'mailed fist,'{fahre darein mit gepanzerter Faust).China was obliged to give in to all the Germandemands, and so a Treaty was signed on March 6,1898, by which both sides of the entrance to theKiaochow' Bay, the shores of the Bay, a large pieceof territory east of the Bay, extending into Laoshan,and many islands of the neighbourhood, wereleased to Germany for a period of ninety-nine years.The total area of the leased teri-itory was 193 squaremiles, but outside of this there was also a largesphere of influence, a zone 30 miles wide round thedistrict, within which China might only act withthe consent of Germany.Tsingtau was declared a Protectorate in April,1898. TEtrppEL gave over the government toCaptain Rosendahl, the first Governor, who inMarch of the following year handedi it over toJaeschke. After Jaeschke's death in Tsingtauon January 27, 1901, Captain Truppel, (later madeAdmiral), again took the authority, but as Governor.During their sixteen years of occupation theGermans laid out large sums of money in improvementsof every kind. A foreign residential quarterwas well planned and has been built over understringent regulations as to sanitation and appearances,with every discouragement to the merespeculator. The Chinese quarter, Tapautau, isquite separate from the foreign. A very extensivescheme of afforestation was early begun, and thebare hills have been covered with timber. Fineroads have been made in every direction. Harbourworks were begun at once, and twenty ships cannow be berthed simultaneously. A floating dockwas constructed, and a 150-ton crane set up. Arailway to the provincial capital Tsinan fu, 395kilometres in length, wa.s completed in 1904. Itpasses through coalfields, the working of which wasreserved to Germany by the Treaty.The Custom House system at Tsingtau was atits institution a novelty. By a Provisional Agreementof 1899, extended and amended in 1906, theChinese Customs were established in Tsingtauinstead of on the frontier. The experiment wasvery successful, and Customs duties were collectedas at other ports, twenty per cent, of the importduties being however paid over to the colonialgovernment as a contribution to the expenses of theColony.When the Great War broke out in 1914, Japan,acting under the terms of her treaty of alliancewith Great Britain, advised Germany to disarm allher armed vessels in these waters and to hand overTsingtau to Japan to be restored eventually toChina. No answer was given. Since the colonycould be a menace to the peace of the Far East byproviding a base for attacks on the commerce ofGermany's foes, Japan declared war on August 23,1914, and with the British took measures for theinvestment of the German territory. Bombardmentbegan on September 27, and after all the forts hadbeen taken by a night attack, Tsingtau capitulatedon November 7. Five thousand prisoners weretaken to Japan.The district has since been administered byJapan.TSIN, STATE OF.TS'IN, STATE OF,See Chin, State of.See Ch'in, State of.See Ch'i, State of.Hei-lungTS'I, STATE OF.TSITSIHAR, the Tungusic name ofchiang province.TSO CH'IU MING, or TSO CH'IU MING& KB 59 author of the Tso Chuan, the famous commentary>on the Sjning and Autumn Annals, and>probably the author of Kuo 2/m ® 1§ . Very littleis known of him, but he is supposed to have beena disciple of Confucius. His tablet was placed inthe Confucian Temple in a.d. 647.TSO CHUAN, 2^ %, the important commentaryon Ch'un Ch'iu, by Tso Ch'iu-ming (or Tso-ch'iu.Ming). See Ch'un Ch'iu.TSO TSUNG-T'ANG, U^. ^- A native ofHunan, bom in 1812.He fought for years againstthe T'ai P'ing rebels, but is famous for his crushingof the Mohammedan rebellion, in which his armyadvanced to Yarkand, Kashgar and Khotan (1878).For these services he was made Marquis. He waadirector of military operations against the French6at Foochow in 1884, and died there the next year.TSOUYEN, l^©,a philosopher of the fourthcentury B.C., who is said to have written on cosmogony,especially with regard to the Five Elementsand their influences ; and there is a possibility thathe had become acquainted with Hindu philosophy.According to Ssu-ma Ch'ien he was a native of theCh'i state, and a younger contemporary of Mencius.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAT'UNGTIENTSUNG-LI YAM EN, or more fuUy Tsung liho huo shih wu ya men Jft ft # ® ^ ij^W R-The Yamen of Foreign Affairs, a Council formedby Ministers in other departments of the State.After the making of peace in 1860 a special com-.mittee was appointed to consider how foreign affairsshould thereafter be managed. In January, 1861,a decree appointed three members to conduct thisnew department; four were added the next year,and most Members of the Grand Council wereappointed, the total number varying from eight toeleven. In 1901 it was by treaty transformed intothe Wai wu pu (q.v.).TS U N G M I N G I LAN D . See Ch'ung Ming.TSUNG TU. la '^.The Governor General ofa province before the Revolution, the highest inrank of civil functionaries in provincial administration,and having also certain powers of controlover the military forces of his province. He is nowreplaced by the Sheng chang ^ ^. See Govern-*ment, Bepublican.TS'U, STATE OF, See Ch'u, State of.TUBINARES, an Order, according to theclassification by Blanford, which consists of thePetrels. The species known in China are as follows.Thalassidroma monorhis, Swinhoe's Petrel onthe China Sea and in the isles of N.E. Formosa.Bulweria bulweri, Btjlwer's Petrel, Formosa Channel.Puffinus leucomelas, on Shantung and Chekiangcoasts, P. fescadoresi, Formosa Channel. Diomedeaalbatrus, D. nigripes, two species of Albatross inthe China Sea,David et Ocstalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine;(Procellarides).TUDELA.See Benjamin of Tudela.TUI TZU, StiF, 'opposites,' a term for whichthere is no proper English equivalent. It denotesthe pairs of inscribed scrolls, so exceedingly commonon walls, doorposts, and elsewhere. Theinscriptions are antitheses, word by word. Thus ifheaven appears on one scroll, the correspondingword will almost certainly be earth : right willanswer to wrong, up to down, etc. A good dealof skill and elegance may therefore be displayed intheir composition.TULI WANG KHAN. See Keraits.TUNGAN, or DUNGAN. A term applied to•some Mohammedans of the north-west provinces, supposedto be from a Turki word meaning "convert."They rebelled in 1861, and were practically wipedout as a people by Tso Ttjng-t'ang.See Mohammedanism; Yakoob.Broomhall : Islam in China.T'UNG CHIEN KANG MU, M IS «9 BThis is the celebrated History by Ssu-ma Ktjang.73The original work was entitled Tzu Chih T'ungChien Sf ffi aS, IE. Universal Mirror to help Government.This began with the fourth century B.C.and came down to the end of the tenth century a.d.Ssu-ma afterwards added a supplement, tablet, etc,A century later Chu Hsi, with the aid of his disciples,reconstructed and condensed the work underthe present title, completing it in 1223. There have577since been various enlargements, elucidations, etc.,before the book arrived at its present form. It isnow the most complete single work on Chinesegeneral history.Under Khxjbilai Khan it was translated intoUighur in 1282; and K'ang Hsi had it put intoManchu. The substance of it has been translated _into French by de Mailla.Giles : Note on four Chinese Volumes sent forIdentification (Cambridge, 1907) ; Wylie : Noteson Chinese Literature, p. 20 ; De Mailuv : HistoireGinerale de la Chine.T'UNG CHIH, U ^, the reign-title of the8th Emperor of the Ch'ing or Manchu dynasty,whose personal name was Tsai Shun ^ ^. He wasborn in 1856, son of Hsien Feng and the concubineYehonala, afterwards the famous Empress-dowagerof the closing years of the dynasty. He ascendedthe throne at 5 years okl, his mother Tz'u Hsi,Empress-dowager of the West, and the consort ofHsien Feng, the Empress-dowager of the East,Tz'u An, being Co-Regents. His wife was A-lxj-t'e,and in all consideration of the events of these yearsit must be borne in mind that if she had borne ason she would have been Empress-mother and theEmpress-dowager's authority would have been gone.All writers seem to agree that his mother encouragedthe young Emperor in all vicious courses ; he was afrequenter of the lowest pleasure dens and the heroof many a drunken brawl till his health was destroyed.In November, 1872, at 17 years old heassumed, nominally, the control of government; inJanuary, 1875, he died of small-pox and otherdiseases, leaving his consort pregnant.Bland and Backhouse : China under theEmpresi Dowager.T'UNG CHIH, M:S. See Lei Shu.TUNG C HO, ^ .^, one of the 'Three Traitors'of the Han period. He was a military leader whousurped the supreme authority as regent of thechild Hsien Ti, whom he had put on the throne.He was most cruel and arbitary in his rule, anddied by assassination in a,d. 129.TUNG LING, "M^,Manchu emperors.TUNGSTEN.T'UNG TIEN, MJ^.the eastern tombs of theSee Mausolea.See Minerals.Se« Lei Shu,

TUNG WANGENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATUNG WANG, $ 3EEastern prince, one ofthe five original princes of the T'ai P'ing rebellion,created by the leader, the T'ien Wang. He was thebest soldier and the ablest administrator among therebels ; but in 1856 he began to have visions like theT'ien Wang himself; and he had to be suppressed.Ihe Pel Wang or Northern prince being ordered tosuppress him, killed him with family and adherentsto the number of twenty thousand.liebellion.See T'ai P'ingT'UNG WEN KUAN, X S| , a Collegeestablished in Peking in 1863, with a branch inCanton. It was under the general control of theCustoms, and after the Boxer year was merged inthe Peking University. During nearly the whole ofits existence Dr. W. A. P. Martin was President.See Maritime Customs; Peking University; Martin,W. A. P.T'UNG WEN SHU CHU, I^^H,^, aChinese publishing firm, which photo-lithographedsome of the best and rarest of Chinese works, e.g.,Theythe Sung edition of the Hou Han Shu ^^i$.also began the publication of 1^'u shu chi ch'engat Tls. 360 (£90), but this work had to be takenover by M.\joe, Brothers of the Shen Pao, and doneby movable type.TURDINAE, a sub-family of the Turdidae,which includes the Thrushes, Ouzels, etc. Merulaviandarina is resident in the southern provinces.M. gouldi was discovered by P. David in Ssuch'uanand has since been found by Przewalski in Kansu.M. cordis comes in flocks to the southern provincesin winter, and in summer goes as far as north asthe Amur ; but has never been observed in Peking.It has lately been discovered breeding in Anhui,by Pere F. Couutois, S.J. M. hortulorum wintersin South China and travels up the coast toManchuria and E. Siberia. M. pallida, the PaleOuzel, winters in S. China and Formosa, as doesalso M. chrysolaus. M. obscura, the Grey-headedOuzel, is found widely in China and Manchuriaat the time of passage. M. naumanni is perhapsthe thrush most commonly met with in China,especially in the north and west. In Peking inthe winter it is seen everywhere ; in summer itretreats to Manchuria and Siberia. M. fuscata,the Dusky Ouzel, like T. naumanni, goes in largeflocks and is very abundant during half the year;the two species are often found in company. M.ruficollis is very common in the north and northwest.Turdus albiceps, the White-headed Thrush,is found in Formosa only. T. auritus is a speciesfound at Peking, in W. Ssflch'uan and Kansu.Geocichla sibirica, the Siberian Ground-thrush, hasbeen taken on migration in N.W. Fukien, atChinkiang, in Shantung and in Chihii. Swinhoefound it near Chefoo. G. citrina occurs in Hainanand has been found breeding in Anhai, by P.CouBTOis. Oteocincla varia, White's Thrush,visits E. China and occurs also in Formosa. O.mollissima is a species found in W. China at eightor nine thousand feet altitude.The Ptock-Thrushes are Monticola saxatUis, theRock-Thursh, in N. Chihii in summer. Petrophilamanila, all over E. China. P. cyanus, in Chinagenerally. P. gvlaris, in E. China, breeding inChihii. P. erythrogastra, the Chestnut-belliedRock-Thursh, in Fukien, Yunnan and Ssuch'uan.There are also three Whistling Thrushes in China ;Myiophoneus caeruleus is found generally ; M;temminckii and M. eugenii are found in Yiinnanand there is one in Formosa, M. insularis.David et Otjstalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine,(Merulides; Saxicolides part).TURFAN ntS-fl"^ T'u-lu-fan t'ing, a townon the old southern road {T'ien shan nan lu) fromChina to the west. It lies east of Kashgar, on thenorth-eastern edge of the Tarim basin, that is, inSinkiang, {q.v.), in a depression some 200 feet belowsea level. The population of the whole oasis isgiven as 65,000. It is often known now as Chotscho(orQoco), which may be the Turkish equivalent ofthe T'ang pronunciation of Kao-ch'ang, anothernaiiie for the place. It is also called Idiqutshahri.The literary relics found there by Stein include^;orks in Sanskrit, Chinese, various Iranian andTurkish idioms, and two Tokharian dialects.Excavations have also been made there by Germanexpeditions under Grunvvedel and Lecoq.In the Han period, tliere was a kingdom therenamed Chii Shih which the Chinese destroyed inB.C. 60. In the fourth and fifth centuries of our era,various lines of rulers there paid tribute to China;but the city was d-estroyed by China in 640. HsiiANTsANC. was entertained there ashe went, but in theaccount of his return journey he speaks of theplace as existing no longer.The Uighurs ruled the oasis in the eighth andninth centuries, adopting Manichaeism in 750.Nestorian and Tibetan influences also affected theplace. About 843, the Kirghiz destroyed: theUighur kingdom, and probably massacred theBuddhist priests,—there are many skeletons nowfound with remnants of monastic robes. ButBuddhism lingered there longer than elsewhere inthe valley, and is mentioned down to the Mingperiod.Stein -.Ruins of Desert Cathay; A. von Lecoq :Chotscho.TURGUTS, i^fKM^ ,Kalmucks or Eleuth Mongols.a division of theTURKESTAN, called Eastern or Chinese, todistinguish it from Russian Turkestan, has been578

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICATYPEWRITERorganized since November, 1884, into a new provinceof China, with the name -ff J® s&r |g ^ KansuII.^in Chiang sheng, or Sinkiang, meaning NewTerritory. It is the western extension of the GobiDesert, and forms a depression wedged in betweenthe Mongolian plateau on the north, (average height4,500 feet) and the Tibetan plateau of 16,000 feetaltitude to the south. Its elevation at the centreis 2,000 feet. To the north it is bounded by theT'ien Shan, on the south by the Altyn Tagh andKunlun ranges, and on the west by the Pamirs ; tothe east, it opens to the Mongolian desert. Thiswall of mountains on three sides rises to some20,000 feet in height, with some peaks of 25,000 feet.The plain enclosed is the basin of the Tarira river ;which receives some sixty streams, many othersbeing lost in the sands, and is itself at last exhaustedin Lob nor. These streams form many oases inthe desert, especially in the foot-hills, and on these,by the help of artificial irrigation, have been foundedimportant cities and states, Yarkand, Khotan andKashgar being the best known. To this Tarimbasin must be added, for political purposes, theHi basin or Kuldja district, and Zungaria, north ofthe T'ien Shan; though geographically these regionsbelong to Mongolia.The area of the New Dominion is about halfa million square miles, but the population isestimated at not more than 1,350,000.The Chinese first entered the Tarim valley inthe Han dynasty, when Chang Ch'ien made histwo adventurous journeys. (See Chang Ch'ien).They learned then that the Oxus region hadconmunication both with India and with the west,and they henceforth strove to keep open the roadbetween Kansu and Kashgar. Records under thedate B.C. 98, mention a Chinese garrison nearTun-huang. In the first century of our era PanCh'ao conquered Khotan and Kashgar, but theywere lost again, probably early in the next centuryand as the Han dynasty degenerated, and throughthe Three Kingdoms period, China ceased to be apolitical power in Central Asia. Under the T'angdynasty, however, she occupied the Tarim basin andestablished the Four Garrisons (Kashgar, Khotan,Kucha and Tolmak, for which last Karashahr wassubstituted). From 670 to 692, the Tibetans conqueredand held the Four Garrisons, and again inthe middle of the eighth century, possessing thecountry for a hundred years. Then the Uighursbroke up Tibetan rule and made a kingdom of theirown, which did not, however, include Khotan.From the middle of the tenth century the Tarimvalley became Mohammedan instead of Buddhist.Yaktjb Khan's rebellion, beginning in 1867, wasnot ended till Tso Tstjng-t'ang's victories in 1880.During this period Hi was occupied by Russia forten years.See Yakub; Hi.It is in the Tarim basin that Stein has recentlydiscovered the proofs of a former rich civilization.The gradual desiccation has driven away its peopleand the sand has covered its cities. See Archaeology;Buddhism ; Turfan, etc.TURKEYS. See Gallinae.TURNABOUT, ^ ill ^ niu shan tao, an islandin lat. 26°' ,26' N. and long. 119°,.58' E., close to theFukien coast, opposite the northern eud of Formosa.It has a Lighthouse.T'U SSU, ± nj, the title given to the hereditaryrulers of tributary states lying betweenChina and' Tibet.In TibetaH these princes have tlie title of" Gyal-po," which is equivalent to the Chinese £or king; the more important had the Chinese titleof ^ St (£ n] Hsiian wei shih ssu, and wore "RedButtons."There are tens or perhaps scores of such principalities,the best know to foreigners being perhaps,Mu p'in [q.v.) ; Wa shi, Sheng Ch'ing, Somo, Chagla,Chos-kia, Damba, Leng chi are others. The anceatorsof such hereditary rulers were Chinese, but thepresent representatives are almost entirely Tibetanboth in blood and in religion. They rule over territoriescontaining perhaps scores of thousands mostlynon-Chinese Lamaists, and they pay (or paid) tributein Peking, it may be every five years, every twelveor at some other interval.TU T'UNG tp It, Lieutenant-General, of whomthere were twenty-four in the Manchu army, beingone to each nationality (Kvsai) under the Eight"Banners, ( #, opposite Wenchow.The two pagodas and adjoining temples werethe retreat of Ti Ping, the last Sung emperor, whenassailed by Khubilai Khan.TYPEWRITER, CHINESE. The first typewriterfor the language was constructed' by the Rev.579

TYPHOONENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICADr. Sheffield of Tungchow, near Peking, and isbriefly described in the Chinese Recorder for March,1888. The cost was there mentioned as $30 ! Afuller description was given in the volume reportingthe Xle Congres International des OrientalistesParis, 1897, the paper being The Chinese Typewriter.The la/test typewriter is that made by Mr.Chow, Mechanical Engineer for the Commerciaili'ress. It has 4,000 characters, each having itsposition known by rectangular co-ordinates, and thefirst machine made weighs 40 lbs. A full descriptionmay be read in The National Review for May20, 1916.TYPHOON. The etymology of the wordremains a puzzle.tufah have been suggested.The Greek Tii^Xwv and the ArabicIn Amoy the name isMi JBu hang-t'ai—in mandari i feng-tai, meaningStorm's womb. If the term is Chinese it may beCantonese ^ Jg,Vai feng. Pinto was the firstforeign writer to use the word, in 1550, and he callsit a Chinese term. (Cf. Schlegel, T'oung Pao,1896, p. 581). See Meteorology.TZINISTA, also TZINITZA, a name for Chinafound in the book of Cosmas, apparently anAlexandrian Greek, who wrote between 530 and550. The name represents the old Hindoo Chinasthana,the Chinistan of the Persians, and is almostthe same as the name Tzinistan in the Syriacinscription on the Nestorian tablet.Yule : Cathay and the Way Thither.TZ'U AN |g ^, the honorific title bestowed onthe consort of Hsien Feng when she became coregentwith Tz'u Hsi, the mother of the youngempeior T'ung Chih.TZU CH'AN ^ H, the literarywhich Kung-sun Ch'iao 2^ ^ |t isname underfamous. Hewas son of the Duke of Cheng and was born inB.C. 582. He rose to be minister in his State, andwas great as lawyer, statesman and philosopher.Indeed it has been suggested that CoNFrcirrsborrowed from him, and that if he had written juphilosophy and politics he might have had the placeof Confucius as China's greatest man. In 535 liehad. the laws cast in metal for the people's information.Cheng was an obscure State but he madeit for a time illustrious. At his death in B.C. 521there was great lamentation and Confucius himselfis said to have wept.Parkeb, : Ancient China Simplified; Tschepe :ilistoire du Royaume de Tsin.TZU CHIN CH'tNG ^^i^. Purple ForbiddenCity, the name of the Imperial palace, etc., inPeking. Only purple-coloured mortar was employedin its construction, hence the word purple in thename ; and it was 'forbidden' to the public to enter.Its measurements are given as 1006 metres fromnorth to south and 786 metres from east to west.It is surrounded by a crenellated wall 22 feet high,with four gates.It was built by Yung Lo (1406-37).Some description of the buildings, etc., will befound in Favieb.Favier : Peking, p. 277.TZU ERH CHI lkM% {yuyentzu erh chi).The title of the best known English introduction tothe mandarin dialect of the Chinese language. Inthe Doctrine of the Mean (xv, i) it is said thatif one travels far he must yet start from what isrear ( g jg tzu erh). Hence the title, "The 'fromrtar'Collection." It was prepared by Sir ThomasWade in 1867, was used by all students in the(Consular Service and very largely in the CustomsService. For this reason the system of romanisationwhich it introduced, apart from its merits ordefects, became the most widely used one, the chiefV orks of reference being written largely by Consularor Customs officials, and using it. A second editionwas published in 1886, prepared, by (Sir) W. C.Hillieu, and a third in 1903.TZ'U HSI. See Yehonala.TZU LU J-U- See Cliung Yu.UUIGHUR, also spelt Ouigouk, Weegur, etc.,an important race of Turkic stock descended fromthe Hiung-nu.There is a good deal of difficulty in getting aclear and true view of the history of this people.The following brief account is mostly from Chineserecords, as translated by Bretschnkider.They belonged to the great Turkic family calledT'ieh-lo JSc ® or T616, or Kao-chil % % High carts,so called no doubt from their high-wheeled vehicles.The Chinese name for them was Hui-ho 0]^, whichthey themselves later altered to Hvi-hu g} ||,Other names for them were Wei-ho ^ J^ ,Wu-hug^ II Yiian-ho g , )fe , etc. At first they paid tributeto the T'u-kiue (Turks) but revolted and became580

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAUNITED FREE CHURCHindependent about a.d. 640. They occupied theregion of the Selenga and upper Yenisei. About630, becoming vassal to T'ai Tsung, their territorybecame the Han-hai prefecture. For some generationstheir power increased ; they assisted China inher wars, and several of their rulers receive-d Chineseprincesses in marriage. But their Khirghiz neighboursalso grew strong and in 840 succeeded in destroyingtheir power and dispersing the tribe.Tworemnants of the scattered people still made history :those who settled at Kan-chou in Kansu and thosewho went to Kao-ch'ang near Turfan. These twokingdoms sent many embassies to China down to theSung dynasty.In the Yiian dynasty records they are spokenof by another name, Wei-wu-erh ^^ {3 ^ , and theirprincipal seat was Bashbalik. They submittedearly to Chenghis Khan.Klaproth considers the Kao-ch'ang district,that is, the country north and south of the easternspur of the T'ien-shan, to have been the originalseat of the Uighurs more than a century before ourera; but there seems to be nothing in Chinesehistory to corroborate this.They were the first Central Asian tribe to havea script of their own ; it was derived from theEstrangelo Syriac of the Nestorians, or, accordingto Yule, more probably from the Sogdian. Fromthe Uighiir, through the Mongol, comee the Manchuscript.The spread of Manichaeism is intimately boundup with Uighiir history. Rubruck says their creedwas a jumble ofManichaeism and Buddhism witha tinge of Nestorianism. See Manichaeism.Bretschneider : Mediaeval Researches ; Parker :.4 Thousand Years of the Tartars; Yule : Cathayand the Way Thither, vol. i, p. 62 ; Klaproth :Tableau Historique de VAsie; HowoRTH : Historyof the Mongols.ULIASUT'AI, J& M Jl ^ -& probably theMongol usu (river) with Chinese t'ai (post-station)added : post-station on the river Ulia. A town ofOuter Mongolia, the seat of the Military Governorof the Kalkhas region.ULLAMBANA,See Yii Ian fen.ULTRA-GANGES MISSION. In 1817, theLondon Missionary Society [q.v.) began its work inthe Fax East under the above name, and until theopening of the first five Treaty Ports in China, thework of the L.M.S. among the Chinese bore thistitle.UMBRELLA, ^ san. The invention of theChinese umbrella is ascribed to the period of theThree Dynasties, when they were made of silk. Inthe 4th century a.d. the paper ones now in use wereintroduced. The large official umbrella carried inprocession is red in colour and is called lo-san jBl^tor jih-chao, [Ig.Q Che-yang jg |B is a large leafshapedumbrella carried in front of officials.Wan-min-san ^ Si. '^ is an umbrella presented toworthy officials, and has red fringes and the namesof the donors in letters of gold.Werner : Sociology, p. ?83 ; Macgowan :Chinese Guilds, Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xxi.UNC CHAM.See A"eraf«.UNGULATA. This Order is represented inNorth China by the four Families Bovidce, Cervidce,Suidce and Equidce, including some thirty species.See separate articles on the Families ; also Goral,Serow, etc.UNICORN. SeeK'ilin.UNITED BRETHREN MISSION.Headquarters :—Dayton, Ohio, U.S.A.Entered China, 1889.Works in Canton province. In 1917, theMission has two stations. Canton City and

Onited free churchENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAAfterwards, and in spite of determined oppositionthey occupied Mukden. In 1882 the staff wasincreased by the arrival of Dr. Dtjgald Christie,and the Rev. James Webster; property waspurchased and medical work begun.Hai ch'eng ^ tjg, was opened by Mr. Macintyrein 1875. Liao yang jg fg, forty miles south-west ofMukden, was opened in 1882, after muich oppositionhad been experienced.K'aiyiian was occupied in 1896, and in 1895T'iehling |^ ^ the principal port of the upper Liao,after work had been going on for some eleven yearsbut in the latter place a mob wrecked' the chapelas soon as foreigners took up residence. Thestation was reoccupied the next year.Yungling, the cradle of the Manchu dynasty,east of Mukden, was opened in 1894, and J|9 ^ ®Chaoyang chen in 1897.In the year 1891 the two Presbyterian missionsworking in Manchuria, (Irish and Scottish), formeda United Presbytery, including foreigners andnatives of both churches.In 1894 the work was much hindered by theChino-Japanese War : and one of the missionaries,Eev. James A. Wylie, died' of wounds inflicted byManchu soldiers at Liaoyang.All the workers were compelled to retire toNewchwang, where they gave medical relief to manywounidied, by which much prejudice was removed,and great progress resulted.In 1895, the Danish Lutheran Mission enteredManchuria, and a part of the territory formerlyevangelised by -the United Free Mission was handedover to them.In 1900, the Mission suffered very severely atthe hands of the Boxers. All the foreigners wereable to make good their escape, but over threehundred Chinese Christians were martyred, manywere tortured, and others ultimately died as theresult of hardships endured. Every building in allthe stations was burned to the ground and in manycases all village chapels and Christian homes also.After the Boxer movement had subsided, and workwas resumed, a great increase of earnestness wasfound among the remaining converts and in 1903a great revival took place.During the next two years, the Russo-JapaneseWar again hindered Church and Evangelistic work,but a great deal of relief work was done in caringf>r the wounded, the numberless refugees and thetyphus patients and plague patients, which severelytaxed the workers' powers and cost one of themher life.In the winter of 1907—1908 a second remarkablerevival took place, beginning at the New YearConvention at Liaoyang, the meetings being mainlyconducted by Rev. Jonathan Goforth of theCanadian Presbyterian MisBion.J{irin Province.—Ashi ho M if ?9. a large townto the south of the Sungari river, was occupied in1892, where at first the Manchu officials opposed themissionaries most violently, and San hsing 3 j^in 1914, also not without difficulty, two-thirds of thepopulation being Manchus, exceedingly conservativeand anti-foreign,Eei lung Ktang Province.—Hulan X^ fS, northof the Sungari river, among a people mainly agricultural,was opened in 1905.Higher educational work is chiefly carried on atMukden. Here there are :1. A Christian College in which all the threeManchurian missions co-operate.This was originallythe Boys' School of the United Free Mission(opened 1902). Tie Union buildings were erectedin 1910.2. A Medical College established in 1912.3. A Theological Hall, common to the twoPresbyterian missions.There are boys' middle schools at Liaoyang,T'iehling, K'ai-yiian, and Ashi ho (built 1916).Medical Work.—There are Men's hospitals atMukden (begun 1892), Liao yang, Yung-ling, T'iehling,and Hu-lan.In 1910 the pneumonic plague broke out inManchuria and became much worse with the comingof China New Year in 1911, the coolies spreading iton their journeys homewards. The medical missionaries,as well as Russian, Japanese, and Chinesedoctors fought the pestilence, and Dr. A. F. Jackson[q.v.) who had arrived in Mukden in November1910, under the United Free Church of Scotland toteach in the Medical College, volunteered for thework, but died a week after of the disease.The Women's Foreign Missionary Society of theUnited Free Church is well represented in Manchuria.Besides itinerating and taking charge ofvillage schools, its representatives work Women'sHospitals, at Mukden, K'ai-yiian, Ashi-ho, T'iehling,and Hu-lan, a Girls' Normal school at Mukden,and middle schools at five stations.Statistics for year ending December 31, 1916 :Foreign Missionaries 64Chinese Staff 411Communicants 10,334Non-communicant Members 3,291UNITED METHODIST MISSIONARY SOClETY.Headquarters :—Birmingham, England.Entered China, 1860.Works in Cliihli, Shantung, Chekiang, Yiinnan,and Kueichow.North China District, includes five "circuits"in Chihli and Shantung, each with resident missionaries,and a share in Union work at Peking.582

. "Th«ENCTCLOPAEDIA SINICAiJNimD METHODISTwork was started by the sending to Chinain 1860 of the Revs. John Innocent and W.ISFLTHORPE HaLL.China was in a very disturbed state at the time,partly owing to the T'ai P'ing rebellion, and partlybecause the English and French, having taken theTaku forts, were marching to the capital.Soochow had been recommended as a centre forthe new missionaries, and twice visited by them,but the disorder in the city was too great to allowof anything being done there, so it was decided toopen work in Tientsin. This was done in 1861, andia 1862, land was p'Uirchased hear the new BritishConcession.In the course of the first five years, a stronglittle Chinese Church was established, with fourchapels, boarding and day schools, twenty-fourmembers and seven probationers. The quality ofthese first converts was unusua-lly good. All thefirst ten were men of keen intelligence, high character,and consistent Christian life. One of themtook a chief part for forty-four years in the trainingof preachers ; while several were remarkablepreachers themselves. .In 1871, a Theological College was foundedunder Rev. W, N. Hall, and was subsequently placedunder Rev. G. T. Candlin, D.D. ; this work howeverwas removed to Peking in 1912 as part of a schemeof co-operation in Peking University {q.v.).The station of T'ang Shan ^ [ll was plantedin 1883, as a consequence of the opening of minesand railways, wTiich gave opportunities of work bothamong Chinese and foreigners. Medical work wasbegun there in 1884, which was transferred to Yungp'ing7jt, ^ in 1902, when that city became aforeign-manned station.Shantung.—In 1886 a Shantung man from Laolinghsien |j| ^ came to Tientsin to seek forspiritual light, moved thereto by a remarkabledieam ; and in response to this, a preacher was sentinto Shantung, who met with great success.Chu-chia chai^ ^ || was chosen as a foreignmission station, and a speedy development took placethere, which resulted in a considerable increase inthe personnel, both English and Chinese. Medicalwork was begun with the coming of Dr. Stenhousein 1878, when Lao-ling hospital was founded.Wu-ting fu Bt ^ Jff was occupied as a foreignmannedstation in 1905.This mission specializes in evangelistic work,and in 1916 employed no fewer than 44 nativepastors and 144 local preachers. (In 1900, tlieforeign workers eventually escaped into safety, andthe mission property was not injiiredi, but two ofthe native catechists, and more than one hundredconverts, were put to death by the Boxers, aboutone half in Chihli and one half in Shantung, whileothers were scattered, and suffered exceedingly formany months).East China. (Ningpo and Wenchow districts).This Mission was started in the year 1864, bythe arrival of Rev. W. R. Fuller at Ningpo, wherehe opened a dispensary and was joined in 1865 byRev. J. Mara. After four or five years, however,both these workers had to retire through brokenhealth.The Rev. Frederick Galpin arrived in 1868,and for nearly thirty years did brilliant andeffectual work as a preacher, a member of the NewTestament Revision Committee, and a promoter ofChristian education. He retired in 1896, throughill-health. For five years Mr. Galpin was withouta colleague, but was joined by Rev. R. Swallowin 1874. From this time the work developedsteadily, reinforcements arriving from time to time.In 1916, the Ningpo mission reported seven"circuits," with a fine hospital, a College, and aGirls' School in Ningpo city.Weiichow.—Work was begun here in 1878, butlapsed for a year through the death of the oneworker in 1881. In 1882, the Rev. W. E. Soothill,M.A. (compiler of Soothill's Pocket Dictionary,author of The Religions of China, etc., and at onetime Principal of Shansi University), arrived to takecharge. In 1884, during the Franco-Chinese War,all the Mission buildings were destroyed by a mob,but the missionaries escaped, and an indemnity waspaid. For nine years Mr. and Mrs. Soothillworked alone. The W^enchow colloquial was romanized,the New Testament translated into it, andeducational and medical work both begun on aHiodest scale.In 1916, the district reported 250 lay preachers,and the same number of churches and outstations,7,000 enquirers,* a hospital with 17,400 attendancesand in-patients, a College and Boys' School with116 students, and a Girls' School.West China. (Yiinnan District). This workwas started in 1885 by the sending of two workers.Rev. T. E. Vanstone, and Rev. S. T. Thorne.It was at first associated with the China InlandMission, and the field was chosen on the advice ofDr. Hudson Taylor.Work was opened as soon as possible in threecentres, Yiin-nan fu, Chao-t'ung ^u DH M flj andTung-ch'uan fu f^ )\]M The two latter are in the-north-east of Yiinnan province, and Chao-t'ungisonly ten miles from the Kueichow border.In 1900, the Mission premises at Yiin-nan fuwere completely destroyed, and the missionaries hadto leave, and owing to the depletion of the staff bydeath, the station was given up.For many years, the work met with very littlesuccess, owing to the exceptional difficulties encountered.Of the twelve million inhabitants of^U

UNITED METHODISTENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAYunnan and Kueichow provinces, it is estimatedspeaking many 'different languages. All possibleefforts were made to reach these tribes, the twomain divisions of which are the Miao and the No Su,but the principal work was done among the Chinese.In the year 1904, a sudden and remarkablemovement towards Christianity began among thetribes, when the Miao in Kueichow were stirred byrumours about Christ and His religion, and flockedto the missionaries for instruction. In 1906, twothousand of these people were baptized in and nearChao-t'ung.Soon after the influence spread to the No Su,a people of great independence of character andsome wealth, from whom a few converts had beenecxeptions, stood firm. For example in 1910, agreat rebellion broke out in the north-west of Chao-MISSION, Thethat seven millions belong to aboriginal tribes, name under which (i). the Lutheran Synod, (ii). theHauge Synod and (iii). the United NorwegianEvangelical Missions united in 1917. The firstregular Conference of the new mission Was held atKikungshan in August of this year. See LutheranMissions.UNITED NORWEGIAN EVANGELICALMission.Headquarters :—Minneapolis, U.S.A.Entered China, 1890.Works in Honan.The first work of this mission was done inHankow and Fanch'eng, but the results were passedon to other missions, and a new field sought.received even in the earlier days.Sin-yang chow ^ |^ and Ju-ning ^ ^ wereOther tribes followed and, what is still more opened in 1898, and Ch'io-shan jg Hi in 1906, Lo-shanremarkable, those who received baptism, with rare M Ul in 1909, and Sui-p'ing ^iJp in 1912. Workis also done in Cheng-yang hsien jg ^ ^ (1911),and Ki-kung shan H ^ lU.t'ung Prefecture, in which a number of Christians' Regular Medical work is carried on in severalhomes were destroyed, and the people passedplaces and there is a hospital at Ch'io-shan, withthrough a reign of terror. When order was restoredfour physicians, three foreign, and one Chinese.In addition to elementary schools, of which theit was found not only that the Christians had notgone back, but a numbermis.^'ionof heathen had joinedhas thirty-two, there are boys' and girls'them.middle schools at Sin-yang chow and Ju-ning.By the end of 1914, more than ten thousand of Theological students are trained at the Unionone tribe alone (the Kopu) were enrolled at Tungch'uanTheological Seminary at She-kow, near Hankow,as Christian adherents ; and in that year, where the mission provides one of the professors.as a result of the work among the tribes, more thanStatistics for year ending December 31, 1916.a thousand Chinese families destroyed their idols.Foreign Missionaries 49Shih-men-k'an ^ H 4^, i" Kueichow, twenty milesChinese Staff 170east of Chao-t'ung, was opened in 1904, and in theCommunicants .., 1,478next year a church was formed by the baptism ofNon-communicant members 278six hundred converts, and two years later tenthousand wereUNITED STATESenrolledANDas adherents.American RelationsThe Rev.withS. PollardChina.of thi^ station, (diedCHINA. See1915), devised a new written language for the Miao, UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT FORand translated Scriptures and other literature into C'hina. This was opened in Shanghai on January 2,their tongue.1907. Only America and Great Britain (seeIn 1916 this station reported a large school and Supreme Court) have separate Courts in China; theHostel built with the help of the Arthington Fund Consuls try the cases of other nationalities.{(/v.) and six scholars had been sent to the UnionMiddle School at Cheng-tu.UNIVERSITE L'AURORE,— (AURORA UNI-To all* this work the people give most liberally, VERSITY-), m S.iZ^m, Shanghai. In theand the No Su have erected scores of chapels forbeginning of 1902, Mr. Ma Siang-peh, duly authorizedby the Superior of the Roman Catholic Mission,their own worship.Si fang ching p| i;;^ ^ in Kueichow, has been began to group at Siccawei some students desirousworked since 1885. Sin tien chou, south of Tung-of studying philosophy. The course opened onMarch 19th, with 14 students.Some having expressed the desire to studyLatin, a Chinese teacher was invited to assist Mr.Foreign Missionaries 47Ma, who at this date gave to the dawning establishmentEmployed Chinese staff ... 357the name of Aurora University. By the end ofLocal preachers, etc. this first year, three European teachers had joinedAdult members 12,474ch'uan, was opened in 1916 for work among theKopu (or Kani) tribe.Statistics for 1916 :—the staff, delivering lectures on Civil Law, hygieneand mathematics.584

ENCyCLOPAEDU SINICAUNIVERSITY OF NANKINGin 1903, the number of students had increasedfourfold. Finally the Jesuit Fathers agreed totake up the work and fully carry out the originalplan, including also a Faculty of Medicine. Landwas then purchased at Lukawei, just beside St.Mary's Hospital, recently erected by the R. C.Mission. The University was transferred there in1908.PRESENT STATE OF THE UNIVERSITY :1. Buildings : the property contains 103 mow,or 17 English acres, situated on both sides of AvenueDubail. In addition to the large Hall (containingchemical apparatus), and so forth, there are otherextensive buildings for the use of .the classes,boarders and staff. Another establishment forboarders is located on the western plot, in theneighbourhood of which is a small but commodioushaH for post-mortem purposes.The full scheme, to be completed later on, willcomprise about ten buildings similar to the threealready existing.2. Organization : At the head of the Universityis a President or Rector, assisted by a Council, themembers of which meet every month.The actual teaching staff comprises 24 members,19 of whom are Jesuit Fathers. One is a Doctor ofMedicine, two are Doctors in Civil Law, and two,Civil Engineers.Two other Engineers and three additionalMedical doctors, as well as a certain number ofcompetent teachers in other branches, are soon tobe added.3. Course of Studies. The lectures of thehigher course being given in French, it has beendeemed necessary to start a three years' Preparatorycourse, during which the students, already proficientin Chinese literature, may acquire a sound knowledgeof English and lay a solid foundation for theirfuture work. Together with the two most widelydiffused Western languages, French and English, acourse of history and geography, mathematics anddrawing, elementally physics and chemistry, andlectures on philosophy compose the programme.After three years (or before, if competent), thestudent may follow the Higher Course of Studies.He must then choose one of the three existingbranches : Lettres-Droit (Arts and Law), Mathimatiques-Geniecivil (Science and Civil Engineering),Medecine (Medicine).Those who choose the first branch have a threeyears' course of literature and law ; after which theymust continue during two other years a specialstudy of law before they can acquire the degreeof LL.D.Students who choose science must study duringthree years pure and mixed Mathematics, then aiddtwo other years, devoted to technical knowledge74and work, before they can secure the degree ofCivil Engineer.Those who have selected the medical course,must first study Natural History for two years, asa requisite for the full course of four years preparatoryto their medical degree.4. Number of students. This has risen from20 in 1903, to 203 for the session 1917-1918.Future outlook :In order to complete in every possible way thework of the University, an astronomical Observatory(the one now located at the Zoce Hills), and aMuseum of National History (that already existingat Siccawei) as well as a general Public Library,will be added to the present establishments.UNIVERSITY OF NANKING, THE, is anorganic union into which is merged the highereducational work conducted independently in Nankingfor twenty-two years by the three Missions,A.P.M., M.E.M. and the Foreign ChristianMission. The union was effected in 1910, and in1911, a charter was granted to the new Universityby the Regents of the University of the State ofNew York.An Arts college, with a high school and middleschool leading up to it, was established in 1910, aSchool of Normal Training in 1912, a Departmentof Missionary Training (or Language School), alsoin 1912, an Agriculture Department in 1914, and aForestry School in 1915 : the last two have sincebeen united as the College of Agriculture andForestry.Since 1910, four other missions have united insome parts of the work. They are, the MethodistEpiscopal (South) Mission, the American Presbyterian(South) Mission, A.B.C.F.M. and the S.B.C.Board.A medical school started in 1910 by the sevenmissions, as the East-China Medical School, wasaffiliated with the University in 1912, but was closedat the beginning of 1917, owing to the changes inmedical education in China brought about by theactivities of the China Medical Board of theRockefeller Foundation [q.'v.].The students of the University do valuablework in connection with the evening schools of theY'.M.C.A. Sixteen students teach six evenings aweek in the People's School near the University,which has 120 pupils, and the theological students5^5in a second, and the Middle School studentsin a third. The Middle and Normal Schools havetheir own Boy Scout Bands, who also are busy inreligious and social services.The property of the University is held byTrustees in the U.S.A. appointed by the Boards ofthe co-operating Societies ; and on the field a Boardof Managers, ftlgo chosen by the Missions, directsitsaffairs.

URSIDAEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAIt owns about seventy-five acres of land, and inaddition to buildings for classrooms, laboratoriesand dormitories, has a chapel, a hospital andresidences for the faculty with a museum andlibrary.The President is the Rev. A. J. Bowen,B.A., LL.D., of the Methodist Episcopal (South)Mission.In January 1917 the University reported :Foreign Staff..'.21Chinese Professors 23Other Chinese Assistants ... 3Students :1. The College of Arts 722. The School of Normal Training 1003. The College of Agriculture andForestry 524. The Department of MissionaryTraining 725. The High School 1466. The Middle School 100UNIVERSITY, PEKING GOVERNMENT.This University, founded by Imperial Edict in 1897,should not be confused with the Peking University,iq.v.).Peking Government University has had a variedand somewhat precarious career, but under thedirection of the present Chancellor, Dr. TsaiYuen-pet, the institution has been reorganised, andnow consists of a Department of Letters, a Departmentof Law, a Department of Science, and aDepartment of Engineering. Preparatory classesin connection with each of the four departmentshave recently been formed in place of a preparatorycollege which existed for some time.The University is moderately equipped withchemical, physical and technical apparatus, and thestaff of lecturers includes a few foreigners. Thenumber of students attending the University in 1917was 604 and the average annual fee was $30.URSIDAE. The following is given as a tentativelist of the Bears of North China.Ursus tibetanux, the E. Tibetan Black Bear,S.W. Kansu, N.W. Ssuch'uan, E. Tibet; U.ussuricus, the Manchurian Black Bear, Manchuria,N. Corea; U. [Schnarctos) leuconijx, the ShensiBear, S.W. Shensi ; U. {Melanarctos) cavifrons,the Manchurian Grizzly, Manchuria, N. Corea;Aeluropus melanoleucus , the Great Panda, S.W.Kansu, East Tibet, N.W. Ssuch'uan.One or two others have been reported, but thespecies are uncertain. Swinhoe states that heobtained a living specimen of U. tibetanus from theShantung Promontory, that it is the same as theFormosan Black Bear, that it occurs also in Hainanand probably throughout the mountains of Chinagenerally.SowEUBY : Recent Researches, etc.. Journal,N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii; Swinhoe: Catalogue ofMammals, P.Z.S., 1870, p. 615.URSIS, SABATIN DE, ,^.^ E UHsiung Sarupa,a Jesuit Father, born in the kingdom of Naples in1575. He went to Peking in 1606, where he remainedtin chased out in 1617.Ricci had given him specialguidance in his Chinese studies and named' him, athi.s own death, Superior of the Mission in Peking.When the question of correcting the Calendar arosein 1611, the mathematicians of the Court begged theEmperor to entrust it to the missionaries. DeUksis' part was to translate into Chinese the theoryof the planets and to determine the longitude ofPeking. By a display of hydraulic machines whichha had constructed he brought many mandarins tovisit the church, and the name of T'ien -Chu T'ang^ Efe ^ was asa consequence given to the churchby the Ministry of Rites, a name now used for allRoman Catholic churches. De Ursis, victim of thepersecution of 1616, died at Macao in 1620.La Stele chritienne de Si-ngan-fou, ii,Hwret :p. 26, note.U R U MTS i , B ^ M^ 5Sf Wu-lu-mu-ch'i or ^ ffc jf^Ti-hua fu, the Bish-balik of mediaeval writers, ison the great north road (T'ien shan pei lu) fromChina to Kuldja. It is a trade centre with a populationof 53,000, and is now the administrative capitalof Hsin chiang (Sin kiang).According to Bruce, the usual Chinese namefor the place is Hung miao tzu 4St ^ ^, Red temple.VVAGNONI, ALPHONSE, ^-^. Kao I-chih,a Jesuit P'ather born in Italy in 1556. He reachedNanking in 1605. He gained a remarkable knowledgeof Chinese, baptized a high official and builtthe first church in Nanking. When persecutionarose he was imprisoned for several monihs withP. Semedo beaten, put in chains and carried forthirty days in a cage to the borders of Kuangtung,reaching Macao in the middle of 1617. Meanwhileall the buildings and property in Nanking weredestroyed or confiscated.Returning to the interiorin 1624 under his new name given above, instead of5^6

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAVASILIEVi !^ ^ Wang Feng-su, his old name, he went to iiviangcnou i^ j^W in Shansi, where he had remarkablesuccess and baptized 200 people in the firstyear, including 60 literati and some members ofthe imperial family. After incessant labours hedied in Kiangchou in 1640, leaving eight thousandChristians in the province instead of the twentyfivefound at his arrival.Havret : La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fou, ii,p. 24, note.VALIGNANI, ALEXANDRE, ^HS^, FanTA-an, was born in Italy in 1538 and entered theSociety of Jesus in 1566. He visited India, thenMacao, and passed to Japan, where he had greatsuccess. He died at Macao just as he was preparingto enter China, in 1606. Semedo relates his cry ashe looked towards China,— "0 rock ! rock ! whenwilt thou open? " He is said to have put thingsin train for the later settlement of Jesuits in theCourts of Nanking and Peking, and to have beenthe inspirer of Ricci's labours.Havret : La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fou, ii,p. 5, note.VARIE'tES SINOLOGIQUES, a valuableseries of woa-ks by Jesuit missionaries, iissued atZikawei. As a whole it has a great reputation forscholarship and accuracy. The first work waspublished in 1892 and 47 volumes have been issuedup to the present date. These include 7 works ongeography, viz., on the island of Ts'ung-ming, theGrand Canal, Anhui Province, a work historicaland geographical on Nanking, a plan of Nanking,with maps of the Prefectures of China and ofW. Ssuch'uan. There are works on history, theKingdoms of Wu, Ch'u, Ch'in, Chin, Han, Wei andChao. In archaeology, etc., there are three volumesOil, the Nestorian Tablet, one on the Stone Circlesof Hsii-chou fu, one on the tombs of the Liangdynasty and one on Jewish Inscriptions at K'ai-fengfu. There is a Chronology comparing Chinese andChristian dates for 4,000 years, volumes on LiteraryAllusions, on Examinations, civil and military, onEtiquette, on Marriage, on Property, on the Saltmonopoly, on the Administration ; a translation ofChang Chih-ttjng's Ch'uan HsUeh P'ien, a Treatiseon Chu Hsi, ten volumes of researches in ChineseSuperstitions, and other works.These being by many different writers vary invalue, and some are out of date ; but the whole seriesis extremely useful. They are all in French, but thelast-named work, Dore on Superstitions, is alsoappearing in English, and Eichabj)'s Geography ofChina also has an English translation.VARNISH, CHINESE.^ c?i'i, is the sap offfhiis vernicifera, a tree whose principal habitatis in Kueichou and Ssuch'uan. It grows in otherprovinces, such as Chekiang, but in no greatabundance.Its altitudinal range is from 3,000 to 7,500 feet,the optimum being 4,000 to 5,000 feet.The port of Ningpo was one of the first portsopened to foreign trade, and probably foreignersfirst came into contact with the varnish there, andcalled it "Ningpo" varnish, a name which it stillbears in the trade. It is largely used in lacquerv.-ork and nearly all the foreign export goes toJapan. Hankow is the chief market for the supply,followed by Ichang and Yochow ; other ports supplyvery little. The annual interport exportationaverages 26,000 pitjuls, of which half goes abroad.HosiE states {Report on Ssuch'uan, p. 29) thatthe sap is obtained from incisions in the bark of thetree, which are made first when the tree is sevenyears old, and not again for seven years. The sap,which on issuing from the tree is of a greyish whitecolour, must not be exposed to the air, which hastensits inherent tendency to become black. A layer ofpaper is placed over the vessels containing it toensure this. Adulteration is detected by the smell,and by the fact that pure varnish if held up andmade to drop, will remain in an unbroken string, butthe string will break if the varnish has been mixedwith oil. If adulterated with oil, varnish placed onpaper will "run," the paper absorbing the oil.A peculiarity of "Ningpo varnish" is that ithardens only in a moist atmosphere and remains ina tacky condition if exposed to sunlight and heat,the essentials in hardening copal varnish. It shouldtherefore only be applied during cloudy weatherwhen the atmosphere is surcharged with moisture.For indoor work its drying is facilitated by hangingabout the room cloths saturated in water. The onlychange which takes place in the composition of the587lacquer in drying at ordinary temperatures is theslow absorption of oxygen, which is attributed toan obscure chemical reaction depending on thepresence of a compound of manganese with aproteid-like substance.Red varnish is obtained by the admixture incertain proportions of wood oil and cinnabaryellow, by the admixture of wood oil and powderedorpiment.The export in 1916 was pels. 15,619, value-Tls. 788,658.VARO, FRANCISCO, a Dominican missionarywho reached China in 1654. He was the author ofthe first Grammar of Chinese printed in China ; itwas printed at Canton in 1703, the title beingArte de la Lengvn mandarina. The work isffxtremely rare. Fourmont's Grammaticn Duplexwas, accOTding to Rf.MtJSAT, merely a Latin translationof Yard's grammar.VASILIEV, VASILI PAVLOVITCH, wasborn in 1818, and died in Petrograd in 1900.

VECrfetArtlAN SOCIETYENCYCLOPAEDIA SIKICAJoining the Russian Church Mission at Peking hespent eleven years in that city in study. In 1851he became Professor gf Chinese and Manchu inKazan University, and was transferred in 1855 toPetrograd. Hia most important book was onBuddhism, and it has been translated; into Frenchand German ; his writings are all in Russian. Alist of Uhem may be found in the T'oung Pao, 1900.VEGETARIAN SOCIETY, 1^ ^ |5cch'ih suchiao. A very large society, bound to life-longabstinence from meat. The general! idea is togain happiness now and the paradise of theWest hereafter, or at least to be re-incarnatedas a rich man. The Society was founded in theT'ang dynasty. It was members of this or somesimilar association who were responsible for theKucheng Massacre {q-v.) in 1895. See Jasper PoolSociety ; Secret Sects.VERBIEST, FERDINAND, ^ m i^ ^^nHuai-jen, a Jesuit priest, born at Pithem, Belgium,October 29, 1623. With Mariini, Couplet andothers he started for China from Genoa in 1656,but was captured by a French corsair in theMediterranean, and after being ransomed had tomake a new start. The voyage was full of suffering,but he reached Macao in July, 1658, and the nextyear was able to enter China. He was sent toHsi-an fu, but his really missionary life was veryshort, for he was invited to Peking by the EmperorShun Chih and reached the capital in 1660. Hebecame assistant to P. Schall with right of succession.The purely astronomical work was attendedto tjy Schall himself, while Verbiest assisted himMagalhaens attended to writings, drawings, etc.,and BuGMO did laboratory work.In 1664, after the death of Shun Chih andunder four Regents, the four priests were accusedby Yang Kuang-hsien, who had been humiliatedand replaced by Schall. Schall, as a mandarin, hadbetter treatment, but the others were kept in chainsfrom November 16, 1664, till April 15, 1665. Theywere then condemned, Schall to be torn to deathwith pincers [tenailU vif), the others to be beatenand banished, while 24 missionaries brought in from"the country were sent to Canton. Happily a seriesof earthquakes occurred, and as a consequence thethree were set at liberty ; but Verbiest refused toaccept release unless Schall were also set free. Afire in the palace decided the regents that Schallalso must be let go, but he died a year or so later,August 15, 1666, without being reinstated in hisoffice. Verbiest and his two companions wereretained in Peking, suiffering many mortifications.When K'ang Hsi began to take the reins intohis own hands, he first tested Verbiest's mathematicsseverely with repeated trials ; then arrestedYkiho, and made Verbiest director of the Observatory,February 1669. The Jesuits felt theirposition precarious till about 1676, but K'ang Hsigrew more satisfied and friendly year by year; hesat alone with Verbiest every day studying Euclidand astronomy. Verbiest himself studied Manchuand wrote a grammar of that language.On a great rebellion taking place, Verbiest wasordered first to repair some old cannon, then tomake some new ones ; which he did very effectively.He wrote a book in Chinese on the art, but nocopies are known to be extant. The emperor, inacknowledgment of his services, honoured him witha visit.In 1671 the missionaries at Canton were allowedto return to their work, and two more were broughtto Peking, a third, P. Pereyra, being added later.Verbiest escaped trouble over the controversy aboutrites ; but he had his own controversy with Pereyra.He saw the gradual dedine of Portuguese powerand induced the French King to send out FrenchJesuits ; while Pereyra, being Portuguese, lookedat things differently. He was also the object ofenvy and calumniation because of his mandai-in rankand kis official work, and had' to write thrice to thePope to justify his mathematics as really missionarywork.He had the honour and fatigue of accompanyingthe emperor on one of his great hunting expeditions,which were more correctly military manoeuvreft.Two letters from Verbiest as well as one froniPereyra describing their experiences in these huntingtrips are given in English in the HakluytSociety's volume, History of the twi Tartar Conquerorsof China.He was used as the intermediary between theCourt and all foreign visitors. It cannot be supposedthat in this office he favoured the Dutch,because of their Calvinism, but he was better to theRussians because, in his fear for the one small doorof Macao, he hoped a land route for missionariesmight be practicable.He was superseded by Pereyra in his ecclesiasticaloffice, but did not live to know it. He diedon January 28, 1688, and had a princely funeral.Hie grave is near to Ricci's.King Albert of Belgium recently spoke of himas "the greatest missionary in China of the 17thcentury."He was the author of many works in Chinese.Abbe Carton gives the titles of 39 books in SoctH6d'Emrdation pour VHistoire. et les Anttquites de TaFlnndre occidentnle, Bruges, 1830, No. 1.BosMANS : Ferdinand Verbiest; Louvain, 1912.VERMICELLI,^ee Beans.VERMILION, yin chu ^ ?gt~, is made of finecinnabar, which has been purified by sublimation,and is collected in crystals of a bright violet red588

BirCTCLOt»AlCl)lA SINICAVICARIATS-APOSTOLICit is powdered between two stones turned by hand,mixing a very little water at the time. The stickymass is then put into pure water, and frequentlylevigated, decanted, and finally dried on heatedtiles or in the sun, when it is sifted for packing.It is used in making Chinese red ink, for paintingon porcelain and wood, and for colouring candlesand paper.The trade is now very small. The export in1916 was pels. 70, value Tls. 18,667.Williams : Commercial Guide; HosiE : Reporton Siiuth China, 1907.VERMILION PENCIL; |^^ chwpi; decreesof special importance given under the sovereign'sown hand were written in red.VICARIATS-APOSTOLIC. These are bishoprics formed by the Pope for the evangelization ofdistant lands and kept under his immediate jurisdiction.The bishops (Vicars-apostolic) are nominatedby the Propaganda.To satisfy Poitugal Alexander XIII createdthe diocedes of Peking and Nanking in 1690, but in1696 Innocent XII reduced the areas of all threedioceses, including Macao, and announced hisintention to entrust all the rest of China toApostolic Vicars.Accordingly from that date we have thefollowing Vicariats-apostolic with some ApostolicPrefectures and Missions. The list gives the datesof creation, the Congregation to which the work i.sentrusted and the number of bishops, etc., who havebeen appointed from the beginning.1.—Amoy, founded in 1883 by separation fromFukien. Included Formosa, Ch'uan chou and Changchou till 1913, when Formosa was detached andthree Fukien prefectures substituted. SpanishDominican. There have been 5 bishops.2.—Shan&i and Shensi. Franciscan. Separatedfrom Peking in 1696. 17 bishops. The two provinceswere separated formally, as they had sometimes been in fact, in 1844.3.—N. Shansi. Franciscan. Shansi and Shensiwere separated in 1844; Shansi was divided into twoVicariats in 1890. 8 bishops.4.—S. Shansi. Franciscan. Separated fromN. Shansi in 1890. 3 bishops.5.—N. Shantung. Franciscan. Separated fromPeking in 1839, and divided in 1885 and 1894.6 bishops.6.—S. Shantung. Steyl Mission. Made into aVicariat in 1885. 2 bishops.7.—E. Shantung. Franciscan. Separated fromN. Shantung in 1894. 2 bishops.8.—Central Shensi. Franciscan. Shensi andShansi were divided in 1844, Kansu was cut off fromShensi in 1878, S. Shensi in 1887 and N. Shensi in1911. 9 bishops.9.—'S. Shensi. Seviinury iS. Peter and S. Paulof Home. Separated from Shensi in 1887. 3 bishops.10.—N. Sliensi. F ranciscan. Separated in 1911from the Vicariat of N. Shensi which then took thename of Central Shensi. 1 bishop.11.—Fukien. Dominican. Separated from thediocese of Nanking in 1696. From 1718 to 1838Kiangsi and Chekiang were united with it. Itincluded Formosa. The Vicariat-apostolic of Amoywith Formosa was detached from it in 1883 andthree other prefectures in 1913. 18 bishops.12.—S. Honan. Franciscan. S. Honan wasseparated from Nanking diocese in 1814 andentrusted at first to the Lazarists, then to theSeminary of Milan in 1869, and now to theFranciscans. 6 bishops.13.—N. Honan [Foreign Missions of Milan), wasseparated from Honan from 1382 till 1885 and had2 bishops.14.—W. Honan. (Foreign Missions of Parma).Separated from S. Honan in 1906 a-s an ApostolicPrefecture, and made a Vicariat-apostolic in 1911.1 bishop.15.—Hongkong. Sem. of Foreign Missio7is atMilan. Created as a Prefecture in 1841 and madea Vicariat in 1874. 7 bishops.16.—Hu Kuang. Propaganda,—mostly Franciscans.Separated from Nanking, 1696, a Vicariat.It was afterwards administered with Ssuch'uan,then reunited with Shensi and Shansi in 1762. The\'icariat was re-established- in 1838 separate fromShensi.10 bishops.In 1856 Hunan was separated from Hupei.17.—S. Hunan. Franciscan. Hunan was separatedfrom Hu-Kuang in 1856 and made a Vicariat.This was divided in 1879. 5 bishops.18.—N. Hunan. Augustinian. Separated fromHunan in 1879. 6 bishops.19.—E. Hupei. Franciscan. Separate(^ fromHunan in 1856 and divided into three Vicariats in1870. 4 bishops.20.—N.W. Hupei. Franciscan. Made in 1870by dividing Hupei. 7 bi.shops.21.—S.W. Hupei. Franciscan. Made in 1870by the division of Hupei. 4 bishops.22.— (Mission) Hi. Scheut Mission. Separatedfrom Kansu and made an indepenidei\t Mission in1888. 2 Superiors.23.—N. Kansu. Schcvt Mission. Creatfed byseparation from Shensi, 1878. Ko-ko-nor is underits jurisdiction. 2 bishops.24.— (Prefecture of) S. Kansu. Schent Mission.Separated from Kansu, 1905. 1 Apostolic-prefect.24.—Kiangnan. Jesuit. Constituted in 1856,on the suppression of Nanking. Includes Kiangsuand Anhui. 7 bishops.zB.—N. Kiangsi. Lazarist. Kiangsi was separatedfrom Nanking in 1696, then (1718-1838) united to5«f»

•31.—YICARJATS-APOSTOLICENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAFukien, then made a Vicariat in 1846, and divMiedin 1879 and 1385. It was confided to Lazarists in1838. 15 bishops.27.—S. Kiangsi. Lazarist. Separated fromKiangsi in 1879.3 bishops.ii8.—E. Kiangsi. Lazarist. Created in 1885.2 bishops.29.—Kien ch'ang. Foreign Missions, Paris.Created 1910. 1 bishop.30.—Kuangsi. Foreign Missions of Paris. Createdin 1875. 11 Apostolic-prefects.(Prefecture of) Kuangtung. ForeignMissions. Detached from Macao in 1858. 7Apostolic-prefects. (Now the V.-A.s of Cantonand Swatow).32.—Kueichou. Foreign Missions. Created 1696,then joined to Ssuch'uan, then estaMished anewin 1846. 22 bishops.33.—S.Manchuria. Foreign Missions. All beyondthe Great Wall was separated from the diocese ofPeking in 1838. Mongolia was separated fromManchuria in 1840, and Manchuria was divided in1898. 8 bishops.34.—N. Manchuria. Foreign Missions. Separatedfrom Manchuria in 1898. 1 bishop.35.—Central Mongolia. Scheut Mission. Mongoliawas made a Vicariat in 1840, then had severalpro-vicars and was again a Vicariat in 1874. It wasdivided into three Vicariats in 1883. CentralMongolia includes the north and north-west. 7bishops, etc.36.—W. Mongolia (Ortos). Scheut Mission.Created in 1883 by division of Mongolia.3 bishops.37.—E. Mongolia. Scheut Mission. Created in1883 by division of Mongolia. 2 bishops.38.—W. Ssuch'uan. Foreign Missions. Createdin 1696. The province was divided into twoVicariate in 1855. 26 bishops.39.—E. Ssuch'uan. Foreign Missions. Formedin 1858 by the division of Ssuch'uan.again in 1850. 4 bishops.It was divided40.-^S. Ssuch'uan. Foreign Missions. Createdin 1860. 4 bishops.41.—E. Chekiang. Lazarist. Separated fromNanking in 1696, it was joined to Fukien in 1718.In 1838 Chekiang and Kiangsi were made a Vicariat,and Kiangsi was detached in 1846. .Chekiang wasdivided into two in 1910. 12 bishops.42.—W. Chekiang. Lazarist, Created 1910.1 bishop.43.—N. Chihli. Lazarist. Formed in 1856, whenthe diocese of Peking was suppressed and the provincedivided into three Vicariats. Portions havebeen since detached.8 bishops.44.—S.E. Chihli. Jesuit. Formed in 1856.4 bishops.45.—W. Chihli, Lazarist. Formed in 1856.6 bishops.46.—N.E. Chihli. Lazarist. Separated fromN. Chihli in 1899. 1 bishop.47.—Central Chihli. Lazarist. Separated fromN. Chihli, 1910. 1 bishop.48.—Maritime Chihli. Lazarist. Formed in 1912and including only one prefecture,—Tientsin fu.1 bishop.49.—Tibet. Foreign Missions. In the 17thcentury there was an Apostolic-Prefecture, attachedin 1820 to Agra. The Vicariat of Lhasa wasestablished in 1846, divided into two prefecturesand re-established in 1857. The episcopal residenceis at Tachienlu. 7 bishops.50.—Yiinnan. Foreign Missions. Detached fromNanking, 1696, then joined to ^Ssuch'uan from 1781to 1840, and then re-established. 18 bishops, etc.See Congregations.De Moidrey : La Hierarchic CatholiqucPlanchet : Les Missions de Chine, 1917.VINAYA SCHOOL of Chinese Buddhism.LU Tsung.VISCOUNT,See Nobility.VISDELOU, CLAUDE DE, gljSeejg Liu Ying;a Jesuit Father born in 1656 in Brittany. Hereached China in 1687, being one of the first fiveFrench Jesuits sent there by Louis XIV. Sentfrom Peking to Shansi, poverty forced him aftertwo years to go to Nanking. After a visit toCanton he returned to Peking where he was entrustedwith the care of the neophytes. His carefulstudy of Chinese led him to the conclusion thathis brethren were wrong in the matter of Chineserites, and on the arrival of the legate de Totjrnonhe laid before him all that he had amassed againstthem. In 1708 Clement XI named him Vicar-Apostolic of Kueichou and Bishop of Claudiopolis.He had. to be consecrated secretly, in the houseat Macao where the legate was imprisoned. In 1709,being forced by the persecution of his brethren toleave China he went to Pondichery, where he diedNovember 11, 1737.He was a brilliant Chinese scholar and devotedhis studies to the history of the races to the northof China. His Histoire de la Tartaric did notappear till 1780, though written much earlier andprobably used in the manuscript by De Guignes inhis Histoire des Huns. It is a matter of regret thathis life was not spent in .«uch researches instead ofhaving been spoiled by the Rites Controversy [q.v.).Havret : La Stele chretienne de Si-ngan-fou, ii,p. 332, note; 'Ri'MVSXT : Novveaux Melanges Asiatiques.VLADISLAVITCH, SAVVA LUKITCH,Russian ambassador to China in 1725 to announcethe death of Peter the Great and the accession ofCatherine. He was not able after six months'590

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAWANG AN-SHIHnegotiations in Peking to do anything, but atKiakhta he concluded the second Treaty betweenth,> two countries, the Treaty of 1727, someti-mescalled the Vladislavitch Treaty (q.v.). See RussianBekttions with China.VLADISLAVITCH TREATY, 1727,betweenChina and Russia, the second treaty negotiated byChina with Russia and with any foreign power.It dealt with frontiers, merchants, religious worship,etc. It was made at Kiakhta, and takes its namefrom the Illyrican Count, the ambassador of Russia,who signed it.VOLE.See Murid(s.Hertslet : Treaties.VON DER GABELENTZ, HANS GEORGConon, born at Altenburg in Germany in 1840, diedthere in 1893. In 1878 he was made Professor ofEast-Asian languages in. Leipzig University andbecame Professor in Berlin University in 1889.Kis chief work was on Chinese grammar.VON KETTLER.See Kettler.VONMOLLENDORFF. See MOllendorff.VON RICHTHOFEN.See Richthofen.VORMELA, (F. negans), a peculiar polecatlikeanimal, with black underparts, black and whiteface, and a variegated orange-and-brown back.It is found in N. Shensi and the Ordos. SeeMustelidoi.SowERBY :p. 66.Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii,VOWS, ^1p p. hsii yiian, a very common practicein case of sickness, etc. The vow may be to givesomething to the god or temple, or to do some workof merit, such as a pilgrimage or a fast.DoRE : Recherches sur les Superstitions, p. 342.VULTURES. OnJy two species are found inChina, a remarkable fact, attributed to the paucityof cattle and to the fact that the Chinese burytheir dead.See Accipitres.wWADE, THOMAS FRANCIS, the son ofColonel Thomas Wade, C.B., was born about 1818,entered the army and took part in the first war withChina. He retired as lieutenant in 1847, and becameAssistant Chinese Secretary. He took part in the'Battle of Muddy Flat,' being then Vice-Consul atShanghai.In 1861 he was made C.B. and appointedChinese Secretary and Translator to the BritishLegation, and became Minister in 1871. He madethe Chefoo Convention in 1876, became K.C.B. in1875, retired in 1383 and was made G.C.M.G. in1889. He was the first Professor of Chinese atCambridge, being appointed in 1888, and he presentedt^ the University his very extensive and valuablecollection of Chinese books ;(see Libraries). Hedied in 1895.As a Chinese scholar he is best known by hisTzu Erh Chi (q.v.), and by the system of romanisationthereby introduced. A list of his writingsmay be found in the T'oung Pao for 1895.WAGTAILS,See Motacillidae.WAI WU PU, ^S ^ SK- The Foreign officewhich superseded the Tsung li yamen {q.v.) in 1901,in accordance with a scheme prepared by W. W.RocKHiLL, (Special Envoy, U.S.A.) and MarquisKomVra, (Japanese Envoy), on behalf of the otherPlenipotentiaries. Prince Ching was the firstPresident.WALNUTS, Juglans regia sinensis, 1^1^Ho t'ao. This fruit is a native of N. China and isfound there in its perfection. The trees grow inorchards, but in mountain valleys where terraceshave to be made to give a sufficiency of soil' they aregenerally found single or in small groups.The Chinese cannot graft or bud the walnut,hence all the trees are seedlings, and the quality ofthe nuts differs very greatly, even in the sameorchard.A few specimens of the wild walnut may befound ; leaves and nuts are smaller than in thecultivated varieties and the fruit is not so sweet;otherwise there is little difference.Meyer : Agricultural Explorations, etc.WANG,a^. See Imperial Titles.WANG AN-SHIH, 2 3c I? (1021-86), a,celebrated economist and reformer. He first becameknown for his independent intei'pretations of theClassics, especially with reference to the landquestion. He held office in Chekiang and did muchto help agriculture, especially by engineering worksagainst floods. In 1068 he became prime minister591

WANG CHJHENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAand heJd the office for eighteen years, inducing theemperor to carry out many reforms.Among his measures were the following. Havingmade a new land-survey he lowered the taxes andmade them payable in kind. He began a schemeto benefit commerce by government transportationof surplus grain. Government loans at 2% permens, repayable after harvest were made to farmers.An income-tax was levied for public works, insteadof forced labour.He met with great opposition ; from officials,because they objected to his socialistic views ; fromthe people, because many reforms seemed to bearhardily on them and because local self-governmenthad ceased. He was dismissed at the end of eighteenyears, and most of his work was undone.Ferguson : Wang An-shih, Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. XXXV.WANG CHIH ^%,the Chinese Rip VanWinkle, a Taoist patriaich who is said to havelived under the Chin dynasty. After awakeningfrom his magical sileep, which lasted severalcerturies, he devoted himself to the search forimmortality, and obtained it.Giles : Biographical Dictionary.WANG CH'UNG, i^,a "heterodox" philosopherborn in Chekiang, a.d. 27, who in spite ofpenury acquired a vast amount of learning. Heseveral times held office, but his views preventedhis gaining favour with his superiors.He is the boldest of all the Chinese writerp.both in thought and expression. He derided thesuperstitions current in his day ; he denied the possibilityof the soul being immortal, and freely criticised,not' only Taoist teachings, but even thoseo; CoNtucius and Mencius.His great work, the D % Lun Heng, is notitself much known, though given unwilling recognitionin the Catalogue of Ch'ien Lung, but ismuch quoted by other authors. He died in 97,just when a friend had recommended him to theEmperor, who bestowed a post upon him, which hedid not live to fill.Giles : Biographical Dictionary.WANG KHAN. See Kerait.WANG MANG, ^ ^, commonly known ad"the Usurper," was born B.C. 33. His aunt waswife to the Emperor YiiAN Ti of the Han dynastyand through her influence he attained high office andwas made Marquis. He married his daughter tothe boy-Emperor P'ing Ti, and was himself madeDuke. He is suspected of poisoning this Emperor,and he placed a two-year old successor on the thronewith himself as Regent. Three years later (a.d. 9)he set this child aside and proclaimed himselfEmperor. After much fighting with insurgents hewas driven from power and was killed in a revoltof his own troops, a.d. 23.WANG PA,":e; A, forget eight. The 'eight'are the eight cardinal virtues : filial piety, brotherlylove, faithfulness, sincerity, propriety, uprightness,moderation and modesty.- To forget all the eightis to be very bad indeed, and 'eight-forgetter' isone of the worst terms of revilement in the language.The name is for some reason given to the tortoise,and the characters (or the figure of a tortoise) areoften seen on walls, where the meaning is 'commitno nuisance.' The term is found as early as a.d. 500.Other explanations are also given.WANG PO. See Whampoa.WANG SHOU-JEN. See Wang Yang-ming.WANG YANG-MING £1^ M, the latest ofthe Confucian philosophers, was born in 1472, inthe 8th year of the Ming Emperor, Ch'eng Hua.His name was Shou Jen t}« iz, but his disciplescalled him Yang-ming, from a grotto of that namenear his home in Chekiang, where he had builthimself a house. He was of a high and ancientofficial family, an ancestor of his having been ageneral in the time of the Western Chin dynasty.Another ancestor, who was serving the first MingEmperor, was killed in the exercise of his duties,by the aborigines in Kuangtung province. His father,Wang Hua, was vice-president of the Beard ofRites, and also held other offices. Wang Yang-mingbecame a Chii jen at twenty-one, seven years laterhe became a Chin shih, and somewhat later a Hanlin,when be was given office. At thirty he was a ProvincialJudge. He was at first much given toTaoist practices, but gave them up as "humbuggingand not in accordance with the true way." Fromthe age of thirty-four he began to attraet disciplesby his re-interpretation of the Confucian doctrines.He had already held many offices when in 1507 hewas degraded, and sent to Kueichow jn an inferiorpost through having offended a powerful eunuch.Id is a pleasing touch that while in Kueichow, whenall his followers fell ill, Wang Yang-ming, thoughhourly expecting that the eunuch would work hisdeath, busied himself with chopping wood, carryingwater and cooking for his sick attendants, besidessinging to them and telling them stories to beguiletheir sorrow. After four years he was restored tofavour, and filled many posts both civil and militarywith conspicuous success : he was governor ofseveral Provinces, and received many honours.When he was fifty-one he was accused to theThrone of heterodoxy, but no action of importancewa.? taken.He died in 1528, and was buried at Hungch'i,ten miles from Hangchow,692

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAWAITERSHe was canonized in 1567 as jfc jjg W£n Ch'eng,and in1685 the Emperor Wan Li ordered that hissacrifice in the Confucian temples should followthat of Confucius.His views differ so widely from those ofChu Hsi that he is regarded as heterodox, butespecially of late years, he has been much studiedbotli by Chinese and Japanese.His re -interpretationOL the classics is remarkable for its lofty idealism,as compared with the realism of Chu Hsi, and hisirsistence on the intuitive nature of knowledge, theomnipresence of mind, and the correlation of knowledgeto action, may yet provide a new point ofdeparture in the development of Chinese thought.His biography and part of his works have beentranslated into English by Henke.Henke: The Philosophy of Wang Yang-ming(1916).WANG YING-LIN, ^Mm.(a.d. 1223-1296).A native of Chekiang and a voluminous writer, hismost important work being Yii Hai 2 ^, a largeencyclopaedia.He is also regarded generally as the author ofthe San-tzu Ching, (q.v.).WAN KUO KUNG PAO ^^fj

WAX r^r§ECTENdtCLdfAlfetJlA SlNICAConsular Service in 1863 and was Consul in variousports until 1895 when he retired. He was interestedin botany and discovered quite a number of newspecies or varieties. But he is especially known as astudent of Buddhism. His works are as follows :Lao Tiu, A Study in Chinese Philosophy (1870)A Guide to the 7'ablets in the Temple of Confucius,(1879) ; Essays on the Chinese Language, (1889)Stories of Everyday Life in China, (1896) ; besidesmany articles in reviews, etc. His work On YiianChwang's Travels in India appeared posthumously,1904.Bketschneider : History of European BotanicalDiscoveries; Cordier : T'oung Pao, 1901, p. 92.Wax insect.See Wax, White.WAX, VEGETABLE, is produced from thefruit of a tree of the Bhus order, the substancebeing formed between the kernel and the outer skinof the seed, and in its crud'e form is of greenishtinge. The foreign firms deal in this article underthe name of green vegetable tallow and consider ita variety of the ordinary white vegetable tallow.The Chinese, however, distinguish it by the nameof ch'i-yu^ rfi, from vegetable tallow, which theycall p'i-yu ^ yft, and which is found in the form ofa coating round the seed of Sapium sapiferum, (seeTallow, Vegetable). Vegetable wax is now beingrefined in Hankovfr and is exported both in itsrefined and crude form, but chiefly in the latter.It has lately come into favour in Europe for candlemaking,and a considerable demand for it has sprungup. It is harder and more wax -like than vegetabletallow, and its melting point is higher. The tradein it seems capable of great expansion, provided thtisupply can keep pace with the demand.The exportr? of vegetable wax, which were33,000 piculs in 1909, worth Tls. 293,000, fell in thefollowing years ; but 44,000 piculs were exported in1914, which included 7,000 piculs from Ichang andShasi. The export in 1916 was pels. 7,725, valueTls. 87,419.Hankow Customs EEt>ORT, 1909.WAX, WHITE, e mpai-la. Insect whitewax is produced by a scale-insect, the Coccus pe-la,being deposited on the branches of an ash [Fraxinuschinensis) and of a privet [Ligustrum lucidum,jfc ^ ). It has long been an object of interest inEurope, being mentioned as early as 1655 by Martiniin his Novus Atlas Sinensis. The chief centre ofth.} industry is Kiating fu, Ssuch'uan, but theinsects are bred in the Kienchang Valley, furthersouth-west. Here they develop during the winteron the privet. The cone-like scales full of minuteeggs are removed date in April to the wax districts200 miles north-east, by porters who travel in relaysand make the journey in 6 days, speed being necessary,especially in warm weather, in order to arrivebefore the insects hatch out. The cones are placedon pollarded trees, either ash or privet, where theyhstch out and after a moulting period deposit thewax (probably as a protection against enemies) onthe lower surfaces of the branches. The depositcontinues until the end of August, when the wax isgathered, placed in boiling water, and skimmed ofEthe surface on which it floats ; it is then mouldedinto cakes. The wax bears a close resemblance tospermaceti, but is much harder. It is odourllessand almost odourless, tasteless, brittle, soluble inalcohol, and dissolves with great diflficulty innaphtha. It hardens by long immersion in coldwater. It is largely used as a coating for Chinesecandles, its high meJting point (130° F.) renderingit useful as a protection to the fats and oilsemployed, which melt at 100° F. Other uses are,to impart a gloss to good paper ; to coat piUs ; topolish jade, soapstone, and superior furniture ; andto give lustre to cloth.The production is 50,000 piculs in a poor yeai'and as much as 100,000 piculs in a very good year.Most of it remains in Western China, but in 190614,000 piculs were exported from Chungking downthe Yangtze.Though the best wax is from Ssuch'uan, it isalso pa^oduced in several other provinces ; its rangeisreally from Chihli to Hainan.The export in 1916 was pels. 8,690, valueTls. 320,386.Baber : Report, 1879 ; HosiE : Three Years inIF. China; Wilson : A Naturalist in W. China.WEASEL.See Mustelidm.WEAVER-BIRDS. See P/ocewcE.WEODELL, JOHN, the commander of anexpedition to find out the possibilities of trade withChina. It was organized by Sir W. Cotjrteenes{q.v.) and seems to have enjoyed the special favourof Charles I. The expedition consisted of fourships and two pinnaces, and among other merchantson board was Peter Mtjndy, who wrote a valuablejournal. (See Mundy). It sailed in April, 1636.On reaching Macao it found the Portuguese readyto use any means to prevent others than themselvesfrom having trade with China; and it found/ theChinese arrogant, timid, and blustering. Weddellwas exceedingly bold and forced his way to Canton,but it wag nearly a century before English trade wasreally established in that city.Eames : The English in China.WEEGUft, Dr. Edkins' romanization of thename generally written Ouigur or TJighur. SeeUighuf.WEI CHM, gl ^. surrounding chess, oftencalled chess by foreigners. Ssiahg ch'i, however.694

ENCYCLOPAIPPIA SINICAWpl DYNASTYis the game similar to chess, while wei ch'i does notrci^emble it. In Japan it is called go-bang^ but,again, it is quite unlike the game known in theWest by that name.It is an ancient game, being first mentioned inChinese writings about B.C. 625, according toEdkins ; and it is native in China. It is regardedas the noblest of games and is mucli played by theliterati, while chess is more in favour with sddiers.It appears a simple game, yet is really most difficult.The square board on which it is played isdivided by eighteen lines each way, making 324squares. The play, however, is at the pointswhere the lines cut or meet ; there are therefore361 places.The 'men' are round, flat stones, black andwhite, each player beginning with a bagful of onecolour. The opponents play alternately, putting astone down on an unoccupied point. The object ofeach is to occupy as much of the board as possible.This is done by making enclosures, the unoccupiedpoints in which count to the player as well as theoccupied ones ; or by surrounding and so capturingthe enemy pieces on the board. Hence the name ofthe game.The description to which the reader is referredis full and clear and illustrated with diagrams.See Chess.YoLPiCELLi : Wei-ch'i, Journal, N.C.B.K.A.S.,vol. xxvi,WEI DYNASTY.One of the Three Kingdoms,iq.v.). I he rulers were as foUows.Dyn. Title Accession Reign Title AdoptedA.D.A.D.% 1^ Wen Ti 220 g |?| Huang Ch'u 220m ^ Ming Ti 227 :k m T'ai Ho 227m ^ FeiTi,)^ i^ Ch'ing Lung 233:^|!; Ching Ch'u 2375>fX^ Ch'i Wang L 240 IE Cheng il§ Shih 240FangJ2jiif Chia P'ing 249y}^ ^ Shao Ti ^Jg j^ Kao Kuei I 254 JE 7C Cheng Yuan 254^ ^ Hsiang Kung j-g-^ Kan Lu 256ft ^ Yuan Ti 260 ^ % Ching Yuan 260Jgj|5j} Hsien Hsi 264WEI DYNASTY, NORTHERN, :!b fft IE,(House of ToBA J5 !^ 16 ; also called Yiian Wti7C).fi A Tartar dynasty. One of the partialdynasties of the north during the Epoch of Division.It became almost as extensive as the Eastern Chinwhich preceded, and Hsiao W^n Ti (471-499) fixedits capital at Lo yang. Its capital was at Tu -p'ingch'eng in N. Shansi, the present Ta-t'ung fu, whereimportant cave temples still remain to witness tothe dynasty's zeal for Buddhism.In 535 it divided into Eastern and Western, andthese were soon overcome by N. Ch'i and N. Chou.Dyn. Title Accession Reign Title AdoptedA.D.JH^^TaoWuTi 386 S ^A.D.Teng Kuo 386^ j|§Huang Shih 396T'ien Hsing 398^ %X Ift T'len Tz'ii 404Sa^C^Ming Yuan Ti 409 /Jc ^ Yung Hsing 403|i^ Shen Jui 414i^ ^ T'ai Ch'ang 416;*:fft* T'ai Wu Ti 424 te ^ Shih Kuang 421jpijj^ Shen Chia 423Ji m Yen Ho 432;JtC Ji T'ai Yen 435X2|i T'ai P'ing 440Chen Chiin 440aS"IE qj Cheng P'ing 452^55e£ Nan-an Wang 452 -^ ^ Ch'eng P'ing 452Hsing An 452X)K#Wen Ch'eng Ti 452 ® S% Hsing Kuang 454* T'ai An 455?n ^ Ho P'ing 460JK^^ Hsien Wen Ti 466 ^ 2c T'ien An 466^% Huang Hsing 467^^^{f- Hsiao Wen Ti 471 2i ^ Yen Hsing 471>fi M Ch'eng Ming 476* m T'ai Ho 477ItR^-HsiianWuTi 500 1: M Ching Ming 500jE \b Cheng Shih 504^ ^ Yung P'ing 508Iti g Yen Ch'ang 512^Mlfi'Hsiao Ming Ti 516 E^ Hsi P'ing 516%% e Shen Kuei 517jE^ Cheng Kuang 519* 1 Hsiao Ch'ang 525(j|J^£Lin-t'ao Wang 528 It^ M Wu T'ai 528^^% Hsiao ChuangTi 528 3t^ Chien I 528^ 3c Yung An 528IC % Keng Hsing 529iKMfSETung-haiWang 530 J| M Chien Ming 530fJK^^ChiehMinTi 531 ^ ig Chin T'ai 531^jg^An-ting Wang 531 ^ ^ Chung Hsing 531^JE^^ Hsiao Wu Ti 532 * 1 T'ai Ch'ang 532WESTERN WEI DYNASTY.Dyn. Title Accession Reign TitleAdoptedX ^Wen Ti^ ^ Ti Ch'in or19 * Fei Ti^ ^Kung TiA.I>.7jt ^ Yung Hsing 532^ |e Yung Hsi 532A.D.535 :^: ^ Ta T'ung 535552554$95

WEIGHTS AND MEASURESENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAEASTERN WE! DYNASTY.Dyn. Title Accession Eeign Title AdoptedA.V.A.D.#l?f!? Hsiao Ching Ti 534 X ^ T'ien P'ing 534WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.7C ^ Yuan Hsiang 538m^ Hsing Ho 539^ B Wu Ting 543The nativesystem is chaotic, not because taels and catties ai'eless sensible than grams and kilograms, but becausethere is no absolute weight or measure in China.Relatively all taels may contain sixteen Hang(though this is only generally true), and every footor ch'ih may have ten inches or ts'un, but the taelor foot varies greatly in different trades and indifferent localities.In 1889 Mr. Morse collected information fromall pai'ts of China, and. published valuable tables inthe N.C.B.R.A.S. Journal. They shew that thecatty, for example, varies between 4 ounces avoirdupoisfor tea in Peking and 40.40 ounces avoirdupoisfor coal in Honan. Other weights and measuresshow similar variations. (See Mou). It doesnot seem to be of much use therefore to give aTable of Weights and Measures.At the ports, where trade is done withforeigners, it has been necessary to fix certainweights and measures by treaty.The Republic on January 6, 1915, passed a law,ffl /^ ^, reforming weights and measures by introducingthe metric system {^K and S- /f ) sideby side with the native system. The law shouldhave come into force in the capital on October 1,1916, but the time was extended to January 1, 1917.It seems, however, to be a dead letter. It is given infull by Planchet.Planchet : Missions de Chine, 1917 ; Journal :N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xxiv, Currency and Measuresin China; Morse : Trade and Administration ofChina; China Year Book.WEIHAIWEI IK^^, a Territory leased toGreat Britain by a treaty dated July 1, 1898. Itlies on the northern coast of Shantung, in lat.57° 30' N. and long. 122° ,10' E., and comprises theBay of Weihaiwei, all the islands in the bay, and astrip of land ten miles wide along the whde coastlineof the bay. The area of the Territory is288 sq. miles. Great Britain has also rights,including that of fortification, over all the coastregion east of the meridian 12l9;',40'.The bay is six miles wide and three or fourdeep ; it is sheltered by an island, Liukung taoSI ^ lb >two miles long, lying across the entranceand making two passages into the harbour. Themainland is hilly, and includes ranges namedFitzgerald Range, Seymour Range, FarquharsonRange and Macdonald Range. The last, which isthe furthest south, has the highest peak in theTerritory, 1,539 ft.The south-westsvn corner of Liukung tao andthe northern shore of Narcissus Bay, which liesopposite, are the centi'e of foreign activity; PortEdward, the administrative capital, lies in NarcissusBay, and Weihaiwei, the insignificant native city,lies a mile west of the bay.The climate is considered excellent, though thewinter cold is very severe. The average annualrain-fall is 19.2 inches.Sir J. Hope Grant visited the bay in 1860, whenseeking a suitable place for the British forces ofthe Expedition ; but he decided that the accommodationwas insufficient.Weihaiwei came into prominence in 1895, whenthe Japanese assaulted it by land and sea, destroyedAdmiral Ting's damaged squadrons and receivedthe surrender of the forts and remnant of the fleeton February 12 : Ting committed suicide at onceafter surrendering. Japanese troops remained inthe place for three years pending payment of thestipulated indemnity ; but in 1898, Russia- havingleased Port Arthur and Germany having seizedKiaochow, Great Britain took over Weihaiwei "foras long a period as Port Arthur remains in theoccupation of Russia."It remained under the joint administration ofthe War Office and the Admiralty till 1901, Sir A.Dcrward being Commissioner ; it was then putunder the Colonial Office and Sir James H. StewartLockhart, k.c.m.g. arrivetd as Commissioner inMay, 1902. He still holds that post in 1917.The British Government has never developedthe place for naval purposes, and in the consequentuncertainty as to its future it has not developedmuch commercially. It is however of much valueas a sanatorium for the navy, as a health resort forShanghai residents and others, and as an educationalcentre.An interesting episode in the history of theTerritory was the formation of The ChineseRegiment, (q-v.).Johnston : Lion and Dragon in North China;BtucE-MiTFORD : The Territory of Wei-Hai-Wei.WEIMAR MISSION. See General ProtestantMissionary Society,WEI, STATE OF^, a smaJl feudal Chou Statelying west of Lu and north-west of Sung, betweenthe Yellow River as it then was and now is, with itscapital at Wei-hui fu. The fief was given by WenWang to one of his sons with the title of Marquiag|, which was changed to that of Duke -JcV inB.C. 770. Confucius stayed twice in Wei and itwas from there that he was recalled to Lu afteithis fourteen years of wandering. The State becamedependent on Wei SH about B.C. 400 and was destroyedat the rise of the Ch'in dynasty.596

TheENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAWEN TlWEI, STATE OF, Si, sometimes writtenNgwei, which is probably its original pronunciationand which distinguishes it from the State of Wei® ,One of the Three Chin,—the three States intowhich Chin ^ was divided in B.C. 451. The othertwo were Han and Chao; they were recognized asseparate States by the Emperor in b.c. 403. Thesub-fief of this name was granted by Chin sometwo centuries earlier, the capital being later fixeidat Ta Liang, which is in K'ai-feng fu ; hence whenit became an independent State it was sometimescalled the State of Liang. It included parts of thepresent Chihli, Honan, Shansi and Shensi. It wasone of the Seven Martial States and it proviidted,one of the Four Leaders who delayed the final conquestof the Empire by Ch'in. Chang I, thepolitical adventurer, was a native of Wei. Menciusvisited King Hoi of Liang or Wei in B.C. 320, andtheir conversations are given as the first Book inMencius. The State waa destroyed by Ch'in inB.C. 225, after Han andl Chao had been alreadyextinguished.TscHispE : His Loire des Trois Royaumes Han,Wei et TcJiao; Hirth : Ancient History o'/China.WEi YANG, ^i|^, a reformer in the Ch'in^State who died B.C. 328. He bedonged to the rulingfamily of Wei but served Ch'in and made it great.He was made Prince of Shang ^^, but on the deathof Duke Hsiao ^, his patron, the next ruler killedhim and alil his family. For liis reforms see Giles'Blof/raphical Dictionary, 2296.WEN CHANG, 5: ^, an essay formerly reqi.iredin examinations. The value of this kind ofstudy was out of all proportion to the time itrequired.It may be compared with the making ofLatin verse by the ordinary English schoolboy.It was frequently referred to as the A 113! ^'fa hu wen, eight-legged essay, because divided intoeight heads in a very artificia,l manner. Sentencesof four and six characters came alternately, ardeach set of ten characters was antithetical. Stylealone was considered, the matter mdght be monecommonplace or even nonsense.It was condemned by Chang Chih-tung in hisCh'uan hsiieh p'ien {q.v.) and was finally abolishedin 1898.WEN CH'ANG. See Wen-ti.W EN C H W f&>)-H-^ Treaty Port opened by theChefoo Convention in 1877. It is in Chekiangprovince, twenty miles up the river O'u, ^ in lat.27°. .18' 4" N. and long. 120°. .38' 28" E. Thereisno foreign settlement, the Customs being outsidethe north wall, and the Consulates and residencesbein" on the island Chiang Hsin Ssu fl *ti> #oppo^site the city. This island is also called TwoPagodas Island {q.v.) and Conquest Island.The population is estimated at 100,000, theforeign population being only officials and missionaries.The people are described as lethargic andunenterprising, but they have frequently engagedin riots. 1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 1,141,772 1,230,047Net Chinese „ 963,954 785,109E.xpoHs 1,291,262 1,490,157Total Hk.Tls. ... 3,396,988 3,505,313WEN HSIEN T'UNG K'AO ^Mii#. SeeLei Shu.WEN LI, ^ S- ^^^en li in the sense of bookor classical language in contrast with the spokenlanguage, especially Kuan hua ("g" fj),finds no recognitionin Chinese lexicography. Therefore itsdefinition as the "classical style, or style of composition,"in such dictionaries as, Giles, Williams,etc., is without authority. Indeed the phrase itselfhardly finds a recognition in Chinese. The P'ei WenYun Fu (M^MM) does mention it, but not in anysense as referring to language. The two words cometogether in the Chung Yung (tp^) Chap. 31;"Accomplished, distinctive,XM ^ ^ & ^ ^ S^liUconcentrative and searching, fitted to exercise discrimination."From Dr. Legge's translation it willbe evident that it is not a combined phrase but twodistinct words, each with a meaning. This mustbe maintained in spite of the fact that some wouldtake li as qualifying wen.Comparative references are found. The ^ ggsays, "His argument is more weighty than hislanguage, but your language is superior to yourthought. When language excels principle ( 3^^there is danger of a fall." Jt- A S .^ irS^ f? if S?mt^^mmi^ iim^^tfii' han Ya (^ ^)says, AB'itmfi^niscu^nnxnm^"Words are the perfection of sound, and the wenwords are the perfection of words."The foregoing suggests that in ancient times thewritten and the spoken languages were identical.People wrote as they spoke : and very many of theclassical phrases found in the t'u hua (i |S)of certain localities may be a relic of this ancientidentity.The term Wen li is now in constant use, nevertheless,especially among foreigners, to denote theChinese literary style, which differs in degrees ofconciseness on obscurity, and hence id sometimesdivided into "high" and "low" Wen li.Works in colloquial or mandarin, largely producedby missionaries for the common people, arescorned by the literati. See Grammars ; Wen chang.WEN SHU, a Bodhisattva. See Manju'sri.WEN Tl, "^^f the god of Literature, alsoOne odnamed Wen ch'ang ti CHiiN X ^ ^ ^ .597

WERNERENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAthe can

EI^CtCLt)?Al!;l)lA feiNiCAW£St CHINA UNIONthe interior, and died in 1899, having lived a consistentand useful Christian life. Dr. J. Porteb,Smith, the fii'st medical missionary in central China,arrived in 1864. In 1865 Mr. Cox was joined by twocolleagues, one of whom was the well-known saint,ascetic, and fervent apostle. Rev. David Hill.Hanyang was opened in 1863, and in 1867 aftermany dilficulties had been surmounted, the Societyobtained a footing in Wuchang, and, as had beendone in Hankow, divided the city between themselvesand the London Missionary Society.After visits had been paid for some years Wusiieh^ ^ was occupied by resident missionaries in1871, when a work already started by the AmericanMethodists (North), was incoorporated. In 1891,during the Yangtze Valley riots, chiefly caused bythe dissemination of the tract A Deathblow toCorrupt Doctrines, (q.v.) distributed from the capitalof Hunan, the Mission premises at Wusiieh wereburned down, and a lay miss.ionary, Mr. W. Argent,was murdered, as well as a Mr. Green of theCustoms.Kuang chi gjj^ was occupied in 1871 at theearnest request of dght men who asked for Christianinstruction.In 1880 Te-an fu ^ ^ was opened, also as thete!:ult of an invitation from some of the inhabitants.The majority however were bitterly hostile, andin 1834 there was a great riot brought about at thetime of the examinations through the prefect settinga text for the essays from the Sacred Edict,"Banish strange doctrines." The mission houseswere looted, and the missionaries mishandled, oneof them, the Rev. Jos. Bell, dying in the followingyear as a result of the strain.Suichow ^ ^H was occupied in 1897, Ta-yeh:^ f^ in 1898, and An-lu ^ |^ in 1891.Lay Agency.—The Wesleyan Methodists havealways emphasized lay work. In 1873 C.W. Mitchilcame as a self-supporting lay worker (died 1902in China). He was quite uniquely efficient as acolporteur, and his success led to a number of layaj ents known as the "Joyful News Band" bein.^sent out at low salaries, chiefly through the influenceof the Rev. David Hill, who set them a fineexample of frugal living and incessant work. Inafter years, the Lay Mission became absorbed inthe Parent Society.Educational Work.—In 1887, higher educationalwork was begun in Wuchang under the Rev. W. T.A. Barber, M.A., B.D. (now D.D. and Principal otfLeys School, .Cambridge, England), but five yearslater he was obliged to leave China. The workcontinues as Wesley College and High School, andwas removed outside the city walls in 1906.A Theological Institute, also at Wuchang, wasbegun in 1901. There is a David Hill Blind Schoolin Hankow, started in 1888 and occupying newbuildings since 1914. Boys' boarding schools arerunning at Wuchang, Te-an, Ta-yeh and An-lu.A home for Destitute Boys exists at Suichow.Wuchang Normal School is worked in conjunctionwith two other missions.Medical Work was begun in Hankow at theoutset, and there are both men's and women'shospitals. The latter was built in 1888 by theWomen's Auxiliary of the Wesleyan MissionarySociety in commemoration of Queen Victoria'sJubilee.In the two Revolutions, the Hankow doctorsdid a great deal of Red Cross Work. There is aUnion Medical School at Hankow which was openedin 1910, by the Wesleyan Methodist Society, theLondon Mission Society, and the American Baptists(North). Te-an Hospital was built in 1899 as amemorial to David Hill. Medical work was startedat An-lu at the opening of the station and wascarried on in native premises until the building ofthe men's hospital in 1910, and the women's hospitalin 1913.Dispensary work began in Ta-yeh in 1907, andthe present hospital was opened in 1911.Hunan District.—The Society works (1916) inseven centres in Hunan. As is well known, theopposition to Christianity in this province was sointense till recently that it was impossible formissionaries to reside there. "The W.M.S., however,jcnt Chinese evangelists from Hupei for some years,and in 1902, Rev. E. C. Cooper and the Rev.Lo Yu-SAN entered Changsha, and ^ M Pao-ch'ingin 1903. Yungchow ^ jHi was occupied in 1904, asalso was P'ing-kiang ^tH; and Chenchow ^ ^ in1906. Work is also carried on at Yi-yang, Liu-yang,and Siangtan.Educational Work.—A Union Theological Schoolwas started at Changsha in 1914, in W.M.S.premises and with a W.M.S. president; there areboys' boarding schools at Yungchow and P'ing-kiang,and a Bible Women's school at Yi-yang.Medical Work is carried on at Yung-chow, Paoch'ingand P'ing-kiang.Statistics for year ending December 31, 1916 :Foreign Missionaries 120Chinese Staff 360Communicants 5,364Non-communicant Members 752WEST CHINA UNION UNIVERSITY, THE,was founded at Ch'engtu, Ssuch'uan, in 1910, byfour Societies, the English Friends' Mission, theA.B.F.M. Society, the Canadian Methodist Missionand the M. E. Mission, U.S.A. The ChurchMissionary Society has recently entered the union.The Revolution interfered with progress, butCollege classes were re-c^ened in 1913.599

WESTERN GARRISONSENCyCLOPAEDIA SINICAgives the yield in Shantung as 42 bushels per acre,There are four Faculties, Arts, Science,1,000 lbs. King, Farmers of Forty Centuries, p. 255, Buddhist monasteries. Its height is about 1,200 ft.Medicine (organized 1914), and Theology (organized1915).There is a board of Governors resident in theas against 23.3 bushels in Manchuria which is givenin Far Eastern Review, Feb., 1909.Wheat is grown in every province of China, butthree countries represented and a Senate on the a crop of far more importance in the north thanisfield composed of members of the Missions working in the south, where it merely supplements rice asthe University.a winter crop. A great deal is grown in the GreatThe first graduates took thedir B.A. degree in Plain, but Manchuria is par excellence the wheat1916. The University at present grants degrees land of China, being indeed an ideal wheat field.merely on its own authority, but it is probable that Parker has estimated that the wheat lands ofit will shortly become incorporated in the State of Manchuria and E. Mongolia, developed and undeveloped,New York.are capable of producing from 300,000The site occupied about one hundred acres, and to 400,000 bushels of spring-sown hard wheat, evencontains, besides the University proper, students' with native methods of culture. This territory isdormitories, and the residences of the foreign staff. north of the 40th degree of N. latitude. The nativeA fine College campus is gradually being made. wheats are mostly of the bearded and smooth chaffThe students are mostly Ssuch'uanese, but a few type, though fife, blue-stem, and Canadian clubfrom Yunnan and the Miao taibes are found in the types are also seen. The yield is much less per unitlower grades, in which also are the majority of non- than that of millet or maize, so that tlie people doChristian students.not cultivate wheat as much as they should, butThe first President is the Rev. Joseph Beech, yearly this prejudice is being broken, as the flourD.D., of the M. E. Mission.industry is developed.In January 1917, the University reported :The production of flour in China is yearlyForeign Professors 20increasing, as the taste of the people I'or the article(including some who only give part time).develops. The importation of foreign flour is stillrihincse Professors 1very large, but the local produce is steadily forging(as distinguished from the numerousits way ahead. In Manchuria the Harbin districtteachers and assistants).has 19 miles (10 in Harbin itself), turning out nearlyStudents of College Grade ... 70140,000 tons yearly; Tiehling (S. Manchuria) hasStudents of schools controlled bya very large mill ; in the Yangtze Valley there areUniversity, e.g. Normal and Middle32 (including 15 at Shanghai and 5 at Hankow),Schools, etc 255producing over 60,000 sacks daily, and there are aWESTERN GARRISONS, ^ee Four Garrisons. dozen in other provinces. In 1915 nearly three an^la quarter million piculs of flour were sent out fromWEST RIVER. See 5'i Iciang.the milling centres to other towns.WHAMPOA, ^ ^ huang jm, yellow reach,Wilson noted no fewer than five distinctthe same name as Whang poo [q.v.). The port ofvarieties of wheat, both "red" and "white," awnedCanton, on an island of the same name, twelve milesand awnless. Some of the North China wheats,lelow that city. Formerly the anchorage for shipsowing to their rapid coming to maturity, are beingwhich were not allowed to proceed to Canton.tried in England, seed having been sent to ProfessorWhen it was the only port open to foreign tradeBiFFEN of Cambridge. In W. Ssuch'uan 8,000 toS. W. WiLH\MS counted one hundred and twentyfiveships there at one time, along a front of three10,500 feet represents the wheat-growing altitude.miles. It has now lost its old importance, and is aIn 1916 the export was wheat, pels. 1,155,179,value Hk.Tls. 2,223,133; flour, pels. 289,747, Tls.Customs station.1,141,707.WHANG POO, ^ jS huang p'u, yellow reach.A river running into the Yangtze. Shanghai stands WHITE ANTS, & H, pai i, a kind of insecton it, about 14 miles from the mouth.(termites) distinct from ants, and a great curse in'WHANGPOO CONSERVANCY. See ConisdvancyWork.the south of China. In the larva stage they devourmost kinds of wood, and to such an extent that whatappears to be a solid beam may be a mere shell andWHEAT, /> ^ hsiao mai. Wheat is sown incollapse at a touch.Manchuria in March and harvested in June, an acrerequiring 17 to 22 lbs. of seed and yielding from WHITE CLOUD MOUNTAIN, 6 ^ lU ?«1,100 to 1,600 lbs. of grain. Hosie gives the wheat yUn shan, a favourite place for excursions fromyield per acre in Ssiich'uan as 1,900 lbs., producing Canton, which lies at its foot. It is 3 to 4 hours1,100 lbs. of flour. In Manchuria the yield is only distant by chair. The hill has several interesting600

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAWHITE PIGEONWHITE DEER GROTTO UNIVERSITY,The, is situated near the Poyang Lake in Kiangsi.According to historical statements the place nowoccupied by this institution was the home ofLi P'g ^^, a poet of some reputation in the T'angDynasty. He had a tame white deer which accompaniedhim in his rambles and the common peoplecalled him the "white deer gentleman." In a.d. 826,the poet was given office of sub-prefect at thepi'esent Kiukiang and built a summer house or kioskover the cave. In 805-807 a school had been openedthere, known as the Government School of the LuMountains. In the time of confusion which followedthe T'ang Dynasty it was a rendezvous for scholarsfrom many parts, who found a retreat for studythere.In 960, the school was raised to the status of aUniversity, and then had over a hundred students.The great Chu Hsi, who became prefect at Nank'angfu in 1174, repaired and enlarged it. Hememorialized the Throne on the subject, begged tobe made President, and that grants-in-aid might bemade. He asked that the Emperor Hsiao Tstjngwould also bestow an Imperial tablet, as a set-offagainst the Taoist and Buddhist temples whichswarmed everywhere. The Emperor granted therequests, but at the end of the Mongol rule thetablet was thrown down. It was found amongsome brushwood and set up again in the reign ofthe Ming Emperor Cheng T'ung. Chu Hsi is saidto have spent the last years of his life at the WhiteDeer Grotto, and to be buried behind the college.The grotto bears no sign of being a naturalcave : it contains an insignificant image of a whitedeer, placed there in the 14th century.The whole place is in a very ruinous condition,and is almost deserted, except in summer, when bandsof students resort thither to pursue their studies inthe coolness of the spot. Ktjpfer says it is "aUniversity with no President, and no Faculty, noBoard of Trustees, and not even a janitor."KuPFER : Sacred Places in China.WHITE FEATHER SOCIETY, also called theSociety of Divine Justice, an anti-dynastic secretsociety which originated in Honan and in 1913attacked the palace, etc.Giles : ChinaWHITE LOTUS (orLILY) SOCIETY, Pailienchiao, fi ^ ^,See White Lotus Society.and the Manchus.which must not be confoundedwith the Lotus School of Buddhism founded byHui YiiAN, arose in the reign of the Mongol EmperorWu TsuNG (1308-1312), owing to persistent misrule.It was given a religious turn by Han Shan-t'ung^ lU £ .(t'he grandson of the founder) declaringthe advent of Maitreya to be near. He himselfwas palmed off as a descendant of the Sung dynastic76(501family, and rose in rebellion.Red turbans were thedistinguishing max'k of his followers. He wascaptured early and executed, and his son © ;^ ^carried on the revolt, and was actually proclaimedEmperor; but he died in 1367 at Nanking and theprize of the Empire fell to his friend Chu YiiAN-CHANG, the first of the Ming rulers.Towards the close of the Ming Dynasty, whenmisrule and disorder again prevailed, the WhiteLotus Society re-appeared. In the reign of T'lEaiCh'i (1621-1628), they joined forces with a rebelleader who had actually been proclaimed Emperor,but was defeated and slain in battle.In 1761 Ch'ien Lung issued edicts against thisand other sects, but in 1794 the White Lotus Societybroke out in rebedlion again, in Hupei and WestChina, around the person of a youth represented asa descendant of one of the Ming Emperors. Thisref>ellion took ten years to repress. In the first fourmonths 20,000 members of the sect were beheaded,but nevertheless the movement spread over six provincesand cost untold money and lives.In 1814, in Chia Ch'ing's reign, a daring insurrectionbroke out in the palace itself, which wasascribed to the White Lotus Society, though theWhite Feather and other organizations were alsoaccused. In 1815, a White Lotus army suffereddefeat in Shensi and this was their last open revolt,though the Nien fei who worked such havoc in thenorth at the time of the T'ai P'ing rebellion wereiniobably largely recruited from the other Society.It is said to survive under the name of the Tsai Liig sect, whose members abstain from wine, opiumIjgand tobacco, but were strongly disliked by theManchu authorities to the end.Edkins also stated in 1886 that the White Lotusstill existed as a small purely religious sect in theneighbourhood of Te chou in Shantung.Sects.See SecretStanton : China Review, xxi and xxii ; Giles :China and the Manchus.WHITE PIGEON, ^ ^ pai Ico, or whitepigeon ticket, is a gambling game much practisedin the south, where it is called pah kop piu. It isconsidered more respectable than fan fan. Theorigin of the name is said to be in the sending ofthe winning numbers to distant players by means oftickets attached to carrier-pigeons. The first eightycharacters of the Ch'ien-tzU ching are used asnumbers. Ten numbers may be fixed on by a playerat the price of a dollar. The eighty characters arefolded up, mixed together, then divided into fourgroups of twenty each. Some player present isasked to select one of these groups, which thusbecomes the group of winning numbers. The twentycharacters are unfolded and stuck up on a board.Any player who has previously fixed on five of these

WHITE TIGERENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA\:mnumbers gets two dollars and so on up to anyone•whose ten numbers are all in the winning numbers :he receives three thousand dollars.Or, according to Giles, the players, who hadto do their gambling outside Canton, because it wasforbidden inside, used, by means of pigeons, to lettheir dear ones in the city know what their luckhad been. It must be remembered that the citygates are kept shut aU night.CuLiN : The Gumbling Games of the Chinesein America.WHITE TIGER, THE, Q Jg^pai hu, a Taoiststar-spirit, the canonized Yin Chkng-hsiu, colleagueto the Yin general who is now the Blue Dragon{q.v.). They often act as the guardians beforeTaoist temples.DoRE : Rechercfies sur les Superstitions, tome ix,p. 586.WIEGER, LEON, a Jesuit missionary intheS.E. Chihli Mission. He was born in Alsace onJuly 9, 1856, took his degree in medicine, enteredthe Society January 21, 1881, and arrived at hismission in Chihli in October, 1887. He has livedneai'ly all the time at Hsien hsien ]^^ U as theMission doctor, and has devoted himself to sinologicalstudies. His published works are Chinoisparle/Xhinois ecrit; Etude des caracteres; TexteshistoriqueSj sommaire de I'histoire chinoise; Textesphilosophiques, sommaire des notions chinoises;Folklore chinois moderne; Bouddhisme chinois;Toolsme; besides various religious works in Chinese.All these works are issued from the Mission Pressat Ho-kien fu, and details will be found in thePress catalogue. Two works have been translatedby P. DwROTJT into English, Moral Tenets andCustoms in China, and Chinese Characters.WIGOUR, found in Giles' Dictionary as analternative for Ouigur. See Uighur.WIKSTROEMA, a shrub from the fibre ofwhich paper is made at Pinchow, near Pakhoiin South Kuangtung ; this is named sha-chih.Blankets are also made from it, which are verycheap and portable ; the chair coolies all use them.(Pakhoi Customs Report, 1878).WILLIAM OF RUBRUCK, a Franciscanfriar who travelled to Mongolia in the 13th century,and wrote an account of the journey.The dates of his birth and death are unknown,and nothing at all is known of him except what isfound in his Itinerarium. His birthplace seems tohave been Rubrouck in French Flanders. He waswith St. LoTJis the king in the sixth crusade, andstarted on his journey from Constantinople in 1253with letters from the king to the emperor ofMongolia and others, but he was not officially sent.He reached Cyprus on his return in 1255, but theking had then returned to France, whither RrrBRXJCKwas not allowed by the Provincial of his order tofollow. He must have got to France later, however,for RoGEii Bacon tells of meeting him there, andnearly everything of geographical importance in theItinerarium is given in Bacon's Opus Majus. FriarWilliam seems after this to have been entirely forgottenfor three centuries and a half, till in 1600Hakltjyt published a portion of the Itinerariumfrom Lord Lumley's Manuscript, and Pxjrchas inhis Pilgrimes republished this and completed it fromanother manuscript. The historians of his Orderhardly mention him down to the middle of lastcentury, when a full notice of him was given inDa Civezza's Storia Universale.Many translations have appeared, but they wereall, till recent years, based on the translations ofHakluyt and Purchas ; nor since Pxjrchas doesanyone till recent times appear to have seen thegreat value of the book : Yule ranks it with MarcoPolo's work and says 'it has few superiors in thewhole library of travel' !The Hakluyt Society has published a newtranslation by W. W. Rockhill, with an Introductionby that scholar.Societe de Geographie, Recueil de Voyages, vol. iv,(1839) ; Yule : Marco Polo, i, 102 ; Da Civezza :Storia Universale delle Missione Francescane;Schmidt : Ueber Eubruk's Beise von 1253-1255,(1885) ; De Backer : Guillaume de Rubrouch,traduit de I'original latin, (1877).WILLIAMSON, ALEXANDER, was bom atFalkirk, Scotland, in 1829, and after graduating atGlasgow was accepted by the London MissionarySociety. He sailed with his wife in company withDr. Griffith John and reached Shanghai in 1855.As the result of the excessive zeal with which heworked he had to return to Scotland two years later,and never quite recovered from his severe illness.In 1863 he came back as agent of the NationalBible Society of Scotland, and from Chefoo asheadquarters travelled far and wide, often in districtsthen still unknown to missionaries. Hisbrother James was murdered near Tientsin in 1869,and the same year he himself returned home,published his Journeys in North China and receivedthe honorary degree of Doctor of Laws from hisalma mater in 1871. Returning, he spent muchstrength in travel, in famine work and in literarylabours ; he was the chief founder of the Book andTract Society for China, which he afterwardsdeveloped into the Society for the Diffusion ofChristian and General Knowledge among theChinese, (now the Christian Literature Society).He died in Chefoo in August, 1890.WILLIAMS, SAMUEL WELLS,This missionary,diplomatist and author was born at Utica,N.Y., in 1812, and proceeded to China in 1833 to602

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAWOMAN-COUNTRYtake charge of the printing press connected with theMission of the American Board. The only Pitoitestantmissionaries then in China were Bridgmanand Morrison ; all foreigners were required to liveoutside Canton and no Chinese was permitted! toteach them the language. He studied Japanese asv/ell as Chinese, edited and printed The ChineseRepository and published a Vocabulary of Mandarinand Easy Lessons in Chinese. In 1874 he publishedhis well-known Middle Kingdom. He accompaniedCommodore Perry to Japan as interpreter in 1853-4.His Tonic Dictionary of the Canton Dialect wa.sfinished in 1856, and next year he went north a.sU.S. Secretary of Legation, which post he held till1876. During this time he was Charge d'affaires9 times, and wrote his Syllabic Dictionary of theChinese Language. He became Professor of Chineseat Yale University in 1877, re-wrote his MiddleKingdom^ and died in February, 1884.Chinese Recorder, vol. xv ; Williams : Lifeand Letters of S. Wells Williams, 1889.WINE, jg chiu. According to Giles' Dictionarychiu is the term for spirits got from grainby distillation. The word by itself, however, isgenerally used for the result of fermentation, whiledistilled liquors are called shao chiu (burnt wine),huo chiu (fire wine), sam shu or san shao, (thriceifired), etc. The Pen ts'ao hang mu mentions sixtyfourkinds of chiu (wine) before coming to shao chiu(spirits). It states that distillation was firstintroduced into China in the Yiian dynasty (13thcentury).The fermented liquor called Shaohing chiu, madeat Shao-hsing in Chekiang, is famous. The manufacturedates from very early days and the veryinvention is credited to this district. Travellers,from Friar Odoric to Abbe Hue, have beenenthusiatic over this wine, comparing it withvarious Spanish and other wines. It is exported!to Australia and California and is to be found inthe remotest parts of the Chinese dominions inCentral Asia. (Bowra : Customs Reports, Ningpo,1869).Fen-chiu ^ rS is a product of distillation, andHua-tiao ?£ BH or Shaohing wine is a product offermentation. In the large cities of China generally70% of the latter and 30% of the former, commonlycalled samshu, are consumed.Under the Chinese method of manufacturethere is much waste, owing to ignorance of the lawsof fermentation. The ferment, or as they call it,the "medicine," employed by the Chinese for thesacchrification of the rice always contains somepaddy husk; but the native makers put it theresolely to prevent the sticking together of the ballsof "medicine," which contain as many as 40 or 50different ingredients, the only useful one being,though they do not know it, the paddy husk. Thisferment treated by Pasteurian methods yields verydifferent results, both as regards quantity andquality, fi'om those obtained by Chinese distillers.For example, one picul of rice yields 112 catties ofspirit at 40 Gay-Lussac, whereas the best nativedistillers seldom obtain more than 65 catties fromne same quantity.Hankow Customs Report, 1909.The production of spirit from kaoliang has beendescribed at length by Hosie in his Manchuria,pp. 226-235. The quantity of spirit obtained byChinese methods amounts to at best 50%. TheCentral Laboratory at Dairen, S. Manchuria, hasexperimented with kaoliang spirit, and produced ahigher percentage than that obtained by nativemethods.The annual "original" export of samshu fromChinese treaty ports is slightly over 300,000 piculs,worth about two million taels. . The chief exportingports are Tientsin (declining, however), Ningpo(increasing), Swatow and Kowloon district. Foreignexport is nearly 100,000 piculs annually, which go toChinese abroad.WINE, FOREIGN.—In 1895 a wine-growingenterprise was started at Chefoo by some Chinesemerchants from Singapore, who founded. the ChangYii Pioneer Wine Company. The intention was tomake wine from the excellent native grape grownin large quantities in the Laichow district of Shantung.The wine proved to te ccttly to produceand poor in quality, and vines were imported firstfrom America and later from the Austrian Governmentnurseries. After a long struggle with diseasesuccess was attained, and 20 varieties of wine arenow maturing in the Company's cellars. The vinescover 120 acres on the hills near Chefoo. Thesewines were first placed on the market in 1914, andare said to be of good quality. Chefoo CustomsReport, 1908.In'1916 China imported wine, spirits, beer, etc.,to the value of over three million taels.Chinese Recorder : vol. xvi, p. 307.WOLF, Canis lupus tschiliensis, Jj- 3g ch'ailang. The wolf is very common in the north,especially in hill districts, and does a great deal ofdamage.' It is represented by a larger and lightercolouredanimal in Mongolia, the fur of whichfetches a good price.SowERBY : Recent Researches, Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., vol. xlvii.WOMAN-COUNTRY, THE, :fc ® nu huo.Like other peoples the Chinese have the story ofa land inhabited by women only. A close examinationof the various narratives seems to show thatthe fisher-women of the Kurile Islands are meantand that many characteristics of the seal (Phoca)have been attributed to the women. A full study608

WOMEN'S UNIONENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAof the matter, with the Chinese sources, will befound in the T'oung Pao, 1892, from the pen ofGUSTAVE SCHLEGEL.WOMEN'S UNION MISSIONARY SOCIETYof America.lltadquarters :—New York, U.S.A.Entered China, 1868.Works in Shanghai and neighbourhood.After supporting Bible-women for seven yearsunder the American Protestant Episcopal Mission,this inter-denominationaJ Ladies' Society sent outthree ladies to open a girls' boarding school inPeking. In 1881, the work was removed to Shanghai,and affiliated day-schools were added.The well-known Margaket Williamson Hospital,outside the French Concession, and the West Gate ofShanghai native city, was opened in 1885 under thechai'ge of Dr. Elizabeth Eeifsnyder, and enlargedin 1897, but in the rfext year the greater part wasdestroyed by fire. It was immediately rebuilt ata cost of 11,000 taels, largely by local donations, bothforeign and Chinese.Direct evangelistic work was begun in 1891,and a Bible School for Women followed in 1893.Ten workers are reported in 1917.WOOD CARVING and LATTICE WORK.An intimate relation exists between Chinesearchitecture and decorative woodwork. The stabilityof practically all Chinese buildings dependsupon the wooden framework. The authorised definitionof a Chinese building is one in which theweight of the roof is carried on posts. It thusbecomes easy to fill in the wall spaces between theposts with wooden lattice work, which affordsopportunity for the use of an infinite variety offretted designs. In fact, architecture in China ismore a matter of nicely balanced and decoratedwoodwork than of stone and brick. As in Japan,so in China, the roof's the thing, and everythingelse is subsidiary. The great mass of the roof isfundamentally of wooden construction.Design.—There is no essential difference betweenthe elements of design for decorative woodworkand any other Chinese decorative art. The bronzes,embroideries and porcelain all show many similardesigns and patterns, modified to suit the material.The wood carver has of course one more element towork in than the decorator of flat surfaces, so thatshadows give wood carving the added life of sculpture.The earliest decoration of wood took the formof repeated diapered patterns in low relief whichmitigated the monotony of the plain flat surface.First of all simple parallel lines were used, cut witha grooved or triangular tool ; then similar lines atright angles forming squares and at other anglesforming a great variety of patterns. A furtherstage led to diapered patterns founded on the pa-kuaor the eight trigrams, the svastika or 'mystic crossand the key pattern or so-called Greek fret. By acombination of these patterns an infinite varietyof diapered designs composed of straight linesbecame available, as may be seen by studying almostany piece of wood carving or lattice work. Cornersare almost invariably found treated satisfactorilyin Chinese work by tlie use of such designs. Astage further led to the use of circular and curvedpatterns. The simpler of these are confined togeometrical forms, but, by the use of designs foundedon plant and animal life, an infinite field of varietyand charm was opened. Wave and cloud formscomprise a quite special feature of Chinese decoration.These and flame forms are rendered in wooddecoration with inimitable clear-cut force. The floralscrolls are usually derived from the peony, lotus,pine-tree, plum, pomegranate, orchid or bamboo andoften show fine treatment of stem, leaves and flowersin good conventional form. The opening seed-podis always an effective motive. Though there islittle individual originality, these designs show afine appreciation of the importance of nature study.Animal forms are often derived from the mythicaldragon and phcenix, birds, particularly bats, whichform a frequent corner decoration, deer, squirrel,butterflies and fish. Frequently animal and plantforms are combined as in the favourite theme ofthe squirrels and the vine, an old Chinese motivefirst used during the Sung dynasty. The mostelaborate type of wood carving is that devoted tolandscape and figures. Landscape is treated in theformal style developed in the T'ang and Sungperiods, showing mountains, trees and water piledup into the background. Figures are usually thoseof mythical and historical characters, and, combinedwith landscape elements, represent dramatic scenesof such varied character as are not seen in any otherexample of Chinese art craft, not excepting that ofpainting. Though perhaps not in accordance withthe canons of the best taste, this pictorial carving isthat which is most characteristic of Chinese workbut it must be noted that the work is not realisticenough to be vulgar, being conventionalised as arule in a most pleasing manner. There is no doubtthat these Chinese heroes of romance were a realsource of inspiration, stirring deeds always infusingnew life into literature and art. Though the Chinesepainter usually makes a wooden animal when drawinga horse, it is remarkable that the wood carveroften gives equestrian work both vigour and nobility,especially in battle scenes.Summarised, Chinese design in art wood-workshows great fertility in invention of ornament.One rarely sees a vulgar riot of unshapely forms.A due appreciation is shown of the value of plainsurfaces. Great use is made of the written charac-604

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAWOOD CARVINGters and of symbols having mythical or religiouameaning. Where plant forms are used as a basis ofdesign they are usually conventionalised with aproper feeling for natural growth. Nature is themain source of inspiration in design. The mechanicalregularity of geometrical patterns is notoverlaboured. Borders especially show a marvellousfertility of decorative resource. Chinese designbecause of its slow evolution shows conventidnalornament carried to the extreme of reticent treatment: so much so, that when one sees an exactimitation of nature it immediately strikes a vulgarnote. It has the supreme merit of being decorativeand not merely decorated.Lattice Work.—Lattice work forms a characteristicfeature of Chinese decorative wood-work.It is used to fill in the space intervening between theroof and the floor in garden pavilions and temples,for the doorways, window gratings, railings andfronts of dwelling houses and shops, for dividingrooms and for air manner of internal archeddecorations.The simplest and most frequent forms of latticework are the small squares used for the ordinarypaper windows so common in Chinese 'houses.Almost as simple is the same square placed diagonally,seen in typical fonn in the Lama Templeand the old Observatory building in Peking; thisform is also used for the windows consisting oflaminae of Placuna shell. These simple lattices arebeautifully made, perfectly symmetrical and regular.In the Temple of Heaven, Peking, the lattice workof the screens, which completely encircle the building,is of hexagonal design, the intersections beingaccentuated so as to produce a star effect which isespecially noticeable from within. The SummerPalace is an excellent place for study of the morecomplicated fretted designs. A vast series ofbeautiful frets are built up from rectangular formsfounded on the Pa-kua, the Svastika and theso-called key-pattern. Circular patterns are oftenintroduced, frequently in the form of the decorated'shou' character signifying longevity. Chinesewriting is one of the most picturesque scripts inthe world and the extraordinary faculty possessedby the Chinese in designing frets is closely correlatedwith the written character.These characteristically Chinese frets almostinvariably show the beauty of pure line. They aremost original in conception and show great ingenuity.Used as they always are to fill an openspace, their charm consists not only in the woodworkitself, but in the effect of light passing throughthe open spaces, and the design is usually madewith the object of emphasising this effect.The Woods used by the Carver.—The Chinesehave less of that fine feeling for grain and beautyof wood than the Japanese possess. They morefrequently cover it with varnish, paint or gold.Of the few woods which the Chinese allow to showthe beauty of the natural grain, the so-called'Chinese blackwood ' is the chief. This includesmore than one variety of hard and heavy woodcapable of taking a fine natural polish, the botanicalsource of which is indefinitely known ; but both thisand the closely allied 'red wood' or 'rose wood' aremostly imported from Siam and Indo-China. Muchof the so-called 'blackwood' made for the foreignmarket is, in reality, quite inferior wood stainedblack; but genuine 'blackwood' can be detected byits exceptional weight.Among the multitudinous uses to which theBamboo is put is that for decorative work, such asornamental vessels for containing pens, boxes, penholders,teapots and the framework of fans. Thehard external layer takes fine polish and assumesin age a rich brown colour, while, though hard tocut, the carving is of a very permanent nature andoften highly prized. Bamboo was, prior to theT'ang dynasty, used for written records; such beingstrung together at one end like a fan.Inscriptionsare often met with on bamboo carvings, the incisedcharacters being remarkably clear cut and decorative.In fact. Bamboo is most suitable for finecarving done with the utmost precision and resemblingivory carving. Imaginative landscapes andpictorial scenes are depicted on Bamboo with asmuch delicate detail as is shown in paintings. Theroot of the Bamboo is used for carving quaint distortedfigures and demons.The common Chinese Fir {Cunninghamia lanceolata)gives a light, fragrant, easily worked woodwhich is greatly esteemed for coffins. Coffins inChina are often sumptuously decorated at the endsin lacquer, both with and without carving. Thewood (Sung-shu) of the Chinese Pine (Pinus niassoniana)is very commonly used for carvingsespecially in perforated work, on account of the easeof cutting and sawing. This wood is often closegrained and durable. The White Fir (Cxipressusfunebris) gives a white, hard, heavy and very toughwood which is used for carving, especially furniture.The wood of the Ginkgo biloba (Peh-k'o), thatremarkable survival of a single species from anancient .family, is used for carving and has theadvantage of never cracking or warping. It issomething like maple in appearance, yellowish incolour, fine grained, can be polished, but is easilybroken. The wood is, however, scarce, as it doesnot grow wild, being found cultivated near temples.Nanmu wood from the Machilus nanmu, a veryfine tree, from West China, which yields a timberdedicated in the past to Imperial use, is closegrained,fragrant, brown in colour ageing to abeautiful dead-leaf tint, easily worked and verydurable. It is used for the pillars of the largest605

WOOD CARVINGENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAtemples, for the finest coffins and for carved cabinetsand ,other good furniture. It is one of the mostvaluable and beautiful of all Chinese timbers.Camphor wood from Cinnuvionuni camphota isused for carved figures, boxes and furniture, gateways,finials of door posts, etc. It is easily worked,and durable as long as the camphor remains in thewood. The colour of camphor wood varies fromgreyish white to dark reddish brown, but is generallya light brownish red. The dark coloured andspeckled varieties are most highly prized.The Walnut (Jwjlans rcyia) occurs in China butis rarely used for carving. The so-called 'Chinesemahogany' {Oedrela sinensis) Ch'un-tuen-shu, issometimes used for decorative furniture. It is ofa brown colour, very soft and easily worked ; anddoes not warp or crack.The genus Evonymus, evergreen shrubs inEurope, grows into a tree in China, Evonymoussieboldianus (Chinese Pai-oh-cha), yielding a whitewood of even fine grain somewhat resembling, thoughnot so heavy as box. It is used for making seals,wood-cuts" and fdr fine carving.The vs'ood of more than one species of willow isused for carving. It is a light coloured wood, soft,of smooth grain with little tendency to split. Themulberry, sycamore, maple, persimmon (DiospyrosJcaki) and satin walnut {Liquidumb er forniosana)are occasionally used for carving and other decorativewoodwork. Singapore redwood and hardwoodis in common use for carved screens which are subsequentlylacquered. Teak and oak are only rarelymet with in Chinese carving.Methods of Work.—The methods used inChinese wood-carving may be classified under lowrelief and flat carving, modelling in high relief andcarving in the round, mouldings, lettering and perforatedcarving. As a rule the design is drawn onthin tough paper in the Chinese ink or by means ofa rubbing from a previous example. This paper ispasted on the wood destined for the carving. Thechisel is then used with boldness and precisionfollowing the design on the paper. The Chinesecarvers have no craving for the use of sandpaper, sothat most of their work shows the mark of the tooland gains in strength. It is, perhaps, in the matterof mouldings and borders that the Chinese are pastmasters, that is to say, in the more purely decorativework. And the same remark applies to lettering.The Chinese characters are very decorative andhave assumed an important feature in all thedecorative art of the country. The beauty of Chinesescript on bamboo especially, both in cursive andseal character, is inimitable. Most of theseinscriptions are such a subtle combination of happyphrase and fine calligraphy that one need not wonderat the value the Chinese place upon them as personalbelongings and fit objects for the scholar's table.In bamboo carving the characters are almost alwaysincised,—in other woods they may be cut in relief,It is, perhaps, in perforated carving thatChinese work most excels. In the infinite varietyand intricacy of repeated frets and wave and cloudmotives the infinite patience and manual dexterityof the oriental finds its special field in a land wheretime is scarcely considered. The introduction ofmachinery is, however, having a pathetically destructiveeffect on the production of the decorativearts. Embroidery is rapidly disappearing beforethe machine-made articles and most of the other artswill probably follow, until a demand for thebeautiful is again fostered by advanced moderneducation.See JournalJN.C.B.B.A.S., vol. xlv.[A.S.]WOOD OIL, or Tung-oil, is obtained from theseeds of two species of Alevrites^ a small genus oflow-growing trees belonging to the spurge family.The two species for the most part occupy distinctgeographical areas, but both have been recorded asgrowing close together in Fukien. These are A:montana, which has an egg-shaped fruit, and growsin S. China, especially in Kuangsi. It is themu yu shu pJ^vA^^, or wood-oil tree, which producesthe wood-oil exported from Wuchow and Nanning.A. fordii, M^'fi^ T'ung yu shu, is a hardier treeand more widely distributed, growing throughoutthe hilly regions of Hunan, W. Hupei, Kueichou,and E. Ssuch'uan. It has flattened-round, applelikefruit, slightly pointed, and perfectly smoothon the outside. The two trees have been very muchconfused by botanists ; there is, however, nodifference in their oils.The t'ung tree is a very good complement tothe minute system of agriculture in China, as itwill grow on the sides of precipices and in a.nyimpracticable corner.The oil is extracted by pressure, and yieldsabout 40 per cent, of the weight of the kernels.When the oil is boiled for two hours with earthpellets to which is added powdered quartz, a varnishcalled kuang-yu is produced, which is used as waterproofingon silk gauze and pongees. Wood'roil isalso employed as an adulterant in lacquer-varnish,and the soot for the lower grades of Chinese ink,[q.v.).There are two kinds of this oil, 1. Pai-yu, usedfor varnishing the finer kinds of furniture andumbrellas ; 2. hsiu-yu, which is thicker and darker,used for making chunam, and putty, and forvarnishing boats.The export for 1916 was pels. 515,173, valueHk.Tls. 5,511,418.Wilson : A Naturcdist in Western China,vol. ii, p. 64; HosiE ;Ssuch'uan, p. 35,606

WOODPECKER. See Picidae.WOODS, IMPORTED. Ebony is importedfor lamp frames, chopsticks, and small articles offurnitme. It is Diospyros discolor Willd, thecamagon wood of the Philippines (used also forcanes) ; the Chinese name is 7/(ao s/iiA ^ |ip.Garoo wood, (also named agallochum, agila wood,eagle wood,' calambac, aloes wood, lign-aloes, andsupposed to be the aloes of the Bible), is the woodof Aquilaria agullocha, ch'en-hsiang (tJt #), a treefound in Assam, Burma, Persia, Cambodia, etc.,and in Hainan. The wood is used to scent clothes,and some portions of the tree yield a highly resinouswood, containing the aromatic juice from which adrug is obtained, named cfian-hsiang (;^ -g-). Thedrug has tonic properties and in India an oil isobtained called "agar-agar" oil, used as scent. Thewood is carved into ornamental articles and is alsoburned as incense.Sandalwood, Santalum album L., t'an-hsiang mu^^ ^- In Chinese Buddhist works it is calledchan Van or chen fan Jjl :^ or 3| ®, a transcriptionof the Sanskrit name chandano; the present Chinesename, fan, comes from this.It is imported from the Malay Archipelago andIndia and used for fancy ware and incense. Thedust is mixed with the powdered bark of Cassialif/nea and swine's dung to make joss sticks, andsandalwood billets are used for making the coffinsof the wealthy. In India oil is distilled from thechips to make an essential oil, used in perfumery.It appears to have been an article of import forages. The annual imports at present amount to overENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA100,000 piculs, valued at Hk.Tls. 1,000,000 most ofwhich comes to Shanghai and the Yangtze ports.The best comes from the Malabar coast, a goodquality comes from Timor, and inferior wood fromother islands. The heart wood, yellowish brown, isthe best. The Import for 1916 was of the valueHk.Tls. 826,326.Stone : Timbers of Commerce and CommercialGuide to the Forest Products of India.Sapanwood, IS TJC sm mu, the very hard andheavy wood of Caesalpinia sappan, which is widelycultivated in Ceylon, India, Malaya and the Philippines.This is a dye-wood, though, owing to itsfine grain it takes a fine polish, and is useful forcabinet work. In China the cloth is put into thedyeing decoction and the colour set with alum andafterwards made more lively by washing it inpotash water and spirit. The dye is used to reddenthe lime eaten with betel-nut.The importation is now small—from 20,000 to30,000 piculs a year, valued at Tls. 2 to 3 per picul.(Philippine Journal of Science, October, 1909,and Williams' Commercial Guide, p. 102).Kranji wood, Dialium sp., I^flj ^ pfc ya Ianchih mu, imported from India, Malaya, Borneo and607WOOLSumatra. This is a constructional timber, usedwhere great strength is required. In China it ischiefly used for rudder posts of junks.Laka wood, p% § chiang hsiang, from Tanariusmajor, grown in Sumatra, a red wood used in dyeingand pharmacy. (Williams' Comm. Guide, p. 106).Kedwood or Indian rosewood, also named blackwood,is the Dalbergia latifolia of India, Java, etc.This appears to be the material used in themanufacture of the celebrated "Blackwood furniture"of Canton. The sapwood is yellow and theheartwood dark purple, with black longitudinalstreaks. It has a distinct rose-like odour. It is thebest Indian wood for furniture and cabinet work,and takes a fine polish.(Philippine Journal of Science, Oct. 1909, etc.).Other woods imported are amboyna, kayabuco,yellow wood, dotchin wood, satin wood, etc.For building and railway construction muchtimber is imported from Hokkaido, and the Pacificcoast (Oregon pine), and some hardwoods from thePhilippines and neighbouring islands, as well asfrom Japan.WOOL. Chinese wool, an important article ofexportation, is derived from sheep, camels, and, aninferior kind, from goats. The camels' wool,|& l'£ ^ lo fo mao, is entirely from the Mongoliansteppes; it is collected at Kueihua ch'eng (the best),and other marts. It is bought from the Mongols inhard-twisted ropes of about one inch diameter, butis then retwisted into large loose cords of aboutfive inches diameter and wound in bales, which arecovered with felt. This wool, which is of fine fibre,is used in the manufacture of cloths of varioustexture, but especially such as have a heavy nap.Ito fineness allows it to be mixed with silk in dressgoods. For coarse shawls, blankets, carpets andcoarse cloth it is much in favour. The Tientsincarpet, so well-known, is made of this wool. Thecamels, which are bred for their wool and not usedfor working, shed their fleeces in spring. The fleeceof a full grown camel yields five catties. Inferiorwool is obtained from working camels.Camels' wool is of three qualities, of which thebest is used in the manufacture of Jaeger's clothingand soft cloths ; the second is used for adulteratingthe best; and the third for making belting formachinery. This last class of wool has a staple init and is quite distinct from the first, which canonly be used as a mixture with cotton. TientsinBritish Consular Report, 1899.Sheeps' wool j^f^^ mien yang mao, is alsofrom Mongolia, but the best comes from theKokonor region and even from Tibet. The articlewas first noticed in 1£61, when a small lot wasexported. In 1882 a foreign agent was sent toKueihua ch'eng to endeavour to open out the trade,of which Kalgan had until then been the centre ; an

12,758,397WORSHIPENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAagency was established there, and in 1883 iransiferredfurther west to Paotow on the Yellow Riverand in 1885 again to Ninghsia. Much of the- woolcomes from Sining, in the far west of Kansu.The export in 1916 was, Camels' wool, pcJs.29,783, value Tls. 1,070,827; Sheeps' wool, pels.334,536, Tls. 10,698,661.WORSHIP OF EARTH AND OF HEAVEN,See Temjile of Earth and l'e7nple of Heaven.WRENS. See Certhiidae.WU CHING, smi- See Classics.WU CHOW, iSjHi, the principal trade centrein Kuangsi province, is in lat. 23°- .30' N. andlong. lU'^ E., on the West River at its junctionwith the Fu or Kuei river, some 220 miles aboveCanton.It was opened as a Treaty Port in 1897 bythe special article appended to the Burma Convention.It is the natural distributing centre fortrade between Kueichou, E. Yunnan, Kuangsi andHongkong and Canton. The population is estimatedat 40,000 with some seventy foreigners. The placeis very subject to floods,—in 1914 the water rose insix days from sixteen to seventy-two feet and i'n1915 it was worse. It has also suffered from theplague, and piracy is common in the whole district.The chief articles of export are timber, oil,indigo, hides and live stock. There is great mineralwealth in the district, but it is very little worked.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 7,074,431 6,904,960Net Chinese „ 1,192,183 1,436,652Exports 4,675,154 6,678,674Total Hk. Tls. ... 12,941,768 15,020,286WU DYNASTY, ^ |B ,one of the Three Kingdoms,(q.v.). The following is the list of the Wurulers.Dyn. Title Accession Reign Title AdoptedA.D.A.D,iZ ffJ- Ta Ti 222 ^ g^ Huang Wu 222S^ nl Huang Lung 229M ^ Chia Ho 232# J^ Ch'ih Wu 238i 7C T'ai Yiian 251g{ ^ Fei Ti ^ jf jgj,Shen Feng 252g- ^ i Kuei Chi I 252 J^ ^ Chien Hsing 252Wang J i il Wu Feng 254;*: 2p T'ai P'ing 256JP: ^ Ching Ti 258 73^ ^ Yung An 258M ^f?- Mo Ti >!H fu ^Kuei Ming I 264 tc K Yiian Hsing 264Houj fM Kan Lu 265M flS Pao Ting 266m 'iJS Chien Heng 269E ill Feng Huang 272^m T'ien Ts'e 275yz M. T'ien Hsi 276Ji IE T'ien Chi 277WU FANG YUAN YIN 3L :!& jc W originalsounds of the five regions, a mandarin vocabularymade by Fan T'eng-feng ^ Jg IB, in 1700, revisedin 1710 by Nien Hsi-yao and much enlarged by himin 1728. It was used by Williams as the basis ofhis Dictionary.Williams : Syllabic Dictionary, p. xiv.WU FU, 35113 five blessings. These characters,or the separate characters for the blessings, areoften seen over house doors, expressing a wish of theinhabitants on their own behalf. Properly theblessings as given in the Shu Ching are long life,wealth, mens sana in corpore sano, love of virtueand an 'end crowning the life.' See Legge's Classics,vol. iii, p. 343. Fortune-tellers and the commonpeople, however, understand them to be long life,a wife, wealth, sons and official emolument.As seen over doors they are generally Fu f§happiness, Lu ^ emolument, Shou g^ longevity,Hsi ^ joy, and Ts'ai yt riches.WUHU, 3i ag, in latitude 31° 20' N., longitude118° 21' a.., on the south bank of the Yangtzein Anhui, a treaty port since 1877.1^ S ^ .It was known in ancient times as Chu^-tzu-iand from the time of Han was callediu-nu -f- J^, The district suffered terribly duringthe T'ai P'ing rebellion, and periodical floods workhavoc. The leading exports are rice, and eggs andalbumen, locally prepared.There is a candle and soap factory. The•population is 100,000. 1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 6,890,603 8,122,180Net Chinese Imports 4,613,432 5,322,858Exports 12,204,375Total Hk.Tls. ... 24,262,432 25,649,413WU l-HO 0i}^f-a. A native of Amoy, bomin 1769. He became the head of the "hong merchants"or go-betweens of the old system in Canton.He amassed an imtnense fortune and his house andgrounds still form one of the tourists' sights inCanton. He was much esteemed by foreigners, whopopularly called him Howqua (q-v.), and hispersonal name survives in E-wo, the Chinese stylefor Messrs. Jardine Matheson's hong. He died in1843. See Co7wng.Giles : Biographical Dictionary.WU, KINGDOM OF,^, one of the greaterStates of ancient feudal times.Its position was atthe mouths of the Yangtze, extending southward,comprising modern Kiangsu, and parts of Anhui,Chekiang and Kuangsi.The capital was at Mei-li, 30 li S.E. of Wu-siand 50 li N. of Soochow, till in B.C. 513 it was transferredto Soochow itself, as that place was mtorefitted for shipbuilding.608

A'ENCYCLOPAEDIA SlNICA vwrw^iThe State is hardly mentioned in history; evenby name, till b.c. 585, when it had already existedsome seven centuries.It was founded, according to Chinese writers,before the Chou empire, by two sons of the Chouhouse, who voluntarily retired into the wildernessamong barbarians to make room for a more brilliantyounger brother to succeed : the younger brother'sgrandson founded the Chou dynasty. The elderbrothers, T'ai Po ;*: -{Q and Chung Yung fq^ruled their savage kingdom in turn. It is statedthat the former ruled according to Chou rites andcustoms, while the latter cut his hair, was tattooed,and in fact became barbarian.Wu first emerges into Chinese history aboutB.C. 580, when it helped Chin to protect the imperialpower against Ch'u. Its people were barbarous andthe State was always considered semi-barbarous bythe orthodox States, but after emerging into historyit advanced in civilization very quickly and enjoyeda century of international life before it wasextinguished. In this century it connected for thefirst time the Yangtze and the Huai rivers andcontinued the canal further north to give access tothe southern and central parts of modern Shantung.In 482 it became the Protector State (the sixth), butit was destroyed by Yiieh in B.C. 473. The name isstill used as the literary title for Kiangsu. Themost striking character in its history was its princeChi Cha (q.v.).It is recorded that on the ruin of their powerthe ruling classes escaped eastward in boats ; andthere is much evidence of early Chinese influence onJapan such as could be due to this migration.Parker : Ancient China Simplified; Tschepe :Histoire du Eoyaume de Ou.WU KU, 5.IS:- See Five Grains.WU LAO, i^, the Five Ancients.These arespirits connected with the five elements. They arefavorite subjects for pictures and carvings, andprobably for the sake of symmetry in this use iheyhave been reduced to four, and are called the FourAncients ^ ^. The missing one is the spirit of theelement wood. They are also to be regarded as thespirits of the five planets. In this capacity theyappear In the Bamboo Annals.Legge's Classics, vol. iii, p. 113 ; Mayers :Chinese Header's Manual; Dor6 : Eecherches surles Superstitions, tome ix, p. 676.WU LUN, i^. See Five lielations.WU LUNG CHIANG, J^ t| ?I another namefor the Amur, See Hti lung chiang.WU SAN KUEI/^ B;g,anativeof theLiaotungprovince who in the last days of the Mingdynasty commanded forces to resist the Manchu77609invasion. At the frontier in 1643 he received thenews that Peking had been taken by the rebelLi Tzu-ch'eng and that the Emperor had committedsuicide. He then made terms with the Manchus,and helped to establish the dynasty. Honours werepoured on him and in 1659 he was made one of theThree Feudatory Princes, and ruled Yiinnan andSsuch'uan. In 1674 he threw off his allegiance, andincited other princes to rebellion, but the issue wasdecided quickly, partly by his death in 1678 andpartly by the Manchu use of artillery made by theJesuit missionaries in Peking.WU T'AI SHAN, i g Hi, 3,600 ft.high, oneof the Four Hills sacred to Buddhism in China, issituated on a range of mountains near the northeasternborder of Shansi. It is called Wu T'ai orFive 'terraces' because of its five risings. Thepatron saint of Wu T'ai Shan is Wen Shu Pusa,who is supposed to have appeared there in the formof an old man. A great white pagoda is said tocontain a single hair of the saint. In the T'angperiod there were 360 monasteries, but now there areonly about 150, of which 24 are lamaseries. Thereligion prevalent is a mixture of Chinese and LamaBuddhism. The ruling ecclesiastic is the GrandLama, who is known as the Ch'ang Chia Fo [everrenewingBuddha). The form of the pagodas is Indo-Tibetan and the interior of the temples a mixtureof Chinese and Tibetan. The Chinese monasteriesbelong to the Lin-chi sect of Buddhism. Some ofthe buildings are said to have been founded in the1st century a.d. See Buddhism, Holy Places of.Hackmann .'German Scholar in the East;RocKHiLL : The Land of the Lamas.WU WANG, 0^3E, whose name was Fa gf,was the son of Wen Wang, and first Emperor of theChou dynasty. It v^ras in continuation of hisfather's work that he gathered an immense armytogether and defeated Chou Hsin in Honan, thusdestroying the Shang dynasty. He ascended thethrone B.C. 1122.WU WEI ^ Bor N on-Action Society. Asecret sect, variously stated as having been foundedby disciples of Lao Tzu towards the end of theChou dynasty, by Lo Huai, the originator of theLung Hua and Hsien T'ien sects, who lived in the15th and 16th centuries, and to have been begunthree hundred years ago. The doctrine of Inactionis clearly traceable to Lao Tzu, and was certainlyreaffirmed by Lo Huai; and the sect may haveassumed its present form as late as three hundredyears ago.Its members are described by Edkins as "akind of reformed Buddhists" ; they are opposed toidol-worship, and hence their simple meeting placesare without images. The cult is eclectic. From

WU YOENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAthe Contemplative school of Buddhism to theInaction doctrine id not far, and there is even asimilar strain in Confucixjs.Lo HuAi came in touch with the Ming EmperorChkng Tk, who first applauded his miraculouspowers, then imprisoned him for a sorcerer, andfinally set his seal on the teaching by having theteacher's five books printed in a.d. 1518. These arethe chief sacred writings of the sect.Four great festivals are observed ; the birthdayand day of death of Lo Huai, the New Year and the15th of the eighth moon ; and all members are strictvegetarians.Though tablets to the Emperor were placed inits places of meeting, this did not prevent theWu Wei sect from being persecuted by the Mingrulers and proscribed by the Manchus. In someeditions of the Sacred Edict it is mentioned byname among the heretical societies.Foreign enquirers in the closing years of theCh'ing dynasty believed it to be then utterly withoutany political designs. See Secret Sects.WU YO, 3L®.See Five Sacred Mountains.WYLIE, ALEXANDER, a missionary andscholar, especially noted for his knowledge ofChinese literature. He was born in London, 1815.He began the study of Chinese in England withoutany tutor, was engaged by the London MissionarySociety and arrived in Shanghai in 1847. Herewhile engaged in printing the Bible in Chinese hestudied French, German, Russian, Manchu, Mongoland other languages. He also travelled widely inthe Eighteen Provinces, often at great risk, for theBritish and Foreign Bible Society. He died inEngland, 1887.His works include many articles on scientificsubjects in many papers and reviews, translationsof mathematical works, studies of the NestorianTablet, etc., but his best known work is the Notes onChinese Literature, (1867), a 'great monument oflearning and industry.'He was for some time editor of the Chinese.Recorder. His own very fine library became bypurchase the nucleus of the R.A.S. Library inShanghai.For a list of his principal writings consult introductorymatter to Wtlie's "Chinese Researches."See also N.O.B.R.A.S. Journal, vol. xxi.XANADU, a corruption of Ji f|5 Shang-tu,upper capital, the summer residence of KhubilaiKhan, 180 miles north of Peking and 26 miles northof Dolon nor. It is now in ruins, only one gatebeing left.Coleeidge's lines have made the name familiarto all English readers.XAVIER, FRANCISCO DE, caUed by PopeUrban VIII the "apostle of the Indies," was bornat the castle of Xavier or Xaviero in Navarre, atthe foot of the Pyrenees. He was the youngest sonof a noble and wealthy family. All his brothers weresoldiers : but he preferred learning, and went in1524 to the University of Paris, where he specialisedin Philosophy. In 1528 he was appointed Lecturerin Aristotelian Philosophy in the College ofBeauvais. At this time, he was full of ambitiousprojects, but in 1529 he and his special friend madethe acquaintance of S. Ignatius Loyola, who wasthen studying at Paris. Both were won by Loyola'steaching and example, and were of the seven(including Loyola himself) who took the first vowsof the Society of Jesus, (1534). The little companyintended to go and convert the Moslems in the HolyLand, but this plan miscarried and they devotedthemselves instead to work among the poor and sickin Portugal and Italy.Xavier, who had taken his M.A. in 1530, wasordained priest in 1537.When John III, King of Portugal, asked thePope to send a mission to his Indian possessions,two of the Jesuits were selected, Xavier being one.He set sail in 1541, with the Governor-General ofPortuguese India, and after a voyage of more thana year, during which he ministered to the onethousand souls on board, where scurvy and feversabounded, arrived at Goa, where he spent fivemonths. After missionary work among the PearlFisheries from Cape Comoriri to Manar, where, tooblige the Portuguese who had helped them againstthe Moors, some of the inhabitants had nominallyembraced Christianity, he went to Travancore,Ceylon, and the islands of the Malay Archipelago,baptizing large numbers everywhere. At Malacca,he fell in with a Japanese refugee, whom he convertedto Christianity, and forthwith they twowent to preach the Gospel in Japan, landing atKagoshima in 1549. Xavier remained in thecountry nearly two years, and met with such greatsuccess that when the Government, alarmed at the610

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAYALE F.M.S.growth of the Christian community which hefounded, finally determined to destroy it, 400,000adherents are said to have existed.Many Japanese having raised the objection thatChina, to which their country was so much indebtedin art and literature, had not embraced Christianity,Xavier determined to get up a mission to Chinaalso, and returned to Goa to make arrangements.He tried to induce the Governor-General to send anembassy to China, so that he might go with it andthus evade the law against foreigners entering theEmpire.This proved impracticable, and Xavier went atlast privately with a merchant fleet in 1552, andreached Shang Ch'uan Shan (S. John's Island, offthe coast of Kuangtung). He was seized withfever, and the Chinese he had engaged as interpreterrefused to act, and the Portuguese to whom theships belonged would not land him at Canton. HeWas intending to proceed thither by junk, but hisfever became worse, and he died in a wretched cabinon land in the end of the year. He was only 46years of age, but white from his austerities andlabours.His body was later removed to Malacca, andthence in 1554 to Goa, where it has a fine shrine.Xavier was intended by Loyola to be hissuccessor, but the letters recalling him for thatpurpose arrived after his death.He was beatified by Paul V in 1554, andcanonized by Gregory XV in 1662. These datesare those given in the "Lives of the Saints," butthe Encyclopedia Britannica gives 1619 and 1621.Many miracles attested by many witnesses havebeen ascribed to the saint, including the gift oftongues. He was without dispute the greatestChristian missionary since the first century of ourera and he left organized missions wherever he went,ranging from Ormuz to Japan.Lives of the Saints ; Stephens : Essays inEcclesiastical Biography; S. Francis Xavier'sLetters; Turselin : La Vie du Bienheureux PereXavier, etc., h Douay, 1608.YAK, Bos grunniena, a wild ox which is saidto be found on the Kansu-Tibetan and Ssuch'uanborderlands ; the only species of wild ox so farknown in China.YAKOOB pjl "S^ Ifl,commonly known as YakoobBeg. The nom de guerre of An Chi-yen, bom in1820 in Khokand. He became Governor of Kurama,and then ruler of Kashgar, which had thrown off thethe Chinese yoke, proclaiming himself Khan in 1874.His strict enforcement of the laws of the Koran,together with the heavy taxes he was obliged todemand, made him unpopular. He made treatiesof commerce with Great Britain and Russia; butwas killed or died while trying to repel the advanceof the Chinese under Tso Tsung-t'ang in. 1877.YALE, COLLEGE OF, IN CHINA.See Fa^eForeign Missionary Society.YALE FOREIGN MISSIONARY SOCIETY.Headquarters : Newhaven, Connecticut, U.S.A.Entered China, 1902.Works in Ch'angsha, Hunan.This inter-denominational Society was formedin the winter of 1900—1901, to be composed ofYale graduates, and supported and directed bymembers of the Yale University. It was at firsttentatively affiliated with the Mission of theAnaerican Board, and w{is formed to carry on highereducational work in Arts, Science, Theology, andMedicine. The first missionary sent out was theRev. J. L. Thurston, who arrived in China in 1902,and went in the first instance to Peking.In 1903, the thirteen missionary societies workingin Hunan, in Conference assembled, invited theYale mission to establish themselves in thatprovince. Ch'angsha, the capital, was selected asthe most suitable place, and was occupied in 1905.Mr. Thurston's health early gave way and hedied in U.S.A. in 1904, but other workers came inquick succession. Educational work -was begun in1906—on a high-school basis, looking towards acollege course as soon as practicable.Medical work was begun in 1908, and in thesame year, a class for teachers, graduates of severaluniversities, was formed.In 1909 a Y.M.C.A. was started.The work wasinterrupted in 1910 by the "rice riots," both teachersand students being compelled to leave. During theRevolution in 1911 the mission hospital was at firstthe local headquarters of the Red Cross Society, andthough afterwards it was removed, the most seriouscases remained under the care of the Yale Mission,four hundred cases being admitted in three months.The first graduates of the High School passed outin 1912, In order to emphasize the educational6U

YAM^NENCyCLOPAEl^IA SINICAnature of the Society's work, its name was changedin 1913 to the "College of Yale in China."In the same year a movement was started wherebythe Yale Mission was to co-operate with theChinese in Medical work, each side providing tenof the board of twenty managers, the governmentarranging for the buildings required, and giving anannual grant, the teachers to be provided by theYale Mission, with full liberty to propagate Christianity.This scheme began to be worked in 1914,in a yamen lent by the authorities, and the foundationstone of the new Hunan-Yale Hospital waslaid in 1915 by Professor William H. Welch ofJohns Hopkins, in the presence of visiting membersof tHe Bockefelleb. Commission (q.v.).Three schools resulted from this Union with theChinese, all started in 1913. The first was a preparatorymedical school, the second and third,training schools for male and female nurses respectively.In 1914, the Rockefeller Commission began toaid, by sending out four assistants, one Chinese andthree Americans.The College department of the work was begunin September 1914, and in the autumn of 1916,regular medical teaching was instituted, with ninestudents in the Freshman class, and thirty-two inthe preparatory school.The group of Yale buildings was completed inJune, 1917. A new laboratory in physics, chemistryand biology is the gift of the Rockefeller Commission.YAM^N ^ P^. The residence, official andprivate, of a magistrate in office with a seal. Theoffices of petty mandarins without a seal are notyamens but ^ /j/f kung so, public places.Parker explains the word as flag gate.Parker : Ancient China Simplified, p. 274.YANG CH'I YUAN, a native of Hangchow,and one- of Ricci's converts and supporters.His baptismal name was Michel.YANG CHOW ^ ^fl ,a famous city of Kiangriu,on the Grand Canal, twenty miles north of Chinkiang.It was the capital of the Yang ^ kingdom,and it was here that Marco Polo had officialposition. It has many scholars to-day, but is notof great importance in industry or commerce. Thepopulation is about one hundred thousand.Yangchow is found written in many ways ; it isthe Yangui of Marco Polo, it is Janisai, lamsai,Yamzai, and langio in the Catalan Atlas, laterlamceu. langse, Yamse, and probably in Arabwriters Yaneku. and Janku.Yule : Cathay and the Way Thither, ii, p. 209.YANG CHU ^ ^. otherwise Yang' Tzu, aphilosopher of the 4th century b.c, chiefly knownto us through the writings of Mencius.Chuang Tzu speaks of him as a disciple ofLao Tzu, and Lieh Tzu has a chapter dealingentirely with him. His teachings on ethicalquestions greatly resemble those of Epicurus, andwere vigorously denounced by Mencius, who rightlycalls his philosophy "selfishness." He is aot,however, any more than Epicurus to be regardedas a sensualist, or lover of low pleasures.Suzuki : History of Early Chinese PhilosophyGiles : Biographical Dictionary ; FoRKE : Yang^Chu's Garden of Pleasure, London, 1912.YANG HSIUNG t|Sg, afamous philosopherborn at Ch'eng-tu in Ssuch'Uan in B.C. 53. He wasfamous as a poet, and is also considered infamousbecause, having held office under the EmperorCh'eng Ti, he accepted a post under the usurperWang Mang. As a teacher of ethics, his theory ofhuman nature was midway between those ofMencius and HsiiN Tzu [q.v.), as he maintainedthat man is at birth neither good nor evil, butbecomes wholly what his environment makes him.He left a number of works, poetical, philologicaland critical.The ^ ^ vocabulary, though often attributedto him, is probably not his work,Giles : Biographical Dictionary.YANG KING PANG, #Mi$5. A creek atShanghai separating the International and FrenchConcessions ; it was culverted in 1915.YANG KUEI FEI, J^SiE,{^^^ei fei beingthe title of a 2nd rank concubine) ; a concubine ofHsiiAN Tsung, 738 a.d. taken from his son's concubines,who caused the infatuated Emperor almostto ruin his kingdom by licentious extravagance. Hehad ultimately to strangle her in order to pacify hisrevolted people.YANG TS'AI # $^ foreign colours. Enamelwork on porcelain. See Enamel.YANG TZE KIANG, i^=i-U' This is thelaregst river in China and is also one of the largestin the world, having only four or five rivals.Rising in the Tangla Mountains in N.E. Tibetit runs 3,200 miles into the Yellow Sea. It collectsthe run-oif from three quarters of a million squaremiles, and discharges from one quarter of a millionto three million cubic feet of water per second.The drainage basin includes the majority of thefollowing provinces :—Ssuch'uan, Kuei-chou, Hiipei,Hunan, Kiangsi, Anhui and Kiangsu, and alsoportions of Kansu, Yunnan, and Shensi.The upper 1,600 miles, from Tibet to Sui-fu(Hsii-chou fu) in south Ssuch'uan, is torrential andis almost unknown. J'rom the Tibetan border toSui-fu it falls at about eight feet per mile. It isthere known as the Chin-sha Chiang or Chin-Ho, the"Golden" river, and has one big tributary, the&1?

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAYANGTZEYa-lung. At Sui-fu another important tributary,the Min, enters. This, being rather more navigable,was formerly considered the main stream. FromSui-fu to Ichang, the river varies greatly in width,passes through numerous gorges and has manydangerous rapids. Two large tributaries enter it,the Kia-ling and- the Kung-tan. The former isimportant as being the main stream of the Ssuch'uanplain, and at its junction with 'the Yangtze there isthe important treaty port of Chungking. FromIchang, which owes its importance to its position atthe emergence of the river from the gorges, downwardnavigation is normal and continues thoughoutall seasons of the year, whereas between Chungkingand Ichang, the great variations in the water level(as much as one hundred feet at Chungking has beenrecorded) make that section difficult and dangerousboth at low and high waters.Ichang is one thousand miles from the mouth.Fifty miles further down is Shasi, at which pointdykes commence and are continued, with a fewbreaks in the hilly parts, down to the sea. Theannual variation of level in this part averages aboutthirty-five feet. At Yo-chou, a treaty port abouttwo hundred miles below Ichang, a large volume ofwater enters from the Tung-t'ing Lake and itsfeeders. The important city of Ch'angsha is servedby this water connection. Next comes Hankow,some six hundred miles from the mouth, at whichplace the Han river discharges into the Yangtze.at allFrom Hankow to the sea, navigation is possibletimes of year for small draught steamers, andin the summer large ocean going vessels may be seenalong it. At Kiukiang another lake and its feederspour into the river. This is the Po-yang lake,around the shores of which most of the populationof Kiangsi dwells.Then follow the towns of Wuhu and Nanking.The river now is from one to five miles wide andcontains numerous shoals and islands. At Chinkiangit finally emerges from the hills, and from thence tothe sea there is an enormous delta.Nea.r the mouth,'a small stream (the Whangpoo) emerges, givingaccess to Shanghai.Bifurcating behind a long island (Tsung-ming)which has appeared from the waters during theChristian era, the jiver enters the sea with a widthof some forty miles, and annually pours forth somesix thousand million cubic feet of silt which isgradually extending the coast.The Yangtze gets its name from Yang-chou, anold city and district near Chinkiang, and this nameproperly only applies from there to the sea.The translation Son of the Ocean is a mistakedue to writing }^ for ®. To the Chinese it isknown as ^ tt ch'ang chiang, Long River, ii Jlta chiang, Great River, or JI chiang The River, TheFrench call it also le Fleuve Bleu.The topography of the Yangtze basin is verystriking. About two-thirds of the whole area consistsof mountains and hills. The northern boundaryconsists mainly of an extension of the T'ien Shanuplift of central Asia and is almost continuous fromTibet to Chinkiang. The southern watershed lineis more complex. It commences with the Tanglamountains and then turns south forming a razorbackedridge some three miles high which separatesthe Yangtze from the Mekong, a large river whichruns through eastern Burma. This ridge dies awayinto the very massive Yiinnan-Kueichou plateau,which forces the river to turn eastwards. The Riverthen passes through a succession of ridges separatedby depressions (which it has successively filled withsilt, so forming alluvial plains). From Kiukiangto Chinkiang these ridges, running S.W. to N.E.and forming the geological group termed the"Nan Shan," have forced the river to run parallelto them.There is no break in this basin except nearWuhu, where a low pass through the ridge mayindicate another ancient mouth, leading to thesouthern part of the delta. Sinologues (especiallyEdkins and Kingsmill) consider that this theoryexplains certain ambiguous passages in the Chinesehistories as to the mouths of the "Kiang," and theyare supported by the great geologist von Richtho-FEN. There is at present in existence a series of barriersin the gap which it is argued were constructedto close the passage when it had almost silted up, andthe string of lakes from Wuhu to Shanghai isregarded as the trace of a former channel. Certainlythis hypothesis serves well to explain the enormoussouthern extent of the delta.[H.C.]TiszAUD : Yang tze Kiang Pilot; Bishop : TheYang tze Valley and Beyond; Little : The FarEast; and Through the Yangtze Gorges; Blakiston :Six Months on the Yang tze; Richard : ComfrehensiveGeography of the Chinese Empire; vonRiCHTHOFEN : China, and Letters from the Provinces;Whangi'OO Conservancy Board : Reports,especially that on the Yangtze Estuary ; Edkins :On the Ancient Mouths of the Yangtsi Kiang,Journal, N.C.B.R.A.S., September 1860.YANGTZE, OPENING TO TRADE. Theriver was opened to foreign trade by Art. x of theTientsin Treaty (1858), and in November 1860 itwas arranged with the Chinese government that theports should be Chinkiang, Kiukiang and Hankow.Vice-Admiral Sir James Hope, accompanied by(Mr.) Harry Parkes and three delegates of theShanghai Chamber of Commerce, R. Hamilton,A. MiCHiE and* T. F. Ballance, left Shanghai- witha fleet of eight vessels on February 9, 1861, installedconsuls at Chinkiang and Kiukiang and left atHankow a naval officer as temporary consul. He613

YANG TZ'UENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAthen proceeded to Yochow at the entrance to theTung-t'ing lake. There he left the party of explorerswhose journey is narrated in Blakiston's ThtYang-tze.YANG TZ'U ^^ ^work on copper.foreign porcelain. EnaanelSee Enamel.YAO, %. The legendary Emperor of China'sgolden age. He had a miraculous birth andascended the throne B.C. 2357 and after reigning 70,or as others say 98 years, abdicated in favour ofShun.YA P'lEN Si )¥i opium. The name occurs inthe PeJi ts'ao kang mu, a.d. 1600, so that the drughad been already introduced into China in the Mingdynasty. See Opium.YARKAND, ^^^ Sha ch'e fu, a town onthe best and largest of the oases in the Tarim Valleyor Chinese Turkestan. It is both a military and auemmercial centre. The chief trade is with India.There are about 60,000 inhabitants.Lansdell : Chinese Central Asia.YEH MING-SHhN, ^ ^ gg,generally knownamong foreigners as Commissioner Yeh. He wasborn in Hupei in 1807, and as Governor at Cantonafter 1848 became notorious for his severity againstthe T'ai P'ing rebels, of whom he is said to havebeheaded 70,000. He bitterly opposed himselfto foreign trade and intercourse, until at last thelorcha Arrow affair led to the bombardment andcapture of Canton in 1857. The Viceroy Yeh triedto escape in disguise but was taken and sent toCalcutta, where he died in 1860.YEHONALA, the name of the famous EmpressDowager who ruled China nearly to the end of theManchu dynasty. This was the name she wasknown by up to the time of her selection for theimperial harem, and in the palace it was also usedtill she became Empress Mother, though she would bemore commonly known as Kuei-fei I ^tE M 'concubineI,' the last character being her honorific titleand having the meaning 'feminine virtue.' Tz'u Hsi^» i@ was her official designation as Empress Motherand co-Regent : it means compassionate and auspicious,and was imperially decreed to her, withother honorific titles added later, the completedesignation at the end of her life being Tz'H HsiTuan-yu K'ang-i Chao-yu Chuang-ch'eng Shou-hungCh'in-hsien Ch'ung-hsi Huang T'ai-hou, =gf j|which means Motherly auspicious orthodox heavenblest^prosperous all-nourishing brightly-manifestcalm* sedate perfect long-lived respectful reverendworshipful illustrious exalted Empress-dowager.To the public she was Huang T'ai Hou ^ jfc SEmpress-Dowager, and towards the end of her lifeThe Old Buddha ^ ^ was the title almostuniversally used for her in the North,See Kuang Hsil.Bland and Backhouse : China under theEmpress Dowager.YEH SU CHIAO MMWiy (Jesus Church).The name by which the Protestant Church is knownin China, the Roman Catholic being designated^ ± titT'ien Chu Chiao (Lord of Heaven Church).YELLOW GIRDLE, H^^ huang tai tzu.A descendant of the founder of the Manchu dynastywas entitled to wear a yellow girdle, which termcame to be used to designate the rank itself. Thewearer was called Imperial Clansman ^^, tsungshih. When degraded for misconduct he wore ared girdle instead of yellow.YELLOW RIVER, THE, ^ JBJHuang ha,rises in the south of .the Kokonor region, at nearly14,000 ft. altitude in 35°. 20' 12" N. lat. andabout 96°, E. long., some 100 miles from thesource of the Yangtze. It first runs a verytortuous course in the K'un lun mountains, reachingl^n chou in Kansu after 700 miles, having fallento 5,800 ft. It then runs for 430 miles north-eastward,till deflected due east by the In Shan. After250 miles it turns southward for some 500 milesdividing Shensi and Shansi, till it enters the GreatPlain. In these 500 miles it has no tributary ofany size, but it then receives its greatest, theWei f^, which enters from the west after a courseof 400 miles. Here the Yellow River turns east, andrunning through the northern part of Honan andShantung enters the Gulf of Chihli after a totalcourse of 2,700 miles. The great difference ofsummer and winter level, and the choking of itslower portion by silt, make this river nearly uselessfor navigation. Its name is due to the enormousamount of loess soil which fills its waters; thissediment raises the bed till it is above the level ofthe country and the river has to be kept in by highembankments. When these give away,—a frequentoccurrence,—it is disastrous for the affected districts; thousands of lives may be lost and hundredsof thousands of people made homeless, and fertileland made barren.According to the earliest Chinese reoordjs itentered the Chihli Gulf by two mouths, one ofwhich is now occupied by the Pei ho below Tientsin,the other somewhat more south. In the Shangdynasty another branch, still further south, flowedby Tsi nan fu in Shantung, filling the Ta ch'ing ho.In Confucius' days we hear of a branch flowingsouthward to the Huai river. In the 3rd and 4thcenturies the Ta ch'ing river running into theChihli Gulf was the only mouth, but about 1,200 a.d.the river again went south to the Huai River andflowed into the Yellgw Sea,It retained this course614

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICA.YIN AND YANG1853 when it returned to its Ta Ch'ing ho course.tillThese great changes, which had disastrous effectson the population affected, together with thefrequent inundations through the breaking of itsbanks have caused the river to be called 'China'sSorrow.The North China Branch of the Royal AsiaticSociety sent an expedition to examine the newcourse in 1867, the Report being given in theSociety's Journal for 1868.The basin has been estimated at 475,000 sq.miles. It may be noted that in its middle andlower course no important place stands on itsbanks—it is too dangerous.PiNCiONE : Conservancy Work on the Hai HoRiver. Eng. Society of China Journal, vol. xvi.YELLOW SEA, ^^, the sea of the east coastof China, so named because it is coloured by theloam brought down in enormous quantities by theYellow River and Yangtze chiang.YELLOW TURBAN REBELS, THE, (alsoYellow Caps), began about 170 a.d. as a secret sectunder a Taoist leader. They rebelled in 184, andhelped the downfall of the After Han, and thtetbeginning of the Three Kingdoms. The Three"peach-garden heroes," Liu Pei, Chang Fei, andKuan Yii, took their oath as against these rebels.See Secret Sects.YEN, jli, the feudal state which occupied theextreme north-east boundary of the Chou empire,and which was given by Wu Wang to his halfbrother,Shih, the Duke of Shao (v. Legge,Shu Chinrj, pp. 346, 352, 420, 474, 545), who, whenadministering the affairs of his duchy, sat under apear tree, which the grateful people thereforerefused to allow woodmen to tamper with. (Legge,Shih Ching, 26). There is practically nothing ofnote in the history of the state till we come tothe last chapter. It was the heir-apparent of thelast prince who almost succeeded in getting anassassin to murder Ch'in Shih Huang Ti. Thefailure of the plot in the very act of its beingcarried out, caused the immediate destruction ofYen, B.C. 221. Being so far north it was never ofgreat political weight and though it is spoken ofas abounding in horses it remained a comparativelyfeeble State even in its best days.Peking is situated in the very heart of old Yen ;the name is still used as a litei-ary designation ofthat neighbourhood.YEN HUl, gl ig. The favourite disciple ofConfucius. His tablet stands in the ConfucianTemple as one of the Four Associates of the Master.YEN LING CHI TZO, of the State of Wu.See Chi Cha.YEN LO, @ ,^,the Chinese name for theHindu hero or deity Yama. In both Hinduism andBuddliism he is king of hell, where he has dailyalternations of torture and enjoyment.Johnston : Buddhist China, c. viii.YENTAI jg| 31 Yen t'ai, the correct name forthe port called by foreigners Chefoo. This is theonly name by which the Chinese know it, Chefoobeing an entirely different place on the other sideof the Chefoo bay. See Chefoo.YEN T2U. See Yen Ying.YEN YING ft II, also known as Yen Tzu,a minister of the State of Ch'i, who died in b.c. 493.He almost ranks with Kuan Tzu as statesman,philosopher, economist and writer. Confuciuspraises him, but Yen Tzu seems to have had smallrespect for the formalism of Confucius.YIN and YANG, gJIg. The negative andpositive principles of universal life. These wordsmeant originally the dark and bright sides of asunlit bank, and occur on the Stone Drums (8thcentury B.C.). By the time of Confucius they hadacquired a philosophical significance as the twoaspects of the duality which Chinese thinkersperceived in all things. Traces of the dual notionoccur in the "Great Plan" of the Shu Ching, butthe actual words Yin and Yang as used in thissense occur first in the pseudo-Confucian commentarieson the / Ching (q.v.).In this way Yang |^ came to mean Heaven,Light, Vigour, Male, Penetration, The Monad.It is symbolized by the Dragon and is associatedwith azure colour and oddness in numbers. InFeng Shui {q.v.) raised land forms (mountains) areYang.Similarly Yin Kl stands for Earth (the antithesisof Heaven), Darkness, Quiescence, Female, Absorption,the Duad. It is symbolised by the Tiger andis associated with orange colour and even numbers.Valleys and streams possess the Yin quality.The two are represented by a whole and abroken line respectively, thus :YangYinGroups of three such lines are known as"trigrams," groups of six as "hexagrams," and the/ Ching is classified under the sixty-four possiblehexagrams.In connection with the five elements (^-v-), t-^*Yin and Yang have been for at least two thousandyears used to interpret the processes of nature and.they are the fundamental feature in the theorieswhich underlie Feng Shui, Astrology, Divinationand Medicine.T'ai (Great) Yang means the Sun, T'ai Yin theMoon, Shao (Lesser) Yang the fixed stars and ShaoYin the planets, these four being supposed to be the615

YIN DYNASTY'ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAfour primary combinations (Hsiang ^)'of Yin andYang.Yin and Yang are themselves supposed to haveproceeded from a "Great Ultimate."Carus : Chinese Philosophy ; McClatchie :Confucian Cosmogony; Legge : Yih King.[H.C.]YIN DYNASTY, gj. The tihang dynasty wasso called alter the xtnicval of the capital frcmPo ^ to Yin in the 14th century B.C. See STiangDynasty.YINGKOW, ig^ P ,the proper name for Newchwang,{q-'V,)..YIN SHAN.YO CHOW £- jHi ,See In Shan.a Treaty Port at the entranceto the Tung-t'ing lake and called 'the gate ofHunan.' It was opened to foreign trade in 1899,but for various reasons the amount of trade passingthrough the Customs is very small. After theopening of Changsha in 1904, Yochow lost thetrade from the Siang Eiver district. The foredgnfive miles awaysettlement is at Ch'eng-ling ^ ^,to the north and only 6ne mile from the Yangtze.The population of Yochow is said to be fromfifteen to twenty thousand. Tea and rice are thechief products of the district, a poor one.1915 1916Net Foreign Imports 2,444,640 3,144,256Net Chinese Imports ... ... 2,729,176 2,448,263Exports 1,930,251 2,385,980Total Hk.Tls. ... 7,104,067 7,978,499YOGA, the practice of ecstatic meditation witha view to attaining spiritual or magic power; usedalso in sorcery and exorcism. As a system it wasintroduced to China by HsiiAN Tsang's translationof the Shastra treating of it, and was popularizedchiefly by Amogha,EiTEL : Handbook of Chinese Buddhism.YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCI-ATIONS OF CHINA. This organization, whichhad in 1917 one hundred and sixty-nine brancheswith 28,000 members, is the outgrowth of verysmall and rather recent beginnings. The firstAssociation was organized in 1885 in the Anglo-Chinese College in Foochow. In the followingyear Associations were organized in the NorthChina College at Tungchow and in the PresbyterianCollege at Hangchow. They were modelled afterthe student Young Men's Christian Associationsin North America.The first foreign secretary of this organizationin Ciiina was Mr, D. W. Lyon, who came toTientoin in 1895, arid has continued his servicefrom that year. Mr. John E. Mott visited Chinain 1396 and laid the cornerstone of the first Associationbuilding in Tientsin. Upon his return, threeadditional foreign secretaries, Messrs. F. S.BiiocKMAN, R. R. Gailey and R. E. Lewis weresent to China in 1898. The first city Associationfor Chinese business and professional men wasorganized by R. E. Lewis in Shanghai in 1899.Mr. S. K. TsAO, the first Chinese secretary, tookup his work later in 1899 and is now serving asGeneral Secretary in charge of the ShanghaiAssociation.In 1902 the various isolated Associations wereunited into a National Movement. A Nationaloffice was opened in Shanghai, with Mr. F. S.Brockman as the first National Secretary. Mr.Brockman continued to be General Secretary ofthe National Committee until July 1st, 1915 whenhe was recalled to America.From the beginning it has been the purposeto make this a Chinese organization, in spirit, insupport, in management. This has now beenaccomplished quite largely. There are twenty-eightcity Associations and 141 student Associations eachmanaged and financed by Chinese directors andcommittees. The secretarial leadership also israpidly being taken over by Chinese secretaries.An indigenous, self-supporting and self-propagatingnational movement is the aim.Each Association has full autonomy andfinancial responsibility. There are no subsidied.Help is provided, however, in the service of foreignsecretaiies, who are supplied by the InternationalCommittee of North America and by nine denominationalboards that allocate men to this service.In 1917 there were ninety-seven such secretaries.One was Swiss, one Norwegian, three were Danes,fifteen were British and seventy-seven American,The Chinese secretaries now number 147.The educational activities of the local Associationsconsists of day and evening schools teachingChinese and English, schools of commerce, readingrooms and libraries, lectures and practical talks,and educational tours of observation. The physicaldepartments supply gymnasiums, indoor or outdoor,athletic fields, baths, and in three cities swimmingpools. Exercise is under trained supervision. Itis both recreative and corrective in character. Theathletic moven^ent in schools and colleges has beenstimulated by frequent athletic meets culminatingin tlie Far Eastern Athletic Games, in securingwhich this organization has co-operated. Thesocial departments supply clean and attractiveamusement in the form of game rooms, movingpicture entertainments, outings and group gatheringsof many kinds. The religious activitiesconsist of Bible classes, devotional and evangelisticmeetings, personal influence and social service. Theaim is to make religious influence permeate everyactivity so that the Christian religion shall be616

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAYUAN DYNASTYrecognized as a part of the unity of life. It isexpected that all Christian members will engage insome form of voluntary service for others. Apopular form of such service is teaching in freeschools for illiterates. The above activities intheir various forms are carried out separately formen and for boys, in the local city Associations.The Shanghai Association has its boys* departmentwith 1,283 members in a separate building erectedfor that pui-pose. In 1916 there were 6,000 youngmen in the organized schools, 7,200 in the Bibleclasses, 3,600 using the gymnasiums. The expenseof carrying on the local associations for the year1916 was $336,898, all of which was provided inChina.The supervision of the Young Men's ChristianAssociations in China rests Avith the National Committee.This body of fifty-six business and professionalmen is elected by the annual conventionheld once in three years. At present there arefifty Chinese and six foreign members.In addition to co-operating with and supervisingthe local Associations the National Committee doesvai'ious extension work. Its lecture departmentprepares and presents over the country demonstratedlectures on scientific subjects, on education, health,and conservation of national resources, all bearingdirectly upon the needs of China, These lectures,inaugurated by Prof. C. H. Eobeetson who cameto China for work among the literati, in 1902, havebeen favorably received by officials, educated menand students throughout the country. The attendancehas been above 200,000 in one year. Trainingin presenting these lectures has been given to anumber of missionaries and to men selected by thegovernment, who, in turn, has made use of themextensively.The Young Men's Christian Association isunequivocally a part of the Christian movement inChina. One of its chief aims is to strengthen theChurch in its work and to bring young men intoitsmembership.YOUNG WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCI-ATIONS OF CHINA. The Y.W.C.A. of theU.S.A., upon the ratification of the World'sCommittee, in London, sent its first representativeto China in 1903, and the first work was begunamong the factory girls in the cotton mills in theYangtze-poo section of Shanghai.Shortly after this a woman was sent out fromAmerica to study the whole field with the resultthat the Association was asked to so organize itswork as to meet the needs as far as possible of thestudents, particularly in non-mission schools, andof the women of leisure. Towards this end thirtyeightsecretaries have been sent out to work underthe direction of the China National Committee,with headquarters in Shanghai.78617The work of these secretaries has been to opencity Associations in Shanghai, Canton, Tientsinand Peking and student Associations in fifty-fourschools for women in different parts of China.In the four city Associations there is a membershipof 1,176 and about 4,000 in the studentbranches.In city Associations work is organized underfour departments, educational, social, physical andreligious.A Board of Directors of from ten to fifteenladies (largely Chinese) control the city Association,and raise the finances necessary to carry on thework.Following out the idea of training leadersamong the Chinese people the National Committeehas recently opened a Normal Training School ofPhysical Education.Though city Associations have been organizedin only four centres thus far, seven other largecities have appealed to the National Committeefor similar organizations. The National Committeeis therefore asking for thirty-six additional foreignsecretaries during 1917.Associations in schools work largely alongsocial and religious lines. Student Conferenceslasting about a week are held in six differentsections and attended by some 600 students.All Associations in China are under the directionof the National Committee, consisting of 17resident and 8 non-resident members. Throughaffiliation with the National Committee each localAssociation becomes a part of the world-wideorganization which heads up in the World's Committeelocated in London.In 1917, there are 22 foreign workers and12 Chinese secretaries, in the four city Associations,with headquarters at Shanghai.YOURT. See Yurt.YU, THE GREAT. See Ta Yu.YUAN DYNASTY, THE, tcIS, the Mongoldynasty, was founded by Khtjbilai Khan, who conqueredfirst the Chin (Nii Chen) Empire of the Northand then the Sung Empire, and placed his capital atKhan baliq (Peking). He was a wise ruler, conciliatingthe Chinese and tolerant of all faithsexcept Taoism. He constructed the northern halfof the Grand Canal, continuing it to Tientsin, andestablished' a postal system ; the empire enjoyedgreat prosperity. Korea, Yiinnan, Annam andBurma were conquered, but his expeditions againstJava and Japan were unsuccessful. He ruled overterritory extending to the Black Sea, and a missionwas even sent to Madagascar. Marco Polo wasin China from 1271 to 1288, and held high appointments.Jen Tsung re-established the HanlinAcademy and official examinations. Rebellions

YUAN MING YUANENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAsprung up during the reigns of the later emperors,the chief being under a young bonze namedChu yiiAN-cnANG, who drove the Mongols backbeyond the Great Wall and founded the Mingdynasty.Dynashc TitleThe Mongol dynasty displayed great magnificenceand culture, and was hospitable to foreigners,but was never popular with the Chinese. Thedynasty lasted 88 years under eleven rulers.See Khubilai; Daschfa; Polo; Khan baliq.Chinese Mongol Accession Beign Title Adopted* JOi T'ai Tsu Temuchin or Gengis JiL-^ ^1206 d 1227 Eegent;*: T'ai Tsung Ogdai or Ogotai 1229 d . 1240Ting Tsung Gayuk or Kuyak 1246 d 1248 Interregnum^ ^ Hsien Tsung Mangu 1251 d . 1259ft ia Shih Tsu Khubilai or Sitchen ^'if' fn;mn 1260 ^ Chung T'ungA.D.7C Chih Yiian^ Yiian Chengm Ta Te^ Ch'eng Tsung Timur or Olcheitu ^tK :? 1294 7C1295fiJc^ ^ Wu Tsung Kaisun or Gulukmih ;ffl# 1307:k1297^ :k Chih Ta 1308-t: ^ Jen Tsung Ayuli Palpata «w mm:ti Am126012641311 M Huang Ch'ing 1312m Yen Yu 1314% m Ying Tsung •Sotpala mm AfO 1320 m m Chih Chih 1321m^'^ T'ai Ting Ti Yesun Timur HhM m^:^ 1323 ^ T'ai Tingm Chih Ho«r ± Yu Chu Achakpa m^ ^A 1328 ^ RS T'ien Shun 1328Ming Tsung Hosila *n1H: m 1329 ji M T'ien Li 1329m m3St ^ Wen Ti Tup Timur li^ WW 1329 ^m ^ T'ien LiWS Chih Shunm S Ning Tsung He Chepe mm nm 1332Hi # Shun Ti orjg m Hui Tsung Tohan Timur s^m lA^W 1333 7C i^ Yiian T'ung 1333YUAN MING YUAN. See Summer Palace.YUAN SHIH K'AI,^i«:gll, one of the mostprominent figures in recent Chinese history. Hewas born in Honan in 1860. From 1884 to 1903 hewas Chinese Resident at Seoul, and distinguishedhimself by his energetic treatment of difficulties.He was then made Provincial Judge of Chihli.Then he was sent as Civil Commandant to organizeand control the foreign-drilled troops at Tientsin.In the coup d'Hat of 1898 he supported theEmpress-dowager. (See Kuang Hsu). He wasmade Governor of Shantung at the beginning of1900, and his firm treatment of the situation therewas perhaps the salvation of the Province. Allthe missionaries in Shantung at the time mayconsider they owe their lives to him. In 1901Li Hung-chang died, and Yuan became ActingViceroy of Chihli. In 1907 he was made Presidentof the Wai wu Pu. Two months after the death ofTz'u Hsi he was dismissed from office, (January 2,1909). For two and a half years he lived in retirement,then had a dramatic re-appearance. It was inOctober, 1911, that the Manchus sent for him tosave their threatened throne. He was made Viceroyof Hukuang and then Supreme Commander of theArmy and Navy. The abdication of the Emperor1324132813301330^ jFc Chih Yiian 1335M IE Chih CUng 1341took place on February 12, 1912, and on March 10YiiAN was elected to the Presidency of the Republic.Three years later he was planning to ascend thethrone as the first Emperor of a new dynasty, butthe attempt caused so much disturbance andresistance that he was obliged to withdraw hisproject. In the midst of the revolution thusbrought about he died, on June 6, 1916.YUAN SHIH T'IEN TSUN tc jl§ 5^ S, theoriginal First Principle, the Taoist supreme being,inhabiting the highest of the three heavens'. Heseems to be a pure invention, and in practice hisposition has been largely usurped by Yii Huang.See Three Pure Ones.DoEE : Becherches sur les Superstitions, tome ix.YUAN TSANG, 7c §|. See Hsuan Tsang.YUEH, STATE OF,j®. In the Chou dynastythe name of Yiieh was applied to a non-Chinesestate that occupied the extreme lands that wereknown to the Chinese on their south-eastern borders,i.e., the region of Hangchow and Ningpo. As wascustomary amongst these border states, the rulersset up a claim of descent from some early Chinesemonarch. The earliest mention of the state is foundin Ssu-MA Ch'ien who tells of the Ch'u ruler who.618

'ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAYULEvisited the Chou king in B.C. 671. With the presentof sacrificial meat, the visitor vras bidden to"maintain order in the southern borders, troubledwith I and Yiieh (tribes), but not to invade theMiddle Kingdoms." The first mention in theTso Chuan is in the year 601, when Yiieh and Wuwere admitted to a covenant with Ch'u. The textof the Ch'un Ch'iu does not mention Yiieh until537, when it tells us that Yiieh took part (withseveral other states) in an attack made by Ch'u onWu. Ssu-MA Ch'ien practically confines his accountof Yiieh to the one really celebrated reign ofKou Chien (496-465). He it was who destroyed thestate of Wu (in 473). The following year he wasgiven the title of "Protector" by the emperor—theseventh and last of the "Protectors." Ssu-macontinues the history of the state to 333 when Ch'ubroke it up into a "hundred Yueh."After Ch'in Shih Huang Ti, we find "YiiehTung Hai" occupying Chekiang ; "Min Yiieh,"Fukien ; and "Nan Yiieh," Kuangtung. There wasan undoubted connection between these "Yiieh" and448); Legge : Classics, vol. v; Paeker : AncientChina Simplified.Y U E N C HWA N G . See Hsuan Tsang.YO hai ^m Sea of jade. See Lei Shu.YU HSIEN, 6K R> a Manchu who wonnotoriety during the Boxer outbreak. In 1898 hewas made Governor of Shantung, and trouble wasat once foreseen by those who knew the characterand reputation of the man (see leading article inN. C. Daily News, April 17, 1899). He encouragedthe Boxer movement in the province, and thoughthe Annamites still farther south.Ssu-MA Ch'ien, c. xli (Chavannes, iv, pp. 418-called to Peking at the end of 1898, the murder ofBeooks, the first foreign Boxer victim, on the lastday of that year was proved to be 'as much his workas though he had struck the blow himself.' Neverthelesshe was promoted to be Governor of Shansi,and there six months later 159 foreigners werekilled, 46 of them in his own Yamen. Twelve ofthese were Roman Catholics.When the day of vengeance came, Yii Hsien,instea^d of being brought to Peking and publitlyexecuted, was put to death at Lan Chou, February22, 1901; but at- least there is no doubt of thepenalty having been paid. It is interesting to knowthat in the Revolution of 1911 the daughter ofYii Hsien found safety in the Baptist Missionaries'premises at Hsi-an fu : all the members of whichMissioa in Shansi, 16 in number, had been killedby her father.Kbyte : The Passing of the Dragon, p. 50Bruce : In the Footsteps of Marco Polo.YU HSIUNG, Iggll, an author of the 13thcentury B.C. His works are quoted in very oldbooks and two of their titles are given in theHan Shu. The work Yu Tzu (q.v.) is attributedto him.5^±^, theYU HUANG (SHANG TI)chief god in the Taoist triad. The name is translated'the Jade Emperor,' or, since jade is theemblem of purity, 'the Pure August Ruler,' etc.He appears to be an invention more or less of theemperor Chen Tsung St ^ (a-K- 998, Sung dynasty)with a view to restoring his failing credit withhis people, though there may have been earlierlegends. This emperor raised Yii Huang to thehighest honours and made him Shang Ti. Sincethen Yii Huang has been God for the commonpeople. Chen Tsung also raised to him a templeso extravagantly vast and costly that hi&tcxian;s.regard it as the beginning of the downfall of thedynasty.Buddhists claim that the Taoists have simplystolen their god Yii Ti. He is the chief deity ofevery mountain top, and may therefore be foundin Buddhist hill-temples, as for example at P'u-toShan. See Three Pure Ones.DoRE : liecherches sur les Superstitions, tome ix.YUKIEN.^tf IR, a Mongol, appointed to beCommissioner with Lin tse HSii [q.v.) during theFirst War. He reached his post at Chinhai as theBritish were evacuating Chusan in 1841, and tookthe credit of having frightened them away. Byhis cruelty and boastfulness during his shortcareer he is marked among the most rabid haters ofthe English in those days. He caught CaptainStead {q.v.) and had him flayed alive. He sawChusan retaken, and on October 10, 1841, he fledwhen Chinhai fell, and a few days later committedsuicide.Davis : China during the War.YU LAN orT'AI P'ING YU LAN, j^cT^i^K-See Lei Shu.YU LAN P'EN HUl Siaaf-. the Festivalof departed spirits, often called by foreigners AllSouls' Day. It is held on the fifteenth day of theseventh moon. A very full description of the ritesat Amoy, which will hold good for the rest ofChina, is given by De Geoot. The name is a»transliteration of the Sanscrit Ullambana, but italso has the meaning of a vessel to hold oflferings.The Ullambana sutra was translated into Chinesein the third century, but the ceremonies did notbecome popular till the eighth, when Amogha(Pu K'ung) introduced the Yoga system.De Geoot : Les Fetes a Emoui, vol. ii ; Eitel :Handbook of Chinese Buddhism.YULE, HENRY, the translator and editor ofMarco Polo's book. He was born in Scotland1820, his father being Major in the Bengal Army.H6 joined the Royal Engineers and proceeded to619

YU LI CH'AO CHUAN ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAIndia in 1840. After filling various offices thereand travelling a good deal he resigned the serviceand went to Europe in 1862. There he spent manyyears in Germany, Italy and Sicily, publishingCathay and the Way Thither in 1866. The nextyear he began his work on Marco Polo's Travelsand issued it in 1870. In 1875 he returned toLondon and joined the India Council. He wa;smade C.B. and K. C.S.I, and died December 1889.For bibliography of his many writings and hismemoir see The Book of Set Marco Polo, 3rd ed.1903.YU LI CH'AO CHUAN, 5 g i^ If ,a Taoistbook which is not sold but given away in greatmmibers by those who wish to do good or to acquiremerit for themselves. It dates from the Sungdynasty, and it consists of a very detailed d.es.-cription of the Ten Judgment Halls with theirmany torture-chambers or hells. A slight sketchof the book is given by Giles and a full translationhas been made by Eev. G. W, Clarke.Giles : Chinese Literature, p. 420 ; Clarke :Yii-ll or Precious Records, Journal,- N.C.B.R.A.S.,vol. xxviii.YUNG LI 7it S,the title adopted by CmuYu-LANQ ;$|c ft ®, Prince Ktjei ^ ^ grandson ofWan Li and the last claimant of the Ming throne.Under this reign-title he ascended the throne in,Kuangtung Province in 1646, after the Manchushad executed his predecessor at Foochow ; and hekept up some appearance of royalty for thirteenyears, when he was driven over the frontier intoBurma. He was treacherously taken by theBurmese and handed over to his relentless enemy,Wu San-kuei, who, having first sent for instructionsto Peking strangled the captive monarch at Yiinnanfu, as is generally stated. It would seem howeverthat Yung Li and his son called Constantine wereexecuted at Nan lung |{l t| in Hsing-i fu ^ ^ Jj?Kueichou, in his own palace, on June 4, 1662. Thetombs of the two princes have recently been foundin Kueichow by P. Schotter, and described in,he Bulletin Catholique.He was never baptized himself, being a determinedpolygamist; but his mother the EmpressMary, his wife the Empress Anne, her sonConstantine the heir to the throne, and theEmpress Helen, once a concubine of his uncleT'lEN Ch'i, were all Christians, together with aboutfifty ex-imperial concubines, eunuchs and others.Backhouse and Bland : Annals and Memoirsof the Court of Peking; Le Bulletin CatholiqueDE Pekin, 1915, pp. 430 and 292.YUNG LO,^ SS*, the reign-title of the rulerregarded as the second of the Ming emperors, hisname being Chu Ti ^ i^. He was the fourth sonof Chu Yuan-chang, (Hung Wu) and was bornin 1360. His father would have appointed him tosucceed, but because of the opposition of hisministers he had to appoint a grandson instead'.Chu Ti was sent to Peking in a kind of Viceregalposition. His march north is famous, city aftercity being captured and the Great Plain north ofthe Yangtze being depopulated. From his positionhe was called Prince of Yen. He threw off hisallegiance when his nephew succeeded, marchedsouth and entered Nanking, the young emperordisappearing for good. The Prince of Yen thentook the throne with the reign-title Yung Lo. Hewas a great ruler. In 1421 he moved the capitalto Peking ; he drew up a Penal Code ; he sentmissions abroad as far as Ceylon ; he issued the,great encyclopaedia the Yung Lo Ta Tien. (SeeLei Shu). He was an ardent Buddhist. On hiadeath in 1424 he was canonized as Wen Huang-tiYUNG LO TA TIEN.YUNNAN H jfiSee Lei Shu.cloudy south; the secondlargest of China's provinces. It has Ssuch'uan onthe north, Tibet and Burma on the west, Burmaand Tonkin on the south, Kiangsi and Kueichouon the east. Its area is 146,718 sq. miles and itspopulation 12,722,000. The west and north-west ismountainous and difficult of access and the populationis savage. In the north-east, near the Yangtze,the land is low and unhealthy and there are fewinhabitants. In the east, however, are wide andfertile plains, with many lakes and rivers, a clearsky and a pleasant climate. The Yangtze (herenamed the Chin sha chiang or Golden sand river),forms part of the boundary between Yiinnan andSsuch'uan, but is only a mountain torrenfc. TheMekong, the Salwin and the Red River are otherstreams in the province. The fauna and flora arethe richest in all China. Maize and rice are thechief crops. The mineral wealth is great. Thepopulation is very miscellaneous, there being man;yaboriginal tribes.The chief city is Yiinnan fu with 45,000inhabitants. This city, with Ta-li fu (6,000) hasbeen ruined as the result of the Mohammedanrebellion. Four cities are open to foreign trade,Mengtze, Hok'ou, Szemao and T'engyueh.YUNNAN FU, m^M,the capital of theYiinnan province, situated centrally and in apicturesque position. It has never recovered itsruin in the Mohammedan rebellion, and has now apopulation of only 45,000.Since the post was established in 1902 thefollowing have been H.B.M. Consuls-General atYiinnan fu,1902, April 5, William Henry Wilkinson.1909, Jan. 21, Pierce Essex O'Brien-Butler.1912, Oct. 1, Herbert Goffe.620

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAZIKAWElYURT or YOURT, the Mongol tent, is shap€dlike an inverted basin. It is made of collapsibleoval lattice-work of laths covered with strips offelt fastened in position by ropes. An opeh/ifngfrom 3 ft. to 4^ ft. high is left for a doorway, anda circular aperture at the top to allow smoke toescape. The height of the yurt is about 12 ft.The centre is occupied by a fire round which furor felt rugs are spread. The wealthy classes havethe walls lined with cotton.hearth.The word is etymologically connected withYU, TABLET OF, 9^ i| ]^ Shtn yu pei. Inthe Yu Kung of the Shu, Mt. Heng is the mostsouthern site indicated (see Heng Shan). A Taoistwriter of the Eastern Han named Chad I, whoseworks contain many absurd fables, makes mentionof an inscription which he says the "divine Yii"set up on Kou-lou Feng ^^i^., the most southernpeak of Heng Shan (situated about 20 miles southof the highest peak). The statement is oftenrepeated by later writers of that and the followingdynasties. Han Yii (768-824) wrote a poem onKou-lou in which he says that he sought in vainfor the Tablet which had been seen "by chance"by a solitary Taoist priest. Later, Chxj Hsi(1130-1200) also tried without effect to find theTablet.After his death, a Ssuch'uan officer claimedto have seen and copied the inscription consisting ofseventy-seven 'tadpole' characters ; he also indicatessome connection with Taoism, in that his copy ofthe inscription was placed in a Taoist monasteryin the Chia Ting period (1208-1214). It was notuntil the Cheng Te period (1506-1521) that anycopy of the inscription got into works on inscriptions.Replica of the "original" were set up atChangsha, Wuchang and other places.The "original" stone is to be seen on a spur ofthe Kou-lou Peak erect on a rock with a hugeimprint at its base of a naked foot-print, allegedto be the actual impress of the great Yii's foot ashe placed the Tablet in position. Moreoever, theTablet itself contains two holes between the secondand third horizontal lines from the top, into whichfitted the staple by which Yii carried the stone,grasped in one hand, up the mountain side. Theactual inscription is not quite four feet wide andnot quite six feet high, but the Tablet itself ishigher and is three or four inches thick. The stoneweathers badly and chips can be picked up allround. It has certainly not been in its presentposition more than a few hundred years, and isnot likely to last much longer than it has yet lasted.A goodly temple with a broad platform (at the sideedge of which the Tablet stands) was erected by thatdevout old fighter, P'eng Yu-lin (1824-1890), Afull account of the Tablet, with a copy of theinscription and a translation, will be found inLegge's Shu, (Prol. p. 66). W. H. Medhurst alsohas a reproduction of the Tablet and a paperthereon in the N.C.B.RA.S. Journal, 1868. Seealso vol. xliii (1912) pp. 32-43.A monograph by Klaproth appeared at Berlinin 1811. It was discussed in Remtjsat's MelangesAsiatiques, vol. ii. Btjnsen accepted its authenticityin emphatic terms in Egypt's Place inHistory.YU TZl3 S ^ , the title of a work on theprinciples of government, which, if genuine, mayclaim to be the most ancient specimen of Chineseliterature. The supposed author, Yii HsruNG, livedunder Wien Wang, 13th century b.c. Some thinkthat the present text is a compilation of quotationsfrom the original work, made in the T'ang dynasty.Wtlie : Notes on Chinese Literature, p. 125.zZAYTON and CAYTON. See Ch'iian chow. Ignatius' College (1850) has both middle and highscjioolZFAtANDIA, FORT. Thedepartmentsfort built byand leads uptheto the AuroraDutch in 1630, 2^ miles fromUniversity.T'ai wan (See Universitefu, Formosa.L'Aurore). TheSee Formosa.College had in 1916 fourteen Jesuit Professors,thirty-nine Chinese teachers, and nearly fourZEN. SeeCh'an.hundred pupils, of whom three-fourths wereZIKAWEl, l^gtS, the name of a village Christians. A large industrial work is done at thenear Shanghai, made famous by the Jesuit institutionssituated there. It was chosen as the chief the Mission press. The "Helpers of the Holyneighbouring village of Tou se wei, where also iscentre of the Kiangnan work of the Society of Jesus Souls" have a large establishment at Zikawei,in 1847. In addition to a new cathedral (built 1910). founded in 1869, with orphanage, schools (includingthere are a famous Museum (1872) and Library one for deaf and dumb girls), dispensaries, and(1847), and the well-known Observatory (1872). St. industrial enterprises of various kinds. Fifty-six621

BIW,*J!.SENGYOLOPAEDIA SINICAduns were in residence in 1916, exclusive of novices.In the same year the Christian community of thevillage numbered 3,548 souls.See Jesuits; Meteorology; Seismology; HailKuang-Ch'i, eic.ZINC.See Minerals.ZO-SE or ZO-CE, the Shanghai pronunciationof '^ Ul . in the Mandarin speech she-shan. Asmall hill some twenty-five miles from Shanghai,where the Jesuit missionaries of Sicawei haveestablished their Astronomical Observatory. Seehhuits. ^^^.'''.- :, /:ZOTTO LI , ANG E LO , a Jesuit missionary, bornnear Naples in 1826. He entered the Society in1843 and reached China in 1848. He died in 1902,having spent all his missionary life at Zikawei,'which owes much to him as Prefect of the College,Rector, Haster of the Novices, Instructor of theTertian Fathers, and spiritual Father. His literarywork was important. He is best known by hisCiiTSus litteraturae sinicae (1879-83). This work in5 volumes begins with elementary lessons, carriesthe student through the Classics and ends withrules of composition in prose and verse. It has aLatin translation, and it was "crowned" by theAcademy of Inscriptions and Belles-lettr'es. Healso prepared many religious works in Chinese.CoRDiEB : T'oung Pao, vol. xiii ; Lettres desScor-ASTIQUES DE JERSEY, 1903.Z UN GAR I A.See Sungaria.ZYGODACTYLI, Barbets; there are fiveMegalaemaknown in China, Formosa and Hainan.virens, the Great Chinese Barbet, is foundthroughout South China. Cyanops davisoni andC. asiatica are both found in Yunnan. C. nuchalisis found in the wooded mountains of Formosa. C.faber. inhabits Hainan.David et Ousxalet : Les Oiseaux de la Chine;Capitonides.,;:| ,1-53? UiT U'^f>a ao'ij 'iM «"!b.-J::y.h62^

ADDENDACOERIGENDA, Etc,

ADDENDAAURORA UNIVERSITY. See UniversiUi'AuTore.FINANCE AND CURRENCY. I. Eevenue.The sources of the revenue of the Chinese Government,as set forth in the budget for 1916-1917, inestimates which are necessarily only approximate,are as follows :Land tax $90,105,784.00Customs receipts 73,056,663.00Salt revenue 96,767,010.00.Goods tax (including Likin) 42,719,194.00Levies and contributions ... 40,217,118.00(including title deed tax of$15,000,000).Various receipts 8,559,580.00Direct receipts of CentralGovernment. (Includingtobacco and wine duty andmonopoly sale) 36,584,311.00Extraordinary receipts ... 84,828,924.00Grand total of Receipts ... $472,838,584.00The land tax system is of most ancient origin,and is considered the principal and fundamental taxin China, although the income from this source isnow exceeded by the Salt Revenue. The tax includesmany subsidiary charges, and the rate oftaxation varies in different districts.In the absenceof a cadastral survey, there is great inaccuracy inthe returns of the acreage of land. The taxableacreage as fixed in the reign of KuANG-HSii, was only980,000,000 jnou, while during the Sui dynasty itwas more than five times as large. The actual areaof cultivated land in China is estimated at approximately40,000,000 acres, or 2,700,000,000 mou.The Salt Tax.—In accordance with the provisionsof the reorganization loan of 1913, thecollection of all the salt duties in China was placedin the hands of a special department of the Ministryof Finance, called Central Salt Administration,which comprises a Chief Inspectorate of SaltRevenue, under a Chinese Chief Inspector and aforeign Associate Chief Inspector. They constitutethe authority for the superintendence of the issueof licenses, the returns of revenue and the compilationof reports. (The First Associate ChiefInspector, Sir Richabd Dane). For full account,see Salt Administration.CtLStoms Revenue.—{See Maritime Customs].The revenue from this source increased five foldbetween the years 1867 and 1913. Originally therate of duty was fixed at 5% on both exports andimports. As the valuation of goods upon whichthis percentage was computed according to theTreaty of 1858 had fallen far below the actualmarket value, it was agreed by the Boxer Protocolof 1901, that the actual rate of taxation should beincreased to 5% effective, and a new tariff on thisbasis was made in 1902. As this valuation had againbecome inadequate to produce an effective 5%, aconference was called to meet in January, 1918, forthe revision of the specific rates, so that an effective5% duty might be produced.Likin is a tax levied on goods while in transitwithin a province or from one province to another.This impost is a serious impediment to trade, aswell as a source of great corruption. For the sakeof the unrestricted development of commerce, effortshave been made to abolish this tax, and variousforeign governments have by treaties agreed topermit an increase of the customs duty to 12^%,conditioned on the abolition of likin. As, however,the income from likin goes primarily to the provinces,some other means of provincial revenue would haveto be provided in the event of the abolition of likin.The system of likin has been modified in someprovinces. It is still called likin in the Provincesof Chihli, Shansi, Honan, Shantung, Kiangsu,Anhui, Hunan, Fukien, Kuangtung, Yunnan andKueichou, etc. But it has been changed to T'ungchiian{^i^) or "single levy" (levied at the placeof production of the goods to be taxed), in theProvinces of Kiangsi, Hupei, Shensi, Kiangsu,Chekiang, Kuangsi, Ssuch'uan and Sinkiang. Inother places, like the three Provinces of Manchuriaand a part of Kiangsu, the name of Production andConsumption Tax ( ^ M ^ ) has been adopted,^ )K;a Production Tax ( Jil ^ ^ ) to be levied at theplace of production of the goods, and a ConsumptionTax ( ^) levied at the place of saleor consumption.Revenue from Tobacco and Wine.—A numberof different imports are collected upon wine andtobacco, such as license taxes, contributions, directtaxes, and the so-called "official sale" of tobaccoand wine. The latter is the result of an attempt tomake a beginning of a government monopoly oftobacco and wine; as treaties with foreign powersmade such an arrangement impossible, the so-called"official sale" is virtually an additional tax. Aneffort is now being made to unify all imposts ofthis nature.Stam'p duties, though not yet paid by themerchants of all foreign nations, have become animportant source of revenue; general consumption79625

FINANCEENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAtaxes and business licenses have thus far beendeveloped only in an unsystematic fashion; \?hileincome taxes and imposts upon urban land have notbeen put into operation, although seriously discussedwith a view to their adoption. Under propermethods of administration a very abundant revenuecould be obtained from these various sources.II. Expenditures.—The ordinary and extraordinaryexpenditures of the government wereestimated as follows, in the budget of 1917.Ministry of Foreign Affairs ... 6,293,370.00Ministry of Interior 45,687,879.00Ministry of Finance 224,190,603.00Ministry. of War 167,317,380.00Ministry of Navy 8,151,569.00Ministry of Justice 9,365,766.00Ministry of Education 5,028,830.00Ministry of Agriculture andCommerce 4,014,286.00Ministry of Communications ... 1,654,439.00Board of Mongolian andTibetan Affairs 1,138,492.00Grand total of expenditures ... 1472,838,584.00Aside from the Ministry of Finance, the expenditureof which is due to the payment of interestand principal on foreign and domestic loans, theMinistry of War consumes the greatest part of therevenue of the state. In the estimates of theMinistry of Interior, the expense of the larger partof provincial administration is included. It mustbe noted that in the budgets thus far made it isassumed that all public revenues are paid to thecentral government and disbursed through it fornational and provincial needs. This is, however,only theoretically true.III. The Government Loans.—The followingare the principal long-term loans of the ChineseGovernment.Amount outstanding1916Franco-Russian Loan, 1895 ... £ 9,745,446.00Anglo-German Loan, 1896 ... 10,901,475.00Anglo-German Loan, 1898 ... 12,648,950.00Boxer Indemnity, 1901 63,847,268.00Crisp Loan, 1912 5,000,000.00Reorganization Loan, 1913 ... 25,000,000.00Austrian Loan, 1913-16 4,933,000.00Banque Industrielle Loan, 1913 4,000,000,00Banque Industrielle Loan, 1914 1,300,000.00American Loan, 1916 1,000,000.00Advance on Second ReorganizationLoan, 1917 1,000,000.00[On Railway Loans see Railways'].The total foreign and domestic indebtedness ofthe Chinese Government, exclusive of railway loans,was in 1917, 151,000,000 pounds sterling. Theper capita of the public debt of China as comparedwith that of other nations, computed on the basis ofpublic indebtedness in 1914 to 1915, was as follows :China £ 0.12Great Britain 24.12France 32.00Germany 15.00Russia 5.40United States 2.00With the war indebtedness accumulated by theWestern Powers, the ratio is now even more favourableby far for China.IV. CuRRENcy.—Currency in China rests onthe intrinsic metal value of the coin. The conceptionof a token coin is not familiar to the Chinesemind, although notes as a substitute and representativeof metal have long been in common use. Thefundamental and traditional measure of value is thetael of silver [See Tael}. The coined dollar passescurrent according to its intrinsic silver value. Largequantities of Mexican dollars are in circulation,supplemented by the doUar coined at Hongkong,dollars coined locally in China, and particularly thePeiyang dollar, coined at Tientsin, first underKuANG Hsii, then under Yuan Shih-k'ai. Thetotal number of coined dollars in circulation inChina was estimated in 1913 at $206,000,000. Subsidiarysilver coins of ten and twenty cents facevalue are also in circulation, but pass at approximatelytheir intrinsic value, so that approximatelytwelve ten cent pieces are received for one dollar.In 1916 the Central Government coined subsidiarysilver, to be put in circulation at par; it hashowever not become generally current thus far.The money used by the mass of the population iscopper, in the form of cents and cash. The relativevalue of these coins is determined also by the marketratio of the metals, so that a dollar silver willexchange into varying quantities of cents or cashfrom time to time, the approximate ratio being onehundred twenty-five cents or one thousand to twelvehundred cash, to one dollar.Bank notes are issued by both the national andprovincial banks, the issue not being restricted byadequate reserves. The two central banks are theBank of China and the Bank of Communications.The former acts as the general fiscal agent of thegovernment, the latter as the agent for the Ministryof Communications. Strictly speaking, the Bankof Communications isnot a government bank, as itsadministration is in the hands of a board of directors(on which the Ministry of Communications, althoughholding shares to the extent of 40% of the total, hasno special representative), and a president andvice-president who are elected by shareholders attheir general meeting. The Director of the Departmentof Railways in the Ministry of Communicationsis, however, ex officio president of the bank. The626

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAFUKIENgovernment is heavily indebted to both banks.Bothare banks of issue. The notes of the differentbranches circulate at par only locally; frequentlythe notes of one branch will be depreciated whilethose of other branches are current at or near par.The present outstanding note issue of these twobanks is estimated at $109,000,000; the issue ofother Chinese banks at $130,000,000.The principal foreign banks operating in Chinaalso issue notes. The principal institutions are :Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation(British).Chartered Bank of India Australia and China(British).Banque de I'lndo Chine (French).Banque Industrielle de Chine (French).Russo-Asiatic Bank (Russian).International Banking Corporation (American).Yokohama Specie Bank (Japanese).Netherlands Trading Society (Dutch).Banque Beige pour I'Etranger (Belgian).Deutsch-Asiatische Bank (now closed).V. Administraiion and Conikol.—The Ministryof Finance comprises five departments : Taxation,Banking and Currency, Public Loans, Treasury,and Accounting j as well as two bureaus : StateProperty, and Tobacco and Wine Sales. TheMinister of Finance is assisted by two vice-ministers,one of whom supervises the five departments andtwo bureaus mentioned, the other of whom acts asthe Director of a Central Salt Administration. Theadministration of the Maritime Customs is placedunder the Revenue Council, which corresponds tothe Central Salt Administration, and the ChiefInspectorate of Customs, which corresponds to theChief Inspectorate of Salt Revenue, and is independentof the Ministry of Finance..The Ministry of Finance is represented in eachprovince by a Finance Commissioner, who isappointed by the Ministry and who reports to it aswell as to the Civil Governor of the Province. Inpractice, the delimitation of his duties as to thecentral and the provincial governments is notdefinite, and the amount of revenue actually to beforwarded to Peking, or to be retained by theprovince, depends generally upon special arrangementor upon the degree of authority exercised atthe time by the central government. The Ministryof Finance also has agents in the provinces for thecollection of stamp duties and of the tobacco andwine sales revenue, as well as for the care of stateproperty ; these report and remit directly to theMinister. The Ministry is further represented inthe provinces by Salt Commissioners and Superintendentsof Customs. The collection of the nativecustoms outside of a radius of fifty It from theseveral maritime customs stations, is under thedirect control of the Ministry of Finance, throughits superintendents of native customs. Within aradius of fifty U each Maritime Customs stationadministers the native customs of its vicinity.Co7itrol.—The National Assembly or Parliament,under the provisional constitution, is entitled toexercise the following powers in the matter offinance : (1) To pass the budgets and financialaccounts of the government; (2) To pass measuresof taxation and. of currency ; (3) To pass measuresfor the incurring of public loans, and agreementsaffecting the National Treasury. As the permanentconstitution is still in the process of formation, theabove functions and powers are subject to change.Audit.—A Department of Audit was establishedin November, 1912. It was elevated to a Board ofAudit by Presidential Mandate in June, 1914. AnAudit Law was promulgated in October of thesame year. The Board is entrusted with the workof auditing the accounts of the government in allits parts for the fiscal year and of submitting suggestionsio the President. All government officersthroughout China are by law obliged to submitmonthly reports of their receipts and expendituresto the Board of Audit for inspection and verification.The reports of provincial officials are forwardedthrough the ministries to whom they are responsible.Morse : Trade, and Administration of theChinese Empire; Vissering : Currency and Bankingin China, 2 vols.- ; American Commission of InternationalExchange : Report on the Gold Standard,1904 ; J. Edkins : Banking and Prices in China,1905, and other writings ; Jernigan : ChineseBusiness Methods and Policy, 1905, First AnnualReport, Board of Audit, 1916. Various articles inThe Chinese Political and Social Science Review,1916-17. [F.L.B.]FUKIEN, jjg ^, "happy establishment," asmall province roughly forming a rectangle on theS.E. coast of China. Chekiang and Kuangtung liealong its north and south ends respectively ; Kiangsibounds its western, and the sea its eastern side.Formosa Channel separates it from the island ofFormosa, which lies parallel to its coasts. Its areais 46,332 square miles; its inhabitants number22,870,000, making it one of the most thickly populatedprovinces in China.Fukien is extremely mountainous, the rangesrunning generally parallel through the length of theprovince. Hence most of the rivers are short. Thelargest is the Minkiang 1^ Jl, on which Foochowstands. The coast being well provided with smallbays, a large proportion of the inhabitants ajefishennen. The soil is good, and tea is the chiefcrop cultivated. Rice, sugar, and ginger are amongthe other important products. The mineral wealthis great, but has hardly been worked as yet. Thewhole province lies just outside the tropics, so thatthe climate in the east is sub-tropical, while as the627

GUIGNESENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAground rises towards the west the temperaturebecomes colder.Fukien being in a somewhat isolated position,its customs and dialects, which are very differentfrom those of neighbouring provinces, have beenwell preserved. The inhabitants are energetic andindependent, and furnish more emigrants than anyother part of China.Foochow, the capital, and Amoy, {q.v.) wereopened to trade in 1842; Santuao {q.v.), Kien-ningfu and Chung-ngan are among other importanttowns, the last-named being famous for the finesttea (Bohea). The summer resort of Kuliang is inthe hills east of Foochow.The literary name of Fukien is ^ Min.GUIGNES, CHRISTIAN LOUIS JOSEPH DE,son of the following, born 1759. He studied Chineseunder his father, and joined the French ConsularService, being Consul at Canton for seventeenyears. He then went back to France, where heprepared a Chinese-Latin-French dictionary (1813)at the request of the Government. It was howeverscarcely more than a new edition of Glemona'swork.Previous to this he had published a book oftravels (to Peking, Manila, etc.). He died in 1845.GUIGNES, JOSEPH DE, born at Pontoise in1721, a famous Oriental, and especially a Chinesescholar. He began these studies at the early age offourteen. He was a student of Fourmont, and in1745 took his place as secretary interpreter ofOriental languages at the Royal Library. Threeyears later he published his work on the origin ofthe Huns and Tartars, which gained for himadmittance to the R. S. of London in 1752, and tothe French Academy of Inscriptions in 1754.In 1757 he was made professor of Syriac at theCollege Royal.The Revolution deprived him of most of hissources of income, and he became very poor. Hedied at Paris in 1800.De Guignes wrote a great deal on mattersChinese, on Religion, History, Geography, Sciencesand Arts, Antiquities, Language and Literature,often in the form of Memoires for learned societies.He is renowned for a theory he first advanced in1759, that the Chinese are Egyptian in origin. Inthis year appeared "Mimoire dans lequel on prouve. . . les Chinois sont une colonic igyptienne," andMemoire . . . apres avoir examine I'origine deslettres phiniciennes, hebralques, etc., on essayed'itahlir . . . que la nation chinoise est unecolonic igyptienne." The theory was severelycriticised but its author clung to it to the last.His great work is the Histoire Gindrale dea Huns,des Turcs, des Mogols, et des autres TartaresOccidentaux, Paris, 1756-58.HUC, EVARISTE REGIS (Abbe), the celebratedmissionary and traveller, was born at Toulousein 1813. At the age of 23 he joined theLazarists and in 1839 arrived in China.After spendinga year and a half at Macao, he worked for atime in the southern provinces, and then went toPeking, but shortly afterwards left for Hei Shuii^ zK just insidle Mongolia, to shepherd a largebut scattered Christian community who had beendriven north of the Great Wall by the persecutionof the Emperor Chia Ch'ing. Here P. Hue learntthe dialects and studied the customs of the Tartarsand translated Christian books for them. In 1844he was sent by the Vicar Apostolic of Mongolia onthe journey which has made him forever famous,in company with a fellow-Lazarist, Joseph Gabet,and a Christian Tibetan. Disguised as lamas, thejreached the borders of Kansu and Tibet in January1846 after suffering many privations. Here theywaited till September to join an embassy known tobe returning from Peking to Lhasa, which placethey finally reached in January 1846, after anothermost difficult journey. The kindly reception givento the missionaries by the Regent of Tibet displeasedthe Chinese ambassador who got them sentto Canton, where they arrived in October. P. Huoremained there three years, but finally returned toEurope in shattered health in 1852' and died inParis in 1860.He sent numerous contributions to the "Annalesde la Propagation de la Foi" j and published in 1850at Paris tne famous Souvenirs d'un Voyage duns laTartaric, le Thibet et la Chine, one of the mostfascinating and sincere books of travel ever written,though lacking in scientific observation and exactitude.It has first translated into English byHazlitt, 1857; into German by K. Andkee, 1855;into Dutch in 1856; into Spanish in 1860, intoSwedish in 1362, etc.He also wrote L' Empire Chinois 1854, Englishtranslation, 1859, and Le Christianisme en Chine,1857-8, English translation 1857-8.JULIEN, STANISLAS AIGNAN, originallyNoel Julien, was born at Orleans, September 20,1799. He was the son of an artizan, who educatedhim in the hope that he would enter the priesthood,but he himself, conscious of extraordinary linguisticability, decided in favour of a secular life. In 1821he was made Assistant Professor of Greek at theCollege de France; and becoming interested inChinese through the lectures of Remusat (q.v.), hebegan the study of the language, and in less thantwo years published a Latin translation of part ofthe works of Mencius. In 1832 he succeededRemtjsat as Chinese Professor at the College deFrance. In 1839 he was made joint-keeper of the628

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAREVIEW, FAR EASTERNRoyal Library, the Chinese books being his specialcare; and in 1841 he became "Administrateur duCollege de France."He had many bitter controversies, not only withhis fellow-sinologues, but also with scholars learnedin Sanskrit and Pali, in which languages Jtjlienwas also a proficient, having learnt them to assisthim in his study of Chinese Buddhism.In 1863 he was made a commander of the Legionof Honour in recognition of his services to literature.He died on February 14, 1873, leaving unfinishedthe large Chinese dictionary on which he had for aconsiderable time been engaged.He prepared translations of the San Tzu Ghing,Ch'ien Tzu Wen, and a number of dramatic andlighter works.Among his numerous writings on Chinesesubjects the following are the most important :Bisumi des principaux traitis chinois sur laculture des muriers et I' education des vers-a-soie,1837, which has been translated into English,German, Italian and Russian; Discussions grammaticalessur certaines regies de position qui enChine, etc., 1841; Exercices pratiques d' analyse desyntaxe et de lexicographic chinoise, 1842; Voyagesdes pelerins bouddhistes, 1853; MHhode pourdechiffrer et transcrire les mois sanscrits qui serencontrent dans les livres chinois, 1861 ; Histoire etfabrication de la porcelaine chinoise, 1S61 ; Industriesanciennes et modernes de l' empire chinois, 1869;Syntaxe nouvelle de la langue chinoise, 1869; alsotranslations of the Book of Rewards and Punishments(1835) and of the Tao Te Ching, 1842.REVIEW, THE FAR EASTERN, was foundedin 1904 by George Beonson Rea, m.e., as a monthlyjournal devoted to setting forth the advancementof the Orient in engineering and industrial lines.The scope of the magazine has been enlarged fromtime to time in an effort to make the Review themost authoritative publication on finance, railwaysand commerce of China, Japan, the Philippines,Indo-China, Malaysia and Siam. The publicationoffice was removed from Manila to Shanghai in 1912and the editorial direction is now in the hands ofGeokge Bronson Rea, publisher, W. H. Donald,Editor; P. L. Bryant, Associate Editor.629

ForCORRIGENDA, Etc.{Notes appearing with an asterisk (*) have been kindly contributed by Capt. Paul Pelliot].P. 50, col. 1, BiSHOPBics, line 10. For "15th"read "14th."T. 62, col. 1, lines 20-27. Note : It is true thatmany refugees went to the British Legation,but the American, French, German and RussianLegations were held throughout the siege. Onthe other hand, there were no Germans in thePei-t'ang, but French and Italian marines.P. 63. col. 1, lines 25-28. For "Ch'i Hsvi" read"Ch'i Hsiu." For "Hsii Ch'ing-hsueh" read"Hsii CH'KNG-Yii." For "Chao HsU-chiao"read "Chad Shu-ch'iao." For "Yv Lv" read"Yii-LTJ." Line 31. For "D'Axjthoued" read"D"'Anthotjard. "P. 81, col. 2, Canton lines 8-10. For "is the»P.residence of the Viceroy . . . Governor ofKuangtung," read "is the residence of theMilitary (Tu Chun) and Civil {Shen Chang)Governors of Kuangtung."92, col. 2, line 31. Note : Delete the mentionof the Ke chih ching yiian, which is a cyclopaediaof the 18th century.P. 147, col. 2, Dragon Flower Society, line 1.After The read i|lp. Line 14. After Hallsread 3| ^. Line 21. After Empty read g ^.•P. 165, col. 1, Enamel, line 1. For ^jM read ^ M-»P. 175, col. 2, Feng Tag. Note : Feng Tao had,in fact, nothing to do with the invention ofblock-printing. Giles only says, "has beencredited by some with . . ,." Dr. AttrelStein and Captain Pelliot brought back fromTun-huang block-prints much anterior to thetime of Feng Tao.P. 179, col. 2, Finnish Missionary Society, line 6.After at read ?^"i1j.P. 183, col. 2, line 7. For 3^ read 4fc.*P. 196, col. 1, between lines 2^. and 25 insert BaronDE RoCHECnOUART.•p. 199, col. 1, Fulin. Note : Fulin most likelyFrum, which is a probable Northern Iranianform of Hrum=Rum.•p. 207, col. 1, Glass, line 6. For "spahtika" read"sphatika."F, 211, col. 2, line 30, For "Ministers" read"Ministries." Under War and Marine, for"Ordinance" read "Ordnance."•P. 213, col. 2, line 1. Lo-Han. For "Arahan"read "Arhan or Arhat." (See also Arahant).P. 221, col. 2, GiiTZLAFF, line 2. For "1830" read"1803."*P. 224, col. 1, line 5. Note : As a matter of fact,we have the bulk of the writings of Han FkiTzu. The greater part of them have beentranslated into Russian by Ivanov.*P. 224, col. 1, Han Hai. Note : ^ fjj read^ ^• Suppress the following commentary.P. 225 [headline]. For "Hannan" read "Hannen."P. 243 [headline]. For "Hsuang Chtjang" read"Hsxtan Chuang."P. 252, col. 1. Irish Presbyterian Mission,line 19. For -^ read ^*P. 262, col. 1, Jews in China, line 3. For "16thcentury" read "17th century."*P. 262, col. 1, lines 29-31. Note : The theory thatthe information available shows the Jews tohave come to China during the Han dynastywill not hold water. We have sporadic mentionor traces of them during the T'ang dynasty;those of K'ai-feng fu only came at the time ofthe Northern Sung dynasty, say during the11th century of our era.•P. 265, col. 2, Kalgan, line 20, Note : Hdhameans a "mountain-pass" and not a "mart."•p. 268, col, 2, Kankali, For "Kankali" read"Kangli."*P, 268, col. 2, KANr'xj. Note : the Ganfu of MarcoPolo is really in the bay of Hangchow. Butthe Canfu of the T'ang times was in all probabilityKuang-fu, i.e. Kuang-chou fu. Canton.*P, 272, col. 1, Khtjmdan, lines 11-14, Note :The reference to Hartmann's article was addedby CoRDiER. Yule died long before Diet, deVIslam was published. But the whole theoryis to be rejected. The vocalization wascertainly Khumdan, and we have even aSanscritized form Kumudana.P. 277, col. 1, K'oxj Ch'ien Chih, line 12. For"Ssu-MA Kuang" read "Chtj Hsi."*P. 277, col. 2, Koxinga, line 2. Note : Kuo hsingyeh does not mean "lord of the country'sfamilies," but "lord [who has received] thesurname of the royal [family]," that is to sayChu ^- , the surname of the Mings, Cf , Giles,Biog. Diet., p, 108.P, 279, col. 1, line 11. For "Empress-dowager"read "Empresses-dowager."P. 282, col. 2, KtTNG, Prince, line 2. For ^ fj^read ?!ggjf.63]

CORRIGENDAP.*P.287, col. 2, Lao Tzu, line 49. For yt ^read ^j^.296, col. 2, line 3. For "together with theENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICAhistory . . . Mfi," ^ead "together with theencyclopaedia T'ung Chih JS, ^ published inthe 12th century by Chkng Ch'iao gg tl*"Line 5. After san t'ung add ; "Each of themwas supplemented twice in Ch'ien Lung'sreign, which makes a total of Nine t'ung,;^ ii,." Lines 24-28 are out of place, and donot refer to the Yu Hai, but to the Yung LoTa Tien.299, col. 1, line 34. For 1^ M. read ^ 4g.300, col. 2, line 20. For £4c j|^ read 5|5 jjp.Line 30. For "twelfth century" read "thirteenthcentury."307, col. 1. Li Chi. A^ote : To the translationsof the Li Chi, add the one in French byP. CouvREUR, S.J. Col. 2. LiEH Tzu. Note :To the translations of Lieh Tzu, add that ofP. WiEGER in his "Patrologie Taoiste." Col. 2.Li Fan Yuan. Note : It is now the ^ j^ ^.that is, the "Office for Mongolia and Tibet."323, col. 1, line 16. Note : This must be thelater Liang of the tenth century, a.d.324, col. 2, Manchu Language. A^ote : To thebibliography add B. Laufer, "Skizze derMandschurischen Literatur," (in KeletiSzemle).325, col. 1 line 3. For "province" read"country."325, col. 1, Mandarin, line 1. A^ote : In alllikelihood mandarin comes from the Sanskritword niantrin, minister, councillor, which hadpassed into Malay. Col. 2, Manichaeism,line 7. For "HsiiAN Tsang" read "HsiiANTsung."341, col. 2, line 33. For ^^ read g|®.345, col. 2, Medical Missions, lines 7-9. Note :This claim cannot be substantiated. Dr.Pearson introduced vaccination into Cantonin 1805, but the Spanish had taught, it to theChinese two years earlier.350, col. 1, line 7. For "lifelong" read"livelong."380, col. 1, Mongol Language, lines 3 and 4.Note : The Baschpa writing was based on theTibetan, not on the Uighiir, writing. (SeeBaschpa).380, col. 2, line 8. For 1135 read 1235.388, col. 1, Metal Wind Instruments, line 9.For :^ ^, read M. ^389, col. 1, paragraph 4. For ^ read ^throughout.395, col. 2, line 36. For Shensi read Shansi.396, col. 1, Nestohius, lines 6 and 7. Note :The circumstances and the date of the deathof Nestorius are now well-known. He diedon his way back from exile, just on the eve ofthe convening of the Council of Chalcedon,which was held in 451.P. 401, col. 2, Numismatics, line 32. For ^read ^. Line 42, for ^ read ^.P. 402, coj. 2, line 2. For |^J^ read ^|^.P. 416, col, 1. Formosa, Between lines 22 and 23insert, "Thayer & Bangs, Eight New Birdsfrom C. China, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool, 1909,pp. 139-141."P. 416, col. 1. Between lines 23 and 2^ insert,"Thayer & Bangs, Some Chinese Vertebrates,Mus. Comp. Zool, Harvard University, Cambridge,Massachusetts, 1912."P. 425, col. 2, Patriarchs, Six, line 13. For"Ta I" read "Ta Yu."P. 426, col. 2, Peacock's Feathers, lines 3 and 6.Far "yii" read "ling."P. 443, col. 2, line 20. For "a.d. 600-900" read"A.D. 618-905." Paragraph 4, line 6. ForJ0^^read ^ #.P. 444, col. 1, line 8. For %i^ read %^.Col. 2, line 16. For "Wu I" read "Wu Yii."P. 445, col. 2, line 7. For "Hsiung Shih Ling"read "Hsiung Hsi Ling."P. 445, col. 2, List of Political Clubs, line 4.For "T'ao Yii" read "T'ao Yiian."P. 457, col. 1, Po Yen, line 3. For 1275 read 1295.P. 455, col. 2, line 36. For 97 read 27.*P. 468, col. 2, P'u T'o. A^ote : Besides Johnston,the work of Boerschmann on these Sanctuariesshould be mentioned ; also a paper in the B.E.F.E.O. by Peri and Maspero, published about1912 and entitled, "La Kouan-yin qui ne veutpas s'en aller."*P. 483, col. 1. A^ote : Among Eicci's works,mention ought to be made of his Memoirs,which formed the basis of Trigault's DeChristiana expeditione apud Sinas, and theoriginal text of which has been recentlypublished in two quarto volumes. Moreover,it is not correct to say that most of the Chineseworks enumerated are now lost. On the contrary,.almost all of them are still in existence,and some have even been translated intoManchu and Korean.P. 487, col. 2, line 15. For "Brucher" read"Brucker."*P. 490, col. 2, line 5. For "Evashko Peiplin,"read "Ivan Petlin." (He is the same as theIvan Petline of the second Treaty, p. 491,col. 2).P. 493, col. 1, SACRiFiofis, Human, line 19. For,^ read B.P. 497, col. 1, line 15. For "Tsung Ch^ng" read"Ch'ung Cheng." Line 17. For "KuangHung" read "Hung Kuang." Col. 2, San Lr,P'or HS ^eorf 3S9.6&2

ENCYCLOPAEDIA SINICACORRIGENDAP. 499, col. 2, ScHLEGEL, line 15. For "chinois"read "chinoises."P. 506, col. 2, Shang Dynasty, Table. For JJ^*P. 513, col. 1, lines 2-4, NoU : Legge's opiniongoes against the unanimous consent of allrecent and best Chinese scholars, who alwaystake it for granted that about one half theShu Ching is to a great extent a forgeryof the third, or the beginning of the fourthcentury of our era. Cf. Chavannes' Introductionto his translation of Ssu-ma Ch'ien.and an article by Pellioi in the Memoiresrelatifs a I'Asie Orientale, vol.*SHtTO Wen. Note : The full title of the workis "Shuo wen chieh tzu" ( f^ ^ fi? ^ ), whichmeans [Work in which the author] shows theii.figurative characters ( ^ ) and explains thecomposed characters ( ^ ).Line 4. For "about a.d. 120" read "abouta.d. 150."*Col. 2, Note : To bibliography add Chalmers :Phonetic Shuo-wen.P. 518, col. 1, Six Boards, line 4. For "Shih pu"read "Li pu.". . contorted seal" readCol. 2, Six Forms of Script, lines 11 and12. For "iv, mu ."iv, It ^, the official text, v, mu chuan g{3^contorted seal."*P. 529, col. 1, StApa. Note : Add "So also is theChinese word t'a^, (ancient thap)."•p. 533, col. 2, Sung Yun, line 5. For "Kandahar"read "Gandhara."P. 554, col. 2, Thousand Character Essay, line 14.For "pai t'ou wen" read "pai shou wen."688

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