CLINICAL EEG and NEUROSCIENCE - Dynamic Memory Lab

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CLINICAL EEG and NEUROSCIENCE ©2007 VOL. 38 NO. 1the left parietal EM effect in response to correctly recognizedold items attracting R judgments (or correct sourcejudgments) did not differ in magnitude or scalp topographybetween young and older adults. Similar phenomena wereobserved by Wegesin and coworkers. 31 Despite this similarit y, in all of these investigations older adults showed greaterdecrements in source compared to item memory relative toyoung adults. 36 M o r e o v e r, the temporal precision of the ERPmethod enabled the investigators in all three studies todetermine that the EM effects were prolonged in olderadults by about 100 ms relative to those of the young. T h i sfinding appears to be consistent with the cognitive slowingthat is typically observed in older adults. 37 Although limited,these data collectively suggest that, to the extent that theleft parietal EM effect reflects the retrieval of source-specifyinginformation, older adults, albeit with prolonged processingtime, do not appear to differ from young adults inthis aspect of memory retrieval.The results of age-related investigations of the rightprefrontalEM effect are not at all in agreement. This maynot be surprising given the somewhat imprecise definitionof “post-retrieval processing” that has been ascribed to thisEM effect. In two studies of recognition memory withsource judgments, Trott and colleagues 23 and Wegesin etal 31 observed robust right prefrontal EM effects in theiryoung adult participants but failed to find similar activity inthe waveforms of their older adults. On the other hand,Mark and Rugg 35 and Li et al, 38 also in source memory paradigms,did observe reliable right prefrontal EM effects intheir older adult waveforms. Given the elusive nature of thebehavioral correlates of this EM effect and the contradictoryage-related findings, it is difficult to comment with anyconfidence on the import of this EM effect in understandingage-associated changes in episodic memory.CONCLUSIONSClearly, there are too few age-related ERP studies ofepisodic memory to permit firm conclusions. Nevertheless,some tentative implications of the studies reviewed herecan be advanced. The available data suggest that encodingdeficiencies may play a larger role in influencingepisodic memory deficits in older adults. This interpretationis consistent with the results of divided attention studies,which demonstrate greater episodic memory deficits inboth young and elderly adults when attention is divided atencoding, with a concomitant decrease in LIPFC activity,compared to when it is divided at retrieval. 39 The encodingrelateddata of Friedman and Trott 11 and Nessler and colleagues18,19 suggest that an underlying mechanism may bea lack of spontaneous elaboration of the products retrievedduring semantic processing (i.e., episodic encoding) perhapsresulting from a failure to recruit LIPFC. The limited,retrieval-based ERP data suggest relatively intact familiarity-and recollection-based processing in the elderly.However, this does not account for the consistently poorersource memory performance of older relative to youngeradults despite similar-magnitude, left parietal EM effects inyoung and elderly samples. This disparity suggests that, inaddition to encoding deficiencies, other, as yet under- orun-explored, retrieval mechanisms might contribute to thisepisodic memory deficit. For example, age-related differencesin retrieval orientation, the differential processing oftest items according to how the items were studied, haverecently been demonstrated. 40 Further study of this type ofphenomenon and its impact on age-related episodic memorydecline is clearly warranted. Additionally, future workneeds to address current gaps in knowledge by recordingERP activity during both encoding and retrieval phases.Although older adults may not spontaneously elaborateupon the products of semantic retrieval, they do benefitfrom increased processing demands when given an appropriateencoding strategy. 18,19 Hence, future studies shouldinclude this type of levels of processing manipulation. 6These kinds of investigations will undoubtedly bring uscloser to a better understanding of the root causes of agerelateddecline in episodic memory.ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe writing of this manuscript was supported by NIAGrants AG05213 and AG09988 and by the New York StateDepartment of Mental Hygiene. We are grateful to CharlesL. Brown III for computer programming and technicalassistance, Ms. Efrat Schori and Ms. Letecia Latif for theirassistance in the recruiting and screening of volunteersand Mr. Michael Bersick for various aspects of data collectionand analysis.REFERENCES1. Ebbinghaus H. Memory: a contribution to experimental psychology.New York: Dover Publications; 1964.2. Light LL. Memory and aging: four hypotheses in search ofdata. Ann Rev Psychol 1991; 42: 333-376.3. Tulving E. What is episodic memory? Curr Direct PsycholSci 1993; 2: 67-70.4. Yonelinas A P. The nature of recollection and familiarity: areview of 30 years of research. J Mem Lang 2002; 46:4 4 1 - 5 1 7 .5. Craik FIM, Lockhart S. Levels of processing: a frameworkfor memory research. J Verb Learn Verb Behav 1972; 11 :6 7 1 - 6 8 4 .6
CLINICAL EEG and NEUROSCIENCE ©2007 VOL. 38 NO. 16. Craik FI. Levels of processing: past, present and future?Memory 2002; 10: 305-318.7. Paller KA, Wagner AD. Transforming experience into memory:observations of mind and brain. Trends Cogn Sci 2002; 6:93-102.8. Sanquist TF, Rohrbaugh JW, Syndulko K, Lindsley DB.Electrocortical signs of levels of processing: perceptualanalysis and recognition memory. Psychophysiology 1980;17: 568-576.9. Paller KA, Kutas M, Mayes AR. Neural correlates of encodingin an incidental learning paradigm. ElectroencephalogrClin Neurophysiol 1987; 67: 360-371.10. Tulving E. Memory and consciousness. Can Psychologist1985; 26: 1-12.11. Friedman D, Trott C. An event-related potential study ofencoding in young and older adults. Neuropsychologia 2000;38: 542-557.12. Parkin AJ, Walter BM. Recollective experience, normalaging, and frontal dysfunction. Psychol Aging 1992; 7: 290-298.13. Friedman D. Age-associated changes in episodic memory:event-related potential (ERP) investigations of recollectionand familiarity. In: Zimmer HD, Mecklinger A, Lindenberger U,(eds). Binding in Human Memory: A N e u r o c o g n i t i v eApproach. New York: Oxford. In press.14. Jennings JM, Jacoby LL. An opposition procedure for detectingage-related deficits in recollection: telling effects of repetition.Psychol Aging 1997; 12: 352-61.15. Johnson R Jr, Barnhardt J, Grossman S, Adler N, SchindlerD. Levels of processing effects on memory encoding andretrieval: an ERP mapping study. Psychophysiology 2001;38: S53.16. Wagner AD, Schacter DL, Koutstaal MRW, Maril A, Dale AM,Rosen BR, et al. Building memories: remembering and forgettingof verbal experiences as predicted by brain activity.Science 1998; 281: 1188-1191.17. Hashtroudi S, Parker ES, Luis JD, Reisen CA. Generationand elaboration in older adults. Exper Aging Res 1989; 15:73-78.18. Nessler D, Johnson R, Bersick M, Friedman D. On why theelderly have normal semantic retrieval but deficient episodicencoding: a study of left inferior frontal ERP a c t i v i t y.Neuroimage 2006; 30: 299-312.19. Nessler DR, Johnson J, Bersick M, Friedman D. Age-relatedepisodic encoding deficits are associated with early attenuationof a left inferior prefrontal negativity. J Cogn Neurosc2005; 17: 136.20. Thompson-Schill SL, D’Esposito M, Aguirre GK, Farah MJ.Role of left inferior prefrontal cortex in retrieval of semanticknowledge: a reevaluation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94:14792-14797.21. Rugg MD, Morcom AM. The relationship between brain activity,cognitive performance and aging: the case of memory. In:Cabeza R, Nyberg L, Park D, (eds). Cognitive Neuroscienceof Aging: Linking Cognitive and Cerebral Aging. New York:Oxford University Press; 2005: 132-154.22. Friedman D, Johnson R. Event-related potential (ERP) studiesof memory encoding and retrieval: a selective review.Microsc Res Tech 2000; 51: 6-28.23. 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Human recognition memory: a cognitiveneuroscience perspective. Trends Cogn Sci 2003; 7:313-319.30. Wilding EL, Sharpe H. Episodic memory encoding andretrieval: recent insights from event-related potentials. In: ZaniA, Proverbio AM, (eds). The Cognitive Electrophysiology ofMind and Brain. New York: Academic Press; 2002: 169-196.31. Wegesin DJ, Friedman D, Varughese N, Stern Y. Age-relatedchanges in source memory retrieval: an ERP replication andextension. Cogn Brain Res 2002; 13: 323-338.32. Friedman D, Berman S, Hamberger M. Recognition memoryand ERPs: age-related changes in young, middle-aged andelderly adults. J Psychophysiol 1993; 7: 181-201.33. Rugg MD, Mark RE, Gilchrist J, Roberts RC. ERP repetitioneffects in indirect and direct tasks: effects of age andinteritem lag. Psychophysiology 1997; 34: 572-586.34. Swick D, Knight RT. Event-related potentials differentiate theeffects of aging on word and nonword repetition in explicitand implicit memory tasks. 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