IPCC Report.pdf - Adam Curry

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Changes in Climate Extremes and their Impacts on the Natural Physical EnvironmentChapter 3Table of ContentsExecutive Summary .................................................................................................................................1113.1. Weather and Climate Events Related to Disasters ..................................................................1153.1.1. Categories of Weather and Climate Events Discussed in this Chapter ...........................................................................1153.1.2. Characteristics of Weather and Climate Events Relevant to Disasters ...........................................................................1153.1.3. Compound (Multiple) Events............................................................................................................................................1183.1.4. Feedbacks.........................................................................................................................................................................1183.1.5. Confidence and Likelihood of Assessed Changes in Extremes........................................................................................1203.1.6. Changes in Extremes and Their Relationship to Changes in Regional and Global Mean Climate..................................1213.1.7. Surprises / Abrupt Climate Change..................................................................................................................................1223.2. Requirements and Methods for Analyzing Changes in Extremes............................................1223.2.1. Observed Changes............................................................................................................................................................1223.2.2. The Causes behind the Changes ......................................................................................................................................1253.2.3. Projected Long-Term Changes and Uncertainties............................................................................................................1283.3. Observed and Projected Changes in Weather and Climate Extremes .....................................1333.3.1. Temperature .....................................................................................................................................................................1333.3.2. Precipitation.....................................................................................................................................................................1413.3.3. Wind .................................................................................................................................................................................1493.4. Observed and Projected Changes inPhenomena Related to Weather and Climate Extremes..........................................................1523.4.1. Monsoons .........................................................................................................................................................................1523.4.2. El Niño-Southern Oscillation............................................................................................................................................1553.4.3. Other Modes of Variability...............................................................................................................................................1573.4.4. Tropical Cyclones..............................................................................................................................................................1583.4.5. Extratropical Cyclones......................................................................................................................................................1633.5. Observed and Projected Impacts on the Natural Physical Environment.................................1673.5.1. Droughts...........................................................................................................................................................................1673.5.2. Floods...............................................................................................................................................................................1753.5.3. Extreme Sea Levels ..........................................................................................................................................................1783.5.4. Waves ...............................................................................................................................................................................1803.5.5. Coastal Impacts................................................................................................................................................................1823.5.6. Glacier, Geomorphological, and Geological Impacts .......................................................................................................1863.5.7. High-latitude Changes Including Permafrost...................................................................................................................1893.5.8. Sand and Dust Storms......................................................................................................................................................190References ...............................................................................................................................................203Boxes and Frequently Asked QuestionsBox 3-1. Definition and Analysis of Climate Extremes in the Scientific Literature .......................................................................116FAQ 3.1. Is the Climate Becoming More Extreme? ........................................................................................................................124FAQ 3.2. Has Climate Change Affected Individual Extreme Events? .............................................................................................127Box 3-2. Variations in Confidence in Projections of Climate Change: Mean versus Extremes, Variables, Scale ...........................132Box 3-3. The Definition of Drought................................................................................................................................................167Box 3-4. Small Island States...........................................................................................................................................................184Supplementary MaterialAppendix 3.A: Notes and Technical Details on Chapter 3 Figures................................................................................Available On-Line110
Chapter 3Changes in Climate Extremes and their Impacts on the Natural Physical EnvironmentExecutive SummaryThis chapter addresses changes in weather and climate events relevant to extreme impacts and disasters.An extreme (weather or climate) event is generally defined as the occurrence of a value of a weather or climatevariable above (or below) a threshold value near the upper (or lower) ends (‘tails’) of the range of observed values ofthe variable. Some climate extremes (e.g., droughts, floods) may be the result of an accumulation of weather or climateevents that are, individually, not extreme themselves (though their accumulation is extreme). As well, weather orclimate events, even if not extreme in a statistical sense, can still lead to extreme conditions or impacts, either bycrossing a critical threshold in a social, ecological, or physical system, or by occurring simultaneously with otherevents. A weather system such as a tropical cyclone can have an extreme impact, depending on where and when itapproaches landfall, even if the specific cyclone is not extreme relative to other tropical cyclones. Conversely, not allextremes necessarily lead to serious impacts. [3.1]Many weather and climate extremes are the result of natural climate variability (including phenomenasuch as El Niño), and natural decadal or multi-decadal variations in the climate provide the backdrop foranthropogenic climate changes. Even if there were no anthropogenic changes in climate, a wide variety of naturalweather and climate extremes would still occur. [3.1]A changing climate leads to changes in the frequency, intensity, spatial extent, duration, and timing ofweather and climate extremes, and can result in unprecedented extremes. Changes in extremes can also bedirectly related to changes in mean climate, because mean future conditions in some variables are projected to liewithin the tails of present-day conditions. Nevertheless, changes in extremes of a climate or weather variable are notalways related in a simple way to changes in the mean of the same variable, and in some cases can be of oppositesign to a change in the mean of the variable. Changes in phenomena such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ormonsoons could affect the frequency and intensity of extremes in several regions simultaneously. [3.1]Many factors affect confidence in observed and projected changes in extremes. Our confidence in observedchanges in extremes depends on the quality and quantity of available data and the availability of studies analyzingthese data. It consequently varies between regions and for different extremes. Similarly, our confidence in projectingchanges (including the direction and magnitude of changes in extremes) varies with the type of extreme, as well asthe considered region and season, depending on the amount and quality of relevant observational data and modelprojections, the level of understanding of the underlying processes, and the reliability of their simulation in models(assessed from expert judgment, model validation, and model agreement). Global-scale trends in a specific extrememay be either more reliable (e.g., for temperature extremes) or less reliable (e.g., for droughts) than some regionalscaletrends, depending on the geographical uniformity of the trends in the specific extreme. ‘Low confidence’ inobserved or projected changes in a specific extreme neither implies nor excludes the possibility of changes in thisextreme. [3.1.5, 3.1.6, 3.2.3; Box 3-2; Figures 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, 3-7, 3-8, 3-10]There is evidence from observations gathered since 1950 of change in some extremes. It is very likely thatthere has been an overall decrease in the number of cold days and nights, and an overall increase in the number ofwarm days and nights, at the global scale, that is, for most land areas with sufficient data. It is likely that these changeshave also occurred at the continental scale in North America, Europe, and Australia. There is medium confidence of awarming trend in daily temperature extremes in much of Asia. Confidence in observed trends in daily temperatureextremes in Africa and South America generally varies from low to medium depending on the region. Globally, in many(but not all) regions with sufficient data there is medium confidence that the length or number of warm spells or heatwaves has increased since the middle of the 20th century. It is likely that there have been statistically significantincreases in the number of heavy precipitation events (e.g., 95th percentile) in more regions than there have beenstatistically significant decreases, but there are strong regional and subregional variations in the trends. There islow confidence that any observed long-term (i.e., 40 years or more) increases in tropical cyclone activity are robust,after accounting for past changes in observing capabilities. It is likely that there has been a poleward shift in themain Northern and Southern Hemisphere extratropical storm tracks. There is low confidence in observed trends in111
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MANAGING THE RISKS OF EXTREMEEVENTS
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Managing the Risks of Extreme Event
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ContentsSection IForeword .........
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ForewordForewordThis Special Report
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Prefacein understanding and managin
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Summary for PolicymakersA.ContextTh
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Summary for PolicymakersFigure SPM.
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Summary for Policymakerssettlements
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Summary for PolicymakersC.Disaster
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Summary for Policymakers20103146957
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Summary for Policymakers50201053W.
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Summary for PolicymakersOscillation
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Summary for PolicymakersTable SPM.1
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Summary for Policymakersimportance
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Summary for Policymakers22
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1Climate Change:New Dimensions inDi
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Chapter 1Climate Change: New Dimens
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4Changesin Impactsof Climate Extrem
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Chapter 4Changes in Impacts of Clim
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5Managingthe Risksfrom Climate Extr
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Chapter 5Managing the Risks from Cl
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6National Systemsfor Managing the R
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Chapter 6National Systems for Manag
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7Managingthe Risks:International Le
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Chapter 7Managing the Risks: Intern
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8Towarda Sustainableand Resilient F
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Chapter 8Toward a Sustainable and R
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9 Case StudiesCoordinating Lead Aut
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Chapter 9Case StudiesExecutive Summ
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Chapter 9Case StudiesTable 9-1 | Ma
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Chapter 9Case Studiesbecause heat-r
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Chapter 9Case Studiesneed for other
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Chapter 9Case StudiesAustralian coa
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Chapter 9Case Studiesthat 1.3 milli
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Chapter 9Case Studiesof impact. Bas
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Chapter 9Case StudiesTropical cyclo
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Chapter 9Case Studies9.2.6.5. Outco
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Chapter 9Case Studieswith increased
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Chapter 9Case StudiesThe developmen
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Chapter 9Case StudiesSuch devastati
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Chapter 9Case Studiesbuildings have
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Chapter 9Case Studies• Wind defle
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Chapter 9Case Studiesdeveloped, som
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Chapter 9Case Studiesbeen establish
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Chapter 9Case StudiesTable 9-3 | Ex
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Chapter 9Case Studieswhile they pro
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Chapter 9Case Studiesexperiential l
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Chapter 9Case StudiesThe Philippine
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Chapter 9Case StudiesBeg, N., J.C.
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Chapter 9Case StudiesFlyvbjerg, B.,
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Chapter 9Case StudiesJeuland, M. an
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Chapter 9Case StudiesMétéo France
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Chapter 9Case StudiesUNESC, 2000: A
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IV Annexes I to IV
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Authors and Expert ReviewersAnnex I
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Glossary of TermsAnnex IIAbrupt cli
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Glossary of TermsAnnex IIor anthrop
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Glossary of TermsAnnex IIFrozen gro
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Glossary of TermsAnnex IIand time s
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Glossary of TermsAnnex IImain track
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AcronymsAnnex IIIAAO Antarctic Osci
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AcronymsAnnex III568
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List of Major IPCC ReportsAnnex IVC
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List of Major IPCC ReportsAnnex IV5
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IndexIndex | KeyTerms defined in th
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IndexDemographic changes, 80, 234-2
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Indexregional impacts, 259vulnerabi
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IndexOcean acidification, 185, 261O
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Indextipping points, 122, 351, 458-
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