Urbanisation-in-Namibia
Urbanisation-in-Namibia
Urbanisation-in-Namibia
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<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>AcknowledgementsThe authors wish to acknowledge f<strong>in</strong>ancial support from the University of <strong>Namibia</strong> through theMultidiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary Research Centre. The authors are also grateful to Constituency Councillorswho mobilised people <strong>in</strong> the community to participate <strong>in</strong> the study. Appreciation is extendedto research assistants and numerous people who contributed to the study <strong>in</strong> various ways.i
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>List of FiguresFigure 1: Urban Population 1950-2050Figure 2:Figure 3:Figure 4:Figure 5:Figure 6:Figure 7:Figure 8:Figure 9:Urban population <strong>in</strong> city and towns by yearInformal settlements <strong>in</strong> W<strong>in</strong>dhoekSemi formal settlement <strong>in</strong> W<strong>in</strong>dhoekType of shared tap <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal settlementMa<strong>in</strong> source of energy for cook<strong>in</strong>gMa<strong>in</strong> source of energy for light<strong>in</strong>gMa<strong>in</strong> source of household <strong>in</strong>comeSome forms of <strong>in</strong>formal bus<strong>in</strong>essFigure 10: Estimated household average monthly expenditureFigure 11: Percentage distribution by ma<strong>in</strong> reason for rural-urban migration1
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>1. IntroductionWorld urbanisation trends have been irreversible s<strong>in</strong>ce the second half of the 20th century.The world’s population is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly found <strong>in</strong> the cities. For the first time <strong>in</strong> history, morethan half (3.3 billion) of the world’s population lived <strong>in</strong> urban areas by 2008 (UNDP, 2010). Itis estimated that by 2030, 60% of the world’s population will be liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> urban areas. Thereare currently 19 megacities <strong>in</strong> the world and there are expected to be 27 by 2020 (UNFPA,2011). <strong>Urbanisation</strong> is simply def<strong>in</strong>ed as the shift from a rural to urban society, and <strong>in</strong>volvesan <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the number of people <strong>in</strong> urban areas dur<strong>in</strong>g a particular year. <strong>Urbanisation</strong> isthe outcome of social, economic and political developments that leads to urban concentrationand growth of large cities, changes <strong>in</strong> land use and transformation from rural to metropolitanpattern of organisation and governance. This rush to the cities is also caused <strong>in</strong> part by theattraction of opportunities for wealth generation and economic development (Aryeetey-Attoh,1997; Bulmuo, 2011). In African context, the rapid urbanisation has seen a large number ofrural population becom<strong>in</strong>g urban residents. It is generally acknowledged that urbanisationbr<strong>in</strong>gs sharp <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> consumer and <strong>in</strong>vestment demand, but also generates huge need <strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>frastructure, public services and hous<strong>in</strong>g.Notwithstand<strong>in</strong>g the economic development brought about through urbanisation, rapidgrowth of cities also causes severe ecological, economic and social problems which<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly become difficult to manage <strong>in</strong> a susta<strong>in</strong>able way (Firebaugh, 1979; Hanson, 2007).It is recognised that <strong>in</strong> most develop<strong>in</strong>g countries about 30% of urban populations are liv<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong> slums or <strong>in</strong>formal settlements, i.e. where vacant state-owned or private land is occupiedillegally and is used for illegal slum hous<strong>in</strong>g (Konadu-Agyemang, 2001; Zulu et al. 2011). Insub-Saharan Africa, it is reported that new urban settlements are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly tak<strong>in</strong>g the formof slums (Alabaster, 2010). Often, slums or <strong>in</strong>formal settlements are built on high-risk locationswhich make them more vulnerable to disastrous conditions <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g floods, storms, and<strong>in</strong>fectious diseases among others. Nevertheless, unplanned or <strong>in</strong>formal urban development <strong>in</strong>developed countries is also a major issue.In 1960, of the total population of 280 million <strong>in</strong> Africa, only 18.8% was urban mak<strong>in</strong>g it tobe viewed a typically rural cont<strong>in</strong>ent. By 1990, 33% of Africa’s 645 million people were liv<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong> urban areas. Currently more than 40% of Africa’s population is urban and it is projectedthat this proportion will <strong>in</strong>crease to 60% (1.23 billion) by 2050 (UN-Habitat 2010). Thus rapidurbanisation is a dist<strong>in</strong>guish<strong>in</strong>g characteristic of contemporary Africa and it is greatly spurredby rural- urban migration.2
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>The urban population of SADC <strong>in</strong>creased from 20.5 million <strong>in</strong> 1990 to 34 million <strong>in</strong> 2010 and isestimated to <strong>in</strong>crease to 39 million <strong>in</strong> 2020 and further to 52 million <strong>in</strong> 2030 1 (Figure 1). S<strong>in</strong>ce2010, 59% of the SADC population live <strong>in</strong> urban areas a figure that is projected to reach over75% by mid-century.Figure 1: Urban Population 1950-2050Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the 1991 <strong>Namibia</strong> Population and Hous<strong>in</strong>g Census, the urban population of<strong>Namibia</strong> stood at 28%. Subsequently, this population <strong>in</strong>creased to 33% <strong>in</strong> 2001 and further to42% <strong>in</strong> 2011 (NSA, 2012). This trend is not unique to <strong>Namibia</strong> but it is also observed <strong>in</strong> mostsouthern African countries where levels of urbanisation are estimated to have reached over50% (i.e. 61% <strong>in</strong> Botswana, 62% South Africa). 2 In <strong>Namibia</strong>, urbanisation is spurred primarilyby rural- urban migration, although rural re-classification and growth of urban centres are alsocontribut<strong>in</strong>g factors (Pendleton et al. 2012). This <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g movement of people from rural tourban areas has ensured a rapid and unprecedented urbanisation <strong>in</strong> the country.At <strong>in</strong>dependence most of the urban population <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong> was <strong>in</strong> the central and southernparts of the country, and the northern and north-eastern parts were predom<strong>in</strong>antly rural. Thedevelopment of towns <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong> stems from their pre-<strong>in</strong>dependence status, as service townsfor transportation of raw materials and farm products primarily to South Africa. Currently,through the Local Authority Act 23 of 1992 they are clearly dist<strong>in</strong>guished as municipalities,towns and villages. Municipalities are the highest level of local authority; they are autonomousby law both f<strong>in</strong>ancially and adm<strong>in</strong>istratively. Towns are expected to grow <strong>in</strong>to autonomousand proclaimed municipalities when economic conditions permit, that is to make them<strong>in</strong>dependent f<strong>in</strong>ancially and adm<strong>in</strong>istratively.1UN-HABITAT, The State of African Cities 2010: Governance, Inequality and Land Markets. Nairobi (2010:207)2UN-HABITAT: State of African Cities 20103
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>Villages are the smallest settlements and are not declared as urban areas unless as a deliberatemove by government.To date, new urban centres have been proclaimed especially <strong>in</strong> the northern and north-easternpart of <strong>Namibia</strong>. Although there has been an overall <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> urban population <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>,W<strong>in</strong>dhoek City has by far been the major focus of urbanisation. Its population <strong>in</strong>creased from13.7% <strong>in</strong> 2001 to 16.2% <strong>in</strong> 2011 and constitutes 36% of the total urban population. Othertowns such as Oshakati and Ongwediva have also seen an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend <strong>in</strong> urban populationespecially after <strong>in</strong>dependence (Figure 2). For <strong>in</strong>stance, Ongwediva urban population doubledbetween 2001 and 2011.Figure 2: Urban population <strong>in</strong> city and towns by yearPoverty <strong>in</strong> most urban areas of <strong>Namibia</strong> was discreetly hidden, partly because of the apartheidsystem which promoted contract labour migration system, which only allowed peoplewho were employed to reside <strong>in</strong> urban areas. 3 Similarly, government did not immediatelyacknowledge the scale of urban poverty after <strong>in</strong>dependence after the abolishment of passlaws which prohibited free movement of people, but concentrated more, among others, onaddress<strong>in</strong>g socio-economic imbalances <strong>in</strong> rural areas. Despite the efforts, urban poverty andurban population have been grow<strong>in</strong>g. 43Moorsom R. 1977.Underdevelopment, contract labour and worker consciousness <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>. Journal of Southern African Studies. 4(1):52-87;.4Pendleton W., and Frayne B. 2000. Migration as a Population dynamic <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>. In Fuller B and Prommer I. (eds.). Population-Development-Environment <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>. Background Read<strong>in</strong>gs: Laxenburg, Austria. IISA.; Niikondo A. 2010. Migrants to towns and cities <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>. Whattheir <strong>in</strong>terests are? Polytechnic of <strong>Namibia</strong>. W<strong>in</strong>dhoek.4
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>In the urban areas, the municipalities are confronted with a multitude of key problems, likehigh urban densities, transport, traffic congestion, energy <strong>in</strong>adequacy amongst others. Otherrelated problems are unplanned development (illegal construction; <strong>in</strong>formal markets; <strong>in</strong>formalsettlements); lack of basic services; poor natural hazards management <strong>in</strong> overpopulated areas;crime; environmental degradation; and poor governance arrangements (Ichimura, 2003;Satterthwaite, 2008).Tibaijula (2008) refers to some of these challenges as lack of either permanent or temporaryaccess to land and adequate shelter; and economic <strong>in</strong>ability, among others which are broughtabout as a result of structural social <strong>in</strong>equalities. In addition, natural hazards and emergencymanagement are also reported to be major issues <strong>in</strong> most cities (Satterthwaite, 2008). Theepisodes of floods experienced <strong>in</strong> Oshakati and Ongwediva, and the subsequent droughts haveunderm<strong>in</strong>ed the capacity of municipalities to adequately plan, prepare, respond and recoverfrom disasters. 5In the context detailed above, this report presents f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs on the causes of urbanisation andits consequences. The f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs generate lessons for other rapidly grow<strong>in</strong>g urban centers and<strong>in</strong>form policy accord<strong>in</strong>gly. The study aimed to address the follow<strong>in</strong>g research questions:i. What are the causes of urbanisation <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>?ii.How does urbanisation affect the provision of services <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>n urban centres?iii. What effect (s) does urbanisation has <strong>in</strong> rural areas?iv. What are the socio-economic, physical, environmental and demographic consequencesof urbanisation <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>?v. Are there differentials <strong>in</strong> the causes and consequences of urbanisation across differenttowns <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>?vi. What measures need to be taken <strong>in</strong> preparation of high level of urbanisation?vii. What are the programme and policy implications of the research f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs?5GRN/NRCS/UN. 2009. Post-Disaster Needs Assessment <strong>Namibia</strong>: Floods 2009. Government of the Republic of <strong>Namibia</strong>, W<strong>in</strong>dhoek.5
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>2. Data and MethodsThe research study followed a mixed method approach. A questionnaire was developed andadm<strong>in</strong>istered on a face to face <strong>in</strong>terview to population of <strong>in</strong>terest. The discussion guide wasalso developed to guide <strong>in</strong>-depth <strong>in</strong>terviews with key <strong>in</strong>formants as qualitative analysis isviewed to offer more <strong>in</strong>sights and solid results for people-related issues. To serve as a basel<strong>in</strong>e,the study was conducted <strong>in</strong> selected <strong>in</strong>formal and semi-formal settlement areas of W<strong>in</strong>dhoek,Oshakati, Ongwediva and Karibib. Apart from W<strong>in</strong>dhoek which was selected on the basis ofbe<strong>in</strong>g the major urban centre, other towns were considered due to proximity to rural areas;vulnerability to natural disasters; and high demand of services. The units of <strong>in</strong>terview werehouseholds. The respondents were preferably the head of the household or the next availableadult <strong>in</strong> the household. In-depth <strong>in</strong>terviews were conducted with key <strong>in</strong>formants <strong>in</strong> both ruraland urban areas. Key <strong>in</strong>formants <strong>in</strong>cluded school pr<strong>in</strong>cipals and teachers; nurses; headmen;constituency councillors, officials from municipalities and town councils; as well as officialsfrom service providers <strong>in</strong>stitutions.A total of 591 households were successfully <strong>in</strong>terviewed, represent<strong>in</strong>g a 98.5% response rate.The sample was proportionally allocated on a 1% basis accord<strong>in</strong>g to the number of householdrecorded dur<strong>in</strong>g 2011 Population and Hous<strong>in</strong>g Census. This translates <strong>in</strong>to a selection of140 households for Samora Machel Constituency; 130 for Tobias Ha<strong>in</strong>yeko constituency;100 for Khomasdal North constituency; 40 for Karibib constituency; 50 for Oshakati Westconstituency; 70 for Oshakati East constituency and 70 for Ongwediva constituency (Table 1).The data were analysed us<strong>in</strong>g SPSS 20. Descriptive statistics were computed for variables of<strong>in</strong>terest. Some cross tabulations were run to exam<strong>in</strong>e the relationship between variables of<strong>in</strong>terest. Comparisons were made between the different towns as well as between householdsfrom formal and <strong>in</strong>formal settlements. Responses from key <strong>in</strong>formants were tape recorded,transcribed and summarised accord<strong>in</strong>g to thematic areas of <strong>in</strong>terest and were <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>the results and discussion sections.Table 1: Sampled constituenciesConstituency Target Actual Response rateKaribib 40 40 100.0Ongwediva 70 65 92.9Oshakati East 70 71 101.4Oshakati West 50 50 100.0Samora Machel 140 137 97.9Khomasdal North 100 100 100.0Tobias Ha<strong>in</strong>yeko 130 128 98.5Total 600 591 98.56
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>3 Results3.1 Socio-economic characteristics of householdsA total of 591 respondents were successfully <strong>in</strong>terviewed, of which 323 (54.7%) and 268(45.3%) were male and female-headed households, respectively. The average age of male headof households was 40 years and for female head of households was 39 years. Furthermore, theaverage ages of head of households <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal and semi-formal settlements are 36 and 41years, respectively. A high proportion of respondents were unmarried (45.9%), and there aredifferences <strong>in</strong> marital status with respect to whether respondent live <strong>in</strong> semi-formal or <strong>in</strong>formalsettlements. A fairly high proportion of married respondents live <strong>in</strong> semi-formal settlements(39.8%) while the majority of cohabit<strong>in</strong>g respondents live <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>formal settlements (25.7%).Of <strong>in</strong>terest, only 4% of those cohabit<strong>in</strong>g live <strong>in</strong> the semi-formal settlements.Based on the hous<strong>in</strong>g type, about 97% of houses <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal settlements are improvised hous<strong>in</strong>gunits (shacks) while the majority of houses <strong>in</strong> the semi-formal settlement are stand-alone(70%) or town houses (11%). With respect to hous<strong>in</strong>g ownership, the majority of respondents<strong>in</strong>dicated own<strong>in</strong>g the house or shack with differences <strong>in</strong> title deeds.Figure 3: Informal settlements <strong>in</strong> W<strong>in</strong>dhoek7
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>Figure 4: Semi formal settlement <strong>in</strong> W<strong>in</strong>dhoekA dist<strong>in</strong>ctive difference <strong>in</strong> the water services was em<strong>in</strong>ent between the two types ofsettlement. Most of the household <strong>in</strong> the semi-formal settlement use piped tap water <strong>in</strong> thedwell<strong>in</strong>g (76.1%) whilst those <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>formal settlement, 65.2% use public tap water whichthey normally pay on a monthly basis. A few others use public free tap water or tap water <strong>in</strong>their yards. The majority of households <strong>in</strong> the semi-formal settlements have flush toilet on site(78.4%). Of concern, almost half (47.2%) of households <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>formal settlements use thebush.Figure 5: Type of shared tap <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal settlement8
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>More than two-third (89%) of households <strong>in</strong> the semi-formal settlement have access to gridelectricity as opposed to only 17% of households <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>formal settlement. As a result, thema<strong>in</strong> source of energy for cook<strong>in</strong>g and light<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the semi-formal settlements is electricitywhile most of the household <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal settlement use wood for cook<strong>in</strong>g and candles forlight<strong>in</strong>g (Figures 3&4).Elecricity Gas Wood Paraf<strong>in</strong> KeroseneFigure 6: Ma<strong>in</strong> source of energy for cook<strong>in</strong>gElectricitySolar EnergyCandlesParaf<strong>in</strong>GeneratorOtherFigure 7: Ma<strong>in</strong> source of energy for light<strong>in</strong>gIt is apparent from <strong>in</strong>come distribution that the majority of households with <strong>in</strong>come less thanN$2000 per month are <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>formal settlements while those with a monthly <strong>in</strong>come aboveN$2000 are <strong>in</strong> the semi-formal settlements. With average household size of four, this translates<strong>in</strong>to N$16 per person per day <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g grave levels of poverty <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>formal settlement.The ma<strong>in</strong> source of <strong>in</strong>come for households <strong>in</strong> both semi-formal and <strong>in</strong>formal settlements issalaries and wages. However, a fairly high proportion of households <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>formal settlementreported that they also make liv<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>in</strong>formal bus<strong>in</strong>ess (20.2%).9
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>Figure 8: Ma<strong>in</strong> source of household <strong>in</strong>comeFigure 9: Some forms of <strong>in</strong>formal bus<strong>in</strong>ess10
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>Table 2: Overview of settlement characteristicCharacteristics Overall Semi-InformalsettlementFormalsettlementType of hous<strong>in</strong>g Stand-alone House 39.3 2.6 69.9Town House 5.9 - 10.9Flat 3.7 - 6.8Hostel/Compound 1.5 - 2.8Room <strong>in</strong> backyard 3.2 - 5.9Room <strong>in</strong> house 2.2 0.7 3.4Shack 44.2 96.7 0.3Tenure Own dwell<strong>in</strong>g 48.9 22.8 70.7Rent 16.8 8.2 24.0Employer 2.5 0.4 4.4Own build shack 31.7 68.9 0.9Ablution facility Flush toilet on site 45.1 5.2 78.4Flush toilet off site 14.3 24.0 6.3Pit latr<strong>in</strong>e withVentilated pipe (VIP)7.3 8.6 6.3Pit latr<strong>in</strong>e without VIP 7.3 8.2 6.6Bucket 3.1 6.7Bush/None 22.8 47.2 2.5Figure 10: Estimated household average monthly expenditure11
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>On average, households tend to spend more on groceries than on any other aspects measured.Overall, households <strong>in</strong> the semi-<strong>in</strong>formal settlements have higher expenditures than those <strong>in</strong>the <strong>in</strong>formal settlements. It is also apparent from the results that the differences <strong>in</strong> educationand utilities expenditures for households <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>formal and semi-formal settlements aresignificant. The utilities expenditure differences may be attributed to the fact that mosthouseholds <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>formal settlements have limited access to municipal services. The resultsalso show that on average households <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>formal settlements save at least N$100 permonth while those <strong>in</strong> the semi-formal save on average N$300 monthly.In terms of the socio-economic characteristics, there are no major differences between thethree towns under study. However, Ongwediva shows a strik<strong>in</strong>gly different pattern with regardto hous<strong>in</strong>g type; hous<strong>in</strong>g ownership; <strong>in</strong>come level and <strong>in</strong>come sources; and access to services(<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g electricity, water, and ablution facility). No build shacks are recorded <strong>in</strong> Ongwediva;almost all households have access to electricity and they use flushed toilet facilities.3.2 Causes of <strong>Urbanisation</strong>Reasons why people move to urban areas <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong> should be looked at <strong>in</strong> terms of thebigger picture which encompass factors such as poverty, environment and political historywhich def<strong>in</strong>es the context with<strong>in</strong> which people move. 6 Clearly, the proportion of people liv<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong> urban areas rise not only due to migration, but also due to the natural growth of the exist<strong>in</strong>gurban population. In the African context, it is reported that urbanisation levels also <strong>in</strong>creasesbecause of the reclassification of settlements from rural to urban. In <strong>Namibia</strong>, the majority ofrespondents feel that the ma<strong>in</strong> reasons why people move from rural to urban areas is to seekfor employment (75.3%); for education (57.2%) and some moved because of work (50.8%).The reasons are quite similar for respondents between the two types of settlements. It is alsoimportant to note how climatic conditions, such as floods have <strong>in</strong>fluenced migration. Thesereasons concur with many other studies, pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g a picture that urban areas attract peopledue to better opportunities and improved services and facilities which they offer, however noteveryone is <strong>in</strong> a position to exploit these opportunities. 7 For about two decades now s<strong>in</strong>ce<strong>in</strong>dependence, economic reasons for mov<strong>in</strong>g to urban areas <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong> has outweight allother reasons, po<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g to an urban-bias development.6Frayne B., and Pendleton W. 2001. Migration <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>: Comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Macro and Micro Approaches to Research Design and Analysis.International Migration Review. 35:1054-1085.7Tvedten I., and Mupotola 1995. Or Tvedten I., and Pomuti A. 1995. <strong>Namibia</strong> <strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> the 1990s. NEPRU Publication No.6, W<strong>in</strong>dhoek12
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>gWorkSeek<strong>in</strong>g EmployementGood Medical ServicesEducationBus<strong>in</strong>ess OpportunitiesAttraction of the CityLand for InvestmentMove with familySent to live with familyMarriageFreedomFloodsOverall liv<strong>in</strong>g conditionsOthersFigure 11: Percent distribution by ma<strong>in</strong> reason for rural-urban migrationOn the other hand, some respondents feel that urbanisation allowed them an opportunity toreceive remitances, <strong>in</strong> the form of money or food from their children. Respondents furtherreveals that urbanisation offer the youth an opportunity to accumulate wealth <strong>in</strong> the processand <strong>in</strong> turn support the community where they grew up. A number of headmen <strong>in</strong>terviewedrevealed that most households <strong>in</strong> their villages have tap water with<strong>in</strong> households with theassistance of their children who are work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> urban areas. Responses from key <strong>in</strong>formantsespecially those from municipality or town councils reported that urbanisation is a positiveprocess for development. It allows people to have access to modern technology and it is goodfor bus<strong>in</strong>ess and economic growth.Respondents were asked to rate the different services with respect to where they live. Thesewere rated us<strong>in</strong>g a Likert scale of 1 to 5 whereby 1 <strong>in</strong>dicates a very poor service, 3 <strong>in</strong>dicatesan average service and 5 <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g a very good service provision. Overall, health and medicalservices was rated below average. The overall rat<strong>in</strong>g stands at 2.89. This is an <strong>in</strong>dication thatmost respondents are not satisfied with the health and medical services. Some <strong>in</strong>dicated thathospitals and cl<strong>in</strong>ics are far and at times there are no medic<strong>in</strong>es. Others reported shortageof nurses which culm<strong>in</strong>ates to long wait<strong>in</strong>g hours for them to receive required service.Employment opportunities are also lowly rated by respondents liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> semi-formal and<strong>in</strong>formal settlement. The majority alluded to the fact that employment opportunities are scarceand if any, they require someone with experience and high qualification. Some reported thatthere are no company or bus<strong>in</strong>ess expansions to employ more people. Furthermore, manyother services are rated below the average rat<strong>in</strong>g of 3. These <strong>in</strong>cluded recreational services,land availability, <strong>in</strong>frastructure development, hous<strong>in</strong>g and pollution.13
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>Figure 12: Service rat<strong>in</strong>g3.3 Consequences of <strong>Urbanisation</strong>As urban areas grow and develop, the process is accompanied by a large number of activitiesand <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g demand of services by an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g population. Some of these activitiesare among others provision and servic<strong>in</strong>g of land; hous<strong>in</strong>g, education; health; creation ofemployment opportunities; expansion and ma<strong>in</strong>tenance of roads <strong>in</strong>frastructure; as well asprovision of water and electricity. These issues are closely l<strong>in</strong>ked to the process of urbanisationand effective and efficient delivery of these services is depended on the effective managementthereof. In this study, the respondents view urbanisation as a good process for development,as it <strong>in</strong>creases access to modern facilities and services and good for bus<strong>in</strong>ess and economicgrowth as it <strong>in</strong>creases the purchas<strong>in</strong>g power. Consequently it attracts <strong>in</strong>vestors result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> jobcreation. Some of the respondents felt that urbanisation is good only if services are taken careof and the <strong>in</strong>flux <strong>in</strong>to urban br<strong>in</strong>gs people with new ideas and skills. Nevertheless, respondentsfurther outl<strong>in</strong>ed some positive and negative consequences <strong>in</strong> both rural and urban areas whichare as a result of urbanisation. They are outl<strong>in</strong>ed as follow:Land: In many develop<strong>in</strong>g countries, <strong>Namibia</strong> <strong>in</strong>cluded, effective and efficient land useplann<strong>in</strong>g and management is not well established. Rapid rates of urbanisation have resulted <strong>in</strong>unauthorised developments for residential purposes. Build<strong>in</strong>g new affordable houses <strong>in</strong> urbanareas becomes difficult as land prices escalate and land fall <strong>in</strong> short supply. Also because of the<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g number of people <strong>in</strong> the urban areas municipalities are forced to expand <strong>in</strong>to nearbyvillages, thereby requir<strong>in</strong>g them to substantially <strong>in</strong>vest <strong>in</strong> acquir<strong>in</strong>g land and compensatehouseholds <strong>in</strong> those villages for re-location purposes. The latter was especially prom<strong>in</strong>ent <strong>in</strong>Oshakati and Ongwediva towns.14
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g: Provid<strong>in</strong>g shelter to a big population is <strong>in</strong>deed a big challenge posed by urbanisation.Whereas hous<strong>in</strong>g was reported not to be a major problem yet for Ongwediva town; forW<strong>in</strong>dhoek, Oshakati and Karibib the challenge is visible. Prices for houses have been <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gover the years and have caused a high demand. Although the government has <strong>in</strong>tervenedthrough the <strong>in</strong>troduction of low- <strong>in</strong>come hous<strong>in</strong>g through National Hous<strong>in</strong>g Enterprise (NHE)and other programmes to ensure acquisition of houses for low- <strong>in</strong>come citizens, the demandis still high due to the high volume of people migrat<strong>in</strong>g to the urban areas. On the other hand,f<strong>in</strong>ancial <strong>in</strong>stitutions are reluctant to f<strong>in</strong>ance hous<strong>in</strong>g loans for low-<strong>in</strong>come because of the risk<strong>in</strong>volved on the return on capital and the cost of adm<strong>in</strong>ister<strong>in</strong>g small loans. This scenario hasled to an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the expansion of the <strong>in</strong>formal settlements.On the positive side, some urban centres (i.e. Ongwediva and W<strong>in</strong>dhoek) have attractedskilled migrants who are able to access hous<strong>in</strong>g loans through f<strong>in</strong>ancial <strong>in</strong>stitutions, and thishas resulted <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>crease of build<strong>in</strong>g activities, while at the same time contribut<strong>in</strong>g to theeconomic growth and development of these urban centres. Ongwediva town has put <strong>in</strong> placestrict measures to discourage the development of <strong>in</strong>formal settlements, hence the absence ofthese.Urban services (water, electricity etc.): The provision of water, electricity, sanitation,sewage and other municipal services such as street clean<strong>in</strong>g has significantly improved s<strong>in</strong>ce<strong>in</strong>dependence. The 2011 population and hous<strong>in</strong>g census results <strong>in</strong>dicate that about 98% ofurban households have access to safe water for cook<strong>in</strong>g and dr<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g. The percentage ofhouseholds us<strong>in</strong>g electricity for cook<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> urban areas has also <strong>in</strong>creased from 56.1% <strong>in</strong> 2001to 59% <strong>in</strong> 2011; while those us<strong>in</strong>g electricity for light<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creased from 67.6% <strong>in</strong> 2001 to 70.1<strong>in</strong> 2011. Despite these improvements, most of the services are concentrated <strong>in</strong> the formalsettlements and have not been widely distributed to the <strong>in</strong>formal settlements <strong>in</strong> most towns.Town councils and municipalities are then faced with tremendous challenges <strong>in</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>gthese services due to the follow<strong>in</strong>g:• The rapid expansion of the <strong>in</strong>formal settlements with a high number of people whoare unemployed and thus unable to afford these services.• The capacity of the exist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>frastructures, i.e. sewerage system, roads, water supplyamong others and;• Illegal occupation of unserviced land15
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>Road <strong>in</strong>frastructure: Some urban centres like Oshakati, W<strong>in</strong>dhoek and Ongwediva experienceuncontrolled <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> traffic result<strong>in</strong>g from urbanisation. The rise <strong>in</strong> the number of peopleand vehicles puts a huge stra<strong>in</strong> on the exist<strong>in</strong>g roads <strong>in</strong>frastructure, which leads to trafficcongestion especially at peak hours, a phenomenon which was unknown to both towns tenyears ago. In this regard, municipalities are faced with challenges of ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the standardsof the exist<strong>in</strong>g roads as well as the construction of new roads as the demand rise.Pollution and environmental degradation: Pollution and degradation of the environment arealso prom<strong>in</strong>ent challenges fac<strong>in</strong>g municipal towns <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>. A number of these arise from<strong>in</strong>creased emission from vehicles and <strong>in</strong>dustrial wastes. Although this is not a major concernfor <strong>Namibia</strong> for now, <strong>in</strong> many <strong>in</strong>dustrialized countries air pollution is reported to cause adverseeffects on the health and well-be<strong>in</strong>g of people. With regard to environmental degradation,the rate of vegetation clearance which may have a negative impact on tourism activities is aconcern for Karibib. Expansion of land for development has also resulted <strong>in</strong> the ext<strong>in</strong>ction ofsome plant species.Education: Rapid urbanisation has also resulted <strong>in</strong> challenges of provision of education services<strong>in</strong> both urban and rural areas. In rural areas for <strong>in</strong>stance, movement of families to urban areashas led to decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the number of children enroll<strong>in</strong>g for lower grades. This resulted <strong>in</strong> theclosure of some schools and the transfer of teachers to other schools. In the urban areas thedemand for education is extremely high. A number of factors are related to this high demand:most people mov<strong>in</strong>g to urban areas are migrat<strong>in</strong>g with their families, thereby <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g thenumber of learners demand<strong>in</strong>g for education service especially at primary school level. The2011 census also <strong>in</strong>dicated that primary school enrollment rate for children aged 7 to 13 yearsis high <strong>in</strong> urban areas (90.3) than <strong>in</strong> rural (85.3). The majority of respondents <strong>in</strong> both semiformaland <strong>in</strong>formal settlements are of the op<strong>in</strong>ion that education services <strong>in</strong> urban areas aregood (Table 3). The demand for tertiary education is also one of the major factors contribut<strong>in</strong>gto urbanisation <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong> as all tertiary <strong>in</strong>stitutions are located <strong>in</strong> the urban centres. Theeducation sector hence, has a challenge to expand the exist<strong>in</strong>g education facilities <strong>in</strong> urbanareas <strong>in</strong> order to meet the demand.Table 3: Percentage distribution of households by rat<strong>in</strong>g of education servicesRat<strong>in</strong>g Informal Semi-FormalNumber ofhouseholdsPercentNumber ofhouseholdsPercentVery poor 16 5.9 5 1.6Poor 54 20.1 45 14.0Average 76 28.3 77 23.9Good 106 39.4 145 45.0Very good 17 6.3 47 14.6Not stated - - 3 .9Total 269 100.0 322 100.016
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>Health: Rapid urbanisation results <strong>in</strong> people concentrat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> areas especially <strong>in</strong> the<strong>in</strong>formal settlements. This overcrowd<strong>in</strong>g of people leads to poor hygienic conditions. Someresidents <strong>in</strong> Karibib were of the op<strong>in</strong>ion that outbreak of diseases are more widespreadfor people liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal settlements due to overcrowd<strong>in</strong>g. In sub-Saharan Africa, rapidurbanisation has been l<strong>in</strong>ked to poverty and a grow<strong>in</strong>g burden of communicable diseases,<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g diabetes and heart disease. <strong>Namibia</strong> is no exemption to this.The majority of respondents <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>formal settlements rated the health facilities as poor(62.4%). This could be ma<strong>in</strong>ly due to the lack or limited health facilities <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>formalsettlements. Long wait<strong>in</strong>g hours at hospitals and cl<strong>in</strong>ics could be associated with poor rat<strong>in</strong>gof health services <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal settlements. Due to rapid urbanisation the challenge for thehealth sector is primarily with regard to the pressure exerted on the exist<strong>in</strong>g facilities <strong>in</strong> orderto provide quality health services and reduce health <strong>in</strong>equalities. Nevertheless, the majority <strong>in</strong>semi-formal settlements are of the op<strong>in</strong>ion that health services are good <strong>in</strong> urban areas. Thiscould be attributed to the fact that a number of them have medical aids and health <strong>in</strong>surancethat allow them to use the best facility available.Table 4: Percentage distribution of households by rat<strong>in</strong>g of health servicesRat<strong>in</strong>g Informal Semi-FormalNumber ofhouseholdsPercentNumber ofhouseholdsPercentVery poor 81 30.1 14 4.3Poor 87 32.3 66 20.5Average 34 12.6 80 24.8Good 56 20.8 117 36.3Very good 10 3.7 44 13.7Not stated 1 .4 1 .3Total 269 100.0 322 100.0Crime: The results from the survey show that among some of the biggest challenges andconsequences alluded to urbanisation is the <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the crime rate. Gumus, 2004 alsoargued that as urban areas becomes larger, the rate of crime <strong>in</strong> these areas also tend to<strong>in</strong>crease. Us<strong>in</strong>g a scale measurement of 1 to 5 with 1 <strong>in</strong>dicate a strongly disagreement and 5<strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g a strongly agreement, an average rat<strong>in</strong>g of 4.52 was obta<strong>in</strong>ed for a statement thaturbanisation causes an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> crime. This is an <strong>in</strong>dication that most households <strong>in</strong> urbanareas are of the op<strong>in</strong>ion that the crime rate is much higher <strong>in</strong> urban cities as compared to ruralareas. The rise <strong>in</strong> the number of crimes could be associated with the need to earn wealth andmore so due to high levels of unemployment as the cost of liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> urban areas is quite highcompell<strong>in</strong>g many people to live <strong>in</strong> poverty.17
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>Table 5: Percentage distribution of households by rat<strong>in</strong>g of whether urbanisation causes an <strong>in</strong>crease<strong>in</strong> crimeRat<strong>in</strong>g Informal Semi-FormalNumber ofhouseholdsPercentNumber ofhouseholdsPercentStrongly disagree 1 .4 5 1.6Disagree 8 3.0 6 1.9Neutral 9 3.3 10 3.1Agree 89 33.1 94 29.2Strongly agree 160 59.5 204 63.4Not stated 2 .7 3 .9Total 269 100.0 322 100.0Social behaviour: The process of urbanisation exposes <strong>in</strong>dividuals to <strong>in</strong>fluences of westerncultural precepts. It has been reported that <strong>in</strong> most cases the sexual behavior of young peopleat home significantly differs from their sexual behavior away from home, because they areoutside the controls of family, friends and community (Indongo, 2008). From the resultspresented <strong>in</strong> Table 6 more than 70% of the respondents <strong>in</strong> both the <strong>in</strong>formal and semi- formalareas agree that urbanisation <strong>in</strong>fluences the immoral behaviour.Table 6: Percentage distribution of households by rat<strong>in</strong>g of whether urbanisation <strong>in</strong>fluences theimmoral behavior of <strong>in</strong>dividualsRat<strong>in</strong>g Informal Semi-FormalNumber ofhouseholdsPercentNumber ofhouseholdsPercentStrongly disagree 4 1.5 4 1.2Disagree 31 11.5 17 5.3Neutral 39 14.5 56 17.4Agree 134 49.8 159 49.4Strongly agree 60 22.3 83 25.8Not stated 1 .4 3 .9Total 269 100.0 322 100.018
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>A number of analyses with DHS data for multiple African countries, <strong>Namibia</strong> <strong>in</strong>cluded (Shapiro& Tambashe 2000; White et al. 2008; Indongo 2008) suggest that rural-urban migration isl<strong>in</strong>ked to fertility decl<strong>in</strong>e. Several factors associated with the decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>clude education level,employment status and greater accessibility to modern contraceptives among others. Inagreement with the above, the 2011 <strong>Namibia</strong> household and population census, reported thatthe total fertility rate for women <strong>in</strong> urban areas stands at 3.0, while for women <strong>in</strong> rural areas isreported to be 4.3. Results presented <strong>in</strong> table 7 show that a high proportion of respondents <strong>in</strong>both <strong>in</strong>formal (61.3%) and semi-formal (63.6%) settlements are of the op<strong>in</strong>ion that urbanisation<strong>in</strong>fluences the fertility pattern of women.Table 7: Percentage distribution of households by rat<strong>in</strong>g of whether urbanisation <strong>in</strong>fluences thefertility pattern of womenRat<strong>in</strong>g Informal Semi-FormalNumber ofhouseholdsPercentNumber ofhouseholdsPercentStrongly disagree 6 2.2 5 1.6Disagree 49 18.2 33 10.2Neutral 48 17.8 73 22.7Agree 112 41.6 135 41.9Strongly agree 53 19.7 70 21.7Not stated 1 .4 6 1.9Total 269 100.0 322 100.019
<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>4. Summary and RecommendationsThe study concluded that urbanisation is a process that is good for bus<strong>in</strong>ess and economicdevelopment. The movement of people to urban areas br<strong>in</strong>gs with it opportunities to earn<strong>in</strong>come, and <strong>in</strong>creased buy<strong>in</strong>g power. <strong>Urbanisation</strong> has also contributed to <strong>in</strong>creased numberof men and women access<strong>in</strong>g good education, specifically tertiary education. Family members<strong>in</strong> rural areas have also benefitted through receiv<strong>in</strong>g remittances and other assistances fromtheir children work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> urban areas. Increased use of <strong>in</strong>formation, communication andtechnology (ICT) is another benefit of urbanisation.The ma<strong>in</strong> reasons why people move from rural to urban areas is to seek for employment andeducation opportunities. These reasons are simirial for people mov<strong>in</strong>g to W<strong>in</strong>dhoek city andto other towns under study. The <strong>in</strong>flux of people to urban areas has resulted <strong>in</strong> expansion of<strong>in</strong>formal settlements <strong>in</strong> most towns of <strong>Namibia</strong>, caus<strong>in</strong>g high demand for services <strong>in</strong> urbanareas (i.e. electricity, water, sewerage etc). There is need for formal hous<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> most towns of<strong>Namibia</strong>, especially to cater for the low <strong>in</strong>come earners <strong>in</strong> order to avoid illegal occupation ofunserviced land.Another challenge fac<strong>in</strong>g municipalities and town council <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong> is the demand for landas <strong>in</strong> most cases they are expected to buy land from the nearby communal and commercialfarmers and villagers to expand town boundaries. High unemployment and <strong>in</strong>come <strong>in</strong>equalityare also some of the challenges may lead to <strong>in</strong>creased crime <strong>in</strong> urban areas.A number of recommendations have emanated from the study. They are presented as follows:• The implementation of decentralisation programme should be strengthened andsupported.• Development of master plans for all proclaimed towns should be <strong>in</strong> place to ensurelong term town expansion.• Enhance employment opportunities for people <strong>in</strong> rural areas.• There is also need to expand on road <strong>in</strong>frastructure to accommodate the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gtraffic <strong>in</strong> city and towns; expand on recreational services as well as build low <strong>in</strong>comehouses.• Due to <strong>in</strong>crease on <strong>in</strong>formal settlements <strong>in</strong> city and towns, provision of ablution facilitiesshould be improved to m<strong>in</strong>imize the spread of <strong>in</strong>fectious diseases.• There is need for the government to cont<strong>in</strong>uously improve facilities and services <strong>in</strong>rural areas <strong>in</strong> an effort to discourage the <strong>in</strong>flux of people to urban areas.20
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<strong>Urbanisation</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Namibia</strong>Notes24
Contact DetailsTel.: 061 206 3004Private Bag 13301, W<strong>in</strong>dhoekEmail: nkanime@unam.na, Web: www.unam.na340 Mandume Ndemufayo Ave, Pionierspark, W<strong>in</strong>dhoek, <strong>Namibia</strong>