Urbanisation-in-Namibia

Urbanisation in Namibia

Urbanisation in NamibiaAcknowledgementsThe authors wish to acknowledge financial support from the University of Namibia through theMultidisciplinary Research Centre. The authors are also grateful to Constituency Councillorswho mobilised people in the community to participate in the study. Appreciation is extendedto research assistants and numerous people who contributed to the study in various ways.i

Urbanisation in NamibiaList of FiguresFigure 1: Urban Population 1950-2050Figure 2:Figure 3:Figure 4:Figure 5:Figure 6:Figure 7:Figure 8:Figure 9:Urban population in city and towns by yearInformal settlements in WindhoekSemi formal settlement in WindhoekType of shared tap in informal settlementMain source of energy for cookingMain source of energy for lightingMain source of household incomeSome forms of informal businessFigure 10: Estimated household average monthly expenditureFigure 11: Percentage distribution by main reason for rural-urban migration1

Urbanisation in Namibia1. IntroductionWorld urbanisation trends have been irreversible since the second half of the 20th century.The world’s population is increasingly found in the cities. For the first time in history, morethan half (3.3 billion) of the world’s population lived in urban areas by 2008 (UNDP, 2010). Itis estimated that by 2030, 60% of the world’s population will be living in urban areas. Thereare currently 19 megacities in the world and there are expected to be 27 by 2020 (UNFPA,2011). Urbanisation is simply defined as the shift from a rural to urban society, and involvesan increase in the number of people in urban areas during a particular year. Urbanisation isthe outcome of social, economic and political developments that leads to urban concentrationand growth of large cities, changes in land use and transformation from rural to metropolitanpattern of organisation and governance. This rush to the cities is also caused in part by theattraction of opportunities for wealth generation and economic development (Aryeetey-Attoh,1997; Bulmuo, 2011). In African context, the rapid urbanisation has seen a large number ofrural population becoming urban residents. It is generally acknowledged that urbanisationbrings sharp increase in consumer and investment demand, but also generates huge need ininfrastructure, public services and housing.Notwithstanding the economic development brought about through urbanisation, rapidgrowth of cities also causes severe ecological, economic and social problems whichincreasingly become difficult to manage in a sustainable way (Firebaugh, 1979; Hanson, 2007).It is recognised that in most developing countries about 30% of urban populations are livingin slums or informal settlements, i.e. where vacant state-owned or private land is occupiedillegally and is used for illegal slum housing (Konadu-Agyemang, 2001; Zulu et al. 2011). Insub-Saharan Africa, it is reported that new urban settlements are increasingly taking the formof slums (Alabaster, 2010). Often, slums or informal settlements are built on high-risk locationswhich make them more vulnerable to disastrous conditions including floods, storms, andinfectious diseases among others. Nevertheless, unplanned or informal urban development indeveloped countries is also a major issue.In 1960, of the total population of 280 million in Africa, only 18.8% was urban making it tobe viewed a typically rural continent. By 1990, 33% of Africa’s 645 million people were livingin urban areas. Currently more than 40% of Africa’s population is urban and it is projectedthat this proportion will increase to 60% (1.23 billion) by 2050 (UN-Habitat 2010). Thus rapidurbanisation is a distinguishing characteristic of contemporary Africa and it is greatly spurredby rural- urban migration.2

Urbanisation in NamibiaThe urban population of SADC increased from 20.5 million in 1990 to 34 million in 2010 and isestimated to increase to 39 million in 2020 and further to 52 million in 2030 1 (Figure 1). Since2010, 59% of the SADC population live in urban areas a figure that is projected to reach over75% by mid-century.Figure 1: Urban Population 1950-2050According to the 1991 Namibia Population and Housing Census, the urban population ofNamibia stood at 28%. Subsequently, this population increased to 33% in 2001 and further to42% in 2011 (NSA, 2012). This trend is not unique to Namibia but it is also observed in mostsouthern African countries where levels of urbanisation are estimated to have reached over50% (i.e. 61% in Botswana, 62% South Africa). 2 In Namibia, urbanisation is spurred primarilyby rural- urban migration, although rural re-classification and growth of urban centres are alsocontributing factors (Pendleton et al. 2012). This increasing movement of people from rural tourban areas has ensured a rapid and unprecedented urbanisation in the country.At independence most of the urban population in Namibia was in the central and southernparts of the country, and the northern and north-eastern parts were predominantly rural. Thedevelopment of towns in Namibia stems from their pre-independence status, as service townsfor transportation of raw materials and farm products primarily to South Africa. Currently,through the Local Authority Act 23 of 1992 they are clearly distinguished as municipalities,towns and villages. Municipalities are the highest level of local authority; they are autonomousby law both financially and administratively. Towns are expected to grow into autonomousand proclaimed municipalities when economic conditions permit, that is to make themindependent financially and administratively.1UN-HABITAT, The State of African Cities 2010: Governance, Inequality and Land Markets. Nairobi (2010:207)2UN-HABITAT: State of African Cities 20103

Urbanisation in NamibiaVillages are the smallest settlements and are not declared as urban areas unless as a deliberatemove by government.To date, new urban centres have been proclaimed especially in the northern and north-easternpart of Namibia. Although there has been an overall increase in urban population in Namibia,Windhoek City has by far been the major focus of urbanisation. Its population increased from13.7% in 2001 to 16.2% in 2011 and constitutes 36% of the total urban population. Othertowns such as Oshakati and Ongwediva have also seen an increasing trend in urban populationespecially after independence (Figure 2). For instance, Ongwediva urban population doubledbetween 2001 and 2011.Figure 2: Urban population in city and towns by yearPoverty in most urban areas of Namibia was discreetly hidden, partly because of the apartheidsystem which promoted contract labour migration system, which only allowed peoplewho were employed to reside in urban areas. 3 Similarly, government did not immediatelyacknowledge the scale of urban poverty after independence after the abolishment of passlaws which prohibited free movement of people, but concentrated more, among others, onaddressing socio-economic imbalances in rural areas. Despite the efforts, urban poverty andurban population have been growing. 43Moorsom R. 1977.Underdevelopment, contract labour and worker consciousness in Namibia. Journal of Southern African Studies. 4(1):52-87;.4Pendleton W., and Frayne B. 2000. Migration as a Population dynamic in Namibia. In Fuller B and Prommer I. (eds.). Population-Development-Environment in Namibia. Background Readings: Laxenburg, Austria. IISA.; Niikondo A. 2010. Migrants to towns and cities in Namibia. Whattheir interests are? Polytechnic of Namibia. Windhoek.4

Urbanisation in NamibiaIn the urban areas, the municipalities are confronted with a multitude of key problems, likehigh urban densities, transport, traffic congestion, energy inadequacy amongst others. Otherrelated problems are unplanned development (illegal construction; informal markets; informalsettlements); lack of basic services; poor natural hazards management in overpopulated areas;crime; environmental degradation; and poor governance arrangements (Ichimura, 2003;Satterthwaite, 2008).Tibaijula (2008) refers to some of these challenges as lack of either permanent or temporaryaccess to land and adequate shelter; and economic inability, among others which are broughtabout as a result of structural social inequalities. In addition, natural hazards and emergencymanagement are also reported to be major issues in most cities (Satterthwaite, 2008). Theepisodes of floods experienced in Oshakati and Ongwediva, and the subsequent droughts haveundermined the capacity of municipalities to adequately plan, prepare, respond and recoverfrom disasters. 5In the context detailed above, this report presents findings on the causes of urbanisation andits consequences. The findings generate lessons for other rapidly growing urban centers andinform policy accordingly. The study aimed to address the following research questions:i. What are the causes of urbanisation in Namibia?ii.How does urbanisation affect the provision of services in Namibian urban centres?iii. What effect (s) does urbanisation has in rural areas?iv. What are the socio-economic, physical, environmental and demographic consequencesof urbanisation in Namibia?v. Are there differentials in the causes and consequences of urbanisation across differenttowns in Namibia?vi. What measures need to be taken in preparation of high level of urbanisation?vii. What are the programme and policy implications of the research findings?5GRN/NRCS/UN. 2009. Post-Disaster Needs Assessment Namibia: Floods 2009. Government of the Republic of Namibia, Windhoek.5

Urbanisation in Namibia2. Data and MethodsThe research study followed a mixed method approach. A questionnaire was developed andadministered on a face to face interview to population of interest. The discussion guide wasalso developed to guide in-depth interviews with key informants as qualitative analysis isviewed to offer more insights and solid results for people-related issues. To serve as a baseline,the study was conducted in selected informal and semi-formal settlement areas of Windhoek,Oshakati, Ongwediva and Karibib. Apart from Windhoek which was selected on the basis ofbeing the major urban centre, other towns were considered due to proximity to rural areas;vulnerability to natural disasters; and high demand of services. The units of interview werehouseholds. The respondents were preferably the head of the household or the next availableadult in the household. In-depth interviews were conducted with key informants in both ruraland urban areas. Key informants included school principals and teachers; nurses; headmen;constituency councillors, officials from municipalities and town councils; as well as officialsfrom service providers institutions.A total of 591 households were successfully interviewed, representing a 98.5% response rate.The sample was proportionally allocated on a 1% basis according to the number of householdrecorded during 2011 Population and Housing Census. This translates into a selection of140 households for Samora Machel Constituency; 130 for Tobias Hainyeko constituency;100 for Khomasdal North constituency; 40 for Karibib constituency; 50 for Oshakati Westconstituency; 70 for Oshakati East constituency and 70 for Ongwediva constituency (Table 1).The data were analysed using SPSS 20. Descriptive statistics were computed for variables ofinterest. Some cross tabulations were run to examine the relationship between variables ofinterest. Comparisons were made between the different towns as well as between householdsfrom formal and informal settlements. Responses from key informants were tape recorded,transcribed and summarised according to thematic areas of interest and were incorporated inthe results and discussion sections.Table 1: Sampled constituenciesConstituency Target Actual Response rateKaribib 40 40 100.0Ongwediva 70 65 92.9Oshakati East 70 71 101.4Oshakati West 50 50 100.0Samora Machel 140 137 97.9Khomasdal North 100 100 100.0Tobias Hainyeko 130 128 98.5Total 600 591 98.56

Urbanisation in Namibia3 Results3.1 Socio-economic characteristics of householdsA total of 591 respondents were successfully interviewed, of which 323 (54.7%) and 268(45.3%) were male and female-headed households, respectively. The average age of male headof households was 40 years and for female head of households was 39 years. Furthermore, theaverage ages of head of households in informal and semi-formal settlements are 36 and 41years, respectively. A high proportion of respondents were unmarried (45.9%), and there aredifferences in marital status with respect to whether respondent live in semi-formal or informalsettlements. A fairly high proportion of married respondents live in semi-formal settlements(39.8%) while the majority of cohabiting respondents live in the informal settlements (25.7%).Of interest, only 4% of those cohabiting live in the semi-formal settlements.Based on the housing type, about 97% of houses in informal settlements are improvised housingunits (shacks) while the majority of houses in the semi-formal settlement are stand-alone(70%) or town houses (11%). With respect to housing ownership, the majority of respondentsindicated owning the house or shack with differences in title deeds.Figure 3: Informal settlements in Windhoek7

Urbanisation in NamibiaFigure 4: Semi formal settlement in WindhoekA distinctive difference in the water services was eminent between the two types ofsettlement. Most of the household in the semi-formal settlement use piped tap water in thedwelling (76.1%) whilst those in the informal settlement, 65.2% use public tap water whichthey normally pay on a monthly basis. A few others use public free tap water or tap water intheir yards. The majority of households in the semi-formal settlements have flush toilet on site(78.4%). Of concern, almost half (47.2%) of households in the informal settlements use thebush.Figure 5: Type of shared tap in informal settlement8

Urbanisation in NamibiaMore than two-third (89%) of households in the semi-formal settlement have access to gridelectricity as opposed to only 17% of households in the informal settlement. As a result, themain source of energy for cooking and lighting in the semi-formal settlements is electricitywhile most of the household in informal settlement use wood for cooking and candles forlighting (Figures 3&4).Elecricity Gas Wood Parafin KeroseneFigure 6: Main source of energy for cookingElectricitySolar EnergyCandlesParafinGeneratorOtherFigure 7: Main source of energy for lightingIt is apparent from income distribution that the majority of households with income less thanN$2000 per month are in the informal settlements while those with a monthly income aboveN$2000 are in the semi-formal settlements. With average household size of four, this translatesinto N$16 per person per day indicating grave levels of poverty in the informal settlement.The main source of income for households in both semi-formal and informal settlements issalaries and wages. However, a fairly high proportion of households in the informal settlementreported that they also make living from informal business (20.2%).9

Urbanisation in NamibiaFigure 8: Main source of household incomeFigure 9: Some forms of informal business10

Urbanisation in NamibiaTable 2: Overview of settlement characteristicCharacteristics Overall Semi-InformalsettlementFormalsettlementType of housing Stand-alone House 39.3 2.6 69.9Town House 5.9 - 10.9Flat 3.7 - 6.8Hostel/Compound 1.5 - 2.8Room in backyard 3.2 - 5.9Room in house 2.2 0.7 3.4Shack 44.2 96.7 0.3Tenure Own dwelling 48.9 22.8 70.7Rent 16.8 8.2 24.0Employer 2.5 0.4 4.4Own build shack 31.7 68.9 0.9Ablution facility Flush toilet on site 45.1 5.2 78.4Flush toilet off site 14.3 24.0 6.3Pit latrine withVentilated pipe (VIP)7.3 8.6 6.3Pit latrine without VIP 7.3 8.2 6.6Bucket 3.1 6.7Bush/None 22.8 47.2 2.5Figure 10: Estimated household average monthly expenditure11

Urbanisation in NamibiaOn average, households tend to spend more on groceries than on any other aspects measured.Overall, households in the semi-informal settlements have higher expenditures than those inthe informal settlements. It is also apparent from the results that the differences in educationand utilities expenditures for households in the informal and semi-formal settlements aresignificant. The utilities expenditure differences may be attributed to the fact that mosthouseholds in the informal settlements have limited access to municipal services. The resultsalso show that on average households in the informal settlements save at least N$100 permonth while those in the semi-formal save on average N$300 monthly.In terms of the socio-economic characteristics, there are no major differences between thethree towns under study. However, Ongwediva shows a strikingly different pattern with regardto housing type; housing ownership; income level and income sources; and access to services(including electricity, water, and ablution facility). No build shacks are recorded in Ongwediva;almost all households have access to electricity and they use flushed toilet facilities.3.2 Causes of UrbanisationReasons why people move to urban areas in Namibia should be looked at in terms of thebigger picture which encompass factors such as poverty, environment and political historywhich defines the context within which people move. 6 Clearly, the proportion of people livingin urban areas rise not only due to migration, but also due to the natural growth of the existingurban population. In the African context, it is reported that urbanisation levels also increasesbecause of the reclassification of settlements from rural to urban. In Namibia, the majority ofrespondents feel that the main reasons why people move from rural to urban areas is to seekfor employment (75.3%); for education (57.2%) and some moved because of work (50.8%).The reasons are quite similar for respondents between the two types of settlements. It is alsoimportant to note how climatic conditions, such as floods have influenced migration. Thesereasons concur with many other studies, painting a picture that urban areas attract peopledue to better opportunities and improved services and facilities which they offer, however noteveryone is in a position to exploit these opportunities. 7 For about two decades now sinceindependence, economic reasons for moving to urban areas in Namibia has outweight allother reasons, pointing to an urban-bias development.6Frayne B., and Pendleton W. 2001. Migration in Namibia: Combining Macro and Micro Approaches to Research Design and Analysis.International Migration Review. 35:1054-1085.7Tvedten I., and Mupotola 1995. Or Tvedten I., and Pomuti A. 1995. Namibia Urbanisation in the 1990s. NEPRU Publication No.6, Windhoek12

Urbanisation in NamibiaHousingWorkSeeking EmployementGood Medical ServicesEducationBusiness OpportunitiesAttraction of the CityLand for InvestmentMove with familySent to live with familyMarriageFreedomFloodsOverall living conditionsOthersFigure 11: Percent distribution by main reason for rural-urban migrationOn the other hand, some respondents feel that urbanisation allowed them an opportunity toreceive remitances, in the form of money or food from their children. Respondents furtherreveals that urbanisation offer the youth an opportunity to accumulate wealth in the processand in turn support the community where they grew up. A number of headmen interviewedrevealed that most households in their villages have tap water within households with theassistance of their children who are working in urban areas. Responses from key informantsespecially those from municipality or town councils reported that urbanisation is a positiveprocess for development. It allows people to have access to modern technology and it is goodfor business and economic growth.Respondents were asked to rate the different services with respect to where they live. Thesewere rated using a Likert scale of 1 to 5 whereby 1 indicates a very poor service, 3 indicatesan average service and 5 indicating a very good service provision. Overall, health and medicalservices was rated below average. The overall rating stands at 2.89. This is an indication thatmost respondents are not satisfied with the health and medical services. Some indicated thathospitals and clinics are far and at times there are no medicines. Others reported shortageof nurses which culminates to long waiting hours for them to receive required service.Employment opportunities are also lowly rated by respondents living in semi-formal andinformal settlement. The majority alluded to the fact that employment opportunities are scarceand if any, they require someone with experience and high qualification. Some reported thatthere are no company or business expansions to employ more people. Furthermore, manyother services are rated below the average rating of 3. These included recreational services,land availability, infrastructure development, housing and pollution.13

Urbanisation in NamibiaFigure 12: Service rating3.3 Consequences of UrbanisationAs urban areas grow and develop, the process is accompanied by a large number of activitiesand increasing demand of services by an increasing population. Some of these activitiesare among others provision and servicing of land; housing, education; health; creation ofemployment opportunities; expansion and maintenance of roads infrastructure; as well asprovision of water and electricity. These issues are closely linked to the process of urbanisationand effective and efficient delivery of these services is depended on the effective managementthereof. In this study, the respondents view urbanisation as a good process for development,as it increases access to modern facilities and services and good for business and economicgrowth as it increases the purchasing power. Consequently it attracts investors resulting in jobcreation. Some of the respondents felt that urbanisation is good only if services are taken careof and the influx into urban brings people with new ideas and skills. Nevertheless, respondentsfurther outlined some positive and negative consequences in both rural and urban areas whichare as a result of urbanisation. They are outlined as follow:Land: In many developing countries, Namibia included, effective and efficient land useplanning and management is not well established. Rapid rates of urbanisation have resulted inunauthorised developments for residential purposes. Building new affordable houses in urbanareas becomes difficult as land prices escalate and land fall in short supply. Also because of theincreasing number of people in the urban areas municipalities are forced to expand into nearbyvillages, thereby requiring them to substantially invest in acquiring land and compensatehouseholds in those villages for re-location purposes. The latter was especially prominent inOshakati and Ongwediva towns.14

Urbanisation in NamibiaHousing: Providing shelter to a big population is indeed a big challenge posed by urbanisation.Whereas housing was reported not to be a major problem yet for Ongwediva town; forWindhoek, Oshakati and Karibib the challenge is visible. Prices for houses have been increasingover the years and have caused a high demand. Although the government has intervenedthrough the introduction of low- income housing through National Housing Enterprise (NHE)and other programmes to ensure acquisition of houses for low- income citizens, the demandis still high due to the high volume of people migrating to the urban areas. On the other hand,financial institutions are reluctant to finance housing loans for low-income because of the riskinvolved on the return on capital and the cost of administering small loans. This scenario hasled to an increase in the expansion of the informal settlements.On the positive side, some urban centres (i.e. Ongwediva and Windhoek) have attractedskilled migrants who are able to access housing loans through financial institutions, and thishas resulted in an increase of building activities, while at the same time contributing to theeconomic growth and development of these urban centres. Ongwediva town has put in placestrict measures to discourage the development of informal settlements, hence the absence ofthese.Urban services (water, electricity etc.): The provision of water, electricity, sanitation,sewage and other municipal services such as street cleaning has significantly improved sinceindependence. The 2011 population and housing census results indicate that about 98% ofurban households have access to safe water for cooking and drinking. The percentage ofhouseholds using electricity for cooking in urban areas has also increased from 56.1% in 2001to 59% in 2011; while those using electricity for lighting increased from 67.6% in 2001 to 70.1in 2011. Despite these improvements, most of the services are concentrated in the formalsettlements and have not been widely distributed to the informal settlements in most towns.Town councils and municipalities are then faced with tremendous challenges in providingthese services due to the following:• The rapid expansion of the informal settlements with a high number of people whoare unemployed and thus unable to afford these services.• The capacity of the existing infrastructures, i.e. sewerage system, roads, water supplyamong others and;• Illegal occupation of unserviced land15

Urbanisation in NamibiaRoad infrastructure: Some urban centres like Oshakati, Windhoek and Ongwediva experienceuncontrolled increase in traffic resulting from urbanisation. The rise in the number of peopleand vehicles puts a huge strain on the existing roads infrastructure, which leads to trafficcongestion especially at peak hours, a phenomenon which was unknown to both towns tenyears ago. In this regard, municipalities are faced with challenges of maintaining the standardsof the existing roads as well as the construction of new roads as the demand rise.Pollution and environmental degradation: Pollution and degradation of the environment arealso prominent challenges facing municipal towns in Namibia. A number of these arise fromincreased emission from vehicles and industrial wastes. Although this is not a major concernfor Namibia for now, in many industrialized countries air pollution is reported to cause adverseeffects on the health and well-being of people. With regard to environmental degradation,the rate of vegetation clearance which may have a negative impact on tourism activities is aconcern for Karibib. Expansion of land for development has also resulted in the extinction ofsome plant species.Education: Rapid urbanisation has also resulted in challenges of provision of education servicesin both urban and rural areas. In rural areas for instance, movement of families to urban areashas led to decline in the number of children enrolling for lower grades. This resulted in theclosure of some schools and the transfer of teachers to other schools. In the urban areas thedemand for education is extremely high. A number of factors are related to this high demand:most people moving to urban areas are migrating with their families, thereby increasing thenumber of learners demanding for education service especially at primary school level. The2011 census also indicated that primary school enrollment rate for children aged 7 to 13 yearsis high in urban areas (90.3) than in rural (85.3). The majority of respondents in both semiformaland informal settlements are of the opinion that education services in urban areas aregood (Table 3). The demand for tertiary education is also one of the major factors contributingto urbanisation in Namibia as all tertiary institutions are located in the urban centres. Theeducation sector hence, has a challenge to expand the existing education facilities in urbanareas in order to meet the demand.Table 3: Percentage distribution of households by rating of education servicesRating Informal Semi-FormalNumber ofhouseholdsPercentNumber ofhouseholdsPercentVery poor 16 5.9 5 1.6Poor 54 20.1 45 14.0Average 76 28.3 77 23.9Good 106 39.4 145 45.0Very good 17 6.3 47 14.6Not stated - - 3 .9Total 269 100.0 322 100.016

Urbanisation in NamibiaHealth: Rapid urbanisation results in people concentrating in certain areas especially in theinformal settlements. This overcrowding of people leads to poor hygienic conditions. Someresidents in Karibib were of the opinion that outbreak of diseases are more widespreadfor people living in informal settlements due to overcrowding. In sub-Saharan Africa, rapidurbanisation has been linked to poverty and a growing burden of communicable diseases,including diabetes and heart disease. Namibia is no exemption to this.The majority of respondents in the informal settlements rated the health facilities as poor(62.4%). This could be mainly due to the lack or limited health facilities in the informalsettlements. Long waiting hours at hospitals and clinics could be associated with poor ratingof health services in informal settlements. Due to rapid urbanisation the challenge for thehealth sector is primarily with regard to the pressure exerted on the existing facilities in orderto provide quality health services and reduce health inequalities. Nevertheless, the majority insemi-formal settlements are of the opinion that health services are good in urban areas. Thiscould be attributed to the fact that a number of them have medical aids and health insurancethat allow them to use the best facility available.Table 4: Percentage distribution of households by rating of health servicesRating Informal Semi-FormalNumber ofhouseholdsPercentNumber ofhouseholdsPercentVery poor 81 30.1 14 4.3Poor 87 32.3 66 20.5Average 34 12.6 80 24.8Good 56 20.8 117 36.3Very good 10 3.7 44 13.7Not stated 1 .4 1 .3Total 269 100.0 322 100.0Crime: The results from the survey show that among some of the biggest challenges andconsequences alluded to urbanisation is the increase in the crime rate. Gumus, 2004 alsoargued that as urban areas becomes larger, the rate of crime in these areas also tend toincrease. Using a scale measurement of 1 to 5 with 1 indicate a strongly disagreement and 5indicating a strongly agreement, an average rating of 4.52 was obtained for a statement thaturbanisation causes an increase in crime. This is an indication that most households in urbanareas are of the opinion that the crime rate is much higher in urban cities as compared to ruralareas. The rise in the number of crimes could be associated with the need to earn wealth andmore so due to high levels of unemployment as the cost of living in urban areas is quite highcompelling many people to live in poverty.17

Urbanisation in NamibiaTable 5: Percentage distribution of households by rating of whether urbanisation causes an increasein crimeRating Informal Semi-FormalNumber ofhouseholdsPercentNumber ofhouseholdsPercentStrongly disagree 1 .4 5 1.6Disagree 8 3.0 6 1.9Neutral 9 3.3 10 3.1Agree 89 33.1 94 29.2Strongly agree 160 59.5 204 63.4Not stated 2 .7 3 .9Total 269 100.0 322 100.0Social behaviour: The process of urbanisation exposes individuals to influences of westerncultural precepts. It has been reported that in most cases the sexual behavior of young peopleat home significantly differs from their sexual behavior away from home, because they areoutside the controls of family, friends and community (Indongo, 2008). From the resultspresented in Table 6 more than 70% of the respondents in both the informal and semi- formalareas agree that urbanisation influences the immoral behaviour.Table 6: Percentage distribution of households by rating of whether urbanisation influences theimmoral behavior of individualsRating Informal Semi-FormalNumber ofhouseholdsPercentNumber ofhouseholdsPercentStrongly disagree 4 1.5 4 1.2Disagree 31 11.5 17 5.3Neutral 39 14.5 56 17.4Agree 134 49.8 159 49.4Strongly agree 60 22.3 83 25.8Not stated 1 .4 3 .9Total 269 100.0 322 100.018

Urbanisation in NamibiaA number of analyses with DHS data for multiple African countries, Namibia included (Shapiro& Tambashe 2000; White et al. 2008; Indongo 2008) suggest that rural-urban migration islinked to fertility decline. Several factors associated with the decline include education level,employment status and greater accessibility to modern contraceptives among others. Inagreement with the above, the 2011 Namibia household and population census, reported thatthe total fertility rate for women in urban areas stands at 3.0, while for women in rural areas isreported to be 4.3. Results presented in table 7 show that a high proportion of respondents inboth informal (61.3%) and semi-formal (63.6%) settlements are of the opinion that urbanisationinfluences the fertility pattern of women.Table 7: Percentage distribution of households by rating of whether urbanisation influences thefertility pattern of womenRating Informal Semi-FormalNumber ofhouseholdsPercentNumber ofhouseholdsPercentStrongly disagree 6 2.2 5 1.6Disagree 49 18.2 33 10.2Neutral 48 17.8 73 22.7Agree 112 41.6 135 41.9Strongly agree 53 19.7 70 21.7Not stated 1 .4 6 1.9Total 269 100.0 322 100.019

Urbanisation in Namibia4. Summary and RecommendationsThe study concluded that urbanisation is a process that is good for business and economicdevelopment. The movement of people to urban areas brings with it opportunities to earnincome, and increased buying power. Urbanisation has also contributed to increased numberof men and women accessing good education, specifically tertiary education. Family membersin rural areas have also benefitted through receiving remittances and other assistances fromtheir children working in urban areas. Increased use of information, communication andtechnology (ICT) is another benefit of urbanisation.The main reasons why people move from rural to urban areas is to seek for employment andeducation opportunities. These reasons are simirial for people moving to Windhoek city andto other towns under study. The influx of people to urban areas has resulted in expansion ofinformal settlements in most towns of Namibia, causing high demand for services in urbanareas (i.e. electricity, water, sewerage etc). There is need for formal housing in most towns ofNamibia, especially to cater for the low income earners in order to avoid illegal occupation ofunserviced land.Another challenge facing municipalities and town council in Namibia is the demand for landas in most cases they are expected to buy land from the nearby communal and commercialfarmers and villagers to expand town boundaries. High unemployment and income inequalityare also some of the challenges may lead to increased crime in urban areas.A number of recommendations have emanated from the study. They are presented as follows:• The implementation of decentralisation programme should be strengthened andsupported.• Development of master plans for all proclaimed towns should be in place to ensurelong term town expansion.• Enhance employment opportunities for people in rural areas.• There is also need to expand on road infrastructure to accommodate the increasingtraffic in city and towns; expand on recreational services as well as build low incomehouses.• Due to increase on informal settlements in city and towns, provision of ablution facilitiesshould be improved to minimize the spread of infectious diseases.• There is need for the government to continuously improve facilities and services inrural areas in an effort to discourage the influx of people to urban areas.20

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Contact DetailsTel.: 061 206 3004Private Bag 13301, WindhoekEmail: nkanime@unam.na, Web: www.unam.na340 Mandume Ndemufayo Ave, Pionierspark, Windhoek, Namibia