brown bear

contentsanimalswolfbrown bear•elk•wild boarlynxfoxvipertickswasp•bee•bumblebeespidersbatsearwigplantsEatingherb Paris•lily of thevalley•mezeron•European jew•baneberryTouchingSosnowsky’s hogweedmushroomsdestroying angeldeath capautumn skullcapred-staining inocybefalse morel3allergy to wasp& bee venom!16doppelgängers!19doppelgängers!The exhibition „Dangerous Wildlife – Myths and Reality“ is arehabilitation programme for nature phobics. As it is first of all theunknown that frightens, we will now share practical knowledgefor getting reacquainted to nature.No species in the wild is dangerous in itself – who brings deathto someone is food for someone else. What seems like a maliciousmurder weapon to humans is an animal’s instrument for survivalin the competition between species.CURATORS: Loore Ehrlich•Tiiu LiimetsDESIGN: Kaidi ÕisPHOTOS: Tiit Hunt, Kaidi ÕisSosnowsky’s hogweedEstonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & Reality

animalswolfbrown bear•elk•wild boarlynxvipertickswasp•bee•bumblebeespidersbatearwig 3

wolfThe wolves roaming our forests today do not see humans asprey. There is plenty of food in the woods and, being smartanimals, they have learned from wolf hunts to fear humans.There is no need to fear a wolf attack even when running into awolf den in a windbreak or built by the wolf itself or expandedfrom a fox burrow. Yet, it cannot be excluded that wolves, beingcarnivores by nature, will become interested in humans as preyagain one day if circumstances should change.In early autumn, when parents teach their young to hunt forprey, the “teaching aids” quite often happen to include also farmanimals – most often sheep. Young wolves deprived of parents,or pack outcasts without a defined hunting territory, may also gofor such easier prey.Seeing a wolf in the forest today is a chance that few are luckyto experience. Still, wolves in Estonia have not yet becomemythological creatures comparable to werewolves, as is said tohave happened in some regions of Western Europe.Estonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & Realityanimals 4

own bear•elk•wild boarphoto: Ingmar MuusikusEstonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & RealityAllthough very different at first glance, these animals have onething in common – when with offsprings a mother animal canattack a human who is in the wrong place at the wrong time.Young bears learn to sense danger only at half a year old – untilthen they should obey their mother’s orders. The situation getsdangerous when a human unsuspectingly gets between a motherbear and her cubs in early summer, or when curious bear cubsrun to meet a wanderer like puppies. The bear does not aim tokill but to establish a situation that would allow the bear familyto escape. Thus, the recommendation that you should play deadwhen attacked by a bear is fully relevant. Sometimes a bear canalso use a feint – dart toward the human to frighten him butstop before actually attacking. Despite the wish to flee posthasteafter such performance, one should withdraw slowly andbackwards. Rushing off on shaky legs might trigger the bear’schasing instinct.One can get drawn into a vortex of events also without initiallyseeing any animals. At the beginning of May, an elk cow givesbirth to one calf, rarely two. The mother does not stay constantlywith her calf but just comes to nurse it every now and then.Getting close to a small lying calf can remain unnoticed by awanderer but not by the elk cow somewhere in the vicinity...Prospects are better in a situation where one notices a peacefulcalf. In this case, it is best to turn back with all haste and hopewith all your heart for the elk cow to be foraging somewherefarther away. The ability of elk to deliver deadly punches withits front legs is well known also to wolves and bears, whoalways commence a killing attempt on an elk by approaching itfrom behind.animals 5

own bear•elk•wild boarA critical situation with a wild boar arises in a similar situation:when one discovers a den of a sow with her newborn or fewday-oldpiglets, who are not yet able to flee with her mother. Inthis case, the sow, who perceives danger to her piglets, is almostsure to attack. Most piglets are born in April but, as the breedingperiod is very long, some can be born even as late as July. Thesow’s maternity den is located in a sheltered place, often close toa reed bed – nursing mothers are fond of the sugar-rich roots ofreed.Estonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & Realityanimals 6

lynxThe myth of a lynx attacking its prey from a tree crown iswidespread but has no element of truth to it. A lynx catches itsprey only from the ground. If it fails to capture a stalked preyanimal with a few leaps, the hunt is over – a lynx will not chaseits meal. Lynxes do not kill people who walk in the woods –neither from a tree nor on the ground. A lynx will not attackeven a human who gets close to its den. She will just leave thekittens and run away. Once the danger is over, she will move herlitter to a new place.The likelihood of accidentally running into a lynx is very small.People usually make so much noise when moving in the woodsthat the extremely sharp-eared animal will have plenty of timeto get out of the way. The chance of seeing a lynx is furtherreduced by the fact that lynxes are most active in twilight, whenSunday wanderers generally have no business in the woods.Those who wish to avoid any possible encounters should remindthe forest inhabitants of their presence from time to time withtheir voice or other sounds.Estonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & Realityanimals 7

foxcompare the tails!An infected fox can be distinguished by missing hair and a scruffy appearanceEstonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & RealityGetting bitten by a rabies-infected fox was a completelyrealistic cause of human death just a dozen years ago. Thanks tocountrywide vaccination campaigns we can now say that Estoniais rabies-free. (True, some single sick animals have still beenencountered in border regions and vaccination continues there.)Thus, the stories about oddly behaving foxes attacking humansare starting to become history, and who knows, perhaps theywill one day start being modified into legends of killer foxes.Those highly adaptable curious animals, being good at coveringtheir tracks and inventive in escaping from critical situations,have also become a symbol of cunning and dexterity in folktales. Unfortunately, they have still received mostly negativeattention also in recent years. They venture into cities fromthe wild, they have scabies, they are accused of dwindling thenumbers of ground nesting birds and the European hare. All thishas resulted from their overly high numbers.Scabies or sarcoptic mange has always existed among foxes.Now that the numbers of the animals have skyrocketed, it hassimply started spreading like wildfire. In addition to directcontact, foxes can catch the parasite – the itch mite that causesthe disease – also just by stepping into the tracks of an infectedanimal. Also the raccoon dogs of our forests are badly scabbed,while the disease is less common among wolves and, especially,lynx. Even humans can catch the disease through a dog who hasbeen tracking a fox, but as itch mites cannot reproduce in humanskin, the itchy rash will disappear by itself after a while.Only when the numbers of foxes decrease can the spread ofthe disease diminish. Time will show whether this havoc will bedone by scabies itself or some other diseases will also comeinto play. Humans are unable to controlthe numbers of foxes by hunting.animals 8

viperVipers need their venom to paralyse their prey and for selfdefence,not for attacking humans. In most cases they sensethe ground vibrations from human footsteps from such a longdistance that they disappear from sight long before beingnoticed. People get bitten only when a viper fails to sense themapproaching and they step on it by accident or cut off its escape.Being sedentary animals, they move around within the radius ofabout a hundred metres. Only when searching for a hibernationplace – a rodent burrow deep underground – can they coverkilometres.viperThe viper is our only venomous snake. It has a dark zigzagpattern running along its back, while the grass snake isrecognized by light patches on the nape. Unfortunately, bothvipers and grass snakes can sometimes be black all over. Aslowworm – a limbless lizard – can be mistaken for a viperonly at a cursory glance from a distance. All three are protectedspecies.The severity of the reaction to viper venom depends on anumber of factors: on how much venom was injected, on thelocation of the bite, on the health and body weight of thepatient, on whether the person is allergic to the venom, etc. Inmore than half cases the poisoning is relatively light – no lethalviper bites are known from Estonia. Still, the patient shouldalways be taken to a hospital, and until arriving there theyshould be moved as little as possible and given plenty to drink –this way the venom will spread in the body as slowly as possibleand is quickly excreted.grass snakeslowwormEstonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & Realityanimals 9

TICKSa tick before.......and after a hearty mealEstonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & RealityTick season usually begins in April and lasts until October butin a mild winter one can get bitten by a tick even in mid-winter.Ticks can attach in a forest or meadow but also in a home gardenor city green area.Ticks carry several dangerous diseases and spread them throughtheir saliva. The best known of these are tick encephalitis andborreliosis. An infected tick cannot be distinguished from anuninfected one by its appearance but females and males canbe distinguished. Males are evenly dark, while a lighter reddishbrown abdomen, which expands like a balloon as the tick sucksblood, is visible underneath the dorsal sheath in females.A tick waits for a potential meal at the top of a grass blade withits forelimbs outstretched – this way it senses the arrival of ahost using the sensory organs located on its forelimbs. When ahost passes close enough, it hooks itself to the victim and startssearching for the most suitable place for sucking blood.When going into the wild, it is useful to keep in mind that, takinga glance at your trouser legs from time to time, ticks are moreeasily noticed on lighter-colour clothes than on darker ones.Immediately after returning from the hike, the entire bodyshould be checked. As ticks do not attach to the skin at once,there is a chance of finding animals still wandering around. Ifa tick has already attached to the skin, it should be removedimmediately. This is done easiest using tweezers. After a tickbite, you should keep a careful eye on your health for about amonth. If you develop a fever, a sick feeling or extensive rednessin the bite area, you should see a doctor about the tick bite.ANIMALS 10

wasp•bee•bumblebeewaspbeeIndeed, wasps, bees and bumblebees all can sting humans. Theydo not do this without any reason though, but only when theyperceive a threat to their lives or nests. The venom of waspsis intended primarily for killing or stunning their prey. Beesand bumblebees use their venom mainly to protect their nestsagainst the animals coming to feast on their honey. Bumblebeesare the most peaceful guys in this company, and even thebiggest wasp – the hornet – does not get upset so easily despiteits frightening appearance. Bumblebees and wasps can stingrepeatedly, while a bee dies after stinging a human. Its barbedstinger lodges in the victim’s skin together with the venomglands and tears loose as the insect flies away, and the bee soondies from the injury.hoverflyHoverflies are copycats!bumblebeeThe yellow and black striped warning coloration, which announces a stingerand venom, is mimicked by many harmless insects – for example, hoverfliesand bee beetles. They are, in fact, peaceful nectar-feeding insects who lackthe venom arsenal and cannot therefore sting. Potential predators, however,regard them as dangerous thanks to the colour masquerade and leave themin peace. Thus, such mimicking of body patterns – mimicry – is an efficientprotective adaptation. At a closer look, one can see that a hoverfly has halfthe number of wings than a wasp and also the body shape and position ofantennae is different. Different from wasps, hoverflies are characterised byhovering flight – staying motionless in the air for some moments.hornetEstonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & RealityAlthough wasps themselves feed on nectar and plant sap, theycatch insects for feeding their larvae. Thus, before raising ahand for anti-wasp repressions, think of them as efficient pestcontrollers. Bees and bumblebees eat flower nectar and alsobring pollen back to their nests to feed the larvae. They are veryimportant pollinators of flowering plants. Most of the coupleof dozen bumblebee species in Estonia are listed as protectedspecies.Bumblebee and wasp colonies have a one-year life cycle:fertilised females hide themselves in sheltered places beforethe frosts arrive and hibernate there to establish new nests inspring, while the remaining colony members die in autumn. Beecolonies live over winter.animals 11

Allergy to wasp & bee venomReaction to the venom – strong pain, swelling, redness, itchingand a burning feeling in the sting area – is normal and occurs ineveryone after getting stung. These symptoms disappear withina few hours or a day. In people allergic to bee and/or waspvenom, they are accompanied by nettle rash and itching all overthe body, swelling of the throat and tongue, breathing difficulty,nausea, stomach ache, vomiting. In the severest cases, a stingwill lead to an anaphylactic shock – rapid fall of blood pressure,loss of consciousness, cramps and choking. The faster the allergicreaction appears, the more dangerous it is. Symptoms developingwithin the first few minutes after the sting indicate a lifethreateningcondition. If possible, give the victim an adrenalineshot and immediately call 112.An allergic reaction may occur after the first sting, causingdeath in highly allergic people, or also in those who were notallergic to the first stings. People allergic to bee venom are notnecessarily allergic to wasp venom.bumblebeeEmergency number112Estonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & Realityanimals 12

spidersOver five hundred spider species are known in Estonia. All ofthem are deadly poisonous, but only to insects and other smallinvertebrates in their own weight category. The species foundin Estonia are harmless to humans. Only the big and dark wolfspider, which lives in moist places, and the black and yellowstriped wasp spider, a recently arrived immigrant species, areable to penetrate human skin with their chelicerae. Naturally,they do not attack humans but use their jaws only when facing adirect threat. The bite area will be red and prickly. Some speciesliving elsewhere in the world can be dangerously toxic or evenfatal to human. Everybody has probably heard of the blackwidow.Spiders are efficient catchers of various insects that posea nuisance to humans, and they are allies of gardeners indestroying pests. According to folk beliefs, spiders are luckyanimals and hurting them brings about misfortune. Perhaps thisknowledge will contribute to a friendlier attitude toward spiders.Estonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & Realityanimals 13

atsA bat bites through the victim’s skin with its razor-sharp teethunder the cover of darkness and starts to lick the flowing blood.The vampire’s saliva prevents blood from coagulating. Luckily,those stories take place in distant South America and the victimsare usually other animals than humans.The bats hunting in silent flight in the summer nights of Estonianeed not be feared – they are foraging for insects. Some speciesare active in natural habitats, some can often be encounteredalso in gardens and parks, some prefer to forage for night insectscircling around outdoor lights.Seven of the twelve bat species living in Estonia overwinterhere. In addition to caves, they also use cellars for that purpose,where possible. During their six-month hibernation, bats loseabout a third of their autumn weight. Any kind of disturbancemeans extra energy loss to them and is thus highly dangerous tothe animals. Unexpected encounters on summer days may takeplace in some attic where bats roost during the day. All of ourbats are listed as protected species.Bats can carry several diseases, the best-known of these beingrabies. Due to the danger of infection, it is never a good idea totake a bat in your hands because it can easily bite through theskin despite the small size of its teeth. One who still does getbitten should definitely see a doctor.northern batEstonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & Realityanimals 14

earwigThe myth of an earwig crawling into the ear of a sleeping humanand gnawing itself further into the brain is a widespread onewith an impressive history. Already Pliny the Elder, a physicianand naturalist of the Roman era, wrote in the encyclopaedia“Natural History” (“Naturalis Historia”, published around 77–79 AD) that when an earwig gets into one’s ear, it will bite itthrough and come out. The myth of earwigs’ love for ears seemsto be shared by many nations. The word “ear” occurs in theinsect’s name in English, French, German and Russian. Earwigslike to slip into damp and dark places, which the ear passagesare. Yet it is hard to imagine a situation in which human ears andearwigs could meet.earwigEarwigs are omnivores. They eat both decaying and growingplants, both dead and live insects, their larvae and eggs. Insummer, when earwigs are found in masses, they gnaw holepatterns into the flowers and leaves of plants to the annoyanceof gardeners. On the other hand, one earwig can destroyhundreds of green flies and other foes of gardeners in a singlenight. The pincers at the rear end of its body are used both forcapturing and holding prey and for self-defence. They cannotpenetrate human skin but a good pinch can be quite a startle.Estonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & RealityANIMALS 15

PLANTSEatingherb Paris•lily of thevalley•mezeron•European jew•baneberryTouchingSosnowsky’s hogweed16

lily of the valleyrowanberry? 1Humans are not herbivores. Problems with poisonous wild plantstherefore arise mostly when fruits ripen and colourful berriesattract people to taste them. This attractive appearance is theplant’s advertising trick to spread its seeds. Eating poisonousberries generally does not cause harm to birds and animals.Seeds pass through their digestive tracts undamaged and arecapable of germinating in a new place with favourable growthconditions.There are no universally applicable tricks to distinguishbetween poisonous and non-poisonous berries. Edibility can beascertained only by knowing the properties of the particularplant and berry, and only berries from a familiar edible plantshould be put in your mouth. Fallen berries can be easily mixedup and cause much mischief. Remember that poisonous berriescan taste good.herb Parisbilberry? 2Most of the calls made to the Poisoning Information Line inrelation to eating plants or berries concern the flowers andberries of lily of the valley or the berries of herb Paris beingmixed up with rowan berries or bilberries.Berries of mezeron, Europeanyew and baneberry are verypoisonous as well.Poisoning Information Centre16662Symptoms of a light poisoning form eating poisonous plants generally include headache andvertigo, vomiting and stomach problems. The patient should be given warm water to drinkand vomiting should be induced. Charcoal pills are helpful. In the event of contact withpoisonous plant sap, the affected body part should be washed with abundant water. It isalways useful to consult the experts of the Poisoning Information Centre. In the event of asevere poisoning, call the ambulance.? 1 - rowanberry? 2 - bilberrybaneberry mezereon European yewEstonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & RealityPLANTS•eATING 17

Sosnowsky’s hogweedUnpleasant surprises can also result from touching, pickingor breaking certain plants. Sosnovsky’s hogweed is a primeexample of that. Sosnowsky’s hogweeds are plants withimpressive dimensions. They can grow four metres high over thesummer, their leaf blades can reach a metre in length and theinflorescence can reach a diameter of over half a metre. The baseof the stem is as thick as a young tree. The sap of Sosnowsky’shogweed has a strongly irritating and damaging effect on humanskin. In lighter cases the reaction is limited to redness, pricklingand swelling of the skin. The situation becomes particularlydangerous in sunny days because the furanocoumarin containedin the plant makes the skin defenceless against ultravioletradiation. As a result, the places of contact with the plant sapwill, in a few days, develop slow-healing blisters. As toxicsubstances also evaporate from the plant in sunny days, moresensitive people can get blisters even just from staying near theplants.If the skin has been in contact with the plant sap, you shouldquickly go to a shady place and wash the affected place withwater and soap. Efficient solar protection in the subsequent daysis also very important. Contact with several other plant speciesmay also result in red and sore palms. For instance, you shouldbe careful when picking the beloved spring flowers – liverleaves,wood anemones, globeflowers.Estonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & Realityphoto: Heikko Kruusiplants•touching 18

mushroomsdestroying angeldeath capautumn skullcapred-staining inocybefalse morel19false morels. photo: Vello Liiv

!There are no general distinguishing features between poisonousand edible mushrooms, and several of them look very muchalike at a casual glance. The smell, taste or larval infestation giveno clues. A mushroom toxic to humans is edible for snails andmushroom worms (which is the popular name for the larvae ofmany insect species whose larvae develop in mushrooms).Prior to going mushrooming, one must learn to know the ediblespecies, be they two, seven or fifty three – depending on thepossibilities and will of the learner. Remember that ediblemushrooms that grow too big and old also become toxic due todecomposing proteins. Researchers also review the edibility ortoxicity of mushrooms now and then in the light of new researchfindings.Mushrooms of different species contain different fungal toxins ormycotoxins. In the case of deadly poisonous mushroom species,a fatal dose of toxin can be contained in just a few mouthfuls ofa mushroom dish.If vomiting and diarrhoea develop up to a few hours after eatingmushrooms, there is hope that the condition represents a milderpoisoning. Poisoning symptoms appearing on the following dayor even later, with vision disorders, muscular cramps, etc. addedto upset intestines, refer to a very serious poisoning.destroying angel (Amanita virosa)When necessary, consultthe experts of the PoisoningInformation Centre or callthe ambulance.Poisoning Information Centre16662Estonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & Realitymushrooms20

Destroying angel (Amanita virosa) &wood mushroom (Agaricus silvicola)The cap of the deadly poisonous destroying angel iswhite both above and below. The underside of the cap ofwood mushroom – a good edible mushroom – is slightlygreyish in a young, greyish pink in a middle-aged andblack in an old mushroom.The stipe base of the destroying angel is encased in alarge bag-like volva. As this is located in the ground, itusually remains unnoticed by mushroomers. The stipe ofthe wood mushroom is bulbous at the base and has novolva.The wood mushroom gradually turns yellowish ondamaged or cut surfaces, while the destroying angelremains white.The two species cannot be distinguished by theirhabitats, as both grow in coniferous and mixed forests inthe vicinity of spruces.destroying angelwood mushroomDeadly poisonous & edible mushroom species that are easily mixed upEstonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & Reality21

Death cap (Amanita phalloides) &grass-green russula(Russula aeruginea)The deadly poisonous death cap is easily mixed upwith the grass-green russula at a superficial glancebecause of their similar cap colour. Luckily, the stipeis different – that of the death cap has a large baglikevolva at the base, while that of the russula hasno additions.The death cap grows in association with oaksor limes, while the grass-green russula grows inassociation with birches. As there are forests wheresingle trees of all the above species can be found,the site of growth cannot be used to identify thespecies.death capgrass-green russulaDeadly poisonous & edible mushroom species that are easily mixed upEstonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & Reality22

Autumn skullcap(Galerina marginata) & sheathedwoodtuft (Kuehneromyces mutabilis)autumn skullcapsheathed woodtuftBoth the dangerously toxic autumn skullcap and thegood edible mushroom sheathed woodtuft grow inclumps on wood. Both species are characterised bya “two-colour” cap – the dried part is lighter and themoist one darker.Several distinguishing features require a skilled eyeand nose: autumn skullcap is less fleshy and theclumps are smaller than those of sheathed woodtuft;autumn skullcap grows on conifer stumps, whilesheathed woodtuft grows on decaying hardwood(but in rare cases also on conifers); autumn skullcapsmells like flour.The clearest distinguishing feature can be seen onthe stipe below the collar: in autumn skullcap, thelower part of the stipe is whitish, with longitudinalfibrils, while in sheathed woodtuft it is covered withbrown shaggy scales.Autumn skullcap grows in coniferous and mixedforests, while sheathed woodtuft can be foundnot only in forests but also in wooded meadows,clearcuts and brushwoods.Deadly poisonous & edible mushroom species that are easily mixed upEstonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & Reality23

Red-staining inocybe(Inocybe erubescens) & St. George’smushroom (Galocybe gambosa)Finding fleshy, sometimes very abundantmushrooms in summer creates excitement in thosewho appreciate the art of cooking. One shouldremember that there are two possibilities: these areeither the good edible St. George’s mushrooms ordeadly poisonous red-staining inocybes.Young red-staining inocybes are ivory-coloured,becoming stained with red-pink when touched or cutor as they age. Old mushrooms are dirty brownishredall over.Both young and old fruiting bodies of the St.George’s mushroom are dirty white to creamy grey,the flesh does not turn reddish when touched or cut.The mushroom is characterised by a strong smell offlour. It does not require parboiling.Red-staining inocybes grow in parks, St. George’smushrooms grow also in hay meadows and woodedmeadows.red-staining inocybeSt. George’s mushroomDeadly poisonous & edible mushroom species that are easily mixed upEstonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & Reality24

False morel (Gyromitra esculenta) &common morel (Morchella esculenta)Both species are edible but one of them should justbe carefully parboiled before eating. The false morel,whose folded cap resembles a brain, is the one thatneeds thorough treatment – thus, in the context ofspring mushrooms, “brain wash” has a very positivemeaning. The common morel, whose fruiting bodieshave a honeycomb-like outer surface, needs noparboiling.False morel is reddish to dark brown, commonmorel yellowish brown. In general, however, the capcolour should not be given too much importancein identifying mushroom species – in many speciesit varies greatly depending on the age of themushroom, the weather conditions and habitat.The false morel is our most common springmushroom. It grows in sandy pine forests, while thecommon morel prefers forest edges, parks, woodedmeadows and juniper scrubs.false morelcommon morelDeadly poisonous & edible mushroom species that are easily mixed upEstonian Museum of Natural History•Dangerous Nature: Myths & Reality25

Estonian Museum of Natural History 2013