Clinical Assessment of Child and Adolescent Personality and ...

CHAPTER 1 HISTORICAL TRENDS17frequent updating of the DSM has beenprovided by the International StatisticalClassification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causesof Death (ICD). The ICD, currently ICD-11,is published by the World Health Organization.The DSM has been revised both tocoordinate with the ICD and to add criteriafor conditions that are of concern to USclinicians, and delete conditions that arenot apparent in the USA (Widiger et al.,1991). The DSM has also been revisedbecause of a desire to make the diagnosticcategories more evidence-based. Priorto the development of the DSM-III, thesystem was based primarily on the expertjudgment of a relatively small number ofclinicians. The DSM-II, for example, wasfinalized after review by 120 psychiatristsin February of 1967 (Widiger et al., 1991).The DSM-IV (APA, 1994) was based ona more comprehensive research base thanany of its predecessors. According to Widigeret al. (1991), three research methodshave formed the empirical cornerstone forthe development of DSM-IV.1. Literature reviews: Comprehensivereviews of the research were completedto advise the various committeescharged with proposing diagnostic criteriafor conditions. These reviews wereseen as a way to mitigate against biaseson the part of some committees (Widigeret al., 1991).2. Data reanalyses: Existing data sets weremade available to the DSM-IV committeessupported by funding from theJohn D. and Catherine T. MacArthurFoundation. According to Widigeret al. (1991), these data set reanalysesallowed the committees to evaluatethe validity of current diagnostic algorithmsand pilot-test new proposals formaking diagnoses.3. Field trials: These studies were particularlyuseful for testing the reliability andvalidity of diagnostic categories (Widigeret al., 1991).Table 1.4 Chronology of Diagnostic SystemsDeveloped Under the Auspices of theAmerican Psychiatric Association1917 Classification of Mental Disease1933 Standard Classified Nomenclatureof Disease1952 Diagnostic and Statistical Manualof Mental Disorders I (DSM-I)1968 Diagnostic and Statistical Manualof Mental Disorders II (DSM-II)1980 Diagnostic and Statistical Manualof Mental Disorders III (DSM-III)1987 Diagnostic and Statistical Manualof Mental Disorders III-Revised(DSM-III-R)1994 Diagnostic and Statistical Manualof Mental Disorders IV (DSM-IV)2000 Diagnostic and Statistical Manualof Mental Disorders IV-Text Revision(DSM-IV-TR)The DSM-IV-TR, because of its greaterreliance on empirical methods, has had aneven more substantial impact on the personalityassessment process (see Chap. 3).The chronology of the DSM is provided inTable 1.4.IDEA and SpecialEducationThe 1974 Education of Handicapped Children’sAct, better known as Public Law94–142 (IDEA), and its reauthorization,the Individuals with Disabilities EducationImprovement Act (IDEIA), mandatedspecial education and related services forchildren classified as having an emotionaldisturbance. As a result, some method hadto be developed to define child problemsand determine children’s eligibility for specialeducation services. Under IDEA, andthe subsequent IDEIA with few substantive