Perfecting Mankind: Eugenics and Photography - International ...

PERFECTING MANKIND:EUGENICS A N D P H O T O G RA P H Y

PERFECTING MANKIND:EUGENICS A N D P H O T O G RA P H YCurated by Carol SquiersJanuary 11 through March 18, 2001International Center of Photography1133 Avenue of the AmericasNew York, NY 10036This exhibition brochure was made possible by a generousgrant from The Gladys Krieble Delmas Foundation.The first exhibition in the seriesImaging the Future:The Intersection of Science and Photography

Eugenics is a combination of science and pseudo-s c i e n c et h at exerted a powerful and ultimately destructive infl u e n c ein the first half of the twentieth century.It has attracted revived interest today primarilybecause of its re l ationship to the early history of g e n e t i c s.This exhibition looks at the beginnings of eugenics, thedisciplines that influenced it, and the role that photographyplayed in illustrating its ideas, concentrating on theUnited States in the 1920s and 30s and on Germanyduring the Weimar Republic (1919–1933), before AdolfHitler came to power.When eugenics emerged in the late nineteenth century,the terms “gene” and “genetics” had not yet been coined,and human genetics was misunderstood. Still, eugeniciststhought they could discern both hereditary superiorityand hereditary inferiority. Photography was a useful andpowerful tool that provided “evidence” for their theories.Both eugenics and photography were products of thenineteenth century belief in the power and rectitudeof direct observation—that seeing is believing.The most terrible legacy of eugenical policies is thegenocide perpetrated by the Nazis against supposedly“inferior” European Jews, Slavs, Gypsies, homosexuals,and political dissenters. But the Holocaust will not bedirectly addressed here: it is too vast and important asubject to be dealt with in this small show. The aim is toshow how photographs were used to convey eugenicalideas. Many of the issues that were raised then are beingdebated today, including questions of race and the wayour biological heritage will be altered—this timeby decoding the human genome. As we look at the5

photography of eugenics, we might consider howthe photography of our own genetic revolution willlook to future generations.Sir Francis Galton and EugenicsEugenics was the invention of the British amateur scientistSir Francis Galton (1822–1911), a cousin of CharlesDarwin. The son of a prosperous family, Galton pursuedscientific investigations in diverse subjects, includingheredity, physical anthropology, geography, and meteorology.The term “eugenics,” from a Greek root meaning“good in birth,” was coined by Galton in 1883, thoughhe began writing on eugenical ideas in the 1860s. In thebook Hereditary Genius (1869), he wrote about accomplishedmen from a period spanning two centuries, themajority of whom were from families of “good reputation.”Such families, he decided, were more likely toproduce talented offspring. Galton concluded that it waspossible to produce “a highly gifted race of men” bythe process of selective breeding, which he later termed“positive” eugenics. Discouraging the reproduction of“undesirables” was subsequently termed “negative”eugenics.Galton believed that photography was a truthful, precisescientific tool. He began to use the medium about1878, inventing a technique he called composite photography;he thought that facial characteristics were correlatedwith mental traits and that composite portraiturewas a kind of “psychological inquiry.” Galton used bothextant photos and portraits that hetook himself to make his composites. He first experi-6

D r. John Shaw Billings,mented with existing head shots of C ra n i o l o gy: Composite Photograph,S even Adult Male Sandw i ch Islanders,British prisoners, distilling the “typical” ca. 1885–1887, New York Publicphysiognomic features of each criminal Library Photography Collectiongroup by re-photographing several ofthe portraits onto the same photographic plate to make acomposite portrait. But Galton was disappointed with theoutcome: theportraits seemed merely to illustrate “the common7

humanity of a low type.” Criminals blended too easilywith other members of the lower classes.Nevertheless, Galton experimented until the end ofhis life with a variety of techniques for making composites,including placing strips of mirrors at different anglesto images and viewing the results through a telescopeand compounding photos with a copy-camera of hisdesign. Despite his odd improvisations, Galton claimedthat composite imagery was “a system of pictorial statistics.”Galton spent the last decade of his life promotingthe English eugenics movement. He was knighted in 1909.American Eugenics MovementEugenics arrived on American shores in the mid-1890s.It gained a receptive audience in educated, white Anglo-Saxons who were already worried about both internaland ex t e rnal thre ats to “American stock.” Industrializat i o nwas transforming an agrarian economy and promotingrapid urbanization. Immigration was bringing increasingnumbers of people from southern and eastern Euro p e,who we re seen as biologically inferior to America’s originals e t t l e rs. Rising levels of p overty and other social pro bl e m sled to the proliferation of prisons, asylums, and poorre l i e f. Befo re a eugenics movement even existed, powe r f u lvoices were calling for custodial segregation, marriagerestriction, and sterilization of those deemed unfit tocare for themselves.American eugenics was developed within a series oforganizations in the early twentieth century. First amongthem was the American Breeders Association (1903),which in 1906 formed the Committee on Eugenics to8

investigate human heredity and to“emphasize the value of superior bloodand the menace to society of inferiorblood.” It was headed by Charles Benedict Davenport, ageneticist and committed eugenicist with Puritan roots.He wasthe driving force behind the movement, which wouldmake its ideas felt in groups like the American E u g e n i c sSociety and at a succession of l a rge confere n c e s andexpositions held between 1914 and 1932.Eugenicists had substantial influence over publicthinking, educational curricula, and CongressionalWo l c o t t ’s Studio, Medium Fa m i lyW i n n e r, Fitter Families Contest, KansasState Fa i r, 1927, Collection of theAmerican Philosophical Society,Philadelphia9

lawmaking. They pushed through laws in twenty-fourstates by the late 1920s, mandating sterilization of the“unfit” and a federal immigration restriction act (1924).They popularized eugenics in newspapers and magazines,lectures, books, and exhibitions. Their extremehereditarian ideas were influential until World War II,when the Nazi Holocaust largely discredited them. Buteugenical ideas never completely died out; they continuein various guises today.Fitter Families for Future Fire s i d e sThe “Fitter Families” contests were staged at stateagricultural fairs throughout the U.S. in the 1920s. Theyjudged the eugenic worth of local families. Mary T.Watts, the co-organizer of the first contest at the 1920Kansas Free Fair, explained that when anyone inquiredwhat the contests were, “we say, ‘while the stock judgesare testing the Holsteins, Jerseys, and whitefaces in thestock pavilion, we are judging the Joneses, Smiths & theJohns.” The American Eugenics Society supported thecontests, which grew out of a “Better Baby” competitionat the 1911 Iowa State Fair. The “Fitter Families” contestswere featured at seven to ten fairs yearly and were heldin the “human stock” sections.To compete for the title of a “Fitter Family,” a“ h e a l t hy” family generally had to provide a family historyahead of time. Then, family members all took a varietyof examinations, including a medical exam, syphilis test,and psychiatric evaluation. The information was enteredon an examination form in the form of grades (“A” for10

Weegee (Arthur Fellig),Pe r fect Baby Contest, Methodist“psychiatric,” in one instance, but only Hospital, Bro o k lyn, NY, 1949,Collection of the International“B” for “dental”); other categories wereCenter of Photographygiven descriptive answers by the eugenicsworkers for things such as “physical, mental, ortemperamental defects” and “special talents, gifts, tastes,or superior qualities.” First place winners received silvertrophies. Any family member that got a “eugenic score”of B+ or higher received a bronze medal.Some of the photographs here were taken by professionalphotographers. They were probably distributedto local newspapers, where the winners often got frontpagecoverage. In 1924, the eugenics department of theKansas Free Fair prepared a report on the contests andgave advice to others wanting to start them; it listedmethods of generating publicity as the first item.11

Family StudiesLike the term “eugenics” itself, Francis Galton alsopioneered the “family study,” a signature product of theeugenics movement. Galton’s study, H e re d i t a ry Genius(1869), traced the backgrounds of eminent families thathad records of achievement. Although some Americanresearchers followed his lead, the most influential familystudies done in the U.S. were considerably darker: theylooked at families with social and physical pathologyr ather than “genius.” After locating appro p r i ate subjects—people who were extremely poor or who were in jail—eugenicists would trace their family trees by interviewinginstitution wo rk e rs, doctors, friends, and family. Inva r i a bl y,such people were found to have relatives that were paupers,criminals, or “feebleminded,” a catch-all term ofthe day used to refer to anyone who seemed somehowmentally deficient. All of the families featured inthe most famous studies were from rural areas, whereeugenicists felt the “feebleminded” were reproducingunchecked, and all were given fictitious names.The first American family study, The Ju kes: A Study inC r i m e, Pauperism, Disease, and Heredity, was published in1877. It was done by Rich a rd L. Dugdale (ca. 1840–1883),an amateur sociologist. He found six members of onefamily in rural New York jails at one time and begantracing the family’s past. The “Jukes,” as he called them,had a fair number of brothel-owners, prostitutes, criminals,and relief recipients among the 709 members hefound. He set the tone for future studies with his beliefthat every negative characteristic displayed in more thanone generation was hereditary. But Dugdale also believedin social reform to mitigate even hereditary failings.12

Many later eugenicists rejected reform and supportedinstitutionalization and sterilization in order to segregatethe “unfit” and prevent them from reproducing. In 1915,Arthur Estabrook, a field researcher, reanalyzed the Jukesdata and his conclusion was diametrically opposed toDugdale’s. Thereafter, the Jukes symbolized the futilityof social change and the need for eugenic segregationand sterilization.Erich Retzlaff , H o ch o fe n a r b e i t e r( B l a s t - f u rnace Wo rke r ), 1938,Collection of the MünchnerStadtmuseum Fotomuseum,Munich, GermanyG e rman Eugenics MovementLike the American movement, German eugenicsappeared in the late nineteenth century and appealedmainly to the middle class. Its general goal was to save13

14Unidentified photographer,Po r t raits: Characteristic Heads.Collected by the Office for RacialPolitics of the NSDAP (NationalSocialist German Wo rke rs’ Pa r t y ),ca. 1935, Collection of theBundesarchiv, Koblenz,Germany

Roman Vi s h n i a c, M a ra Poses inFront of a Device for Measuring theD i ffe rence in Size Between Aryan andGermany from “degeneration” due toN o n - A ryan Skulls, Berlin, 1933,a declining birth rate, hereditary disease, Collection of the Internationalcrime, and social “deviancy,” and to Center of Photographypreserve the “racial” composition ofGermany.The Imperial administration (1871–1919) disapprovedof eugenics as a violation of personal liberty. Officialinterest in eugenics rose in the Weimar Republic afterthe massive losses, starvation, and national destructionGermany experienced in World War I. Scientists proposedusing eugenic methods to reconstruct the country.Eugenics began to receive state funding for research andfor a national eugenics institute.15

Before long, eugenicists wanted to apply their studiesof heredity to improving the biological quality of theVo l k (folk). The Vo l k is a semi-mystical concept thatcombines the idea of a pure German racial identity withthe German language and an attachment to the land.Racial hygienists advocated improving the race by usingsterilization, but the procedure was illegal until the Nazisimplemented it in 1933.Although the ideas of Weimar eugenics overlappedwith the Nazi eugenics, they were not the same. Manyeugenicists in Weimar were Jews who lost their positionsafter 1933. Others had to submit to new racial ideas orrisk the same fate.C a rol SquiersC u ra t o r16

Checklist of the ExhibitionFrancis Galton, Inquiriesinto Human Faculty and ItsDevelopment: Specimens ofComposite Portraiture, 1883,book with heliotype. BurnsA rch i ve Collection, New Yo rk .Karl Pearson, The Life,Letters and Labours of FrancisGalton, Vol. 2, 1924, book.Collection of the ColumbiaUniversity Libraries,New York.Henry Pickering Bowditch,Horse Car Conductors andDrivers, Boston, ca. 1890,gelatin silver prints onpasteboard mount.Collection of the Archiv derBerliner Gesellschaft fürAnthropologie, Ethnologieund Urgeschichte, Berlin.Henry Pickering Bowditch,“Are Composite PhotographsTypical Pictures?” McClure’sMagazine, September 1894,Vol. III, maga z i n e. Collectionof the Columbia UniversityLibraries, New York.Dr. John Shaw Billings,Craniology: CompositePhotograph, Seven Adult MaleSandwich Islanders, ca. 1885-87, gelatin silver print.New York Public LibraryPhotography Collection.Dr. John Shaw Billings,Craniology: CompositePhotograph, Seven Adult MaleWhite Skulls, ca. 1885–87,gelatin silver print. NewYork Public LibraryPhotography Collection.Alphonse Bertillon,Bertillon Takes an IdentificationPhotograph, 1882, albumenprint. Burns ArchiveCollection, New York.Alphonse Bertillon,Measurement of the Skull (Topview), 1882, albumen print.Burns Archive Collection,New York.Alphonse Bertillon,Measurement of the Skull (Sideview), 1882, albumen print.Burns Archive Collection,New York.Alphonse Bertillon, SignaleticInstructions, 1896, book.Collection of the ColumbiaUniversity Libraries,New York.Havelock Ellis, The Criminal,1890; ca.1915 (Fifth edition),book. Collection of theInternational Center ofPhotography.Alphonse Bertillon,Photographie Metriquede Alphonse de Bertillon:Identification Judiciare,Anthropologique, Archéologie,Architecture, Reproduction documentaireExpertises, MédecineLégale, Histoire Naturelle,Topographie, etc...., ca. 1885,journal. Collection of theGeorge Eastman House,Rochester, NY.C.V. & F.W. Dammann,Ethnological PhotographicGallery of the Various Races ofMen, 1876, album, albumenprints. Collection of theGeorge Eastman House,Rochester, N.Y.J. Forbes Watson, People ofIndia, Vol. 1, 1868, album,albumen prints. New YorkPublic Library PhotographyCollection.Unidentified photographer,Pojoaque; Jesus Medina (frontview), 1905, gelatin silverprint. Collection of theAmerican PhilosophicalSociety Library, Philadelphia.17

Unidentified photographer,Pojoaque; Jesus Medina (sideview), 1905, gelatin silverprint. Collection of theAmerican PhilosophicalSociety Library,Philadelphia.Unidentified photographer,A Bannock Chief (front view),1912, gelatin silver print.Collection of the AmericanPhilosophical SocietyLibrary, Philadelphia.Unidentified photographer,A Bannock chief (side view),1912, gelatin silver print.Collection of the AmericanPhilosophical SocietyLibrary, Philadelphia.Unidentified photographer,Flashing light sign: Every 15seconds $100 of your moneycares for people with badheredity, n.d., gelatin silverprint. Collection of theAmerican PhilosophicalSociety Library, Philadelphia.Unidentified photographer,Mendel’s Theatre: Inheritanceof Hair Color, n.d., gelatinsilver print. Collection ofthe American PhilosophicalSociety Library,Philadelphia.18Unidentified photographer,Eugenics Exhibition at Sesqui-Centennial Exposition,Philadelphia, 1926, gelatinsilver copy print.Collection of the AmericanPhilosophical SocietyLibrary, Philadelphia.Unidentified photographer,Charts: Marriages Fit & Unfit,Kansas Free Fair, ca. 1929,gelatin silver copy print.Collection of the AmericanPhilosophical SocietyLibrary, Philadelphia.Unidentified photographer,Two Charts: Unfit HumanTraits & The Triangle of Life,n.d., gelatin silver copyprint. Collection of theAmerican PhilosophicalSociety Library,Philadelphia.Unidentified photographer,Color inheritance in guinea pigs,n.d., gelatin silver copyprint. Collection of theAmerican PhilosophicalSociety Library,Philadelphia.Harry H. Laughlin,Exhibition of Eugenics: Anaccount of the organization ofthe exhibition, the classification ofthe exhibits, the list of exhibitors,and a catalog and descriptionof the exhibits, 1923, book.Collection of theInternational Centerof Photography.Weegee (Arthur Fellig),Perfect Baby Contest, MethodistHospital, Brooklyn, 1949,gelatin silver print.Collection of theInternational Centerof Photography.Unidentified photographer,Adjudged the Most Perfect Babyin the Panama Canal Zone,n.d., ink jet print. Collectionof Truman State University,Kirksville, Missouri.Ellsworth Huntington,Eugene Robison, RayErwin Baber and MauriceR. Davie, “Wanted: BetterBabies: How Shall We GetThem?” People, (AmericanEugenics Society, New York)April 1931, magazine. TheHistorical Collections ofthe New York Academyof Medicine.The Harts [Studio], AverageFamily Winner, Eastern StatesExposition, 1925–26, gelatinsilver print. Collection ofthe American PhilosophicalSociety Library,Philadelphia.

Montgomery Dallas Studio,Best Couple with Trophy, FitterFamilies Contest, Texas StateFair, 1925, gelatin silverprint. Collection of theAmerican PhilosophicalSociety Library,Philadelphia.Unidentified photographer,Eugenics Building with Staffand a Fitter Family, n.d.,gelatin silver print.Collection of the AmericanPhilosophical SocietyLibrary, Philadelphia.Shraner Studio, Little Rock,Arkansas, Large FamilyWinner, Fitter Families Contest,Arkansas State Fair, 1921,gelatin silver print.Collection of the AmericanPhilosophical SocietyLibrary, Philadelphia.Wolcott’s Studio, EugenicsBuilding, Kansas Free Fair,1929, gelatin silver print.Collection of the AmericanPhilosophical SocietyLibrary, Philadelphia.Wolcott’s Studio, MediumFamily Winner, Fitter FamiliesContest, Kansas State Free Fair,1927, gelatin silver print.Collection of the AmericanPhilosophical SocietyLibrary, Philadelphia.Unidentified photographer,Large, Average, and SmallFamily Winners, Fitter FamiliesContest, Kansas, 1923, gelatinsilver print. Collection ofthe American PhilosophicalSociety Library,Philadelphia.Foltz Studios, Savannah,Georgia, Fitter FamilyHeadquarters and Staff, GeorgiaState Fair, Savannah, 1924,gelatin silver print.Collection of the AmericanPhilosophical SocietyLibrary, Philadelphia.Unidentified photographer,Small Family Winner, FitterFamilies Contest, Kansas StateFree Fair, Topeka, 1927, gelatinsilver print. Collection ofthe American PhilosophicalSociety Library,Philadelphia.Unidentified photographer,Central Gathering Place ofIshmael Thieves and Prostitutes,ca. 1921, gelatin silver print.Collection of the AmericanPhilosophical SocietyLibrary, Philadelphia.Unidentified photographer,An Ishmael House, ca. 1921,gelatin silver print.Collection of the AmericanPhilosophical SocietyLibrary, Philadelphia.Unidentified photographer,House of the Dirty Dozen, ca.1921, gelatin silver print.Collection of the AmericanPhilosophical SocietyLibrary, Philadelphia.Unidentified, “Tribe ofIshmael” Genealogical Chart,ca. 1921, pencil, coloredpencil and ink on paper.Collection of the AmericanPhilosophical SocietyLibrary, Philadelphia.Henry Herbert Goddard,The Kallikak Family: A Studyin the Heredity of Feeble-Mindedness, 1916, book.Collection of theInternational Centerof Photography.A.C. and Maud A. MerillRogers, Dwellers in the Valeof Siddem, 1918, book.Collection of the ColumbiaUniversity Libraries,New York.I.S. Caldwell, A BunglerFamily, 1930, gelatin silverc o py print. Private collection.19

Unidentified photographer,Feebleminded Epileptic,1924–25, gelatin silver print.Collection of the StiftungD e u t s ches Hyg i e n e - M u s e u m ,Dresden.Unidentified photographer,Garden Work (RecoveringDrinkers in Seefrieden beiMoritzburg in Sachsen),1924–25, gelatin silver print.Collection of the StiftungD e u t s ches Hyg i e n e - M u s e u m ,Dresden.Unidentified photographer,Extreme Mania, 1924–25,gelatin silver print.Collection of the StiftungD e u t s ches Hyg i e n e - M u s e u m ,Dresden.Unidentified photographer,Pressing Room, 1924–25,gelatin silver print.Collection of the StiftungD e u t s ches Hyg i e n e - M u s e u m ,Dresden.Unidentified photographer,Good-natured manic state,1924–25, gelatin silver print.Collection of the StiftungD e u t s ches Hyg i e n e - M u s e u m ,Dresden.Unidentified photographer,Three Idiots, 1924–25, gelatinsilver print. Collection ofthe Stiftung DeutschesHygiene-Museum, Dresden.Unidentified photographer,Congenital Disease, 1934,gelatin silver print.Collection of theBundesarchiv, Koblenz.Unidentified photographer,Alcoholic Paranoia, 1924–25,gelatin silver print.Collection of the StiftungD e u t s ches Hyg i e n e - M u s e u m ,Dresden.Erwin Baur, Fritz Lenz andEugen Fischer, HumanHeredity, 1931, book.Collection of the ColumbiaUniversity Libraries,New York.Erich Retzlaff,Hochofenarbeiter (Blast-furnaceWorker), 1938, chromogenicprint. Collection of theMünchen StadtmuseumFotomuseum, Munich.Erich Retzlaff, SchlesischesKind (Schlesien Child), ca.1936, gelatin silver print.Collection of the MünchenStadtmuseum Fotomuseum,Munich.Erich Retzlaff, Bauer ausdes Lüneberger Heide (Farmerfrom the Lüneberger Heide),ca. 1931, gelatin silver print.Collection of the MünchenStadtmuseum Fotomuseum,Munich.Erich Retzlaff, Die von derScholle (Those Who Till theSoil), 1931, book. Collectionof the International Centerof Photography.Erna Lendvai-Dircksen,Junger Mann aus demHotzenwald (Young Man fromthe Hotzenwald), late 1920s,gelatin silver-bromide print.Collection of the MuseumFolkwang, Essen.Erna Lendvai-Dircksen,Junge Frau (Young Woman),late 1920s, gelatin silverbromideprint. Collectionof the Museum Folkwang,Essen.Erna Lendvai-Dircksen,Tracht, Sprewald (RegionalCostume, Sprewald), late 1920s,gelatin silver-bromide print.Collection of the MuseumFolkwang, Essen.21

Erna Lendvai-Dircksen,Hindebauer (Farmer), ca. late1920s-early 1930s, gelatinsilver-bromide. Collectionof the Museum Folkwang,Essen.Erna Lendvai-Dircksen,Das Gesicht des deutschenOstens (The Face of the EasternGermans), 1935, book.Collection of theInternational Center ofPhotography.Erna Lendvai-Dircksen,Das Germanische Volksgesicht:Flandern (The Face of theGermanic Folk: Flanders), 1942,photo book. Collection ofthe International Centerof Photography.Roman Vishniac, MaraPoses in Front of a Device forMeasuring the Difference in SizeBetween Aryan and Non-AryanSkulls, Berlin, 1933, gelatinsilver print. Collection ofthe International Centerof Photography.Unidentified photographer,Portraits: Characteristic Heads.Collected by the Office ofRacial Politics of the NSDAP[National Socialist GermanWorkers’ Party], ca. 1935,gelatin silver print.Collection of theBundesarchiv, Koblenz.Unidentified photographer,Portraits: Characteristic Heads.Collected by the Office forRacial Politics of the NSDAP[National Socialist GermanWorkers’ Party], ca. 1935,gelatin silver print.Collection of theBundesarchiv, Koblenz.Unidentified photographer,Portraits: Characteristic Heads.Collected by the Office forRacial Politics of the NSDAP[National Socialist GermanWorkers’ Party], ca. 1935,gelatin silver print.Collection of theBundesarchiv, Koblenz.Unidentified photographer,Rassenpolitik (Racial Politics),ca. 1935, gelatin silver print.Collection of theBundesarchiv, Koblenz.J.F. Lehmann Verlag,München, Volk und Rasse(People and Race),September–December1934, journal. TheHistorical Collections ofthe New York Academyof Medicine.Leni Riefenstahl, Schönheitim Olympischen Kampf (Beautyin the Olympic Strug gle), 1937,book. Collection of theGeorge Eastman House,Rochester, N.Y.22

A c k n o w l e d g m e n t sMy grateful appreciation to the lenders to the exhibition:American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia; Archiv derBerliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie undUrgeschichte, Berlin; Bundesarchiv, Koblenz, Germany;Burns Archive, New York; Columbia University Libraries,New York; George Eastman House, Rochester, New York;Münchner Stadtmuseum Fotomuseum, Munich; MuseumFolkwang, Essen, Germany; New York Academy ofMedicine Library; New York Public Library PhotographyCollection; Peabody Museum of Archaeology andEthnology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts;Stiftung Deutsches Hygiene-Museum, Dresden, Germany.For her tireless, inventive research and support, myspecial thanks to Vered Maimon. My gratitude for researchand advice to Christopher Phillips, Brian Wallis, PeterGalassi, Ute Eskildsen, Rainer Lohmann, Ulrich Pohlmann,Rachel Stuhlman, Sharon Frost, Julia Van Haaften,Kristen Lubben, Mona Mollweide, Phil Block, Julie Ault,Martin Beck, and appreciation for their special efforts toRobert S. Cox and Hedi Kyle.Text © International Center of Photography, 2001Design: Bethany JohnsPrinted by Enterprise Press23

Selected BibliographyAllen, Garland E. “TheEugenics Record Officeat Cold Spring Harbor,1910–1940: An Essay onInstitutional History.” Osiris,2nd series, 2. (1986): 225-64.Edwards, Elizabeth, ed.Anthropology and the Photograph,1860–1920. New Haven:Yale University Press andLondon: The RoyalAnthropological Institute,1992.Eskildsen, Ute, ed.Fotografieren heiss teilnehmen:Fotografinnen der WeimarerRepublik. Düsseldorf: Richter,1994.Gould, Stephen Jay. TheMismeasure of Man. NewYork: W.W. Norton, 1981.Green, David. “Veins ofResemblance: Photographyand Eugenics.” The OxfordArt Journal 7:2 (1984): 3-16.Haller, Mark H. Eugenics:Hereditarian Attitudes inAmerican Thought. NewBrunswick, N.J.: RutgersUniversity Press, 1963.Kevles, Daniel J. In the Nameof Eugenics: Genetics and theUses of Human Heredity.Cambridge: HarvardUniversity Press, 1985.Ludmerer, Kenneth M.Genetics and American Society.Baltimore: Johns HopkinsUniversity Press, 1972.Massin, Benoit. “FromVirchow to Fischer:Physical Anthropology and“Modern Race Theories” inWilhelmine Germany.” InVolksgeist as Method and Ethic:Essays on Boasian Ethnographyand the German AnthropologicalTradition, edited by GeorgeW. Stocking, Jr., 79-154.Madison: University ofWisconsin Press, 1996.Mosse, George L. Towardthe Final Solution: A Histor yof European Racism. Madison:University of WisconsinPress, 1978.Paul, Diane B. ControllingHuman Heredity: 1865 tothe Present. New Jersey:Humanities Press, 1995.___________. “Eugenicsand the Left.” Journal ofthe History of Ideas 45(Oct.–Dec. 1984): 567-90.Pearson, Karl. The Life,Letters, and Labours of FrancisGalton. Vol. II. Cambridge:The University Press, 1924.Phillips, Sandra S.“Identifying the Criminal.”In Police Pictures: ThePhotograph as Evidence, SandraS. Phillips, Mark Haworth-Booth, and Carol Squiers,11-32. San Francisco:San Francisco Museum ofModern Art and ChronicleBooks, 1997.Proctor, Robert N. RacialHygiene: Medicine Under theNazis. Cambridge: HarvardUniversity Press, 1988.Rafter, Nicole H. WhiteTrash: The Eugenics FamilyStudies, 1877–1919. Boston:Northeastern UniversityPress, 1988.Selden, Steven. InheritingShame: The Story of Eugenicsand Racism in America. NewYork and London: TeachersCollege Press, 1999.Sekula, Allan. “The Bodyand the Archive.” In TheContest of Meaning: CriticalHistories of Photography, editedby Richard Bolton, 342-88.Cambridge: The MIT Press,1989.Weindling, Paul. “WeimarEugenics: The KaiserWilhelm Institute forAnthropology, HumanHeredity and Eugenics inSocial Context.” Annals ofScience 42 (1985): 303-318.Weiss, Sheila Faith. RaceHygiene & National Efficiency:The Eugenics of WilhelmSchallmayer. Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress, 1987.Cover: Weegee (Arthur Fellig), S h ow g i rl (Sherry Britton) Re a d i n g Ap e s, Men andM o ro n s, ca. 1944, Collection of the International Center of Photography