Islam in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives - Islamic Books ...

8 2Islam i n World Cult u r e swho argued that the role of the clergy was to memorize and transmit thea k h b a r, “news” or teachings, of the Imams and the Prophet, not to come upwith new teachings. On the other side were the Osulis, who argued thatthrough using the u s u l , “roots” or principles, derived from what the Prophetand the Imams had said and done, and through i j t i h a d , literally “self-struggle,”people could come up with new rulings and so could act on behalf of the HiddenImam. The Osulis argued not that every ruling of a m u j t a h i d (one who isqualified to do i j t i h a d) was a valid interpretation of what the Hidden Imamwould say but, rather, that in general, all the m u j t a h i ds as a collective groupcould potentially make decisions as representatives of the Imam (see Arjomand2000, 13–14; Fischer 1980, 30). Another title of more recent origin is a y-a t o l l a h , literally “signs of God,” which is a term of respect given usually, but notall the time, to a cleric of mujtahid standing. They are so named becausethrough their teachings and practices such people make knowledge of Godapparent to others. Unfortunately, as marja-e taqlids die today, fewer and fewerindividuals qualify to take over their positions.Politics and the Twelver ClergyTwelver clergy first appeared in Iran in the sixteenth century when the Safaviddynasty (1501–1722) made the Twelver form of Islam the new state religion.Before that time, people in the region were Sunni Muslims or non-Tw e l v e rShi’ites. By the end of the Safavid period, most of the Twelver Shi’ite clergyhad become a distinct social class, albeit one with little economic or politicalautonomy from the Safavid kings, who supported them. The next major dynastyto appear after the fall of the Safavids and a period of disunity were theQajars. During the Qajar dynasty (1797–1925), the clergy obtained the right toown land and an increasingly institutionalized control over special tax revenues.This control enabled them to gain greater economic and political autonomyfrom the monarchy, which complemented their moral authorityamong the population. As a result of these developments, the clerics eventuallycame to play a check-and-balance role on the authorities of the Qajar state:When a king was unjust, leading clergy would admonish him; when just, theclergy would legitimize his rule as being properly Islamic. Despite the commonperception nowadays that Islam is applicable to all aspects of life, theretended to be a de facto separation between the religious clergy and the secularlyoriented monarchical government in the premodern period (Arjomand1984, 36). The monarchs ruled politically; the clerics, religiously; and bothwaited for the return of the Hidden Imam, in whose hands both political andreligious leadership would once again be united.The balance between clerical religious power and governmental political