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H i s to r i cal Introduction and Overv i e w 1 5learning roiled and surged. Her being a woman stood out in [people’s] mentionof her, but awareness of [that fact] was no detriment to her reputation. (Quotedin Renard 1998, 288)The institutional forms and sets of ritual practices transmitted across some networksof Sufi students and teachers eventually took on the form of organizedorders—also referred to in Arabic as t a r i q as and often named after the purportedfounding s h a y k h . From the twelfth century on, various t a r i q as createdcommunities of Muslims centered on forms of association and ritual practicethat institutionalized the teachings of particular s h a y k hs. The number of organizedSufi orders grew steadily, and many spread far from their local pointsof origin to establish branches throughout the Muslim world from NorthAfrica to Southeast Asia.In addition to the organized orders, there were also less-institutionalizedSufi schools of thought covering ritual practices and devotional exercises, andthere were complex intellectual formulations by figures such as the thirteenthce n t u ry scholar of Muslim Spain, Ibn Arabi. Ibn Arabi is one of the most controversialfigures in Islamic history, and debates over his legacy often extendbeyond the polemics of Sufism to incorporate aspects of theology and philosoph y. Many of Ibn Arabi’s later Muslim detractors attacked him for espousing amodel of the relationship between God and humankind that they saw as dangerous,potentially leading to the improper effacement of the distinction betweencreation and its Creator. Despite such criticisms, the thought of IbnArabi was never universally condemned by all Muslims. Even in the modernperiod, there was a renaissance of interest in his work among scholars such asthose associated with the Akbariyya of late nineteenth-century Damascus. Abdal-Qadir al-Jaza’iri, a major figure in those circles, found in Ibn Arabi’s thoughttools for dealing in dynamic ways with the challenges of rationalism andmodernity posed by the growing cultural and political hegemony of the We s t( Weismann 2001, 141–224).Islamic PhilosophyThe origins of Islamic philosophy can be traced to the vibrant and cosmopolitanintellectual atmosphere of the early Abbassid Caliphate at Baghdad(750–991), when the Arabic translation movement was introducing texts fromclassical Greek, Christian, and other “foreign” literatures into the conversationsof educated Muslims. This material was selectively interpreted and representedin ways that seemed to address the concerns and interests of variousgroups of Muslims at that time. In the ninth century, Muslim “free thinkers,”such as Ibn al-Rawandi and Abu Bakr al-Razi, dove into the pre-Christian phi-
1 6Islam i n World Cult u r e sMuslim mystics in the modern world; at a Sufi shrine outside Cape Town, South Africa.(R. Michael Feener)losophy of the ancient Greeks, sometimes placing themselves in open conflictwith the central conceptions of the religious authority in Islam (Stroumsa1999). Others, such as the eleventh-century philosopher Ibn Sina (d. 1037;known in the West by the Latinate name Avicenna), worked to integrate certainaspects of Greek philosophical method into complex systems of Islamic
Page 2: Islam inWorld Cultures
Page 5 and 6: Copyright 2004 by R. Michael Feener
Page 8 and 9: ContentsC o n t r i bu to r s,ixIsl
Page 10 and 11: ContributorsDavid Buchman is a cult
Page 12 and 13: Chapter OneIslamHistorical Introduc
Page 14 and 15: H i s to r i cal Introduction and O
Page 20: H i s to r i cal Introduction and O
Page 23 and 24: 1 2Islam i n World Cult u r e ss u
Page 25: 1 4Islam i n World Cult u r e stici
Page 29 and 30: 1 8Islam i n World Cult u r e stert
Page 31 and 32: 2 0Islam i n World Cult u r e sconf
Page 33 and 34: A modern permutation of the public
Page 35 and 36: 2 4Islam i n World Cult u r e sMove
Page 37 and 38: 2 6Islam i n World Cult u r e sThes
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Page 45 and 46: 3 4Islam i n World Cult u r e smati
Page 47 and 48: 3 6Islam i n World Cult u r e sSinc
Page 49 and 50: 3 8Islam i n World Cult u r e sAl-J
Page 52: Chapter TwoIslam after EmpireTurkey
Page 55 and 56: 4 4Islam i n World Cult u r e sGod,
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6 6Islam i n World Cult u r e sThe
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7 2Islam i n World Cult u r e sbelo
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7 4Islam i n World Cult u r e sU.S.
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Shi’ite Islam in Contemporary Ira
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D e bati ng Ort h o d ox y, Contest
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Islam in Contemporary Central Asia
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Muslims at a shrine in Bukhara, Uzb
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Islam in China 1 6 3Kurds now make
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Islam in China 1 6 5sue for some Tu
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Islam in China 1 6 7it that religio
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Islam in China 1 6 9tion of large n
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Islam in China 1 7 1Muslim national
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Islam in China 1 7 3rather recent p
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Islam in China 1 7 5A Muslim Uyghur
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Islam in China 1 7 7While further r
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Islam in China 1 7 9pressure and wi
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Islam in China 1 8 1Israeli, Raphae
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Muslim Thought and Practice in Cont
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Muslim students working on Arabic c
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Religion, Language, and Nat i o n a
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Chapter NineRace, Ideology, and Isl
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A mosque in Bo-Kaap, the traditiona
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3 0 0Islam i n World Cult u r e swh
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Chapter ElevenSuggestions for Furth
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Suggestions for Further Reading and
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Chapter TwelveKey TermsThe heading
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Key Te r m s 3 3 9rule in South Afr
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Key Te r m s 3 4 1Constitution of M
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Key Te r m s 3 4 3Gey Sinan (8)The
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Key Te r m s 3 4 5Brothers), an org
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Key Te r m s 3 4 7the constitution.
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Key Te r m s 3 4 9Kulub (8)A politi
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Key Te r m s 3 5 1and historically
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Key Te r m s 3 5 3PAGAD (9)The popu
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Key Te r m s 3 5 5Semitic (8)A lang
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Key Te r m s 3 5 7Tablighi Jama’a
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Key Te r m s 3 5 9speak a Turkic la
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IndexAa’sir, Imam al-Ghazi Ahmad
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I n d e x 3 6 3Assimilation, 166, 1
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I n d e x 3 6 5nation-building by,
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I n d e x 3 6 7Evangelical Christia
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I n d e x 3 6 9Government, 238, 241
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I n d e x 3 7 1Intellectualism, 17,
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I n d e x 3 7 3Kandhlawi, Maulana M
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I n d e x 3 7 5Marxism, 90, 113, 15
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I n d e x 3 7 7Mutiny of 1857, 106M
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I n d e x 3 7 9cultural, 240-241Eth
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I n d e x 3 8 1Chishti Sabiri, 127I
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I n d e x 3 8 3Solomonic dynasty, 2
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I n d e x 3 8 5Sufi, 26, 190Turkmen
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I n d e x 3 8 7Yacub, 292Yakub Beg
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