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Religion, Language, and Nat i o n a l i s m 2 3 3The “Gleanings of History” are generally hostile to Ethiopian OrthodoxC h r i s t i a n i t y, clearly identifying it with military conquest and feudalist oppression.Conversely, Islam is portrayed as a liberating force, as well as threateningto the Christian “conquerors.” Only after Islam posed a danger to the churchdid the rulers begin to lighten up on their “enslaved” subjects. Yet despite thealleged mutual hatred between Muslims and Christians, Muslims were not alwayspersecuted. This leniency is related to the fact that the headquarters ofE t h i o p i a ’s Orthodox Church were located in Egypt, where Christians were am i n o r i t y. By linking the fates of Egypt’s Christians, ruled by Muslims, toE t h i o p i a ’s Muslims, ruled by Christians, a sort of détente was achieved.The text also contains a fair amount of detailed information about Hararand its “freedom-fighting sons.” The tenor of those sections is that the city haslong been a major Islamic center and that the Harari hold Islam near and dearto their hearts. Only when the Christian King Menilek II conquered Harar,aided by modern firearms provided by European countries, did Harari fortuneschange. The bitter memories of that event are still symbolized in weddingcustoms today.That not all of Ethiopia’s Muslims are the same is acknowledged in the sectionon the Afar, whose Islamic learning and customs do not seem to meet thea u t h o r ’s approval. However, the text argues that Arab immigration from theGulf, Sudan, and North Africa was crucial to the spread and strengthening ofIslam in Ethiopia. Implied here is that Ethiopia’s indigenous Muslims welcomedexternal support to improve their local positions vis-à-vis the Christianrulers and that thus they were happy and willing to receive and assist fellowMuslims from other countries. While admitting to “mutual aversion” betweenChristians and Muslims, the document seems to blame the problem on Christianfanaticism. Departing from the text’s dominant tone, however, the suggestionthat Muslims are also guilty of fanaticism and thus somehow responsiblefor the tensions stands out.It is important to note that this text was written in Arabic, which manyEthiopians have learned to speak from either religious study or participationin trade networks. However, the ability to re a d the language, let alone have accessto texts such as this one, is not so common. Therefore, it is worth askingwhat impact the content of this and other texts might have had on EthiopianMuslims’ thinking about history and religious relations. In short, in the mid-1990s, this text and others were read individually by those who could do so,were read aloud in various social situations to others who could not, and weretranslated orally for those unable to understand Arabic. The fact that Arabic isthe language of Islam lends it considerable cachet in many Muslims’ eyes. Thatis, texts written in Arabic are judged to be authoritative in ways that they mightnot be if they were written in other languages. Moreover, accounts publishedabroad are appreciated because they demonstrate that other Muslims know
2 3 4Islam i n World Cult u r e sYoung Muslim girl wearing traditional dress in Harar, Ethiopia. (Rob Howard/Corbis)about Ethiopia’s Muslims and deem them important enough to write about.This perceived international support bolsters Muslims’ confidence and inspiresthem to be more outspoken about their political views and desires.These points bring us to the issue of the relationships among religion, language,and ethnic identity, which were major topics in discussions about na-
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Islam inWorld Cultures
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Copyright 2004 by R. Michael Feener
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ContentsC o n t r i bu to r s,ixIsl
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ContributorsDavid Buchman is a cult
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Chapter OneIslamHistorical Introduc
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H i s to r i cal Introduction and O
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1 2Islam i n World Cult u r e ss u
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1 4Islam i n World Cult u r e stici
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1 6Islam i n World Cult u r e sMusl
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1 8Islam i n World Cult u r e stert
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2 0Islam i n World Cult u r e sconf
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A modern permutation of the public
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2 4Islam i n World Cult u r e sMove
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2 6Islam i n World Cult u r e sThes
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2 8Islam i n World Cult u r e sand
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3 0Islam i n World Cult u r e stinu
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3 2Islam i n World Cult u r e st e
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3 4Islam i n World Cult u r e smati
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3 6Islam i n World Cult u r e sSinc
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3 8Islam i n World Cult u r e sAl-J
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Chapter TwoIslam after EmpireTurkey
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4 4Islam i n World Cult u r e sGod,
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4 6Islam i n World Cult u r e sthe
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4 8Islam i n World Cult u r e sdent
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5 0Islam i n World Cult u r e sof c
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5 2Islam i n World Cult u r e stion
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5 4Islam i n World Cult u r e sAcco
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5 6Islam i n World Cult u r e sWhen
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5 8Islam i n World Cult u r e spara
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6 0Islam i n World Cult u r e swhic
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6 2Islam i n World Cult u r e sGree
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6 6Islam i n World Cult u r e sThe
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6 8Islam i n World Cult u r e sgiou
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7 2Islam i n World Cult u r e sbelo
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7 4Islam i n World Cult u r e sU.S.
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Shi’ite Islam in Contemporary Ira
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D e bati ng Ort h o d ox y, Contest
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Islam in Contemporary Central Asia
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Muslims at a shrine in Bukhara, Uzb
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Islam in China 1 6 3Kurds now make
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Islam in China 1 6 5sue for some Tu
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Islam in China 1 6 7it that religio
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Islam in China 1 6 9tion of large n
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Islam in China 1 7 1Muslim national
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Islam in China 1 7 3rather recent p
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Islam in China 1 7 5A Muslim Uyghur
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Islam in China 1 7 7While further r
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Islam in China 1 7 9pressure and wi
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Islam in China 1 8 1Israeli, Raphae
Page 196 and 197: Muslim Thought and Practice in Cont
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Page 226: Muslim Thought and Practice in Cont
Page 230 and 231: Religion, Language, and Nat i o n a
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2 9 6Islam i n World Cult u r e smo
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3 0 6Islam i n World Cult u r e sec
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Chapter ElevenSuggestions for Furth
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Suggestions for Further Reading and
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Chapter TwelveKey TermsThe heading
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Key Te r m s 3 3 9rule in South Afr
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Key Te r m s 3 4 1Constitution of M
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Key Te r m s 3 4 3Gey Sinan (8)The
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Key Te r m s 3 4 5Brothers), an org
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Key Te r m s 3 4 7the constitution.
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Key Te r m s 3 4 9Kulub (8)A politi
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Key Te r m s 3 5 1and historically
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Key Te r m s 3 5 3PAGAD (9)The popu
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Key Te r m s 3 5 5Semitic (8)A lang
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Key Te r m s 3 5 7Tablighi Jama’a
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Key Te r m s 3 5 9speak a Turkic la
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IndexAa’sir, Imam al-Ghazi Ahmad
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I n d e x 3 6 3Assimilation, 166, 1
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I n d e x 3 6 5nation-building by,
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I n d e x 3 6 7Evangelical Christia
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I n d e x 3 6 9Government, 238, 241
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I n d e x 3 7 1Intellectualism, 17,
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I n d e x 3 7 3Kandhlawi, Maulana M
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I n d e x 3 7 5Marxism, 90, 113, 15
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I n d e x 3 7 7Mutiny of 1857, 106M
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I n d e x 3 7 9cultural, 240-241Eth
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I n d e x 3 8 1Chishti Sabiri, 127I
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I n d e x 3 8 3Solomonic dynasty, 2
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I n d e x 3 8 5Sufi, 26, 190Turkmen
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I n d e x 3 8 7Yacub, 292Yakub Beg
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