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H i s to r i cal Introduction and Overv i e w 7lim paradigm of viewing Islam in terms of two related sets of obligations:those to God (hablun min Allah) and those to one’s fellow human beings(hablun min al-nas). It is in the latter that one can most clearly recognize somethingof the potential social import of zakat for Muslim societies. In fact, sincethe 1990s, progressive reinterpretations of zakat have been advanced by suchMuslim thinkers as the Indonesian Masdar F. Mas’udi in attempts to realizethe potential of this third pillar of Islam as an instrument of social justice(Mas’udi 1993).The actual transferal of resources associated with z a k a t are guided by a complexof Islamic legal rulings and also vary according to local practice across differentMuslim societies. In many communities, however, Muslims make a paymentof z a k a t during the last days of the Islamic lunar month of Ramadhan.That month is also the annual occasion for observing the fourth pillar of Islam,s a w m . At a minimum, s a w m entails abstaining from all food, drink, andother physical pleasures such as smoking and sex from sunrise to sunset eachday of the month of Ramadhan. Beyond this, however, most Muslims stress theinterior dimensions of the fast as being just as important as the physical discipline.For example, one will often hear Muslim sermons during Ramadhanthat expound upon the need to control one’s emotive states as much as one’ssensual appetites—especially since some people may be a bit crankier thanusual due to hunger or caffeine deprivation.Despite such restrictions, however, Ramadhan is a very special time in Muslimcommunities, an occasion for both pious devotion and pleasant camaraderie.After sunset each day, people gather in homes and mosques to breakthe fast together. These nightly communal meals are often followed by prayers,readings from the Qur’an, and discussions of religious and other topics, althoughthe foods eaten and the nature of conversations vary considerablyacross Muslim communities. The end of Ramadhan is marked with great celebration,with round after round of visits and feasting with family and friendsbeginning immediately after prayers on the first morning of the next month.These end-of-Ramadhan celebrations are one of the two major annual festivalsof the Islamic lunar calendar. The other is observed at the culmination of theformal rites of the h a j j .H a j j , the fifth pillar, is the annual pilgrimage to Mecca during the lunarmonth Dhu’l-Hijja. Muslims consider it a good thing to visit Mecca at any timeof the year, but only a pilgrimage during the appointed season is recognized ash a j j . For more than fourteen centuries, the annual rites of the h a j j h a v ebrought Muslims from different regions to Mecca to worship together as ac o m m u n i t y. Over the centuries, as Islam expanded beyond the Arabian peninsulaand out of the Middle East, the pilgrimage brought together Muslimsfrom widely diverse regions and cultures, helping foster ties between geographicallyfar-flung areas of the Muslim world and cultivating a sense of com-
Hundreds of thousands of Muslims bowing their heads toward the Holy Kaaba in prayer on thestreets of Mecca, March 1, 2001. More than 2 million pilgrims were expected to perform the annualhajj that year. (Reuters/CORBIS/Adrees A. Latif)
Page 2: Islam inWorld Cultures
Page 5 and 6: Copyright 2004 by R. Michael Feener
Page 8 and 9: ContentsC o n t r i bu to r s,ixIsl
Page 10 and 11: ContributorsDavid Buchman is a cult
Page 12 and 13: Chapter OneIslamHistorical Introduc
Page 14 and 15: H i s to r i cal Introduction and O
Page 16 and 17: H i s to r i cal Introduction and O
Page 20: H i s to r i cal Introduction and O
Page 23 and 24: 1 2Islam i n World Cult u r e ss u
Page 25 and 26: 1 4Islam i n World Cult u r e stici
Page 27 and 28: 1 6Islam i n World Cult u r e sMusl
Page 29 and 30: 1 8Islam i n World Cult u r e stert
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Page 33 and 34: A modern permutation of the public
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Page 52: Chapter TwoIslam after EmpireTurkey
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6 0Islam i n World Cult u r e swhic
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6 2Islam i n World Cult u r e sGree
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7 4Islam i n World Cult u r e sU.S.
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Shi’ite Islam in Contemporary Ira
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D e bati ng Ort h o d ox y, Contest
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Islam in Contemporary Central Asia
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Muslims at a shrine in Bukhara, Uzb
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Islam in China 1 6 3Kurds now make
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Islam in China 1 6 5sue for some Tu
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Islam in China 1 6 7it that religio
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Islam in China 1 6 9tion of large n
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Islam in China 1 7 1Muslim national
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Islam in China 1 7 3rather recent p
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Islam in China 1 7 5A Muslim Uyghur
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Islam in China 1 7 7While further r
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Islam in China 1 7 9pressure and wi
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Islam in China 1 8 1Israeli, Raphae
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Muslim Thought and Practice in Cont
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Muslim students working on Arabic c
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Religion, Language, and Nat i o n a
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Chapter NineRace, Ideology, and Isl
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A mosque in Bo-Kaap, the traditiona
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Chapter ElevenSuggestions for Furth
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Suggestions for Further Reading and
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Chapter TwelveKey TermsThe heading
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Key Te r m s 3 3 9rule in South Afr
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Key Te r m s 3 4 1Constitution of M
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Key Te r m s 3 4 3Gey Sinan (8)The
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Key Te r m s 3 4 5Brothers), an org
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Key Te r m s 3 4 7the constitution.
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Key Te r m s 3 4 9Kulub (8)A politi
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Key Te r m s 3 5 1and historically
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Key Te r m s 3 5 3PAGAD (9)The popu
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Key Te r m s 3 5 5Semitic (8)A lang
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Key Te r m s 3 5 7Tablighi Jama’a
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Key Te r m s 3 5 9speak a Turkic la
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IndexAa’sir, Imam al-Ghazi Ahmad
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I n d e x 3 6 3Assimilation, 166, 1
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I n d e x 3 6 5nation-building by,
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I n d e x 3 6 7Evangelical Christia
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I n d e x 3 6 9Government, 238, 241
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I n d e x 3 7 1Intellectualism, 17,
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I n d e x 3 7 3Kandhlawi, Maulana M
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I n d e x 3 7 5Marxism, 90, 113, 15
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I n d e x 3 7 7Mutiny of 1857, 106M
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I n d e x 3 7 9cultural, 240-241Eth
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I n d e x 3 8 1Chishti Sabiri, 127I
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I n d e x 3 8 3Solomonic dynasty, 2
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I n d e x 3 8 5Sufi, 26, 190Turkmen
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I n d e x 3 8 7Yacub, 292Yakub Beg
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