RESOURCE COMPETITION IN THE 21ST CENTURY

sources of vital materials. In the extremecase, such antagonisms can lead to the outbreakof armed violence.In general, violent struggle over resourcescan take one of four forms: first, territorialdisputes between competing states over theownership of contested border zones or offshoreareas harbouring valuable supplies ofcritical materials; access conflicts arisingfrom efforts by an outside power to gain orpreserve access to a foreign source of criticalmaterials; allocation disputes arising fromdisagreements over the distribution of suppliesfrom a shared resource source (such asa multinational river system); and revenuedisputes arising from struggles between contendingfactions for monopolisation of therents or profits generated by control over avaluable resource source, such as an oil fieldor copper mine, or the illicit traffic in ‘lootable’goods, like diamonds or old-growth timber.Most of the conflicts of the post-ColdWar era embody aspects of one or anotherof these conflict types.Territorial disputesTerritorial disputes, arising from disputedclaims to contested lands have been a sourceof friction and conflict throughout humanhistory and still occasionally provoke armedviolence — the 1998-2000 war between Eri-trea and Ethiopia being a conspicuous example— but have become less frequent inrecent years as states have slowly but surelyresolved outstanding boundary disputes.Conflicts over offshore territories, however,appear to be becoming more frequent asgovernments fight over contested maritimeEEZs (exclusive economic zones) with valuablefisheries and undersea resources, suchas oil and natural gas. For example, Chinahas fought with Vietnam and the Philippinesover ownership of the Spratly Islandsin the South China Sea, a potential source ofenergy; likewise, Iran and Azerbaijan haveclashed over disputed offshore territoriesin the Caspian Sea. 12 So long as states seea vital national interest in controlling suchareas, disputes over contested EEZs will be arecurring factor in international affairs.Access conflictsAccess conflicts arise from efforts by a resource-importingnation to ensure its abilityto procure needed resources from a distantsource and to transport them safely to itsown territory. Many of the colonial wars ofpast centuries were sparked by such efforts,as was Germany’s 1941 invasion of the SovietUnion (intended in part to seize control ofthe oil fields of the Caucasus region) and Japan’ssubsequent invasion of the Dutch EastIndies (also sparked by the pursuit of oil).Great Britain’s determined efforts to retaina presence in Iraq after the Second WorldWar and to retain control of its refinery atAbadan in Iran after its nationalisation byPrime Minister Mohammed Mossadegh in1951 also fit this pattern.For the United States, ensuring access tothe oil supplies of the Persian Gulf has longbeen a major military objective. This wasmade an explicit strategic objective in theso-called ‘Carter Doctrine’ of 23 January1980. Asserting that ‘[a]n attempt by anyoutside force to gain control of the PersianGulf region’ — and impede the flow of oil —‘will be regarded as an assault on the vitalinterests of the United States of America’,Carter warned that his country would repelsuch an assault ‘by any means necessary,including military force’. 13 This basic principlewas then cited by President GeorgeH. W. Bush as the justification for going towar against Iraq when it invaded Kuwaitin 1990 (and, it was said, posed a threat toSaudi Arabia) as well as for the subsequentquarantine of Iraq by Presidents Bush seniorand Clinton. 14 From a strategic perspective,it can also be viewed as the impetus for the2003 US-led invasion of Iraq. 1512 For background on the disputes in the South China Sea and the Caspian, see Klare (2001), op. cit., pp. 81-137.13 From the transcript of Carter’s address in the New York Times, 24 January 1980. For background on this policy, see Michael A. Palmer (1992). Guardians of the Gulf. New York: Free Press, pp. 101-11.14 For background on these developments, see Michael T. Klare (2004). Blood and Oil: The dangers and consequences of America’s growing dependence on imported petroleum.New York: Metropolitan Books, pp. 49-53.15 For background and discussion, see Klare (2004), op. cit., pp.94-105.[ 298 ]