e Medicinal Wild Plants of the Prairie

MedicinalWild Plantsof thePrairieAn EthnobotanicalGuideKelly KindscherDrawings by William S.WhitneyUniversity Press of Kansasg4e41 JL49e2- L4,..Q.L -eja3. ui4 vve-+5 1Q4L )4ve.(,J7’t1-J(L S&Sc4I

and Drug Administration classifies Artemjsja as an unsafe herbcontaining “a jolatile oil which isan active narcotic poison” (Duke,1985, p. 67.52HARVESTING ANDCULTIVATIONMost of the wild sages are abundant in their natural habitats.White sage and other Artemisiaspecies can be propagated by seeds,by division of the rootstock, orby cuttings taken in the earlysummer.Butterfly Milkweed53

whether the four cardinal pointsof the horizon are given preeminence or whether equal place isgiven also to the three remainingpoints, the Zenith, the Nadir, andthe Here (Gilmore, 1977, p. 57).Dr. F. Andros reported in i8Kthat the Dakotas used the butterflymilkweed as an emetic (Andros,1883, p. uS). In the Great LakesBioregion, the Menominis considered the butterfly milkweed,which they called the “deceiver,”one of their most important medicines. In his “Ethnobotany ofthe Menomini” Huron Smithdescribed how it was used:The root is pulverized and usedfor cuts, wounds and bruises. Itis also used in mixing with otherroots for other remedies. Oneof the most important of thesecompounds consists of this root,ginseng, man -in- the-ground I Echinocystis lobata/, and sweet flag.This is considered by the Menomini to represent four Indiansin power. The “deceiver” is halfboiled, then pounded to strings,to get out the substance, in thiscase. When a Menomini cuts hisfoot with an axe, this is the firstremedy that comes to his mind(Smith, 1928, p. 25).The Lakota name for the swampmilkweed, A. incarnata L., is “Wahinheya ipi’ye” (“medicine usedto doctor gopher,” i.e., swollenglands) (Rogers, 1980, pp. 27, 34).Probably the root was pulverized5SHABITATSandy, loamy, or rocky limestonesoils of prairies, open woodlands,roadsides, and disturbed areas.PARTS USEDThe root.INDIAN USEThe Omahas and Poncas ate theraw root of the butterfly milkweed for bronchial and pulmonarytroubles. It was also chewed andplaced on wounds, or dried, pulverized, and blown into wounds,especially old, obstinate sores. Theethnobotanist Melvin Gilmore reported on the ceremonial uses ofbutterfly milkweed:In the Omaha tribe this medicine and its rites belonged to theShell Society. A certain memberof the society was the authorizedguardian or keeper of this medicine. It was his prerogative to digthe root and distribute bundles ofit to the members of the society.The ceremonials connected withdigging, preparation, consecration,and distribution occupied fourdays. In this connection it maynot be out of place to note thatfour is the dominant number inall ritual and in all orientation inspace and time among the Plainstribes, just as the number sevenis dominant with some otherpeoples. Whether four or seven bethe dominant number depends oncine, Askiepios. The species name,tuberosa, means “full of swellingsor knobs,” referring to the enlargedroot system.DESCRIPTIONPerennial herb 3—9 dm (i—i ft)tall, with woody rootstocks;stems erect, long-hairy, numerous, mostly unbranched, containing watery sap. Leaves alternate,10 cm (2—4 in) long, 0.7—2.5 cmsimple, crowded, lance-shaped,—(5/-,in) wide, shiny green andmostly smooth above, velvety beneath. Flowers in showy, roundedto flat-topped groups near endsof branches, from May to Aug,petals , bent downward, orange tored or sometimes yellow, toppedby a crown of erect hoods, eachone containing a short horn. Fruitshairy, spindle-shaped pods 8—I 5 cm (3 1/8_.6 in) long, opening torelease numerous seeds, each witha tuft of long white hairs at the tip.COMMON NAMESButterfly milkweed, butterflyweed, pleurisy root, Canada root,orange milkweed, orangeroot,orange swallow-wort, orangeapocynum, chigger flower, fluxroot,Indian nosy, rubber root,silkweed, swallow-wort, tuberroot, white root, and wind root.INDIAN NAMESThe Omaha and Ponca namesfor the butterfly milkweed are“makan saka” (raw medicine) and“kiu makan” (wound medicine)(Gilmore, 1977,p. 57). The Mesquakie name is “atiste’i” (knobon roots) (Smith, 1928, p. ao’).The butterfly milkweed does notgrow on the Rosebud Sioux Reservation in South Dakota, but theLakotas have ten names for sixother species of Asclepias (Rogers,‘980, p. 3k). The Gros Ventrename for the root of an Asciepiasspecies they used as medicineis “ahaan tjiinican” (wood-like)(Kroeber, 1908, p. 225). There arealso numerous Indian names forthe common milkweed, A. syriaca, and the showy milkweed,A. speciosa (Kindscher, 1987,p. 5).SCIENTIFIC NAMEAsciepias tuberosa L. is a memberof the Asclepiadaceae (MilkweedFamily). Asciepias comes from thename of the Greek god of medi54

to t he vagus nerve, prodcicizi ICr -spiration, expectoration, brond;i,i)dilation, and the like. As its nanusignifies, it is useful for pietiri.s’,and mild pulmonary edenia. increasing fluid circulation, ciii;;function, and lymphatic di...An average dose is a scant It’dspoonof the chopped root. boil,’, Iin water, one or two cups drool.: iiia day. Amounts of a table spoon (>1more of the root can cause ticiuca(IT vomiting (Moore, 1979, pp.106—7, i3o).MEDICAL HiSTORYIn 1892 Charles Millspaugh recorded the early medical history ofthe butterfly milkweed:The pleurisy-root has receivedmore attention as a medicine titanany other species of this gezliis.Schoepf first brought it before tin’medical profession, followed 1wDrs. Barton, Chapman, Eberle.and Parker, each of who found itoften reliable, especially in ca,ccwhere an expectorant or diapltotea snakehitewas applied to thewound, the victim chewed also theroot and swallowed the saliva.ANGLO FOLK USEThe butterfly milkweed, A. tuberosa,is also called pleurisy rootbecause it was used to relieve inflammation of the lining of thelungs and thorax, and probablyrelieved the “muscular rheumatism of the walls of the chest”(Gaertner, 1979, pp. 119—23).The current folk uses of theshowy milkweed, A. speciosu,butterfly milkweed, and otherspecies are described by MichaelMoore in Medicinal Plants of theMountain West:Stimulates both urine andperspiration, softens bronchialmucous, dilates bronchials, andencourages expectoration. For a diuretic, Milkweed acts to increasethe volume and solids of the urineand will aid in chronic kidneyweakness typified by a slight nonspecific ache in the middle hack,most noticeable in the morningor after drinking alcohol. A tablespoon boiled in a pint of water,one-half cup drunk four timesa day. For the lungs, a teaspoonboiled in a cup, drunk hot. Excess can cause nausea the samephysiological mechanism thatwill cause expectoration will alsocause nausea and vomiting. OtherMilk weeds with broad leaves canhe used similarly, particularly. It. . Otherretic seemed requisite.and more recent writers ustuil.ashave looked with doubt upon ,illits given qualitIes, except mayhap its utility as an expectorantand diaphoretic. The provingshowever, point to it as a volt,able remedy certain forms in vidry coryza, indigestion, colic,diarrhoea, dry coughs, pleurisy.general rheumatic pains, and certain skin affections (Millspaugh,1974, p. 540).is a stimulantPleurisy Root, .was also used by the Lakotas forthis purpose.The Cheyennes made a medicine for snowblindness and otherforms of blindness from the showymilkweed, A. speciosa Torr. (Hart,1981, p. 15). They prepared it bymaking a tea from the top part ofthe plant, straining it, and applying the liquid to the eyes with aclean cloth. The Blackfeet chewedthe root of the green milkweed,A. viridiflora, to relieve sore throat(Hellson, 1974, p. 7!). They alsoapplied the chewed root to swellings and rashes. It was particularlyeffective for diarrhea rash and for anursing baby’s sore gums.The Mesquakies used the rootof the swamp milkweed, A. incarnato, as a medicine to expel tape205). Theworms (Smith, 1928, p.Gros Ventres used some Asciepiasspecies for colic (Kroeber, 1908,p. 224). Both common milkweed,A. syriaca, and lack-in-the-pulpit,Ansaema triphyllum, are reportedto act as contraceptives (ErichsenBrown, 1979,p. 434; Dc Laszloand Henshaw, p. 627). AMohawk antifertility concoctionwas prepared by boiling a fistfulof dried, pulverized milkweed andthree Jack-in-the-pulpit rhizomesin a pint of water for 20 minutes.The infusion was drunk, a cupful an hour, to induce temporarysterility.In the Southeast, the Choctawsvalued a strong tea made fromthe whorled milkweed, A. verticilia to, as a remedy for snakebite(Campbell, 1951, p. 287). While themade into a salve, and rubbed onscrofulous swellings. Lakota children were told to stay away fromgopher mounds or they would getswellings in their necks similarto the cheek pouches of pocketgophers. The Lakuta names forthe plains or dwarf milkweed,A. puinila (A. Gray) Vail., are:“ces’Ios’lo pqu’ta” (diarrhea medicine), “hante’iyc’ceca” (it is likejuniper), and “peji ‘swu’la cik’ala”(small fine herb). Like Juniper orcedar tea, a tea made from plainsmilkweed was used as a diarrheamedicine, especially for children.The Lakota name for the narrowleavedmilkweed, A. stenophyllaA. Gray, is “tin’psila pejuta” (prairie turnip medicine). The root wasgiven to children who refused toeat to help them regain their appetite for the prairie turnip, Psoraleaesculenta Pursh, a food staple, andother foods (ibid.; Kindscher, 1987,pp. 183—89). The Lakota name forthe green milkweed, A. viridifloraRaf., is “hu cinska” (spoon-shapedstem), which describes the shapeof the leaf. The pulverized rootsof the green milkweed were alsogiven to children with diarrhea. Atea of the whole plant was drunkby mothers unable to produce milk(Rogers, 1980, p. 34). This use isprobably an example of the Doctrine of Signatures, the belief thatcertain characteristics of a plantsignify its uses. In this case, themilky sap was thought to signifythat the milkweed would promote the production of milk. Thewhorled milkweed, A. verticillata

one bud (they are about two inchesapart). Both seedlings and cuttingswill usually bloom in their secondyear, although cuttings will occasionally bloom during their firstyear. Seeds and plants of selectedcultivars are available from manynurseries. When the roots of thebutterfly milkweed were morecommonly harvested for theirmedicinal use, the plants were dugwhen dormant in the late fall.Other milkweed species canbe propagated similarly. The endangered Meade’s milkweed,A. meadii Tort., should not bepropagated from the wild as it isprotected by federal law, difficultto propagate, and not very vigorous(Rock, 1977, p.21).59CULTIVATIONThe butterfly milkweed is oneof the most strikingly beautifulwildflowers. Its bright yellow-toted-orange flowers are familiaraccents on the prairie, along aroadside, or in a woodland opening. It is well suited to a sunnylocation in any flower garden andattracts Monarch and other butterflies. It is easily propagated fromseed, which should be cold-treatedfor three months, although someseeds will germinate without coldtreatment. Propagation by cuttings of the tuberous rhizome isalso easy and reliable. The cuttings should be made when theplant is dormant. Each piece ofthe rhizome should have at leastguinea pigs, cats, and rats, as wellas antibiotic activity on Myobacterium tuberculosis cultures.The glycoside amplexoside wasextracted from the milkweedA. amplexicaulis Sm. and has beenshown to inhibit cell growth ofhuman cancer (Piatak et al., 1985,p. 470).The cardiac glycoside in milkweedshas also been useful as achemical defense for Monarchbutterflies Dana us plexippus.Their relationship to the Viceroybutterfly, Limenitis archippus, isconsidered to be a classic exampleof Batesian mimicry and the coevolution of two butterfly species(Brower et al., 1972, pp. 426—29).Monarch butterflies, in their caterpillar phase, eat milkweeds almostexclusively and are able to storethe toxic alkaloids in their cellswithout any apparent harm. Aftertheir metamorphosis into butterflies, they are poisonous to birdsbecause of the continued presenceof alkaloids. It was experimentally determined that these cardiacalkaloids made blue jays and otherbirds vomit; they soon learned notto eat the Monarch butterflies.The poisonous glycoside not onlygives the Monarch butterfly protection from bird predators, butalso indirectly the Viceroy butterfly, which has apparently evolvedto mimic the Monarch butterfly in appearance. This mimicrygives the Viceroy similar protection, even though it does not eatmilkweeds and is not poisonous.The root of the butterfly milkweed, A. tuberosa, was officiallylisted in the U. S. Pharmacopoeiafrom 1820 to 1905 and in theNational Form ulary from x 916to 1936. The common milkweed,A. syriaca, and the swamp milkweed, A. incarnata, were alsoofficially listed in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia from 182.0 to 1863and 1873 to 1882 (Vogel, 1970, pp.288, 337).SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHMilkweed species as a group areknown to contain cardiac glycosides that are poisonous bothto livestock and to humans, aswell as other substances that mayaccount for their medicinal effects.Resinoids, glycosides, and a smallamount of alkaloids are presentin all parts of the plant (Stephens,1980, p. 86). Symptoms of poisoning by the cardiac glycosidesinclude dullness, weakness, bloating, inability to stand or walk, highbody temperature, rapid and weakpulse, difficult breathing, dilatedpupils, spasms, and coma.Butterfly milkweed containsseveral cardiac glycosides of the5-a series, including two, uzarigenin and syriogenin, that areknown to be toxic to humans(Westbrooks and Preacher, 1986,p. 143; Bolyard et al., 1981, p. 47).Coraglaucigenin, frugoside, glucofrugoside, and uzarin have beenisolated from the root. A waterextract of the root shows uterine stimulant activity in rabbits,

parently used as a weak dye. Thespecies name, bracteata, refers tothe plant’s leaf-like appendagescalled bracts.DESCRIPTIONPerennial herbs 2—6 dm (8--24 in)tall; stems soft, hairy, muchbranchedabove. Leaves alternate,stalkless, compound; leafletsusually 3, lance-shaped to elliptic,cm (s —k in) long. Flowers. 3—toin showy, drooping or spreadinggroups, from Apr to Jun; petals ,upper i larger and erect, 2 lowerones boat-shaped, 2 wings at sides,pale yellow to dark yellow. Fruitsinflated, egg-shaped, beaked, 3--3/s—2 in) long, turning5 cm(Iblack with age or when damaged; seeds about 4 mm (/o in)long, brown.H AB I TATPrairies and plains.() )COMMON NAMESYellow wild indigo, wild indigo,plains wild indigo, false indigo,bastard indigo, and rattlepod.INDIAN NAMESThe Omaha and Ponca name forthe yellow wild indigo is “gasatho”rattle), referring to the seeds thatrattle in their seed pods (Gilmore,1977, P. 38). Young Indian boysused the pods as rattles whenthey pretended to take part inceremonial dances. The Omahasand Poncas also refer to the plantas “tdika shande nuga” (maleground plum milkvetch (Astragalus crassicarpus L.)) because it issimilar to ground plum milkvetch,but much more robust (male). ThePawnee name for the yellow wildindigo is “pira-kari” (many children), apparently also referring tothe seeds that rattle in their pods(ibid.). The Osage name for an unknown Baptisia species is “keugoehi” (no translation given) (Mun232). The Mesquakieson, 1981, p.name for the white wild indigo,Baptisia lactea (Raf.)Thieret, is“takakwo’on” (shade for groundsquirrels) (Smith, 1928, p. 228).SCIENTIFIC NAMEBaptisia bracteata Muhi. ex Eli.is a member of the Fahaceac (BeanFamily). The name Baptisia comesfrom the Greek “baptisis” (a dipping). Since this plant turns blackupon injury or death, it was ap— -‘ L14LL4Yellow Wild Indigo68

ancep.s probably blue-eyed grass,producing flowers of an uncommon magnitude; amidst thisassemblage it was not easy tolose sight of the azure larkspur,whose flowers arc of the brightestultramarine; in the depressionsalso grew the ochroleucous Baptisia, loaded with papilionaceousflowers, nearly as large as those ofthe garden pea” (Thwaites, 1905,13:202).Wild indigo seeds must be stratified for several weeks or scarifiedwith a file to break the hard seedcoat. Seeds gathered in the wiLdare often infested with weevils andshould be frozen or refrigerateduntil planted. Unfortunately, seedlings are weak and often die, anddivision of the rootstock is difficult because of the extensive rootsystem. Because of the low success rate, division should only beattempted with young, cultivatedplants.71and lupaninne (Wink Ct al., 1983,p. 254). Not only are these alkabids regarded as herbivore repellants, they are also thought to beactive in allelopathic (plant versusplant) interactions. Most of thesealkaloids are found in all partsof the plant, and most are toxic.No human poisonings from thisplant have been reported (Lampeand McCann, 1985, p. 38). However, these plants should not beconsidered safe to use.CULTIVATIONThe wild indigos are spectacularin flower. If they were easier topropagate, they would be morecommonly grown as ornamentals.One of the early observations ofthe yellow wild indigo was writtenby Thomas Nuttall, who describeda colorful prairie in Arkansas:“The whole plain was, in places,enlivened with the Sisyrinchiumof typhus, scarlet fever, and epidemic dysentery. He reported thatmoderate doses increased respiration and reflex action, while lethaldoses produce death by respiratoryparalysis (ibid.).MEDICAL HISTORYProfessor B. B. Smythe of theKansas Medical College reportedin 1901 that the wild indigos,B. bracteata, B. lactea, and B. australis (L.) R. Br. var. minor, were“alterative, antipyretic, antiseptic,astringent, cathartic, emetic, andtonic” (Smythe, 1901, p. 194). Therelated wild indigo, B. tinctoria(L.) R. Br., found in the easternUnited States, was officially listedin the U.S. Pharmacopoeia from1831 to 1842 and in the NationalFormulary from 1916 to 1936.SCIENTI1’IC RESEARCHRecent German research indicates that extracts from Baptisiaspecies are potential stimulantsto the immune system (Bodinet,Buescher, and Kopanski, 1989,p. 659; Beuscher and Kopanski,1985, pp. 38 1—84). Yellow wildindigo contains the alkaloid anagyrine, while white wild indigocontains the alkaloids baptismand cytisine. The wild blue indigo,B. australis, contains severalalkaloids, including cystisine(probably the most common),N-methylcytisine, sparteine, anagyrine, rhombifoline, tinctorine,PARTS USEDAll parts.INDIAN USEThe Pawnees ground yellow wildindigo seeds, mixed them withbuffalo fat, and applied them asan ointment for colic by rubbingthem on the abdomen (Gilmore,1977, p. 38). The Osages made aneyewash from an unspecified partof a wild indigo, Baptisia species(Munson, 1981, p. 232).The Mesquakies used the whitewild indigo, B. lacteo, to promotevomiting and to treat eczema.They also boiled it and applied itto sores of long-standing and toinflammed mucous membrane ofthe nose produced by catarrh. JohnMcintosh, a Mesquakie medicineman, used it as one of many ingredients in an internal medicine.The Mesquakies also mixed thestems and twigs of the white wildindigo with the bark of the sycamore, Platanus occidentajis L., foruse on knife or ax wounds. Theycalled this medicine “papikwaski”(hollow stem), referring to the hollow stem of the white wild indigo(Smith, 1928, pp. 228, 335).ANGLO EOLK USEThe ethnobotanist Huron Smithreported in 1928 that the rootand herbage of the white wildindigo were used in Iowa as anemeto-cathartic and intestinalstimulant and in the treatment70

Family). Dalea is named in honorPrairie clover, white prairie clover,and slender white prairie clover.INDIAN NAMESThe Omaha and Ponca name forthe prairie clovers is “makanskithe” (sweet medicine), a namethey used for several medicinalplants. The Pawnees called theprairie clovers “kahts-pidipatski”(small medicine) and “kiha piliwushawastat” (broom weed) becausethey used the tough stems tosweep their lodges (Gilmore, 1977,42). The Lakota name for thep.purple prairie clover, Dalea purpurea Vent., is “tokala tapqut’tahu win’yula” (kit fox’s medicinestem female), and their name forwhite prairie clover is its maleequivalent, partly because it hascoarser leaves (Rogers, 1980, p.72).The Kiowa name for white prairieclover is “khaw-tan-ee” (Vestal andShultes, 1939, p. 33).The Mesquakie name for thepurple prairie clover is“kepia’ekie’shikiki” (thimble top)(Smith, T928, p. 229). Two Lakotanames for the silky prairie clover,Dalea villosa (Nutt.) Spreng., are“casmu’ huhloho’ta” (gray sandstem) and “wapta’ya huholho’ta”(gray weed stem) (Rogers, 1980,p. 47).of Samuel Dale, an English botanist (i 659—1739), and refers to thecolor of the flower; candida means(>f dazzling white.” Until recently,these plants were classified in thegenus Petalosteinon.DES CR1 I’ TI ONPerennial herbs 3—To dm (i-¼ ft) tall, with thick taproots,stems to several, ribbed, sometimes dotted with glands. Leavesalternate, pinnately compound,i.—6 cm in) long; leaf(Y—2’/slets egg-shaped to elliptic5—13,or oblong, surfaces with minutedots. Flowers in oval to cylindrical spikes at ends of stems, fromMay to Sep; petals white, upper ,larger and erect, lower 2 boatshaped,2 wings at sides. Fruitsoval, 2.6—4.5 mm in lung,dotted with glands, sepals persisting around bases.8iCOMMON NAMESSCIENTIFIC NAMEDalea candida Michx. cx Wilid.is a member of the Fabaceae (BeanWhite Prairie Clover

1:reaching 15—22 cm (6—9 in) inheight by midsummer. In mygarden, I have observed some blossoms the first year after sowingand, unless there is an unusualdrought, flowering will occur thesecond year. By midsummer of thefirst year, the taproot will he 14to 22 inches deep. The roots of amature white prairie clover extend‘/2—6 ft) downward10 5—200 cm ((Weaver and Fitzpatrick, 1934,p. 223). 83and purple prairie clovers are easyto propagate by seed. Stratifiedseed, planted in the spring, willgerminate and grow quickly thefirst year. For larger areas, such asprairie restorations, seeds can besown in the fall. There are approximately 384,000 individual seedsin a pound of prairie clover seed,nine seeds per square foot is therecommended density larger forplantings et (Salac al., 1978, p. 4).White and purple prairie clovergrow rapidly after germination,Kiowa-Apaches used short Sections of the straight, brittle stemsof the nine-anther prairie cloverburned on the skin as a moxafor headache, rheumatism, andpneumonia (Jordan, 1965, p. 109).The Mesquakies made a teafrom the large taproot of the purpleprairie clover as a cure for measles.To treat diarrhea they mixedthe flowers with the bark of thewhite oak, Quercus alba L., andthe root of wild cranesbill, Geranium maculatum L. They calledthis medicine “neswaiyagatwi”(of three different kinds) (Smith,1928, p. 229). In the Southwest,the Navahos also used the whiteprairie clover in an unspecifiedmanner to relieve abdominal pain(Elmore, 1944, p. 96).SCIENTIfIC RESEARCHThe prairie clovers were apparently not used in any Anglo folkremedies or in modern medicine. The white and purple prairieclovers, which are very similarin appearance, are not known tohave toxic properties. The woollydalea, D. Ianata Spreng., containsalkaloids (Burlage, 1968, p. ,oI).CULTIVATIONThe prairie clovers are attractiveornamental plants and importantconstituents of prairie restorationsand native warm-season grassplantings. Their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen gives them an important ecological role. The whiteH A RI TATPrairies and rocky open woods.PARTS USEDMainly the root, also the flowers.INDIAN USEThe white and purple prairieclovers were used for both foodand medicine. The roots of bothspecies were eaten and the leaveswere made into a beverage (Kindscher, 1987, pp. 109—11).The ethnobotanist MelvinGilmore reported the ritualizeduse of the white and purple prairieclovers by the Plains Indians toward off disease. The pulverizedroot was boiled, and after the sediment settled to the bottom, theliquid was drunk to prevent disease. “The sediment was collectedin the drinking-shell and carriedto a place prepared for it, where itwas buried with respect” (Gilmore,1977, p. 42).The Lakotas used the purpleprairie clover as medicine for unspecified ailments (Munson, 1981,p. 237). They also used the rootsof the silky prairie clover, Daleavillosa (Nutt.) Spreng, as a purge,and the leaves and blossoms wereeaten for a swollen throat (Buechel, 1983, p. ,io).The Dakotasmade a tea from the leaves ofthe nine-anther prairie clover,Dalea enneandra Nutt., to relievecases of stomachache and dysentery (Gilmore, 1913b, p. 366). The8a

SCIENTIFIC NAMEEchinacea angustifolia DC. is amember of the Asteraceae (Sunflower Family). The eighteenthcenturyGerman botanist ConradMoench named the genus Echinacea. This name, which comesfrom the Greek “echinos” (hedgehog), refers to the spiny, roundedseed head, similar in appearanceto a hedgehog or sea urchin. Thespecies name, angustifolia, means“narrow-leaved.” In some of theolder literature cited below, thenames Rudbeckia and Bra uneriawere used for this genus instead ofEchinacea.DESCRIPT IONPerennial herbs I.5—6 dm (½—2 ft)itall, with a woody taproot; stemsto several, mostly unbranched,rough-hairy. Leaves alternate,simple, narrowly lance-shapedto egg-shaped, 5—30 cm (2—12 in)long, 1.5—4 cm (½—i ½ in) wide,margins entire. Flower heads 4—COMMON NAMESPurple coneflower, echinacea,snakeroot, Kansas snakeroot,black sampson, narrow-leavedpurple coneflower, scurvy root,Indian head, comb flower, blacksusans, and hedge hog. The lastfour names refer to the seed head,which is round, black, and spiny.INDIAN NAMESThe numerous Indian names tellof the importance and uses of thepurple coneflower. The Omahasand Poncas, who sometimes usedthe seed head to comb their hair,call it “mika-hi” (comb plant)(Gilmore, 1977, p.74). They alsocall it “inshtogahte-hi,” referringto their use of the plant as an eyewash (“inshta” means “eye”). ThePawnee name for purple coneflower, “ksapitahako” (hand, towhirl), refers “to its use by children in play when they take twostalks of it and whirl one roundthe other, the two stalks touchingby the two heads.” They also callit “saparidu hahts” (mushroommedicine) because its seed head issimilar in shape to a mushroom(ibid). When they find it growing inthe hills, the Lakota call it “ica’hpehu” (something used to knocksomething down) (Rogers, 1980,p. t). When they find it in lowerplaces, it is called “on’glakcapi”(something to comb the hair with).45 L..L .JL.LLi4i A.Purple Coneflower84

concflower roots mixed with putt-ball (Lycaperdon species) sporesand skunk oil were used in thetreatment of boils.The Mesquakies used the plant(probably E. pallula rather thanE. angustifolia) as part of a medicine for stomach cramps, alongwith the roots of wild ginger,Asarum canadense, floweringspurge, Euphorbia corollata,and beebaim, Monarda pwlctuta(Smith, 1928, p. 212).Edwin Denig lived at Fort Unionalong the Missouri River in Montana for twenty-one years duringthe mid-i8oos and came to knowthe Assiniboin people well. I-Icreported that the purple coneflowerwas their most importantmedicinal plant:The principal of these is theblack root, called by them thecomb root, from the pod on the topbeing composed of a stiff surfacethat can be used as a comb. It iscalled by the French racine flair,and grow.s everywhere in the pralne throughout the Indian country.It is chewed and applied in a rowstate with a bandage to the partaffected. We can bear witness tothe effkacy of this root in the cureof the bite of the rattlesnake or inalleviating the pain and reducingthe tension and inflammation offrozen parts, gunshot wounds,etc. It has a slightly pungent ta.’oeresembling black pepper, and produces a great deal of saliva whilechewing it. Its virtues are knownto all the tribes with which wepot without flinching. A Winnebago medicine man also used itto make his mouth insensitive toheat so that he could take a livecoal into his mouth to demonstrate his power (Gilniore, 1977,p. 79). Both of these feats helpedcreate confidence in the ability ofthe medicine men to heal.The Kiowas have used the purpleconeflowcr root as a cough medicine since ancient times. In the1930S, they still used the driedseed head as a comb and brush(Vestal and Shultes, 1939, p.7,).The Kiowas and the Cheyennestreated colds and sore throatsby chewing a piece of the purpleconeflower root and letting thesaliva run down the throat (ibid.;Grinnell, 1962, 2:188).The Cheyennes also made atea from the leaves and roots ofthe purple coneflower that theyused as a remedy for a sore mouthand gums. The same liquid wasrubbed on a sore neck to relievepain. Toothache caused by a largecavity was relieved by letting thisliquid come in contact with it. Theroot was also chewed to stimulatethe flow of saliva, which was especially useful for Sun Dance participants as a thirst preventative(Hart, 1981, p. 21). The Cheyennesalso drank a purple coneflower teafor rheumatism, arthritis, mumps,and measles, and a salve was madefor external treatment of these ailments. When the roots were mixedwith blazing star, Men tzelia laevicaulis, and boiled, the resultingtea was drunk for smallpox. PurpleMelvin Gilmore reported that themaccrated root of the purple coneflowerwas used to treat snakebiteas well as other venomous bites,stings, and poisonings by all theIndians of the Upper MissouriRiver region (Gilmore, 1977, p.74).These Indians and others usedthe purple conefiower “for moreailments than any other plant”(Gilmore, 1913a, p.333).The Dakotas used the freshlyscraped root as a remedy for hydrophobia and snakebite and appliedit to wounds that had putrefled(Smith, 1928, p. 212). They appliedthe root (ground, probably) to inflamed areas to relieve the burningsensation with its “feeling of coolness” (Gilmore, 1913b, p. 368). TheLakotas ate the root and green fruitwhen they were thirsty or perspiring and as a painkiller for toothache, tonsillitis, stomachache, andpain in the bowels (Rogers, 1980,p.37; Munson, 1981, p. 232). On avisit to the Rosebud Reservation inSouth Dakota during the summerof 1987, I learned that the purpleconeflower is still widely harvested by the Lakotas for a varietyof medicinal uses.The Omahas recognized twokinds of purple coneflower: “nuga”(“male,” larger and more masculine) and “miga” (“female,” smallerand a more efficient medicine)(Gilmore, 1913a, pp. 323—33). Theyused some part of the plant for soreeyes. Omaha medicine men applied the maccrated root as a localanesthetic so that they could remove pieces of meat from a boiling7.5 cm wide (i ½—3 in) wide, atends of long stalks, from Jun toJul; ray flowers 2—4 cm (/4—I 1/2 in)long, spreading or drooping, lightlobed, brownish-purple, situatedpink to pale purple; disk flowers-among stiff bracts. Fruits small,dark, 4-angled achenes.H A B I TATThe purple coneflower, E. angustifolia, grows in dry upland prairies,often in rocky areas. It is found primarily in the Great Plains, east ofthe Rocky Mountains from Texasto Montana and Saskatchewan, toeastern Oklahoma, western Iowa,and western Minnesota. E. pallida occurs on rocky, open sitesfrom northeast Texas to southwestWisconsin (mainly on prairies eastof the range of E. angustifolia).E. purpurea is found in rocky, openwoods and prairies eastward fromnortheast Texas, Missouri, andMichigan.PARTS USEDPrimarily the root, but also theentire plant.INDIAN USEThe purple coneflower, Echinaceaangustifolia, was the most widelyused medicinal plant of the PlainsIndians. It was used as a painkillerand for a variety of ailments, including toothache, coughs, colds,sore throats, and snake bite.In 1917 the ethnobotanjst86

ithPharnacists, Inc., a tirni that pccialized in American medicinalplants (Foster, i i, pp. 28 —30).King was unwilling to endorse asecret formula that did not list Itsingredients on the label; Lloyd iiiformed Meyer that he would needthe whole plant for identification,and that his company could onlyintroduce a new drug under Itsbotanical name.Meyer sent the whole driedplant to Lloyd, and it was identified by Curtis Gates Lloyd asEchinacea angustifolia (Lloyd,1917, p. 6). After its identificationMeyer printed a new label for hispatent medicine (ibid., p. i8):ECHINACEA ANCUSTE[OLIAThis is a powerful drug as analternative and Anti-septic in alltimorous and Syphilitic- indications; old chronic wounds, sui’has lever sores, old ulcers, Carbundes, Piles, eczema, wet or fry.can be cured quick and active;also Erysipelas. It will not fail niGangrene. In fever it is a speeili’;typhoid can be adverted in wo Iathree days; also in Malaria, Malignant, Remittent and Moumitainfever it i_s a .specijic. It relieve,spain, .cwelling and inflamniat ion.by local use, internal and externalIt has not and will not fail to eweDiphtheria quick. It cures l,iie.sfrom the bee to the rattlesnake.it is a Specific. Has been testedin more than fifty cases of maddog bites in human and iii evem ‘case it prevented hydrophobia,It has cured hydrophobia Ii is8)ish taste becomes first apparent,which on prolonged chewing isfollowed by an acrid, tingling sensation that remains long upon thetongue (Lloyd, 1921, p. 4).ln a 1914 issue of the Gleaner,Dr. J. S. Leachman reported the useof the purple coneflower rout byearly settlers in Oklahoma: “Oldsettlers all believe firmly in thevirtues of Echinacea root, and useit as an aid in nearly every kind ofsickness. If a cow or a horse doesnot eat well, the people administer Echinacea, cut up and put inthe feed. I have noticed that punystock treated in this manner soonbegin to thrive” (ibid, p. 20).MEDICAL HISTORYH. C. F. Meyer, a patent medicine salesman from Pawnee City,Nebraska, discovered the usefulness of the purple conefiower,E. angustifolia, in 1871, probablylearning about its medicinal qualities from Indians or early settlers15—19). Meyer(Lloyd, 1904, pp.marketed a purple coneflower tincture as part of a secret remedycalled “Meyer’s Blood Purifier”and sent samples of his medicinealong with the unknown westernroot to Dr. John King and JohnUn Lloyd, both of Cincinnati, foridentification and endorsement.Dr. John King was a prominentmedical practitioner and authorof the 1852 Eclectic Dispensatoryof the United States of America.John Un Lloyd was a pharmacistand founder of Lloyd BrothersIof the purple concflower does notextend into Mexico; thus its usein Mexico may indicate a history of trade for this root betweentribes of the southern portion ofthe Prairie Bioregion and Mexico.Also, several tribes, including theApaches, Kickapoos, and Potawatomis, retreated into Mexico inthe nineteenth century and mayhave taken dried roots with them.On the other hand, the MexicanIndian may have been referring toIostephane heterophylla, a closelyrelated species found in Mexico.ANGLO FOLK USEThe purple coneflower was theonly native prairie plant popularized as a medicine by folk practitioners and doctors, and tliis didnot happen quickly. During thisprocess, the purple conefiower wasused extensively as a folk remedy.Dr. Ferdinand V. Hayden wasone of the first physicians to mention the use of Echinacea angustifolia. In his 1859 “Botany Reportto the Secretary of War” on theUpper Missouri River region, hestated that the root (incorrectlyidentified as E. purpurea) “is foundabundantly throughout the country. It is very pungent and usedvery effectively by the traders andIndians for the cure of the bite ofrattlesnake” (Hayden, 1859, p.738).Curtis Gates Lloyd of LloydBrothers Pharmacy, Inc. describedthe unique taste of Echinaceaangustifolia: “Upon chewing theroot of prime echinacea, a sweet-arc -‘ ;iiiaintecj, COIL) It 15 v/fellSuCCeSS (Denig, 1930, pp.us. .425—26).This passage also indicates thatthe French trappers and traderswere probably aware of the medicinal qualities of the purple coneflower.Other tribes who lived in thePrairie Bioregion (the Great Plainsand the Taligrass Prairie regionto the east) and used the nativepurple conefiower medicinallywere the Crows, Hidatsas, Comanches, and Pawnees. The Crowschewed the root for colds anddrank a tea prepared from theroot for colic (Hart, 1976, p. 38).Hidatsa warriors were known tochew small pieces of the root as astimulant when traveling all night(Nickel, 1974, p. 63). The Comanches used the root for treatingsore throat and toothache (Carlson and Jones, 1939, p. 52!). Rootsexcavated from a Pawnee earthenlodge village (the Hill site, locatednear Guide Rock, Nebraska, andoccupied around I8oo) were identified as purple coneflower byMelvin Gilmore at the University of Michigan EthnobotanicalLaboratory (Wedel, 1936, p. 59).An Indian from Mexico whoserved as a translator for MelvinGilmore in 1912, when he wasinterviewing the Lakotas on thePine Ridge Reservation in SouthDakota, indicated that the purpleconeflower was used by his peoplefor snakebites (Gilmore, 1913b,p. 368). The native distribution88

andpurple coneflower on a clinicalbasis (Beat, 1921, p. 229—32). Thepurple coneflower, specificallyE. angustifolia, was used by somepharmacists, and it received aquasi-endorsement when it waslisted in the National Formularyfrom i9i6 to 1950.SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHRecent scientific research hasnot justified Meyer’s extravagantclaims, but it has shown the plantto have active medicinal components. Much of the research on thepurple coneflower has been donein Germany, where there is greaterscientific interest in medicinalplants because more liberal lawsgovern their commercial availability and use (Tyler, 1981, p. 281;Foster, 1991). These experimentshave been conducted on Echinaceaangustifolia as well as the similarand closely related E. pallida andE. purpurea. Increased cultivationof E. purpurea and E. angustifoliamay be needed to meet the increased commercial demand for itsroots and to alleviate the effectsof overharvesting wild stands.Previously there was confusionover which species was being harvested, especially between Echinacea angustifolia and E. pallida.Also, at times the identificationof the prairie species, E. angustifolia, has been confused with theeastern species, E. purpurea.Thisconfusion may have accountedfor some of the early variation inexperimental results.91and Chemistry, composed of thecollege educated, “Regular” ortraditional physicians, reported ina 1909 Journal of the AmericanMedical Association:It is worth noticing—althoughit is not surprising—that these farreachingclaims have been madeon no better basis than that ofclinical trials by unknown menwho have not otherwise achievedany general reputation as acute,discriminating and reliable ob. . In view of the lack ofservers. .scientific scrutiny of the claimsmade for it, echinacea is deemedunworthy of further considerationuntil more reliable evidence ispresented in its favor (Council onPharmacy and Chemistry, 1909,p. 1836).They also reprinted Meyer’s labeland associated his claim with thecollege-educated “Eclectic” physicians, such King, Lloyd, andasFelter.in 1915 researchers Heyl andHart found no physiologicallyactive substances in the purpleconeflower (Heyl and Hart, 1915,pp. 1769—78). Five years later,Couch and Giltner were unable tofind evidence that it affected botulism, anthrax, rattlesnake venom,tetanus, septicemia, tuberculosis, or trypanosomiasis (Couchand Giltner, 1920, p. 6 3—84). However, conclusions from this lastexperiment were refuted by Bealin 1921. Real’s findings suggestedsome benefit from the use of theI—;medical profession that he convinced the Lloyd brothers to puta purple coneflower tincture onthe market. There was alreadyconsiderable demand for the tincture from physicians, and once itwas on the market, the demandincreased greatly. Lloyd claimedin 1917 that tincture of Echinaceawas a “therapeutic favorite withmany thousand American physicians, and which is consumedin larger quantities to-day thanany other American drug introduced during the past thirty years”(ibid., p. 19). It appeared to be mosteffective when the tincture of theground root was made with fourparts alcohol to one part water(Beringer, 1911, pp. 324—25). Thebest roots were believed to comefrom “the prairie lands of Kansasand Nebraska” (Felter, 1898, p. 83).Interest in the purple conefloweras a native medicinal plant spurredBoyce and Kirkland to isolate thevolatile oil of the root in the pharmacy laboratory at the Universityof Kansas in 1898 (Woods, 1930,p. 6 it). The oil had the odor andtaste of the purple coneflower drugintroduced by the Lloyd brotherseleven years previously.Many doctors and researchersreported success in treating various disorders with the tinctureof purple coneflower. ProfessorFl. W. Felter, for example, calledit “A corrector of the depravation(sic) of the body fluids” (Felter,1898, p. 84). But not all doctorswere convinced of its effectiveness. The Council on Pharmacyçwperfectly harmless, internal andexternal. Dose.—Qne half to onefluid-drachm 3 or 4 times a day.Manufactured by H. C. F. Meyer,M.D.Patent Pawnee City, Neb., U.S.A.Meyer also claimed that hismedicine had produced promptcures in 613 cases of rattlesnakebite in both humans and animals(Meyer, 1887, p. 210). Lloyd wrotethat Meyer offered to “come toCincinnati and in the presence of acommittee selected by ourselves,allow a rattlesnake of our selectionto bite him wherever we mightprefer the wound to be inflicted,proposing then to antidote the poison by means of Echinacea only.This offer (or rather, challenge) wedeclined” (Lloyd, 1917, p.5).King introduced Echinaceaangustifolia to the medical profession, stating that Meyer “entertains a very exalted idea of hisdiscovery, which certainly merits a careful investigation by ourshould it bepractitioners. -found to contain only one-half thevirtues he attributes to it, it willform an important addition to ourmateria medica” (Meyer, 1887,p. 209). Dr. King had confidencein the drug, partly because it wasthe only substance that broughthis wife relief from her “virulentcancer” (Lloyd, 1917, p. 4).Lloyd, on the other hand, wasskeptical of Meyer’s claims andhesitant to introduce the drug. Itwas not until several years afterKing introduced the drug to the90

purple conetluwei was threatenedwith extinction and before any significant cultivation occurred in theregion. The plant must be fairlyresilient, since it is still cnnlm’.)Ilin many locations.The demand br purple cone.flower roots for medicinal Liseseems to have a cycle as unpredictable as the drought cycles inthe region. Ronald McGregorthe University of Kansas l3otanyobDepartment reported that in 96 iwith a sudden research demandfor Echinacca root, over 25,000pounds of dried root were harvested (McGregor, 1968, pp. iiitia wasi6). At that time, E. pa11the species preferred, althoughE. angustifolia was acceptable.lnterest in purple coneflowerroots declined after i 965, but hasincreased recently. Steven Fosteireports that because of excessiveharvesting, purple coneflowershave been decreasing along Missouri roadsides (Foster, 1991,p. ,i8). In 1987 the Missouri legislature passed a law to reverse thistrend by prohibiting the harvest ofthree Echinacea spccies—E. palhda, E. pizrpurea, and E. parudoxa—on state parkland, stateforest lands, along state highways,or in wildlife areas (Berman, 1987,p. 2).As a result of longstanding sci;‘ erest in the purple coneentifIc .flower .ermany and concern totproper identification and loss olwild stands, there is now renewedinterest in cultivating the purpleconeflower. When it is grown 111)111HARVESTIN’.., ANDCULT I VAT I ONFor both Indians and Anglos, thepurple coneflower has been themost widely and extensively harvested medicinal plant of the Prairie Bioregion. The pressure on wildstands of purple coneflower fromharvesting has been intense duringtimes of its greatest popularity.Dr. L. E. Sayre of the Universityof Kansas Pharmacy Departmentreported in 1897 that “studentsduring the late summer and earlyfall months find in it a little profitat twenty-five cents a pound”(Sayre, 1897, p. 86). He reportedthat over 200,000 pounds of thedried root, worth over $ioo,ooo(with the price rising to o centsper pound), were harvested inKansas during 1902, mostly inthe northwest part of the state(Sayre, 1903, p. 211). Since it takeseight-to-ten (or more) dried rootsto equal one pound, about twomillion roots were harvested thatyear. The effect of this enormousharvest on the current populationand distribution of the plant isunknown.In 1902, Sayre wrote to RodneyTrue, who directed the investigations of drug and medical plantsat the Department of Agriculture in Washington, D.C., askingthat the government protect thisplant against extermination (ibid.,p. 212). True suggested that it becultivated commercially. However,the demand for purple coneflowerroot apparently waned before the133—53, Wagneret al., 1985, pp.1069—7 5).Stimulation of the immunesystem appears to be strongly influenced by dose level. Recentpharmacological studies indicate that a io-mg/kg daily doseof the polysaccharide over a tendayperiod is effective as an immunostimulant. Increases in thedaily dosage beyond this level,however, resulted in “markedly decreased pharmacological activity”(Wagner and Proksch, 1985, p. 137;Wagner et al., 1985, pp. 1069—75).Other research has shown thatthe purple coneflower producesan anti-inflammatory effect andhas therapeutic value in urology,gynecology, internal medicine,and dermatology (Wagner and141; HarniProksch, 1985, p.schfeger and Stolze, 1980, as citedin Moring, 1984).The purple coneflower, E. angustifolia, also contains chemicalcompounds that are insecticidal. One such compound is toxicto mosquitoes and house flies;another substance, echinolone,disrupts insect development (Hartzell, 1947, pp. 21—34; Jacobson,1954, pp. 125—29; Voaden andJacobson, 1972, p. 619). Researchers in the Horticulture Department of South Dakota State University are currently attemptingto identify the Echinacea angustifolia germplasm containing thehighest level of echinolone. It willbe used in manufacturing an insecticide for the state’s sunflower crop(Foster, 1991, p. 93).The first pharmaceutical company’s research to attribute physiological activity to the purpleconeflower was conducted by theSandoz Company and publishedin Germany in 1950 (StoIl et al.,1950, pp. 1877—93). They foundthe root to possess mild antibioticactivity against Streptococcus andStaph yloccus aureus.In 1971, a pentane-extracted oilfrom the root of Echinacea angustifolia and E. pallida was found tobe inhibitory to Walker carcinosar3 88 lymphocyticcoma 256 and P-leukemia (Voaden and Jacobson,1972, p. 619). Italian investigatorsfound the wound-healing effectsto be attributable to echinacin B(Bonadea et al., pp. 281—95).Echinacin B is a polysaccharidethat temporarily increases hyaluronic acid, a substance that actsas a binding and protective agent,increases connective tissue, formscells called fibroblasts, and thus results in beneficial wound-healingeffects.A purple coneflower productavailable in Germany in 1978, containing the juice of the fresh aerialparts of Echinacea purpurea, wasfound to make mouse cells 5o—80 percent resistant to influenza,herpes, and vesicular stomatitisviruses (Wacker and Hilbig, ‘978,p. 89). Perhaps the most importantfinding so far is the discovery oflarge, highly active polysaccharidemolecules in both E. angustifolia and E. purpurea that possessimmunostimulatory properties(Wagner and Proksch, 1985, pp.92

field experiments, results instronger plants initially and eliminates the tedious nurturing andtending of the slow-growing seedlings. When roots are harvestedfor use, the crown can be dividedto make one to five “plantlets.”These can be grown in flats in thegreenhouse during the winter tore-establish their root systems,then replanted in the field the following spring for another round ofproduction.The purple coneflower is oftengrown simply for its ornamental value, especially for its showyflowers, but the ornamental possibilities of Echinacea have not beenfully explored. The best possibilityfor obtaining a new cultivar is inthe hybrids between Echinaceapurpurea and E. angustifolia DC.var. angustifolia, whose progenyare compact, rounded, bushyplants about two feet in diameter(McGregor, 1968, p. xi6). There arenumerous cultivars of Echinaceapurpurea, ‘the King’ and ‘Sombrero’ are available in the UnitedStates, and more are available inGermany.seed, it takes three to four yearsfor roots to reach harvestable size(Foster, 1991, p. 8i3.To increase thespeed and frequency of germination, seeds must be stratified fortwo to four months. To stratify theseeds, wrap them in wet peat mossand place them in a plastic bagin the refrigerator. Seeds shouldbe barely covered with soil whenplanted. Seedlings have little vigorand must be carefully weeded andwatered.Yields for cultivated, dried rootsof three -year-old Echinacea purpurea grown at Trout Lake, Washington, were 131 kg/ha (1,200 lbs/acre) (ibid.). Yields for the purpleconeflower, E. angustifolia, arenot available but probably wouldbe smaller because the plant issmaller. Apparently there is nocommercial production of thepurple conefiower within its nativerange, as the commercial need iscurrently being met by productionhorn the West Coast and from theharvest of wild stands.Purple conefiowers can alsobe propagated by division of thecrowns. This technique, whichI investigated in greenhouse and94)4:4

l2ryngzuni yuccifoliumRattlesnake MasterCULTi VAT IONFleahanes have numerous small,attractive, daisy-like flowers, butthey can be weedy and may not bedesirable in the garden. Fleabanesare common in fields and meadowsand are easily propagated by seed.Seeds can be planted in the fall orstratified and planted in flats in agreenhouse during the spring.urethritis; L. Iieterophyllitrn, andPhiIu1cIphicimi have, howevergreater power than Cariaderi,se inthis direction’ (Millspaugh,p. 3iL)).The Fleahane, E. philack’Iphicus,was officially listed in the U.S.Phartnacopociu from i 831 to 1882.The fleabane, E. annuus, contains a volatile oil (oil of fleahane),tannins, gallic acid, and a bitterextractive (Burlagc, 1968, p. 43).Fleabanes may cause dermatitisin some people (Foster and Duke,1990, p. 164).98

esolution (Millspaugh, 1974, pp.245—56).Milispaugh’s reference to the useof Seneca snakeroot, Polygalasenega L., suggests that rattlesnakemaster was also used as a snakebiteremedy. The rhizome of therattlesnake master was officiallylisted in the U.S. Pharmacopoeiafrom 182o to 1873 as a diaphoretic,expectorant, and emetic.SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHRattlesnake master is reported tohave bitter aromatic constituents(Smith, 1928, p. 248). Apparentlyno research has been done on theeffectiveness of rattlesnake masterin the treatment on rattlesnakebites, but an extract of Erynglumcreticum was found to be effectiveas an antivenin to the sting of thescorpion, Leiurus quinuqestristus(Afifi et al., 1990, pp. 43—48). ThisEryngium grows in Jordan, whereit is used by people in rural areasfor scorpion stings.CULTIVATIONThe rhizome of the rattlesnakemaster (here called water-eryngo)was described in a 1907 U.S. Department of Agriculture publication titled American Root Drugs:The stout roots tock is veryknotty, with numerous shortbranches, and produces manythick, rather straight roots, bothrootstock and roots of a darkbrowncolor, the latter wrinkled101sheet of water. I observed springingup, the Eryngium aquaticum,occasionally employed as a medicine by the inhabitants, actingas a diuretic, and in larger dosesproving almost emetic” (Thwaites,1905,13:110).MEDICAL HISTORYThe rattlesnake master was listedin Charles Milispaugh’s MedicinalPlants:This species was highly valuedby the Aborigines as an alexiteric,and, combined with Iris versicolor, as a febrifuge and diuretic;since their time it has come intouse by first the laity, then thephysician, as a stimulant, diaphoretic, sialogogue, expectorant, diuretic, and alterative. A decoctionof the root has been found usefulin dropsy, nephritic and calculousdisorders; chronic laryngitis andbronchitis; irritation of the urethra, vaginal, uterine, and cysticmucous membranes; gonorrhoea,gleet, and leucorrhoea; rnucoiddiarrhoea; local infiammationsof the mucous membranes; exhaustion from sexual depletionwith loss of erectile power, seminal emissions, and orchitis. Bysome physicians it has been preferred to Seneka snakeroot for itssphere, and by others it has beenconsidered fully equal to Contrayerva. The powdered root issaid to make a fine escharotic application to fungoid growths andindolent ulcerations, preventinggangrene, and stimulating them toH A B IT ATPrairies and rocky, open woodlands.PARTS USEDRoots, leaves, and fruits.INDIAN USEThe Mesquakies used the leavesand fruit of the rattlesnake masterin their rattlesnake medicine songand dance. They also used the rootas a medicine for bladder troubleand as an antidote to poisons otherthan rattlesnake venom (ibid.).The botanist Thomas Nuttalltraveled into the Arkansas Territory in 1819. He described theuse of rattlesnake master, Erynglum aquaticum, by the Indiansalong the Arkansas River near itsconfluence with the White River:prairie, in. The“February 3rd.. .consequence of the late rains, appeared almost at once a continuedCOMMON NAMESRattlesnake master, button snakeroot,and water-eryngo.INDIAN NAMESThe Mesquakie name for the rattlesnake master is “kisgu’paskwapi”(no translation given) (Smith, 1928,p. 248).SCIENTIFIC NAMEEryngium yuccifolium Michx. isa member of the Apiaceae (ParsleyFamily). Erynglum comes fromthe Greek “eryngion,” a nameused by Hippocrates, the Father ofMedicine, for one of his medicinalplants. The species name, yuccifohum, means “yucca leaf.”DESCRIPTIONStout perennial herbs 3—15 dm (i—ft) tall, with thickened, fibrousroots; stems solitary, branchedabove, smooth, waxy. Leaves alternate, firm, linear, parallel-veined,i—8 dm (V4—2¾ ftj long, 1—3 cm(/8—I/l6 in) wide, gradually reduced up the stem, margins bristly.Flowers in dense, spherical clusters to 2.5 cm (i in) in diameter,on short stalks at tips of stems,from Jun through Sep; petals tiny,white. Fruits egg-shaped, 4—8 mm(‘/8—/Is in) long, slightly scaly, with2 small segments.100

lengthwise. The inside of the rootstockis yellowish white. Watereryngo has a somewhat peculiar,slightly aromatic odor, and asweetish, mucilaginous taste atfirst, followed by some bitternessand pungency.Collection, prices and uses.—The root of this plant is collectedin the autumn and brings fromto 10 cents a pound. Water-eryngoI 02is an old r’rnedy, and OflC 0/itsearly u as the several commonnames indicate, was for the treatment of snake bites (Henkel, 1907,p. co).Rattlesnake master can be propagated by dividing the rootstockwhen dormant, or by plantingstratified seed in the spring.IIEupaBones

for “dotted” and refers to the tinydots on the leaves.DESCRII’TIONPerennial herbs i—8 din (V4—2 ¼ ft)tall; stems single or in clustersfrom woody rootstocks. Leavesalternate, linear, up to i cm(6 in) long, closely spaced, arching upward, surfaces gland-dotted.Flower heads as tufts arrangedin spikelike groups at ends ofbranches, from Jul to Oct; flowersare small, tubular, 9—12 mm1/2 in) long, pink-purple, withpointed lobes and long straplikestyles protruding. Fruits dry, 10-ribbed, 6—7 mm (approximately¼ in) long, each with a tuft offeathery bristles.HABITATPrairies and native pastures.137()MMON NAMESayfeather, blazing star, dottediy feather, Kansas gayfeather,button snakeroot, rattlesnake master, and starwort. The commonnames primarily refer to the showyflower stalk.INDIAN NAMESThe Lakota name is “tat e’ cannuga” (lumpy carcass or lumpsin carcass), somehow referringto the similarity of the hardenedroots to deer excrement (Rogers,1980, p.38; Munson, 1981, p. 235).The Blackfeet named it “maisto-nata” (crow-root) because itwas eaten by crows and ravens inthe autumn (McClintock, 1923,p. 320). The Comanche name is“atabitsenoi” (no translation given)Carlson and Jones, 1939, p. 522).Both the Mesquakies and thePrairie Potawatomis named theblazing star “nipinuskwa” (summer weed) (Smith, 1928, p 216)The Omaha and Ponca namesfor the gayfeather, Liatris asperaMichx., are “aotashe” and “makansagi”; both mean “medicine.” ThePawnee name for this species is“kahtsu-dawidu” (round medicine)(Gilmore, 1977, p. 8i).SCIENTIFIC NAMELiatris punctata Hook. is a member of the Asteraceae (SunflowerFamily). The derivation of thename Liatris is unknown. Thespecies name, punctata, is LatinJ.,) p LLi1LLU LU‘ayfeather136

may be used in the later stages offevers as an eliminant.Therapy—Liatris stimulates thestomach mildly, and is a tonic amidantispasmodic to the entire gaslr;iintestinal apparatus, relievingcolic and soothing irritation. A/icrfevers and other acute prostratingdiseases it is a useful remedy tJassist in removing the productsof disease and restoring healthyglandular action. Its eliminativeaction is quite marked, it havingbeen often used in syphilis andscrofula.It is a prompt diuretic, relievingkidney irritation and assisting inthe removal of dropsical c/fusions,but we have more direct and efficient remedies (Ellingwood, 1902,p.332).SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHThe gayfeather, L. spicata, contains a volatile oil and a resin.Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactoncs have been isolatedfrom Liatris species (Mitchell andRook, 1979, p. 179).CULTIVATIONThe blazing purple flower spikes otgayfeather add a beautiful accentto the prairie’s subtle colors.These plants are now recogmzedas attractive ornamentals— theflowers can now be ordered fromflorists. It is ironic that the gayfeather,native only to prairiesand other open areas in NorthI 39a starch that is not metabolizedbut is considered of use as a mildkidney and liver tonic by herb.alists and used clinically to testkidney ftmction. The root also isa useful tea for throat inflammation and laryngitis, a tablespoonof the chopped root boiled fortwenty minutes in a cup of waterand drunk slowly. A useful coughsyrup can be made from equalvolumes of the chopped fresh rootand honey, mixed in a blender ormacera ted by hand, boiled slowlyfor one-half hour and strained.In New Mexico the rootlets areburned like incense and the smokeinhaled for headache and nosebleeds or blown into the throatfor tonsil inflammations (Moore,1979, p. 47).The roots were also used as a folkmedicine for sore throats and as acure for rattlesnake bite (Burlage,1968, p. 49).MEDICAL HISTORYFinley Elhngwood, in his 1902 ASystematic Treatise on MateriaMedica and Therapeutics, reportedthe medical use of the gayfeather,L. spicata (L.) WilId.:Physiological Action —The agenthas the properties, to a mild degree, of a bitter tonic. It is said toact as an antispasmodic to spasmsof the muscular structure of theintestines, relieving spasmodiccolic. It stimulates the kidneysand has been used in dropsies. Itgayfeather as medicine (Gilmore,1977, p. 81; Gilmore, 1913a,p. 335). The Pawnecs boiled theleaves and root together and fedthe tea to children with diarrhea.The Omahas powdered gayfeatherroot and applied it as a poultice forexternal inflammation. They madea tea from the plant to treat abdominal troubles. The gayfeatherwas also used as food by theKiowas, Tewas, and other tribes(Kindscher, 1987, pp. 143—45).ANGLO FOLK USEGayfeather had only limited Anglofolk use, and that was probablylearned from the Indians. EdwinJames, botanist for the StephenLong expedition, reported fromnear St. Louis on June 27, 1819,that the gayfeather, L. pycnostachya Michx., “here called ‘pineof the prairies,’ which was now infull bloom, has a roundish tuber.ous root, of a warm somewhatbalsamic taste, and is used bythe Indians and others as a cureof gonorrhoea” (Thwaites, 1905,I4 129).Michael Moore, in MedicinalPlants of the Mountain West,noted recent folk uses for thegayfeather, L. punctata:As a diuretic, to increase thevolume of water in urine for mildbladder and urethra infectionsand water retention, Of someuse in decreasing phosphates inthe urine if used for an extendedperiod of time. Contains inulin,I’AKTS USEI)Primarily roots, but also leavesand entire plant.1N1)IAN USEThe Lakotas pulverized the rootsof the gayfeather and ate them toimprove the appetite. For heartpains they powdered the entireplant and made a tea (Rogers,1980, p. 38). The Blackfeet boiledgayfeather root and applied itto swellings (McClintock, 1923,p. 320). They often made a teafor stomachache, but sometimesthey simply ate the raw root instead. The Comanches chewedgayfeather roots for the Juice, aremedy for swollen testes (Carlsonand Jones, 1939, p. 522). TheKiowa-Apaches pounded the cutup roots, chewed them, made thechewed roots into a warm, damppad, and placed it on a wound(Jordan, 1965, p. 118).The Mesquakies and Potawatomis ascribed many virtues togayfeather root (Smith, 1928,216). As a tea, it was a valuablep.remedy when the urine was bloodyand a cure for bladder trouble inwomen. Applied topically, it was acure for scabies. The root was usedalone in an unspecified manner tocure gonorrhea. This use also wasmentioned by Edwin James on theLong expedition (see below).The Mesquakies used the gayfeather, L. aspera, for bladder andkidney troubles. The Omahas,Poncas, and Pawnees also used this138

in late fall or early spring. Seedlings will bloom either the secondor third year.Seeds are light weight—about139,000 to a pound. Since theseeds have a high germination rate,only about three seeds are plantedper square foot when a large areais being restored to prairie. In oneexperiment, a 96 percent germination rate was obtained after seedswere stratified, then germinated at79°F. (Salac et al., 1978, p. 4).America, is grown commerciallyin greenhouses in Europe and exported to florists in the UnitedStates.The blazing star, L. pycnostachya, has the largest flowerspikes, sometimes 6o cm ftlong, and blooms in midsummer.The blazing star, L. punccata, is acompact plant, amazingly droughttolerant, that blooms in late summer and early fall. It can be grownin a sunny location, either fromseeds or from root-cuttings planted140

-I‘fly‘icr,• carSanuke,tcdusdye‘as101racyian,tcdonUtrimeMonarda ,fistulosa L.Beebaimk!ss

Andros, who lived and workedamong the Winnebagos and l)akotas for many years, wrote in i 881that both tribes used a horse mintas a stimulant. (I-Ic identified theplant as Monarda punctata, hut itwas probably heebalrn, M. fi’.tulo,sa, or spotted beebaim, M. pectlnato Nutt.) “This I saw them usein cases of Asiatic cholera, whichprevailed among them, using itboth internally and externally—very hot. I think they were as successful as I was in the treatment’(Andros, 1883, p. 118).The women of both the Siouxand the Flatheads reportedly dranka tea made from the leaves ofbeebalm after childbirth (Blankenclusters at ends of branches, from1 petals fused at base intoJun to Sepa tube, separating into 2 lips, upperone slender and slightly arched,lower one bent backward, 2—3.5 cm(¼—I/8 in) long, pale lavender todark lavender, rarely white. Fruitsdry, hard, 1.5—2 mm (approximately /16 in) long, brownish orblackish.HABITATPrairie hillsides, pastures, roadsides, stream banks, and occasionally in open woods, usually inrocky soil.PARTS USEDLeaves, flower clusters, and roots.INDIAN USEThe Lakotas drank a tea madefrom the flower clusters as aremedy for fevers and colds. Atea from the leaves was used forwhooping cough and other coughing; it was also considered goodfor people who had fainted (Munson, 1981, p. 236 Rogers, 1980,p. o).The Lakotas wrapped boiledleaves in a soft cloth and placed iton sore eyes overnight to relievepain. Chewed leaves were placedon wounds under a bandage to stopthe flow of blood.The Dakotas used the heebalmfor the same purposes and madea tea from either the leaves or17). The Winnehagosship, 1905, p.also boiled the leaves and appliedthem to pimples and other skineruptions on the face (Gilmore,1977, p. 59).The Blackfcet made an eyewash from beebalm blossoms andwarm water. They also bound theflower heads over a burst boil andremoved them when the woundhad healed (McClintock, 1923,p. 321; Hellson, 1974, pp. 67, 72, 77,84). They drank a tea made fromthe plant to control coughs andsoothe the kidneys. They chewedthe roots for swollen neck glands,and applied pieces of the plant tocuts. A tea made from a mixtureof wild onions, Allium species,and beebaim was drunk to inducevomiting. The Blackfcet expression for vomiting is “break it,”implying that the sickness wasforced from the body by vomiting.the flowers for abdominal pain(Gilmore, 1977, 9). Dr. p. F.The Osage name is “nidsida” (notranslation given) (Munson, 1981,p. 236).I S7SCIENTIFIC NAMEMonarda fistulosa L. is a memberof the Lamiaceae (Mint Family).Monarda is named after NicholasMonardes, a sixteenth-centuryphysician of Seville, who wroteabout medicinal and other plantsof the New World. The speciesname, fistulosa, means “tubular,”in reference to the shape of theflowers.DESCRIPTIONPerennial herbs 3—12 dm (i—a ft)tall, with creeping rhizomes;stems square, usually hairy above,sometimes branched, often clustered. Leaves opposite, simple,gland-dotted and fragrant, lanceshapedto narrowly triangular,3—10cm (i I/4_4 in) long, lowersurfaces hairy, margins toothedto nearly entire. Flowers in roundCOMMON NAMESBeebaim, bergamot, horsemint,American horsernint, longfloweredhorsemint, Oswego tea,purple bergamot, oregano, plainsbee balm, and fern mint.INDIAN NAMESThe Dakota names are “hehakata pezhuta” (elk medicine) and“hehaka to wote” (food of the elk)(Gilmore, 1977, p. 59). The Dakotas also have a name for a secondvariety, “wahpe washtemna” (fragrant leaves). The Omaha andPonca name is “pexhe pa” (bitterherb), and they refer to the secondvariety, which they used as a fragrant pomade for the hair, as “iznakithe-ige” (no translation given).The Pawnees have names for fourvarieties of beebaim. The lowestform they call “tsusahtu” (illsmelling),the second is “tsostu”(no translation given); the third is“tsakus tawirat” (shot many timesstill fighting); and the fourth, themost desirable, is “parakaha” (fragrant) (ibid.). The Cheyenne namesare “wi’ us kimohk’ shin” (bitter perfume) and “mo in’ a mohk’shin” (horse perfume) (Grinnell,1962,2: i86). The Blackfeet callit “ma-ne-ka-pe” (young man)(McClintock, 1923, 321). p. TheMesquakie name for beebaim is“menaskwa’kuki meskwanaki”(smelling and red berries) (Smith,1928, p. 225), and the Kiowas call it“po-et-on-sai-on” (perfume plant)(Vestal and Shultes, 1939, p. 49).156

. as. It. Internally,this variety. Product ii m 1101cm;,;per acre might he great em ugh 1,)make geraniol from this varietycompetitive with the syntheticform (Simon and leliveau, Ip. i20).0(11.11 VA TI ONA handsome ornamental, beeha I niis ;in easy plant to grow in thegarden. Melvin Gilmore believedthat heehalm was inadvertentlypropagated by Indians of the Missouri River region, who used itwidely and spread its seeds whenthey transported the plants ;iltemharvesting them (Gilimire, i977,Many varieties (it the redfloweredheehaim, M. dulynia L.,have been selected for their colorful flowers. These and the nativeheehalm are easy to propagate bydividing the roots or planting thetiny seeds in spring. They shouldbe sown about o. cm (¼ in) deep.Seedlings will bloom the secondyear, and plants established bydivision may bloom the same year.Established plants send out sideshoots in all directions and willcrowd out adjacent plants overtime. Division of the clumps is onmethod of preventing this. leebalm is attractive to bees, and theyfeed on the flowers quite heavily.The leaves and tops of M, rune.lola were officially listed in theU. S. Pharmacopoeia from i 820 tOi882. Monarda oil, the principalactive constituent of the plant, wasofficially listed during the sameperiod. It was used internally asa carmmnative and diaphoretic,and externally in liniments as astimulant, counterirritant, andvesicant. Thymol, which can hederived from A’!, punctata, M. /i,stulosa, and M. didyma, was officiallylisted in the U. S. l’harmacopneiafrom 1882 to 19S0 and has beenlisted in the National Formulary since 1950. It has been usedas an antifungal, amuihacterial,and anthelmintic, especially furhookworm.SCIENTIFIC RESEARChMost thymol today is producedin the laboratory. In addition tothymol, both beebalmn and dottedbeebalm contain limonene, carvacrol, and cymene (Foster, 1985,p. 67). A sweet variety of beebaim,M. fistulosa var. men thaefolio(Graham) Fcrn., has been foundin Manitoba (Marshall and Scora,1972, pp. 1845—48). Geraniol, animportant perfume componentpreviously unreported in Mcrnarda,was found to compose 72—93 percent of the steam-distilled oil oflant, diaphoretic and carminative,occasionally used by the whiteman for flatulent colic, nausea andVomiting, and the diarrhoea resuiting from a cold” (Smith, 1928,p. 225).ME[)ICAL hISTORYConstantine Rafinesque, a medicalbotanist and explorer, Wrote in1830 concerning Monarda punctata:The whole plant has a gratefulsmell somewhat similar to Dittany and Balm; much strongerwhen bruised. The taste is pungent, warm, hitterish &c.Schoepf long ago recommendedthis plant in intermittent feversThe oil become an official article.a rubefucientkept in shops. .liniment in chronic rheumatism,paralytic affections, cholera infantum, difficulty of hearing, pen.odical headache, and typhus. Itmust he dissolved in alcohol andrubbed. A liniment made withcamphor and opium, cured therelieves.periodical headache. .the gastric irritability in cholerainfantum, by bathing the abdotwo.men and limbs. .drops of oil in sugar and water,act as a powerful carminative, andstop emesis or profuse vomiting.The plant is used in New Jerseyin cholic, and gravel as a diuretic,being often united to onion /uicein gravel and dropsy (Ra/inesque,1830, pp. 37—38).The Mesquakies used beebaimmixed with other plants as a curefor the common cold (Smith, 1928p. 225). They also made numerous preparations from the dottedbeebaim, M. prmctata L., andcombinations of other plants forheadaches, colds, and catarrh, andtO revive an UnCOnSCiOUS patient.In their medicinal use of theplants, the Kiowas did not distinguish between beebalm, M. fistulosa, and the spotted heebaim,M. pectinata. They crumpledthe leaves of both, mixed themwith spittle, and applied the resulting lotion to soothe and coolinsect bites and stings (Vestal andShultes, 1939, p.49).The Crows found beebaim teahelpful in treating respiratoryproblems (Hart, 1976, p. 70). Itwas also used as medicine by theFlatheads, Kutenais, and Pawnees(ibid.; Dunbar, 1880, p. 340). Several tribes in the region used thebeebalm as a perfume for theirhair, bodies, homes, or horses.It was also occasionally used asa beverage tea or as a seasoning(Kindscher, 1987, pp. io— i).ANGLO FOLK USEWhether they discovered itsmedicinal value through experimentation or learned of it from theIndians, pioneers viewed beebaimas an important folk remedy. It wasused to treat headache and fever(Burlage, 1968, p. 93). The ethnobotanist Huron Smith stated thatMonarda “is an aromatic stimuI 8

Ratibicta columnilera jiNun.) Woot. OPrairie Coneflower4U/fr i‘fr/ /T 7)

same fluid was reported to pro idequick rd id in cases of pois in ivy(Crinnell, 1962, 2 189.CiJ1tiVA1 IONThe prairie conetlower, also calledMexican hat, is an attractive ornamental and one of the easiest wildflowers to propagate from seed.The percentage of seeds that willsprout can be increased by a coldtreatment—chilling the seeds at4°C (4o°F) for nine weeks, thengerminating them at 27°C (8o°F(.Crown from seed, the plants willbloom in their second year (Art,I986, p. 216). They also can heeasily propagated by division. Theprairie coneflower prefers ‘ull sun,well-drained soils, and is verydrought tolerant.tops was used to relieve headache(Rogers, I98o, p. 89). The Lakotas used an unspecified part otthe plant to stop hemorrhagingfrom external wounds or internalcauses. A song accompanied theiruse of this plant )Dcnsmore, 1936,pp. 264—65; Buechel, i98, p. s5).The Dakotas used the prairie coneflowerflowers along with otherunidentified plants in the preparation of a remedy for chest painsand other ailments. Mixed withother unidentified plants it becamea remedy for wounds. The Dakotasconsidered the plant very fragrantand also made a beverage tea from68).3h, p.3the leaves (Gilmore, I9IThe Cheyennes boiled the leavesand stems to make a yellow solution that was applied externally torattlesnake bites to relieve the painand to draw out the poison. The13 cm (i—i in) long, up to 7. cm( in) wide, pinnately divided andoccasionally twice so, with unequal linear segments. Flowerheads columnar, up to cm (2 in)long, at the ends of long stalks,from Jun to Sep; ray flowers 4—TI,golden yellow to purplish-brown,about 2.5 cm (i in) long, drooping;disk flowers purplish-brown, abundant. Fruits short, gray, flattenedachenes tipped with J—2 bristles.H A B I TATPrairies, open disturbed areas, androadsides.PARTS USEDLeaves and stems.INDIAN USEThe Lakotas made a tea fromthe stalks and leaves to cure astomachache or a pain in theside. A tea made from the flowerCOMMON NAMESPrairie coneflower, Mexican hat,columnar prairie coneflower andlonghead coneflower.iNDIAN NAMESThe Dakota name for the prairieconeflower is “wahcha-zj chikala”(“flower, yellow, little” or “littlesunflower”) (Cilmore, 1977, pp.78—79). The Lakotas have twonames for the prairie coneflower:“napo’stan” (thimble), in referenceto the thimble-shaped seed head;and “asan’pi iya’tke” (used to drinkmilk with), as the top was reportedly used as a nipple (Buechel,1983, pp. 92, 355). The Cheyennename for the prairie coneflower is“shi’ shin o wuts’ tsc i yo” (rattlesnake medicine) (Grinnell, 1962, 2:188—89).SCIENTIFIC NAMERtitibida columnifera (Nutt.)Woot. & Standl. is a member ofthe Asteraceae (Sunflower Family).The origin of the name Ratibidais unknown. The species name,coluinnifera, refers to the columnar cluster of disk flowers in thecenter of the flower.0 ES C R ii’ TI ONPerennial herbs 3—Iodm (1—3 ‘/ ft)tall, with stout taproots; stemserect, appressed hairy, i to several, ribbed, sometimes branched.Leaves alternate, stalked, 2.5—ISo

Achillea millefoliumYarrowi6COMMON NAMESYarrow, milfoil, thousandleaf,wild tansy, nosebleed, old-man’spepper, sneezewort, knight’s mufoil, herbe militaris, staunchweed,bloodwort, and soldier’s woundwort. The last five names referto its use in the military to healwounds.INDIAN NAMESThe Cheyenne name for the plantis “i ha i se e yo” (cough medicine) (Grinnell, 1962, a: 189). TheOsage name is “wetsaoindse egon”(rattlesnake’s tail-like) (Munson,1981, p.2.31). The Lakota namesare “xante canxlogan” (cedar weed)and “taopi pexuta” (wound medicine) (ibid.). The Winnebago nameis “hank-sintsh” (woodchuck tail),in reference to the appearance ofthe leaf (Gilmore, p. 82).SCIENTIFIC NAMEAchilled mifiefolium L. is a member of the Asteraceae (SunflowerFamily). Achillea refers to theGreek hero Achilles, who supposedly used this plant to heala soldier’s wounds. The speciesname, niilefolium, means “thousand leaf” in reference to the manyfine dissections of the leaf.DESCRIPTIONFaintly aromatic perennial herbsa—6 dm (¾—a ft) tall; stems erect,woolly, few-branched above.Leaves alternate, gradually reducedupward, 3—’5 cm (I/I6—6 in) long,0.5—3 cm (/16—,3/i6 in) wide, highlydissected, with a fernlike appearance. Flower heads in domed orflat-topped clusters at ends ofbranches, from May to Oct; rayflowers ,less than 3 mm (½ in)long, white or rarely pink; diskflowers white. Fruits dry, smooth,flattened achenes.HABITATYarrow is found on all northerncontinents, in prairies, meadows,open woods, and especially inareas of mild disturbance.PARTS USEDAll parts, but especially the flowertops and leaves.INDIAN USEYarrow has been used in a widevariety of medicinal treatments byat least 58 different Indian tribes‘7

and cancer. The infusion and extract are employed. The Americanplant is stronger than the European, and has lately been exportedfor use: this often happens withour plants, our warm summersrendering our medical plants moreefficacious. (Raflnesque, 1830,p. 185).In his American Medicinal Plants(1892) Charles Millspaugh gavedirections for preparations of atincture to be used for a variety ofcommon ailments:The whole fresh plant shouldbe gathered when flowering begins, excluding all old and woodystems, and chopped and poundedto a pulp; then in a new piece oflinen press out thoroughly all thejuice and mix it by brisk succession with an equal part by weightof alcohol. Allow the mixture tostand eight days in a dark, coolplace, then filter. The tincture thusprepared should be by transmitted light of a clear reddish-orangecolor; its odor peculiar, resembling that of malt yeast, pungentand agreeable, like the fresh plant;to the taste acrid and slightly bitter, and shows an acid reaction totest papers.One other related use was reported by the botanist Linnaeus,who noted that the Swedes hadused yarrow instead of hops tomake beer and considered the beerthus brewed to be more intoxicatANGLO FOLK USEYarrow has been a popular medicinal plant in Europe throughoutthe ages. It was used by Achillesand Dioscorides and has been recommendeci in many herbals. TheGerarde herbal, printed in Englandin 1636, stated:The leaves of Yarrow do closeup wounds, and keepe them frominflammation, or fiery swellings:it staunches bloud in any part ofthe body, and it is likewise putinto bathes for women to sit in:it stoppeth the laske, and beingdrunke it helpeth the bloudy flux.Most men say that the leaveschewed, and especially greene, area remedy for the tooth-ache.The leaves being put into thenose, do cause it to bleed, andease the paine of the megrim....One dram in pouder of theherbe given in wine prefentlytaketh away the paines of colicke.(Gerarde, 1636, p. 1073)MEDICAL HISTORYConstantine Rafinesque wrote inhis 1830 Medical Flora or Manualof Medical Botany of the UnitedStates:Yarrow, common to Europeand America. Whole plant used.Bitter... tonic, restringent, andvulnerary, but subnarcotic andinebriant. Used for hemorrhoids,dysentery, hemotysis, menstrualtea that was held in the mouth tosoothe toothache and sore gums(Shemluck, 1982, p. 307). Theyalso used the crushed plant (probably fresh) for burns and madea poultice from it for boils andopen sores. They added goose fat tomake a salve. The Assiniboins andGros Ventres made a tea from theflowers to treat colds and stomach complaints. The Gros Ventresalso made a poultice of the boiledflowers for hand wounds (ibid.).The Winnebagos made a yarrowtea for bathing swellings, and theyalleviated earaches by placing awad of the leaves (probably fresh)in the afflicted ear (Gilmore, 1977,p. 82).John B. Dunbar, a Presbyterianmissionary who lived with thePawnees for many years on a reservation in Nebraska, observed theuse of yarrow in cautcrization ormoxa. This method of treatmenthas long been used in China andJapan as a counterirritant, and itsuse in combination with acupuncture has recently been broughtto the attention of the Americanpublic. Among the Pawnees, itwas used to relieve pain. Its use“was not infrequent. It was doneby inserting a bit of the stalk ofthe achillea millefolium, about aninch long, in the skin and settingfire to the exposed end, and allowing it to burn down into the flesh.Sometimes several pieces wereinserted near each other at once”(Dunbar, i88o, p. 339).(Chandler Ct a!., 1982, pp. 203—23;Duke, 1986, p. 3 Shemluck, 1982,307—9; and references citedpp.below). Many of its uses were identical to those in Europe. The mostcommon were to treat coughingand throat irritations and to stopbleeding.The Chcyennes used the freshor dried plant to make a tea forthese three purposes and also forcolds and slight nausea (GrinneLl,17). The1962, 2:189; Hart, 1981, p.tea stimulated sweating, to breaka fever and alleviate cold symptoms, and was also drunk after asweat bath to encourage furthersweating. They also made a teafrom the above-ground portionsof the plant to treat respiratorydiseases like tuberculosis and forheart trouble and chest pains. Inaddition, they chewed the leavesand also rubbed them on the bodyto soothe unspecified afflictions.The Blackfeet made a tea thatwas taken as a diuretic in the belief that the sickness would passwith the urine. This tea was alsorubbed on the affected part (Hellson,1974, p. 69). The Osages usedsome unspecified part of the plantfor a toothache medicine and usedthe flowers as a perfume (Munson, 1981, p. 231).The Lakotasused the plant to treat wounds.The entire plant was dried andthen chewed and placed on thewound. A tea of the leaves was alsoused to treat coughing, whooping cough, and fainting (Buechel,

ii(Chandleretal., 1982, p. 213;Fluck, 1955, p. 3693.Yarrow is easy to grow, hardy,drought-resistant, and aromatic;it does well in full sun. It has bothlacy-leaved foliage and attractiveflower clusters. It seems to thriveunder stress; it can tolerate overgrazing by cattle in pastures. Itis propagated by division of therootstock in spring or fall andsometimes by cuttings. Plants aremost easily grown from seed andwill bloom the second year. Whenplanted, they should be spaced zo—25 cm (8—12 in) apart (Foster, 1985,p. 168). Clumps should be dividedevery three to four years to stimulate growth. There numerousarecultivars including theof yarrow,reddish-pink the light‘Rubra’ andpink ‘Rosea.’ The yellow yarrowsare another species, usually Achillea flhipendulina Lam.21198). Anyone allergic to anyp.member of the Asteraceae (Sunflower Family), which includesragweed, should in usingbe carefulthis plant. Large or frequent dosesof yarrow may be harmful, and theplant does contain small quantities of thujone, which is considered toxic (Foster and Duke, 1990,p. 64).HARVESTING ANDCULTIVATIONThe leaves and flowers of yarroware harvested when they first beginflowering because there is greatvariation in content of the chemical constituents (specifically oiland azulene) based on season ofcollection, variety, age of the plant,parts used, and habitat of the plant.For example, the content of azulene is higher in sun-grown plantsvolatile oils (menthol and camphor),tannins, sterols, and triterpenes. Some of these substancescould account for the plant’s apparent effectiveness in treating skindiseases. Local analgesia could result from the salicylic acid derivatives, eugenol, menthol, or othercompounds in the volatile oil. Theantipyretic activity may be attributable to the presence of salicylicacid derivatives, chamazulene,or other substances. Thujone isa known abortifacient and mayaccount for yarrow’s use in thetreatment of problems associatedwith the female reproductive system (ibid.I.Constituents of the volatile oilextracted from the plant apparently have expectorant, analgesic,and diaphoretic properties thatmay provide relief from some coldand influenza symptoms (ibid.).The characteristic properties ofthe various chemicals don’t tellthe whole story. Concentrations ofchemical substances can vary fromplant to plant. The mere presenceof a substance with known effectsdoes not mean that it will causethose effects in combination withthe many other chemicals foundin the plant. Yarrow, for example,contains some substances thatmay counteract each other. It hasboth achilleine, with its hemostatic properties, and coumarin,which promotes bleeding.Yarrow is considered to be nonpoisonous. Nonetheless, somepeople are reported to be allergic toit, being susceptible to dermatitis(ibid.; Lampe and McCann, 1985,The dried leaves and flowering tops of yarrow were officiallylisted in the U.S. Pharmacopoeiafrom 1863 to 1882. They were usedas a tonic, stImulant, and emmenagogue. Yarrow is still listed inthe pharmacopoeias of Austria,Hungary, Poland, and Switzerland(Chandler et aL, 1982, p. 205).SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHYarrow’s chemical constituentshave received considerable study,and over x 20 compounds havebeen identified. Other chemicals have been isolated but notcompletely determined, and stillothers have only been detected.An extract from the flower headcontains a blue volatile oil calledazulene, azulenelike compounds,and a water-soluble glycoprotein(ibid., pp. 210—16). It is now generally agreed, however, that azuleneis found only in the North American plants of Achillea millefoliumvar. lanulosa. Sesquiterpene lactones found in the volatile oil havebeen investigated because theyhave novel chemical structuresand are precursors for the azulenes. These lactones exhibit manyinteresting biological effects, including antimicrobial, cytotoxic,and anticancer activities.The flavonoids in yarrow exhibitconsiderable antispasmodic activity. The alkaloid achilleine hasbeen found to be an active hemostatic. Other compounds that mayhave beneficial effects include the20

1iparently used as a weak dye. Thespecies name, bracteata, refers tothe plant’s leaf-like appendagescalled bracts.DESCRIPTIONPerennial herbs a—6 dm (8—24 in)tall; stems soft, hairy, muchbranchedabove. Leaves alternate,stalkless, compound; leafletsusually 3, lance-shaped to elliptic,2.5—IO (1—4 in) long. Flowersin showy, drooping or spreadinggroups, from Apr to Jun; petals ,upper i larger and erect, a lowerones boat-shaped, 2 wings at sides,pale yellow to dark yellow. Fruitsinflated, egg-shaped, beaked, 3—s cm (I/l6—2 in) long, turningblack with age or when damaged; seeds about 4 mm (/l6 in)long, brown.HABITATPrairies and niqincCOMMON NAMESYellow wild indigo, wild indigo,plains wild indigo, false indigo,bastard indigo, and rattlepod.INDIAN NAMESThe Omaha and Ponca name forthe yellow wild indigo is “gasatho”(rattle), referring to the seeds thatrattle in their seed pods (Gilmore,1977, p. 38). Young Indian hoysused the pods as rattles whenthey pretended to take part inceremonial dances. The Omahasand Poncas also refer to the plantas “tdika shande nuga” (maleground plum milkvetch (Astragalus crassicarpus L.)) because it issimilar to ground plum milkvetch,but much more robust (male). ThePawnee name for the yellow wildindigo is “pira-kari” (many children), apparently also referring tothe seeds that rattle in their pods)ibid.). The Osage name for an unknown Baptisia species is “keugoehi” (no translation given) (Munson, 1981, p. 232). The Mesquakiename for the white wild indigo,Baptisia lactea (Raf.) Thieret, is“takakwo’on” (shade for groundsquirrels) (Smith, 1928, p. 228).sCIENTIFIC NAMEBaptisia bracteata MuhI. ex £11.is a member of the Fabaceae (BeanFamily). The name Baptisia comesfrom the Greek “baptisis” (a dipping). Since this ulant turns blackBaptisia bracteataYellow Wild Indigo

anceps (probably blue-eyed grass),producing flowers of an uncommon magnitude; amidst thisassemblage it wasnot easy tolose sight of the azure larkspur,whose flowers are of the brightestultramarine; in the depressionsalso grew the ochroleucous Baptisia, loaded with papilionaceousflowers, nearly as large as those ofthe garden pea” (Thwaites, 1905,13:202).Wild indigo seeds must be stratified for several weeks or scarifiedwith a file to break the hard seedcoat. Seeds gathered in the wildwith are often infested weevils andshould be frozen or refrigerateduntil planted. Unfortunately, seedlings are weak and often die, anddivision of the rootstock is difficult because of the extensive rootsystem. Because of the low success rate, division should only beattempted with young, cultivatedplants.and lupaninne (Wink et al., 1983,254). Not only are these alkap.loids regarded as herbivore repellants, they are also thought to beactive in allelopathic (plant versusplant) interactions. Most of thesealkaloids are found in all partsof the plant, and most are toxic.No human poisonings from thisplant have been reported (Lampeand McCann, 1985, p. 38). However, these plants should not beconsidered safe to use.CULTIVATiONThe wild indigos are spectacularin flower. If they were easier topropagate, they would be morecommonly grown as ornamentals.One of the early observations ofthe yellow wild indigo was writtenby Thomas Nuttall, who describeda colorful prairie in Arkansas:“The whole plain was, in places,enlivened with the Sisyrinchiumof typhus, scarlet fever, and epidemic dysentery. He reported thatmoderate doses increased respiration and reflex action, while lethaldoses produce death by respiratoryparalysis (ibid.).MEDICAL HISTORYProfessor B. B. Smythe of theKansas Medical College reportedin ‘90’ that the wild indigos,B. bracteata, B. lacteci, and B. austraiLs (L.) R. Br. var. minor, were“alterative, antipyretiC, antiseptic,astringent, cathartic, emetic, and). Thetonic” (Smythe, ‘9°’, p.i94related wild indigo, B. tinctoria(L.) R. Br., found in the easternUnited States, was officially listedin the U.S. Pharmacopoeia from1831 to 1842 and in the NationalFormulary from 1916 to 1936.SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHRecent German research indicates that extracts from Baptisiaspecies are potential stimulantsto the immune system (Bodinet,Bueseher, and Kopanski, 1989,p. 659, Beuscher and Kopanski,381—84).Yellow wildindigo contains the alkaloid ana1985, pp.gyrine, while white wild indigocontains the alkaloids baptismand cytisine. The wild blue indigo,B. australis, contains severalalkaloids, including cystisine(probably the most common),N-methylcytisine, sparteine, anagyrine, rhombifoline, tinctorine,PARTS USEDAll parts.INDIAN USEThe Pawnees ground yellow wildindigo seeds, mixed them withbuffalo fat, and applied them asan ointment for colic by rubbingthem on the abdomen (Gilmore,1977, p. 38). The Osages made aneyewash from an unspecified partof a wild indigo, Baptisia species(Munson, 1981, p. 132).The Mesquakies used the whitewild indigo, B. lactea, to promotevomiting and to treat eczema.They also boiled it and applied itto sores of long-standing and toinflammed mucous membrane ofthe nose produced by eatarrh. JohnMcintosh, a Mesquakie medicineman, used it as one of many ingredients in an internal medicine.The Mesquakies also mixed thestems and twigs of the white wildindigo with the bark of the sycamore, Platanus occidentalis L., foruse on knife or ax wounds. Theycalled this medicine “papikwaski”(hollow stem), referring to the hollow stem of the white wild indigo(Smith, 1928, pp. 228, 335).ANGLO FOLK USEThe ethnobotanist Huron Smithreported in 1918 that the rootand herbage of the white wildindigo were used in iowa as anemeto-cathartic and intestinalstimulant and in the treatment70

p. 39). The Cheyenne name is “hoa to’ o nuts” (“smoke issues,” inreference to prayers in ceremonials) (Grinnell, 1962, 2: 18o). TheComanche name is ‘datsipv” (notranslation given) (Carison andJones, 1939, p. 524).SCIENTIFIC NAMERhus glabra L. is a member of theAnacardiaceae (Cashew Family).Rhus comes from the Greek“rhous,” the name bushy for asumac. The species name, glabra,means “smooth,” in reference tothe stems and leaves.DESCRIPTIONShrubs 3—5 m (—x ft) tall, forming loose colonies dense or thickets. Leaves alternate, stalked,pinnately compound; leaflets11—31, lance-shaped to elliptic, 7—9 cm (2 3/4_3 V2 in) long,upper surfaces dark green andCl1ifl, lrfle,pV Q,,rf..,-.” .-l,,11COMMON NAMESSmooth sumac, smooth uplandsumac, and dwarf sumac. Thearomatic sumac is also calledskunk-bush sumac, pole-catbush, stinking hazel, ill-scentedsumac, squaw berry, squaw bush,lemonade sumac, and three-lobedsumac. (The name sumac and itsvarious spellings and pronunciations—sumach, shumac, shumack,summaque, and shoemake—aresaid to be of Arabic origin.)INDIAN NAMESThe Kiowa name for the smoothsumac is “maw-kho-la” (tobaccomixture) (Vestal and Shultes,1939, p. 39). The Dakota, Lakota,Omaha, and Ponca name is “chanzi” (yellow wood), the Winnebagoname is “haz-ni-hu” (water-fruitbush), and the Pawnee name is“nuppikt” (sour top) (Gilmore,‘977, pp. 47—48). The Cheyennename is “no’ anio ni mai’ ki mins”(mixing ingredients), reference into its use in smoking (Grinnell,1962, 2: 18o). The Mesquakiename is “pekwana’nomishi” (notranslation given) (Smith, 1928,p. 255). The Comanche name is“dimeyov” (no translation given)(Carlson and Jones, 1939, p. 524).The Lakota name for aromaticsumac is “canun’kcemna,” whichrefers to a bush with a bad smell(like human excrement) (Rogers,255). The Kiowa name1980, p.is “dtie-ai -na-ve-’ixn” fhittpr rpl/Rhus glabraSmooth Sumac

complaints. But by far the mostefficacious purpose to which thisroot is applied, is to stop the spitting of blood; an affection whichfrequently exists amongst them,in consequence of their long andhurried marches. They seldomtravel without it; a half tea spoonful in cold water is the dose. Iknow it to be a highly valuablearticle their inedicain materia(Hunter, 1957, p. 371).An even older use of the smoothsumac has been found in theOzark Bluff-dweller culture. Apreserved human coprolite, 20-to-30 centuries old, of an OzarkBluff-dweller was found to be fullof sumac fruits, indicating thathis or her last food or medicinewas sumac fruits (Wakefield andDellinger, 1936, pp. 1412.—13).The Cheyennes dried the leavesof the aromatic sumac, R. aromatica, and mixed them withtobacco, red willow dogwood,Cornus stolonifera Michx., andbearberry, Arctostphylos uva-ursi(L. Spreng., to make a smoking14, 40).mixture (Hart, 1981, pp.They boiled the leaves to treat ahead cold and make a diuretic tea.Another medicine made from theplant was used to stop bleeding.Not only were the fruits chewedfor relief from toothache, theywere also used to protect thehands when removing dog meatfrom a boiling pot. The plant wasalso used as a horse medicine.Some Cheyennes claimed thatthis plant “was received from theGreat Spirit and was given to aand the berries in an acidic-tasting,flavorful beverage (Kindscher,1987, pp. 191—94).The Kiowas also used thesmooth sumac leaves in a smokingmixture that was esteemed bysome members of the tribe as atuberculosis medicine. However,a medicine-man and peyote-leaderexplained that “it was not a medicine but was used to ‘purify’ thebody and mind so the peyote, thereal medicine, could effect a curemore easily” (Vestal and Shultes,1939, p. 38). The Mesquakies usedthe root bark of the smooth sumacas a rubefacient. They boiled anddrank a sumac root tea which theyalso fed to invalids as an appetizer(Smith, 1928, p. 200).John Dunn Hunter, who livedwith the Kickapoos, Osages, andKansas, wrote that one of thesetribes called the astringent root(most probably R. glabra) “honkos-kao-ga-sha” (it stops the bloodflowing out) and described its use:This is a shrubby plant, growing in abundance in the edges ofthe prairies and hillsides throughthe Western country. Its principalvirtue consists in its astringentproperties which it possesses ina very high degree. It is one oftheir favourite remedies in stopping bleeding from wounds; thedried root is powdered and puton the mouths of the bleedingvessel and a bandage bound overit. The indians have great confidence in it. They use it very muchboth internally in form of tea, andexternally as a wash in femalecoction of the root was used todrink in case of retention of urineand when urination was painful.An Omaha said that a poulticemade by bruising the leaves wasapplied wet in case of poisoningof the skin, as by some irritantvegecal oil. In case the leavescould not be had, the fruits weresoaked and bruised, the application being kept moist with thewater in which the fruits had beensoaked (ibid.).The Omahas also steeped thefruits and root together to makea wash for sores Gilmore, 1913 a,p. 334). Dr. Edwin James, botanistfor the Long expedition, reportedin 1819 that the Omahas used thesmooth sumac in their smokingmixture:The Kinnecanick, or as theOmawhaws call it, Ninnegahe,mixed or made tobacco, whichthey use for smoking in theirpipes, is composed partly oftobacco, and partly of the leaves ofthe sumack (R. glabral; but manyprefer to the latter ingredient,the inner bark of the red willow(Cornus stolonifera Michx.J; andwhen neither of the two lattercan be obtained, the inner barkof the arrow wood (Viburnumj issubstituted for them. These twoingredients are well dried overthe fire, and comminuted togetherby friction between the hands(Thwaites, 1905, 15: 122).Many other tribes used smoothsumac leaves in a smoking mixture, the roots for a yellow dye,large branched groups at ends ofbranches, sometimes male andfemale flowers separate, in Mayand Jun; petals ,greenish. Fruitsred, hairy, rounded, 3.5—4.5 mm(Vs—/ts in) in diameter, ripeningAug through Sep.Rhus aromatica Ait., aromaticsumac, differs in having leaveswith only 3 leaflets and yellowflowers. The fruits are very similar to those of R. glabra, althoughclusters are usually smaller.HABITATUpland prairies, pastures, bordersand openings of woods, countryroads, and along railroads.PARTS USEDLeaves, bark, roots, and fruits.INDIAN USEBoth the smooth and aromaticsumac were used by many tribesas medicine. The Pawnees boiledthe fruits of the smooth sumac asremedy for painful menstruationand for bloody diarrhea (Gilmore,1977, p. 48). In addition to theiruse of the roots to make a yellow dye, the Omahas had severalmedicinal uses for the smoothsumac. Ethnobotanist MelvinGilmore reported:An Omaha medicine-man,White Horse, said the fruits wereboiled to make a styptic washto stop hemorrhage in womenafter parturition, and that a de184

SCIENTiFIC RESEARCHThe sumacs all contain largeamounts of tannin, which actsas an astringent and may be thebasis for their apparent effectiveness in treatment of burns andother injured tissues. However,tannins can also cause damageto the liver; consequently, theiruse today is limited. The tannicacid content in the leaves of thesmooth sumac ranges from i to27 percent (Vestal and Shultes,1939, p. 38). The smooth sumacalso contains calcium bimalate,gallotannic acid, malic acid, oilresin, oleoresin, sugar, starch,and gum.Smooth sumac collected fromthe Missouri Ozarks was foundto contain a highly active antibiotic substance that is effectivein preventing tooth decay andtreating other ailments (Lewisand Elvin-Lewis, 1977, pp. 218,238). Chew-sticks can be easilymade by cutting off a small stemseveral inches long, removingthe outer bark, and chewing onthe tip to soften the fibers, whichcan then be used to massage thegums. Other woody plants, suchas the dogwoods, Corn us florida L.and C. drummondii C. A. Meyer,can be used similarly and may bepreferred because they are not sobitter.CULTIVATIONwith flannel. Gum similar to copal(resin from tropical trees) curestoothache put in hollow teeth.Indian flutes made of the stems.Berries used in dysentery, rheumatism, dysurea, sorethroat, putridfevers, hemorrhage, gangrene,&c. they have an agreeable acidtaste, make a cooling drink infused in water. Efflorescence onthem used as salt and vinegar:it is malic acid. Seeds in powderused for piles and wounds. Thejuice removes warts and tetters,is the fine red mordant of Indianof western tribesdyes. .is root and leaves hal mixt with. . Kinikahtheir tobacco, used also for dropsy(Rafinesque, 1830, pp. 256—57).The bark of the smooth sumacroot was also used by nineteenthcenturyphysicians to make poultices for burns by pounding andthen boiling it in a mixture ofequal parts milk and water (Bolyard et al., 1981, p. 31).They alsomade a tea of the root bark to treatvarious ailments, including gonorrhea, leucorrhea, diarrhea, hecticfever, dysentery, cankers of thethroat or mouth, and scrofula; theydrank a root tea to cure coughs andconsumption.The berries of the smooth sumacwere listed as an official medicinein the U.S. Pharmacopoeia fromI82o to 1916 and 1926 to 1936and in the National Formularyfrom 1916 to 1926 for use as a sorethroat gargle, an astringent, and1 tnni,-•—IThe drie leaves sodden in wateruntil the decoction be as thickeas honey, yeeld forth a certaineoilinesse which performeth all theeffects of Licium.1The seed is no less effectualto be strewed in pouder upontheir meats which are Coeliaci[diarrhea) or Dysenterici.The seeds pouned, mixed withhony and the powder of oke coles,healeth the hemorrhoides.There issueth out of a shrub agum, which being put into the hollowness of the teeth, taketh awaythe paine, as Dioscorides saith(Gerarde, 1636, p. 1,475).With this and similar informationavailable to pioneers and settlers,it is not surprising that many ofthem used the native sumac intreating a variety of ailments. Thesmooth sumac was also used as achew-stick to clean the teeth, ause also reported from the Ozarks(Elvin-Lewis, 1979, p. 445).MEDICAL HISTORYIn 1830, Constantine Rafinesquereported some of the early medicaluses of the Rhus species (excluding the poisonous species) in theeastern United States:Roots antisyphilitic used byIndians, dye wood reddish. Leaveshave much tannin, make theMorocco leather, dye wool andsilk black, good astringent forall fluxes. Bark and berries makemedicine man.” The Kiowa alsoate the whole berries of the aromatic sumac as a cure for stomachtrouble and influenza (ibid.).The Blackfeet dried aromaticsumac berries, ground them, anddusted the powder on the pustulesof smallpox “in a vain attempt totreat the disease” jobnston, 1970,p. 3’s). The Comanches chewedthe bark of the aromatic sumacand swallowed the Juice as a treatment for colds (Carison and Jones,1939, P 534).ANGLO FOLK USEFolk use of the various sumacspecies can be traced to Europe,where related species were usedsimilarly. The 1636 Gerarde herbalstated the uses of the Europeancoriar sumac, R. conan:The leaves of Sumach boiledin wine and drunken, do stopthe lask, the inordinat course ofworn ens sicknesses, and all otherinordinat issues of bloud.The seed of Sumach eaten inSauces with meat stop all manerof fluxes of the belly, the bloudieflux, and all other issues, especiallythe Whites of women.The decoction of the leavesmaketh haires blacke, and is putinto stooles to fume upward intothe bodies of such as that have theDysenterie, and is to be given tothem also to drinke.The leaves made into an ointment or plaister with hony and

Rosa aikansanaWild Rosetivated both for its beauty and forits wide array of uses. Besides theshowy red berries in the fall, theleaves also turn from dark greenfall foliage. Both varieties can begrown from seed or transplantedroot cuttings. They are considto a brilliant red. One cultivarered aggressive in pastures andwildlife plantings because theyspread by clonal suckers that formcolonies. The staghorn sumac,of smooth sumac, called ‘FlavesR. typhina, found in eastern Northcens,’ has yellow foliage in thefall. Aromatic sumac is a smallerAmerica, is also frequently usedshrub whose fragrance some findas an ornamental for its colorfulattractive and others find skunkyfall foliage.smelling. It also has attractivei88T