Between Coercion and Privatization: Academic Freedom in the ...
Between Coercion and Privatization: Academic Freedom in the ...
Between Coercion and Privatization: Academic Freedom in the ...
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Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 14special-<strong>in</strong>terest groups are play<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> lead role <strong>in</strong> national campaignsto underm<strong>in</strong>e academic freedom by replac<strong>in</strong>g professionalnorms with arbitrary political criteria. The second part steps backfrom <strong>the</strong> alarm-bell immediacy of <strong>the</strong> first yet casts an even moresomber gaze on <strong>the</strong> chang<strong>in</strong>g political economy <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutional<strong>in</strong>frastructure of higher education, which arguably pose <strong>the</strong> greatestchallenges to <strong>the</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>uation of <strong>the</strong> academy as a semiautonomoussphere of critical <strong>in</strong>quiry. The third considers <strong>the</strong>contested nature of this concept <strong>in</strong> terms of its conflict<strong>in</strong>g sourcesof authority <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> compromises <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> pursu<strong>in</strong>g variousstrategies of praxis, both of which raise difficult questions aboutwhat visions of academic freedom must be defended <strong>and</strong> about<strong>the</strong> most effective ways of do<strong>in</strong>g so.<strong>Academic</strong> <strong>Freedom</strong> after September 11<strong>Academic</strong> freedom suffered serious setbacks after September 11,2001. The hasty passage of <strong>the</strong> bill with <strong>the</strong> Orwellian name, <strong>the</strong>USA Patriot Act, has compromised privacy protections, erodedcivil liberties, <strong>and</strong> chilled dissent, prompt<strong>in</strong>g civil libertariansfrom both <strong>the</strong> left <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> right to loudly voice <strong>the</strong>ir concerns. 2 Inaddition, several government agencies have <strong>in</strong>stituted a series of<strong>in</strong>trusive restrictions on <strong>the</strong> free flow of <strong>in</strong>formation, <strong>in</strong>spir<strong>in</strong>gstubborn protests by scientists <strong>and</strong> university officials, among o<strong>the</strong>rs.Major fund<strong>in</strong>g organizations, such as <strong>the</strong> Ford <strong>and</strong> Rockefellerfoundations, added new language about terrorism to contracts thatmust now be signed by all grant recipients, although several modifications<strong>in</strong> response to pressure from civil-rights organizations<strong>and</strong> elite universities have lessened <strong>the</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>al impact of this language.Perhaps more pernicious have been aggressive “take back<strong>the</strong> campus” campaigns by well-funded <strong>and</strong> politically connectedprivate advocacy organizations that mobilize politicians, donors,alumni, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> local <strong>and</strong> national press. These campaigns aim to<strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>the</strong> production of knowledge by promot<strong>in</strong>g certa<strong>in</strong>l<strong>in</strong>es of <strong>in</strong>quiry while delegitimiz<strong>in</strong>g o<strong>the</strong>rs. One outcome of<strong>the</strong>se campaigns is <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>troduction of legislation on <strong>the</strong> federal<strong>and</strong> state levels that would impose political tests on faculty members<strong>and</strong> students –– although <strong>the</strong>ir possible passage <strong>and</strong> implementationare still hotly contested. Meanwhile, some radical rightw<strong>in</strong>ggroups are us<strong>in</strong>g sophisticated techniques of <strong>in</strong>timidation,rang<strong>in</strong>g from post<strong>in</strong>g lists of “un-American” professors on <strong>the</strong>14 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 16<strong>the</strong> top civilian ranks of <strong>the</strong> Pentagon <strong>and</strong> is impos<strong>in</strong>g itself on <strong>the</strong><strong>in</strong>telligence services. Third, <strong>the</strong> privatization <strong>and</strong> commercializationof knowledge <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>formation age, which has greatly reduced<strong>the</strong> degree of <strong>in</strong>tellectual autonomy with<strong>in</strong> universities <strong>and</strong>magnified <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence of private donors <strong>and</strong> corporations. Inthis larger context, <strong>the</strong> vigorous campaign to discipl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> academyunleashed after 9/11 can be seen as part of a susta<strong>in</strong>ed effortto shift public discourse <strong>in</strong> favor of four major agendas <strong>in</strong> foreign<strong>and</strong> domestic policies: dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> globe through <strong>the</strong> doctr<strong>in</strong>eof preemptive military <strong>in</strong>tervention with special focus on <strong>the</strong>Middle East, dismantl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> New Deal society, revers<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ga<strong>in</strong>sof <strong>the</strong> various civil-rights <strong>and</strong> environmental movements, <strong>and</strong>blurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e between church <strong>and</strong> state.It is still too early to tell whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>se agendas will be fullyrealized. But it would not be an exaggeration to say that <strong>the</strong> publicsphere s<strong>in</strong>ce 9/11 has been characterized by a use of <strong>the</strong> bigstick <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> discursive shift. The shock of 9/11, <strong>the</strong> “Pearl Harborof <strong>the</strong> twenty-first century,” has been cynically used by <strong>the</strong>Bush adm<strong>in</strong>istration to silence critical <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>formed discussionat home <strong>and</strong> to justify a radical “clean break” foreign policy ofmilitary <strong>in</strong>tervention abroad. At <strong>the</strong> same time, <strong>the</strong> White Househas <strong>in</strong>itiated elaborate public-relations campaigns to change <strong>the</strong>frameworks by which people view major issues, such as <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vasionof Iraq, <strong>the</strong> Palest<strong>in</strong>ian-Israeli conflict, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> future ofSocial Security. 4<strong>Academic</strong> <strong>Freedom</strong> <strong>in</strong> a Time of WarIt is a truism that war <strong>and</strong> truth do not go well toge<strong>the</strong>r, but weusually take comfort <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fact that wars end while <strong>the</strong> pursuitof knowledge is endless. Here<strong>in</strong>, however, lies <strong>the</strong> danger of thisnew <strong>and</strong> unique global war on terrorism. To beg<strong>in</strong> with, it is awar without end, for it is not aga<strong>in</strong>st a specific country or regime,but aga<strong>in</strong>st an ill-def<strong>in</strong>ed enemy: shadowy groups usually referredto as “Islamic terrorists” or “Islamic militants” that can be anywhere<strong>and</strong> can appear at any time. 5 These groups are to be huntedat home <strong>and</strong> given no safe haven abroad, even if that means suspend<strong>in</strong>ghard-earned civil liberties to keep <strong>the</strong> homel<strong>and</strong> secureor flout<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>ternational law by <strong>in</strong>vad<strong>in</strong>g countries that pose noimm<strong>in</strong>ent threat to <strong>the</strong> United States but are suspected of “harbor<strong>in</strong>g”terrorists.16 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 17Thus far, this should sound familiar to students of <strong>the</strong> ColdWar, but <strong>the</strong>re is an important difference: Terrorists are portrayedby <strong>the</strong> Bush adm<strong>in</strong>istration as driven not by a rational <strong>and</strong> compet<strong>in</strong>gideology of modernity that seeks to seize state power, suchas communism, but by an irrational <strong>and</strong> purely evil hatred for“our way of life.” Indeed, <strong>the</strong> representation of this war is basedon a virulently anti-<strong>in</strong>tellectual st<strong>and</strong> that <strong>in</strong>sists that <strong>the</strong> enemycannot be understood through <strong>the</strong> conventional <strong>in</strong>terpretativeconcepts <strong>and</strong> units of analysis that <strong>the</strong> academy generates. Consequently,<strong>and</strong> aga<strong>in</strong> unlike <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cold War period, <strong>the</strong> expertise ofarea specialists <strong>in</strong> particular <strong>and</strong> most scholars <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> humanities<strong>and</strong> social sciences <strong>in</strong> general are made irrelevant. PresidentBush’s repeated statements that <strong>the</strong> war aga<strong>in</strong>st terrorism is but apart of a larger war to spread God-given freedom to <strong>the</strong> worldbest illustrate <strong>the</strong> irrelevance of rational <strong>in</strong>quiry. The operativeassumption <strong>in</strong> his speeches is that freedom is not a product of historybut God’s gift to humanity. 6 Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, <strong>the</strong> United Statesis orda<strong>in</strong>ed to carry out <strong>the</strong> sacred mission of extend<strong>in</strong>g it. Thatis, <strong>the</strong> United States has a religious <strong>and</strong> moral duty as <strong>the</strong> mostpowerful country <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> world to use its power through diplomatic<strong>and</strong> economic pressures <strong>and</strong>, if necessary, military force, <strong>in</strong>order to spread God’s freedom to oppressed people everywhere.The overtones of a religious crusade are difficult to ignore, for <strong>in</strong>this worldview freedom, like terrorism, is located outside history<strong>and</strong> society.The often unstated vision undergird<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> banishment ofterrorism <strong>and</strong> freedom from <strong>the</strong> realm of reason is that of anunend<strong>in</strong>g clash between an undemocratic <strong>and</strong> fanatical Islamiccivilization, on <strong>the</strong> one h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> its Judeo-Christian opposite, on<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r. 7 Pat Robertson, Jerry Falwell, <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r leaders of <strong>the</strong>evangelical Christian right-w<strong>in</strong>g organizations that constitute <strong>the</strong>core constituency of <strong>the</strong> Bush adm<strong>in</strong>istration rout<strong>in</strong>ely refer to<strong>the</strong> Prophet Muhammad as a terrorist <strong>and</strong> to <strong>the</strong> Islamic religionas war-like. 8 This vision literally renders <strong>the</strong> academy as we knowit –– for example, as a product of <strong>the</strong> Enlightenment –– superfluous,except as a servant to those who subscribe to this worldview.This is why <strong>the</strong> naive but important question “Why do <strong>the</strong>y hateus?” has yet to be systematically explored <strong>and</strong> discussed. And thisis why academics who publicly speak about <strong>the</strong> roots or politicalcontexts of 9/11 are ei<strong>the</strong>r ignored or attacked as “un-American.”DOUMANI 17
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 18The black-<strong>and</strong>-white warn<strong>in</strong>g by President Bush, “Ei<strong>the</strong>r you arewith us, or you are with <strong>the</strong> terrorists,” does not only ask o<strong>the</strong>rcountries to surrender <strong>the</strong>ir foreign policy. It also asks academicsto give up what <strong>the</strong>y hold most dear: <strong>the</strong> use of critical reason <strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong> free pursuit of knowledge. 9The ways <strong>the</strong> global war on terrorism has underm<strong>in</strong>ed academicfreedom are very similar to <strong>the</strong> ways it has been used tounderm<strong>in</strong>e o<strong>the</strong>r pillars of democracy: constitutional protectionsof civil liberties, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dependence of <strong>the</strong> judiciary, freedom of<strong>the</strong> press, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> system of Congressional checks <strong>and</strong> balances to<strong>the</strong> executive branch of government. 10 With <strong>the</strong> national media<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Congress unable or unwill<strong>in</strong>g to fulfill <strong>the</strong>ir role as watchdogof <strong>the</strong> most powerful presidency <strong>in</strong> liv<strong>in</strong>g memory, <strong>the</strong> spotlightsoon turned to <strong>the</strong> academy, which, as <strong>the</strong> bastion of sociallyvalued dissent, found itself attract<strong>in</strong>g a great deal of unwantednegative attention. As <strong>the</strong> next two sections argue, 9/11 has heraldedstructural, not just pass<strong>in</strong>g changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> relationships among<strong>the</strong> academy, <strong>the</strong> government, <strong>and</strong> society.‘‘Be Careful’’: The Academy <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> GovernmentAfter 9/11, official government constra<strong>in</strong>ts on academic freedommust be seen as part of a much larger <strong>and</strong> ongo<strong>in</strong>g process of erosionalong <strong>the</strong> entire spectrum of civil liberties. Although manyobjectionable constra<strong>in</strong>ts on academic freedom by <strong>the</strong> federalgovernment predate 9/11, <strong>the</strong> legal groundwork for this radical<strong>and</strong> qualitative shift <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> relationship between <strong>the</strong> state <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>academy was laid with <strong>the</strong> passage of <strong>the</strong> Patriot Act. 11 Some provisionsof <strong>the</strong> even more dangerous “Patriot II” –– which was proposedby <strong>the</strong>n–Attorney General John Ashcroft <strong>in</strong> January 2003but never became law <strong>in</strong> its entirety due to vigorous opposition ––were attached to <strong>the</strong> bill reorganiz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> nation’s <strong>in</strong>telligenceagencies <strong>in</strong> 2004. 12Post-9/11 regulations that underm<strong>in</strong>e academic freedom areusually presented as technical, value-free measures designed solelyfor <strong>the</strong> purposes of homel<strong>and</strong> security <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> global war on terrorism.In fact, <strong>the</strong>y were brewed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> most ideologically motivatedadm<strong>in</strong>istration s<strong>in</strong>ce that of Ronald Reagan, if not <strong>in</strong> all ofrecent U.S. history. The broad categories of <strong>the</strong>se regulations aresurveillance, control of <strong>the</strong> circulation of <strong>in</strong>formation, restrictionson foreign students <strong>and</strong> scholars <strong>and</strong> on <strong>the</strong> conduct of scientific18 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 19research, <strong>and</strong> proposed legislation on both <strong>the</strong> federal <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> statelevel tofacilitate political <strong>in</strong>tervention on campus, especially <strong>in</strong>area studies <strong>and</strong> foreign policy. In 2003, a measured <strong>and</strong> carefullyworded prelim<strong>in</strong>ary assessment by <strong>the</strong> AAUP on <strong>the</strong> threats to academicfreedom after 9/11 concluded, “Sufficient proscriptions arealready <strong>in</strong> place to justify grave concerns <strong>and</strong> deep apprehension.” 13After September 11, one has to be careful.Be careful what books you buy or borrow from <strong>the</strong> library.The Department of Homel<strong>and</strong> Security, under <strong>the</strong> terms of Section215 of <strong>the</strong> Patriot Act, could monitor you. A fur<strong>the</strong>r “gagorder” provision of that law threatens crim<strong>in</strong>al prosecution ofanyone alert<strong>in</strong>g you to government <strong>in</strong>spection of your selections.In response, <strong>the</strong> American Library Association adopted a stronglyworded resolution that described this section of <strong>the</strong> Patriot Act as“a present danger to <strong>the</strong> constitutional rights <strong>and</strong> privacy rights oflibrary users” <strong>and</strong> urged noncooperation by its members. 14 Theresponse was so overwhelm<strong>in</strong>g that many news stories spoke ofan “upris<strong>in</strong>g” by librarians. 15Be careful what articles you accept for publication. Several scientificjournals found <strong>the</strong>mselves on <strong>the</strong> wrong side of <strong>the</strong> law dueto a February 2004 declaration by <strong>the</strong> U.S. treasury department’sOffice of Foreign Assets Control to <strong>the</strong> effect that American pressescould not publish works authored <strong>in</strong> nations under trade embargoes.These countries <strong>in</strong>clude Iran, Sudan, <strong>and</strong> Cuba. The consequencesare f<strong>in</strong>es up to $1 million <strong>and</strong> jail terms of up to tenyears. 16 Enforcement of this law has resulted <strong>in</strong> bann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> publicationof <strong>the</strong> memoirs of Nobel Peace Prize w<strong>in</strong>ner <strong>and</strong> humanrightsactivist Shir<strong>in</strong> Ebadi, an Iranian national, among o<strong>the</strong>rs. 17Be careful if you are a scientist or a university that depends ongovernment contracts for scientific research. Several of <strong>the</strong> tightenedor new restrictions on circulation of scientific research constitute“a needless clampdown on academic freedom –– <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>gmoves to bar non-citizens, <strong>and</strong> even foreign-born U.S. citizens,from participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> an ever-exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g list of science <strong>and</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>gresearch projects.” 18 The situation worsened <strong>in</strong> 2004when <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>spectors general of <strong>the</strong> commerce, state, energy, <strong>and</strong>defense departments released a report that broadened <strong>the</strong> def<strong>in</strong>itionof “deemed exports” (<strong>in</strong>formation <strong>and</strong> technical data thatrequire licenses even though <strong>the</strong>y do not have to leave <strong>the</strong> U.S.but might be seen or shared with a non–U.S. citizen work<strong>in</strong>g on aDOUMANI 19
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 20scientific project) while, simultaneously, narrow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> def<strong>in</strong>itionof basic research, that which allows universities to conduct scientific<strong>in</strong>quiries openly <strong>and</strong> freely.Be careful if you are a scientist whose research f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs orpolitical op<strong>in</strong>ions do not fit with <strong>the</strong> ideological positions of <strong>the</strong>Bush adm<strong>in</strong>istration. Many scientists recruited to serve on governmentadvisory panels were subjected to political litmus tests,<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g questions about <strong>the</strong>ir views on abortion <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir vot<strong>in</strong>grecords. The f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs of o<strong>the</strong>rs were ignored or deliberatelyerased from Web sites. The blatant arm-twist<strong>in</strong>g reached such apo<strong>in</strong>t that <strong>in</strong> 2004 hundreds of scientists, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g twenty Nobellaureates, signed a statement condemn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> White House fordeliberately <strong>and</strong> systematically distort<strong>in</strong>g scientific fact <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> serviceof policy goals <strong>and</strong> warn<strong>in</strong>g of great potential harm to futuregenerations (see Appendix). The statement is part of a report by<strong>the</strong> Union of Concerned Scientists that details how <strong>the</strong> WhiteHouse censors <strong>and</strong> suppresses its own scientists, stacks advisorycommittees, <strong>and</strong> disb<strong>and</strong>s government panels for political <strong>and</strong> notacademic reasons. 19Be careful if you are a non–U.S. citizen who is com<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong>U.S. to teach, learn, or participate <strong>in</strong> scientific research. Barriersto entry or reentry based on political “profil<strong>in</strong>g” (selective implementationof new restrictive policies depend<strong>in</strong>g on one’s national,ethnic, or religious background) have called <strong>in</strong>to question <strong>the</strong>entire <strong>in</strong>ternational dimension of knowledge production <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>U.S. Your visa could also be revoked if you have views that are evenmildly critical of U.S. foreign policy. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> AmericanCivil Liberties Union (ACLU), Section 411 of <strong>the</strong> Patriot Act hasbeen used to exclude foreign scholars because of <strong>the</strong>ir politicalviews. Cit<strong>in</strong>g a “serious <strong>and</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g threat to academic freedom,”<strong>the</strong> ACLU issued a press release on March 16, 2005, announc<strong>in</strong>gthat it had filed a <strong>Freedom</strong> of Information Act request to <strong>in</strong>vestigatethis matter fur<strong>the</strong>r.The case of Tariq Ramadan, a Swiss citizen <strong>and</strong> an <strong>in</strong>fluentialpublic <strong>in</strong>tellectual who writes on Islam <strong>and</strong> modernity, is <strong>in</strong>structive.After “careful vett<strong>in</strong>g” by <strong>the</strong> University of Notre Dame,Tariq Ramadan was <strong>in</strong>vited <strong>in</strong> 2003 to serve as <strong>the</strong> Henry B. LuceProfessor of Religion, Conflict, <strong>and</strong> Peace Build<strong>in</strong>g at <strong>the</strong> KrocInstitute for International Peace Studies. Ramadan’s visa was approvedearly <strong>in</strong> 2004, <strong>and</strong> his children were enrolled <strong>in</strong> local20 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 21schools. However, at <strong>the</strong> request of <strong>the</strong> Department of Homel<strong>and</strong>Security <strong>and</strong> n<strong>in</strong>e days before he was to depart for <strong>the</strong> UnitedStates, <strong>the</strong> State Department <strong>in</strong>formed Ramadan that his visa hadbeen revoked. 20 State Department representatives cited two sectionsof <strong>the</strong> Immigration <strong>and</strong> Nationality Act. The first sectionbars entry to those who have used a ‘’position of prom<strong>in</strong>encewith<strong>in</strong> any country to endorse or espouse terrorist activity.” Thesecond section cited those whose entry may have ‘’potentiallyserious adverse foreign policy consequences for <strong>the</strong> United States.” 21Prior to this <strong>in</strong>cident, Ramadan had visited <strong>the</strong> United Statesmore than thirty times, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g a fall 2003 trip dur<strong>in</strong>g which hegave a lecture on European Muslims to diplomats <strong>and</strong> officialsfrom <strong>the</strong> FBI <strong>and</strong> CIA at <strong>the</strong> U.S. State Department. 22 Despiteconcerted efforts by Ramadan, concerned scholars, <strong>and</strong> varioushuman-rights <strong>and</strong> academic-freedom organizations, <strong>the</strong> decisionwas not reversed. 23Visa restrictions after 9/11 have sharply lowered <strong>the</strong> numberof foreign students <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> U.S. For example, applications of graduatestudents –– who are critical to higher education <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> U.S.,especially <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sciences <strong>and</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g ––dropped 28 percent<strong>in</strong> 2004 alone, though <strong>the</strong> decl<strong>in</strong>e slowed to 5 percent <strong>in</strong> 2005. 24These restrictions also have serious economic <strong>and</strong> political consequences.The more than 570,000 foreign students <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> U.S.pump more than $13 billion a year <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> economy. 25 They alsocause a public-relations problem, as <strong>the</strong> United States is alienat<strong>in</strong>gfuture leaders of o<strong>the</strong>r countries.Although this crisis has eased as of 2005, those who are admittedto <strong>the</strong> U.S. are heavily monitored, <strong>and</strong> universities are requiredto submit regular reports on <strong>the</strong>m to government agencies.There is hardly a university adm<strong>in</strong>istrator <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> foreignstudentaffairs who has not banged her head aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> wallwhile work<strong>in</strong>g with Student <strong>and</strong> Exchange Visitor InformationSystem (SEVIS), m<strong>and</strong>atory <strong>in</strong>formation-track<strong>in</strong>g software setup to feed data to <strong>the</strong> Department of Homel<strong>and</strong> Security. Likemany o<strong>the</strong>r government regulatory programs, SEVIS is a complexbureaucratic structure that is not very responsive to <strong>the</strong>rich diversity of university environments. The glitches <strong>and</strong> delaysalone have wreaked havoc <strong>and</strong> made <strong>the</strong> lives of thous<strong>and</strong>s offoreign students miserable, contribut<strong>in</strong>g to a significant decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>enrollment. 26 DOUMANI 21
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 22Be careful what you teach. In September 2003, <strong>the</strong> House ofRepresentatives unanimously passed HR 3077, which wouldestablish an advisory board to monitor area-studies centers <strong>in</strong>order to ensure that <strong>the</strong>y advance <strong>the</strong> “national <strong>in</strong>terest” (see <strong>the</strong>Appendix). While <strong>the</strong> law would apply to all 123 centers fundedunder <strong>the</strong> federal Title VI program, <strong>the</strong> target is clearly <strong>the</strong>nation’s 17 centers for Middle East studies. The AAUP, <strong>the</strong> ACLU,<strong>the</strong> Middle East Studies Association of North America (MESA),<strong>and</strong> most professional educational organizations have raised alarmsabout this unprecedented government <strong>in</strong>vasion of <strong>the</strong> classroom.Among <strong>the</strong>ir concerns are <strong>the</strong> board’s sweep<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>vestigativepowers, lack of accountability, <strong>and</strong> makeup, for it would be composed<strong>in</strong> part from two national security agencies. If HR 3077 ispassed by <strong>the</strong> U.S. Senate, a government-appo<strong>in</strong>ted <strong>in</strong>vestigativebody will be allowed to police <strong>the</strong> classroom by decid<strong>in</strong>g, forexample, what constitutes a “diverse” or “balanced” lecture. Thiswould effectively replace professional academic st<strong>and</strong>ards witharbitrary political criteria.HR 3077 br<strong>in</strong>gs to <strong>the</strong> surface <strong>the</strong> contradictory relationshipbetween <strong>the</strong> academy <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> government –– one that, s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong>Second World War, has been primarily based on <strong>the</strong> exchange ofmoney for expertise <strong>and</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. On <strong>the</strong> one h<strong>and</strong>, f<strong>in</strong>anciallargesse has been <strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ues to be <strong>the</strong> most powerful <strong>in</strong>strument<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> h<strong>and</strong>s of <strong>the</strong> state for shap<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> production ofknowledge. If <strong>the</strong> spend<strong>in</strong>g spree on U.S. campuses by <strong>the</strong> Departmentof Homel<strong>and</strong> Security is any <strong>in</strong>dication, September 11 willprobably be seen as hav<strong>in</strong>g spurred government <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> science<strong>and</strong> technology, though not with <strong>the</strong> same <strong>in</strong>tensity or <strong>the</strong>same benefit to primary research as <strong>the</strong> Soviet launch of Sputnik. 27Indeed, <strong>the</strong>re is no shortage of entrepreneurial adm<strong>in</strong>istrators <strong>and</strong>faculty members milk<strong>in</strong>g this cow. 28On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, government <strong>in</strong>vestment paradoxicallycreates an ambiguous space that allows for <strong>the</strong> emergence of criticalperspectives. 29 Instructive here is Amy Newhall’s crisp <strong>and</strong>gripp<strong>in</strong>g history of <strong>the</strong> ups <strong>and</strong> downs <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sometimes open,sometimes secret, but always symbiotic relationship between <strong>the</strong>academy <strong>and</strong> security agencies when it come to federally fundedarea-studies <strong>and</strong> language-acquisition programs. Newhall arguesthat <strong>the</strong> structural failure to teach foreign languages (especially <strong>the</strong>Less Commonly Taught Languages [LCTLs]) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> primary <strong>and</strong>22 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 23secondary school system has led to a devil’s barga<strong>in</strong> of sorts between<strong>the</strong> government, which has long used universities as a site toproduce <strong>the</strong> experts it needs, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> academy, which has receivedfrom <strong>the</strong> government <strong>the</strong> necessary money to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> area- <strong>and</strong>language-studies programs. This relationship was not withoutproblems, especially as academics asserted <strong>the</strong> right to choose <strong>the</strong>irown research questions <strong>and</strong> to voice <strong>the</strong>ir op<strong>in</strong>ions. In <strong>the</strong> early1970s, for example, <strong>the</strong> Nixon adm<strong>in</strong>istration, stungbyarea-studiesscholars’ criticisms of its policy <strong>in</strong> Vietnam, sought to elim<strong>in</strong>ateTitle VI programs altoge<strong>the</strong>r, us<strong>in</strong>g arguments similar to those ofadvocates of HR 3077 upset by academics’ criticism of U.S. policies<strong>in</strong> Iraq <strong>and</strong> of Israeli military occupation of Palest<strong>in</strong>ian L<strong>and</strong>s. S<strong>in</strong>ce<strong>the</strong>n, a clear pattern has emerged of giv<strong>in</strong>g security agencies, suchas <strong>the</strong> Department of Defense, more <strong>and</strong> more power over <strong>the</strong> useof language-acquisition funds. Still, <strong>the</strong> devil’s barga<strong>in</strong> is unravel<strong>in</strong>g,Newhall concludes, as <strong>the</strong> government, <strong>in</strong> a very short-sightedmove, decided after 9/11 to use <strong>the</strong> stick of control even though<strong>the</strong> only possible outcome of coercion is even greater shortages ofqualified <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>formed experts. Such a shortage, of course, was onereason why <strong>the</strong> crisis occurred <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> first place.‘‘A Clear <strong>and</strong> Present Danger’’: The Academy <strong>and</strong> PrivateAdvocacy GroupsIt is of signal importance that <strong>the</strong> storms of controversy currentlysweep<strong>in</strong>g American campuses are not a result of <strong>in</strong>ternal activismor clashes. Compared to <strong>the</strong> 1960s, campuses have been unusuallyquiet s<strong>in</strong>ce 9/11, despite <strong>the</strong> significant popular opposition to <strong>the</strong>war on Iraq <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> domestic policies of <strong>the</strong> Bush adm<strong>in</strong>istration.Ra<strong>the</strong>r, <strong>the</strong> escalat<strong>in</strong>g tensions are a product of calculated <strong>and</strong>professionally organized external <strong>in</strong>terventions by well-fundedprivate advocacy groups <strong>in</strong>timately tied to <strong>the</strong> coalition of forcescurrently walk<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> corridors of power <strong>in</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, D.C. Incontrast to <strong>the</strong> McCarthy era, private groups –– not <strong>the</strong> government–– are play<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> lead role <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> campaigns to quarant<strong>in</strong>edissent, to dom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>the</strong> fram<strong>in</strong>g of public discourse, <strong>and</strong> to rechannel<strong>the</strong> flows of knowledge production.Take, for example, <strong>the</strong> release <strong>in</strong> 2002 of <strong>the</strong> report Defend<strong>in</strong>gCivilization: How Our Universities Are Fail<strong>in</strong>g America <strong>and</strong> WhatCan Be Done About It, by <strong>the</strong> American Council of Trustees <strong>and</strong>Alumni (ACTA). 30 Founded by Lynn Cheney (<strong>the</strong> former head ofDOUMANI 23
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 24<strong>the</strong> National Endowment for <strong>the</strong> Humanities <strong>and</strong> spouse of VicePresident Richard Cheney) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Democratic senator JosephLieberman (Al Gore’s vice-presidential c<strong>and</strong>idate <strong>in</strong> 2000), amongo<strong>the</strong>rs, ACTA accused <strong>the</strong> universities of be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> weak l<strong>in</strong>k <strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong> war aga<strong>in</strong>st terror <strong>and</strong> a potential fifth column. 31 The reportcontrasted <strong>the</strong> responses to 9/11 of American political leaders<strong>and</strong> U.S. citizens participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> public op<strong>in</strong>ion polls with thoseof academics. It cautioned that “when a nation’s <strong>in</strong>tellectuals areunwill<strong>in</strong>g to susta<strong>in</strong> its civilization” <strong>the</strong> enemy is emboldened. 32Specifically, <strong>the</strong> report criticized universities for add<strong>in</strong>g courseson “Islamic <strong>and</strong> Asian cultures” ra<strong>the</strong>r than “ensur<strong>in</strong>g that studentsunderst<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> unique contributions of America <strong>and</strong> Westerncivilizations.” 33 As if <strong>the</strong> general h<strong>in</strong>t at treason were notenough, an appendix to <strong>the</strong> report listed <strong>the</strong> names of 117 “un-American” professors, staff members, <strong>and</strong> students, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>offend<strong>in</strong>g statements <strong>the</strong>y had allegedly made.ACTA’s report may have been precipitated by <strong>the</strong> events of9/11, but <strong>the</strong> ideological agenda that <strong>in</strong>formed it is familiar toanyone knowledgeable about <strong>the</strong> hard-fought battles on U.S.campuses dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> so-called culture wars of <strong>the</strong> 1990s, whichrevolved around issues such as affirmative action, postmodernism,<strong>and</strong> “political correctness.” 34 One of <strong>the</strong> iconic moments of thatperiod was Lynn Cheney’s opposition to <strong>the</strong> adoption of newnational history st<strong>and</strong>ards for high-school textbooks that gavegreater attention to <strong>the</strong> experiences of Native Americans, AfricanAmericans, <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r historically oppressed groups. 35 Indeed, <strong>the</strong>true “Axis of Evil” for ACTA <strong>and</strong> similar private advocacy groupsis not <strong>the</strong> foreign one composed of <strong>the</strong> “rogue” states of Iraq,Iran, <strong>and</strong> North Korea that President Bush outl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> his famouspost-9/11 State of <strong>the</strong> Union address. Ra<strong>the</strong>r, it is a domestic one:<strong>the</strong> liberal government that taxes <strong>the</strong> self-reliant <strong>and</strong> spends on<strong>the</strong> socially undeserv<strong>in</strong>g; <strong>the</strong> liberal media <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> enterta<strong>in</strong>ment<strong>in</strong>dustry, which lie <strong>and</strong> spread moral corruption everywhere; <strong>and</strong><strong>the</strong> liberal universities that bra<strong>in</strong>wash our young <strong>and</strong> fill <strong>the</strong>mwith hatred for <strong>the</strong>ir own country <strong>and</strong> for Western civilizationas a whole. All three are blamed for br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g about what manyof <strong>the</strong>se groups perceive as <strong>the</strong> calamities that have befallen <strong>the</strong>United States <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> twentieth century: <strong>the</strong> New Deal, <strong>the</strong> civilrights<strong>and</strong> fem<strong>in</strong>ist movements, <strong>the</strong> anti–Vietnam War protests,<strong>and</strong> environmental regulations, among o<strong>the</strong>rs.24 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 25The role of private groups <strong>in</strong> exert<strong>in</strong>g external pressures on<strong>the</strong> academy may have been energized by <strong>the</strong> events of 9/11, butit is rooted <strong>in</strong> a four-decade-long, massive <strong>in</strong>vestment by rightw<strong>in</strong>ggroups <strong>in</strong> a national network of <strong>in</strong>stitutions: th<strong>in</strong>k tanks,policy <strong>in</strong>stitutes, grassroots faith-based organizations, law firms,social advocacy groups, corporate lobby<strong>in</strong>g outfits, media outlets(radio, television, newspapers, <strong>the</strong> Internet), track<strong>in</strong>g organizations,<strong>and</strong> pressure groups of various k<strong>in</strong>ds. 36 The long period ofgestation is reflected <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> strategic goal of ACTA: to fundamentallytransform <strong>the</strong> structure, mission, <strong>and</strong> role of universitiesfrom <strong>the</strong> top down by achiev<strong>in</strong>g a comm<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g presence amongtrustees <strong>and</strong> alumni. Although keen on mobiliz<strong>in</strong>g donors (private<strong>and</strong> corporate) as well as government officials <strong>and</strong> agencies on<strong>the</strong> local, state, <strong>and</strong> national levels, ACTA operatives eschew <strong>the</strong>push for legislat<strong>in</strong>g political orthodoxy <strong>in</strong> favor of exert<strong>in</strong>g pressurethrough <strong>the</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istrative structures of universities. 37 Thislong-term strategy seeks to turn back <strong>the</strong> clock to <strong>the</strong> time whenconditions of “at-will” employment prevailed <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutions ofhigher education. Ironically, <strong>the</strong>se conditions, often characterizedby politically motivated, heavy-h<strong>and</strong>ed <strong>in</strong>terference from above,gave impetus to <strong>the</strong> first major statement on academic freedom,<strong>in</strong> 1915 (see <strong>the</strong> chapter by Post <strong>in</strong> this volume). At stake is academics’hard-earned right to regulate <strong>the</strong> production of knowledgeaccord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong>ir own professional norms.The attacks of September 11 created a very wide open<strong>in</strong>g for<strong>the</strong>se socially conservative, right-w<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>stitutions to work h<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>-h<strong>and</strong>with <strong>the</strong> Bush adm<strong>in</strong>istration to implement long-cherishedgoals on several fronts at once. In addition to groups like ACTA,two o<strong>the</strong>r dist<strong>in</strong>ct but related sets of organizations became part ofa loose coalition crystallized by <strong>the</strong> events of 9/11: neoconservative<strong>and</strong> “muscular nationalist” policy advocacy groups primarilyconcerned with foreign policy issues, such as <strong>the</strong> Project for <strong>the</strong>New American Century; <strong>and</strong> pro-Israel lobby<strong>in</strong>g groups, such as<strong>the</strong> American-Israel Public Affairs Committee, who been heavily<strong>in</strong>vested s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> early 1970s <strong>in</strong> polic<strong>in</strong>g what can be said aboutIsrael on campus <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> public discourse.The organizations <strong>in</strong> this broad alliance that are <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> “takeback <strong>the</strong> campus” campaigns are not of one m<strong>in</strong>d or one strategy.They are all, however, politically connected, amply funded, <strong>and</strong>well organized. An important unit<strong>in</strong>g factor, especially s<strong>in</strong>ce 9/11,DOUMANI 25
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 26is unst<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g support for <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly symbiotic relationshipbetween <strong>the</strong> Bush adm<strong>in</strong>istration <strong>and</strong> right-w<strong>in</strong>g groups <strong>in</strong> Israel.This close relationship is based on disparate <strong>and</strong> sometimes conflict<strong>in</strong>gmotivations, rang<strong>in</strong>g from a millennialist religious worldviewpromot<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ga<strong>the</strong>r<strong>in</strong>g of Jews <strong>in</strong> preparation for <strong>the</strong>Apocalypse to a view of Israel as a pioneer of defiant <strong>and</strong> uncompromis<strong>in</strong>gwar aga<strong>in</strong>st Islamic terrorism <strong>and</strong> of a foreign policybased on military preemption. 38 This partially expla<strong>in</strong>s <strong>the</strong>se organizations’severe allergy to any criticisms of Israeli governmentpolicies <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> media or <strong>the</strong> academy <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> centrality of Israelrelatedissues to most of <strong>the</strong> campus controversies that have attractednational attention. There is also a technological glue ofsorts: this loose coalition’s <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly coord<strong>in</strong>ated national “takeback <strong>the</strong> campus” campaigns are powered by <strong>the</strong> Internet. Websites, e-mail lists, <strong>and</strong> chat groups have proven to be effective vehiclesof <strong>in</strong>formation transfer <strong>and</strong> political mobilization that arealmost unfettered by volume, time, <strong>and</strong> space. This makes it possibleto exert enormous pressure on several target po<strong>in</strong>ts quickly<strong>and</strong> simultaneously.It is too early to tell whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> events of 9/11 will tip <strong>the</strong>balance of power <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> culture wars <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> academy. What is clearis that <strong>the</strong> challenges posed to academic freedom are structural,not cosmetic, <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tent, as <strong>the</strong>y emanate for <strong>the</strong> most part fromworldviews that aim at fundamental changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mission ofhigher education. It is also clear that <strong>the</strong>se challenges are not aboutto go away any time soon. In fact, <strong>in</strong>stead of decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g as <strong>the</strong> aftershocksof 9/11 have subsided, <strong>the</strong> campaigns have actually pickedup steam with each pass<strong>in</strong>g year. The rest of this section considersthree dist<strong>in</strong>ct but related types of challenges to academic freedomdriven by <strong>the</strong> efforts of private advocacy groups: <strong>the</strong> target<strong>in</strong>g ofspecific <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>and</strong> curricular offer<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>the</strong> attempt to codifypolitical <strong>in</strong>tervention through legislative <strong>in</strong>itiatives at <strong>the</strong> state <strong>and</strong>federal levels, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> pressure to change <strong>the</strong> requirements ofmajor fund<strong>in</strong>g organizations so as to delegitimize certa<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es of<strong>in</strong>quiry <strong>and</strong> to promote o<strong>the</strong>rs.In <strong>the</strong> aftermath of 9/11, a variety of private advocacy groups<strong>in</strong>itiated dozens of campaigns target<strong>in</strong>g specific professors, courses,<strong>and</strong> programs of study. The University of North Carol<strong>in</strong>a at ChapelHill, for <strong>in</strong>stance, was sued <strong>in</strong> 2002 by a right-w<strong>in</strong>g Christian group,<strong>the</strong> Family Policy Network, for assign<strong>in</strong>g a brief <strong>in</strong>troductory text26 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 27about Islam to <strong>in</strong>com<strong>in</strong>g students. The state legislature soon became<strong>in</strong>volved <strong>and</strong> voted 64–10 to forbid <strong>the</strong> university to usepublic funds to teach <strong>the</strong> book. 39 With predictable hyperbole, BillO’Reilly of Fox News said that assign<strong>in</strong>g such a text was similar toforc<strong>in</strong>g students to read Hitler’s Me<strong>in</strong> Kampf <strong>in</strong> 1941. 40 The universityheld firm, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> court of appeals dismissed <strong>the</strong> suit,despite additional attacks by local politicians <strong>and</strong> some universitytrustees. 41Enforc<strong>in</strong>g a narrow range of permissible speech through direct<strong>in</strong>tervention <strong>in</strong>stead of work<strong>in</strong>g through <strong>the</strong> university systemusually does not yield good results. Generally speak<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>the</strong> moreimpatient <strong>the</strong> strategy, <strong>the</strong> more resistance it meets from <strong>the</strong>academy. The least effective tactics are those that resort to adhom<strong>in</strong>em attacks <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r techniques of <strong>in</strong>timidation. After9/11, various private groups started openly recruit<strong>in</strong>g students<strong>and</strong> faculty members to <strong>in</strong>form on <strong>the</strong>ir colleagues, who were<strong>the</strong>n publicly “outed” on Web sites as un-American, anti-Semitic,or pro-terrorist. 42 As ACTA quickly found out, it was not itsdescriptions of universities as a fifth column but its list of 117 un-American professors that drew <strong>the</strong> greatest attention. Angry protestsforced ACTA to take this list off its Web site <strong>and</strong> to delete itfrom <strong>the</strong> report Defend<strong>in</strong>g Civilization. 43 The <strong>in</strong>famous CampusWatch Web site was forced to do <strong>the</strong> same. After all, virulentsmear campaigns aga<strong>in</strong>st academics who enjoy good reputationsamong <strong>the</strong>ir peers are, ultimately, a sign of weakness, an admissionthat politically motivated denunciations have no purchase <strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong> academy as a whole.That said, <strong>in</strong>timidation campaigns have <strong>in</strong>creased exponentiallys<strong>in</strong>ce 9/11, precipitat<strong>in</strong>g a rapid degradation of <strong>the</strong> academicclimate on numerous campuses. 44 The worsen<strong>in</strong>g climatehas been exacerbated by <strong>the</strong> weak response of university officials,who are constantly look<strong>in</strong>g over <strong>the</strong>ir shoulders at corporatebackers, politicians, alumni <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual donors, <strong>and</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>streammedia outlets. Controversies that attracted national attention–– such as those at Columbia University, <strong>the</strong> University ofColorado, <strong>the</strong> University of California at Berkeley, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Universityof North Carol<strong>in</strong>a at Chapel Hill ––have had an especiallycorrosive effect on <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectual atmosphere <strong>in</strong> this country<strong>and</strong> set dangerous precedents that bode ill for <strong>the</strong> future of academicfreedom.DOUMANI 27
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 28As Joel Be<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> argues <strong>in</strong> his chapter <strong>in</strong> this volume, <strong>the</strong> GeorgeW. Bush adm<strong>in</strong>istration has rescued <strong>the</strong> marg<strong>in</strong>al voices of <strong>the</strong>extreme right from <strong>the</strong> w<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> put <strong>the</strong>m on center stage.Although <strong>the</strong>re have been numerous efforts to police discussionon <strong>the</strong> Middle East s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> late 1960s, <strong>the</strong> post-9/11 momenthas crystallized a new political context, ideological climate, <strong>and</strong>web of <strong>in</strong>stitutional alliances. This has greatly streng<strong>the</strong>ned <strong>the</strong>h<strong>and</strong> of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>and</strong> organizations wag<strong>in</strong>g campaigns of<strong>in</strong>timidation aga<strong>in</strong>st scholars <strong>and</strong> students connected culturally oracademically to <strong>the</strong> Middle East or considered <strong>in</strong>sufficiently pro-Israel. Specifically, Be<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong> traces <strong>the</strong> historical evolution of wha<strong>the</strong> calls <strong>the</strong> “American Likud” –– those who tend to see <strong>the</strong> worldfrom <strong>the</strong> prism of <strong>the</strong> Israeli right w<strong>in</strong>g ––<strong>and</strong> analyzes <strong>the</strong> tactics<strong>the</strong>y have used to stifle dissent<strong>in</strong>g voices <strong>and</strong> impose a politicalorthodoxy on campuses.The politically motivated attacks on several scholars of <strong>the</strong>Middle East at Columbia University –– Joseph Massad, HamidDabashi, George Saliba, <strong>and</strong> Rashid Khalidi ––are a case <strong>in</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t.S<strong>in</strong>ce 2001, enormous resources have been expended <strong>in</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>gexamples of <strong>the</strong>se professors <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> conduct<strong>in</strong>g two high-profile<strong>in</strong>ternal <strong>in</strong>vestigations (<strong>the</strong> first one <strong>in</strong>itially kept secret) that aredeeply <strong>in</strong>jurious to <strong>the</strong> cause of academic freedom. 45 (See <strong>the</strong>Appendix for <strong>the</strong> NYCLU’s letter to Columbia University presidentLee Boll<strong>in</strong>ger concern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> case of Joseph Massad.) Thefollow<strong>in</strong>g quote from an <strong>in</strong>vestigative report <strong>in</strong> The Nation provides<strong>the</strong> flavor of <strong>the</strong> affair:The roots of <strong>the</strong> Columbia conflict can be traced back to campuspolitical developments <strong>in</strong> 2001 <strong>and</strong> early 2002. In March 2002 a networkof national Jewish organizations met to evaluate what <strong>the</strong>y sawas an alarm<strong>in</strong>g rise <strong>in</strong> anti-Israel activity on campus. From thosemeet<strong>in</strong>gs emerged <strong>the</strong> Israel on Campus Coalition (ICC), which is apartnership of Hillel <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Charles <strong>and</strong> Lynn Schusterman FamilyFoundation. (The three organizations share a build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton.)Accord<strong>in</strong>g to a 2002 article for <strong>the</strong> Jewish Telegraphic Agency, aJewish-oriented news service, top-flight talent was brought <strong>in</strong> toadvise <strong>the</strong> ICC <strong>and</strong> assemble a battle plan. “Pro-Israel professionalsfrom <strong>the</strong> elite consult<strong>in</strong>g firm McK<strong>in</strong>sey & Company offered probonoservices,” <strong>the</strong> article noted. Those professionals created adocument for <strong>the</strong> ICC argu<strong>in</strong>g that “<strong>the</strong> primary goal for this year28 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 29should be to ‘take back <strong>the</strong> campus’ by <strong>in</strong>fluenc<strong>in</strong>g public op<strong>in</strong>ionthrough lectures, <strong>the</strong> Internet <strong>and</strong> coalitions.” The ICC –– whichrecently received a $1,050,000 grant from <strong>the</strong> Schusterman Foundation,<strong>and</strong> whose speakers list <strong>in</strong>cludes Daniel Pipes –– has an impressivearray of “members”: AIPAC, ADL, Americans for Peace Now<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Zionist Organization of America, among o<strong>the</strong>rs. 46The capitulation of Columbia University president Lee Boll<strong>in</strong>ger,a noted First Amendment scholar, to outside political pressurescall<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>in</strong>vestigations of faculty members based on politicallymotivated accusations that clearly lacked substance sent a chillthroughout <strong>the</strong> academy. So did <strong>the</strong> earlier warn<strong>in</strong>g by HarvardUniversity president Lawrence Summers, who, <strong>in</strong> a much publicizedstatement, effectively equated criticism of Israeli policieson campus with anti-Semitism. 47 In addition to creat<strong>in</strong>g a climateof <strong>in</strong>timidation <strong>and</strong> fear, <strong>the</strong>se developments have accompanieddem<strong>and</strong>s for withdraw<strong>in</strong>g fund<strong>in</strong>g from centers for Middle Eaststudies <strong>and</strong> for <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g fund<strong>in</strong>g for chairs, fellowships, <strong>and</strong> programs<strong>in</strong> Israel studies. 48The Columbia professors are but a few of <strong>the</strong> many facultymembers <strong>and</strong> students who have been subjected to humiliat<strong>in</strong>g<strong>and</strong> damag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>vestigations by <strong>the</strong>ir own universities. More oftenthan not, <strong>the</strong>se <strong>in</strong>vestigations were conducted not because <strong>the</strong>rewas substantive cause for concern but <strong>in</strong> order to deflate pressurefrom some donors, politicians, trustees, alumni, <strong>and</strong> media outletsmobilized by advocacy groups that are right-w<strong>in</strong>g, pro-Israel,or both. Colleges <strong>and</strong> universities are privileged <strong>in</strong>stitutions, <strong>and</strong><strong>the</strong> voices of faculty members, especially tenured professors, enjoymore protection than most o<strong>the</strong>rs <strong>in</strong> society; still, <strong>the</strong> tepidresponses of university officials <strong>in</strong>variably lead to a slippery slopeof concessions that becomes more difficult to reverse over time.The smear campaigns at Columbia, for example, opened <strong>the</strong> doorto a whole new level of attacks on academic freedom, such as <strong>the</strong>bann<strong>in</strong>g by <strong>the</strong> New York City Department of Education of ano<strong>the</strong>rColumbia professor, Rashid Khalidi, from a teacher tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>gprogram because of his reported views on Israeli government policies.49 Jonathan R. Cole, a former provost <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> dean of facultiesat Columbia University from 1989 to 2003, strongly cautionsuniversity leaders about respond<strong>in</strong>g to outside attacks. He writes,“There are a few matters on which universities must st<strong>and</strong> onDOUMANI 29
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 30absolute pr<strong>in</strong>ciple. <strong>Academic</strong> freedom is one of <strong>the</strong>m. If we fail todefend this core value, <strong>the</strong>n we jeopardize <strong>the</strong> global preem<strong>in</strong>enceof our Universities.... Whenever academic freedom isunder fire we must rise to its defense with courage ––<strong>and</strong> withoutcompromise.” 50The second major front that poses a challenge to academicfreedom is <strong>the</strong> nationwide push by several private advocacy groupsto codify political <strong>in</strong>tervention <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> academy through legislative<strong>in</strong>itiatives on <strong>the</strong> federal <strong>and</strong> state levels. The two most importantexamples are HR 3077 <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Congress (discussed earlier) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><strong>Academic</strong> Bill of Rights, which had been <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> over adozen states as of early 2005. 51 The net effect of <strong>the</strong>se <strong>in</strong>itiatives, if<strong>the</strong>y all passed, would be to shift pedagogical authority from <strong>the</strong>academy to politicians <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> courts. A statement by <strong>the</strong> AAUPcharges that <strong>the</strong> campaign for <strong>the</strong> <strong>Academic</strong> Bill of Rightsunderm<strong>in</strong>es <strong>the</strong> very academic freedom it claims to support. Itthreatens to impose adm<strong>in</strong>istrative <strong>and</strong> legislative oversight on <strong>the</strong>professional judgment of faculty, to deprive professors of <strong>the</strong> authoritynecessary for teach<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> to prohibit academic <strong>in</strong>stitutions frommak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> decisions that are necessary for <strong>the</strong> advancement ofknowledge. 52The language be<strong>in</strong>g deployed to sell <strong>the</strong>se <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>itiativescynically appropriates <strong>the</strong> liberal term<strong>in</strong>ology of <strong>the</strong> New Deal<strong>and</strong> civil-rights eras. Code words such as balance, fairness, diversity,accountability, tolerance, <strong>and</strong>, not least, academic freedomare used to justify <strong>the</strong> enforcement of a political orthodoxy thatunderm<strong>in</strong>es <strong>the</strong>se very values. This term<strong>in</strong>ology abounds <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>screeds by pro-Israel right-w<strong>in</strong>g activists target<strong>in</strong>g Middle Eaststudies <strong>and</strong> faculty members. 53 Identical term<strong>in</strong>ology is used <strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong> renewed debate on teach<strong>in</strong>g evolution. For example, <strong>in</strong> overa dozen states, policy makers are consider<strong>in</strong>g proposals that seekto legislate <strong>the</strong> marg<strong>in</strong>alization of <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>ory of evolution <strong>in</strong> scienceclasses <strong>and</strong> to promote alternatives such as “<strong>in</strong>telligent design”<strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r creationist concepts. 54 Accord<strong>in</strong>g to an article <strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton Post,Sen. Rick Santorum (R-Pa.), a Christian who draws on DiscoveryInstitute material, drafted language accompany<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> law that said30 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 31students should be exposed to “<strong>the</strong> full range of scientific views thatexist.” “Anyone who expresses anyth<strong>in</strong>g o<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>the</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>antworldview is shunned <strong>and</strong> booted from <strong>the</strong> academy,” Santorum said<strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>terview. “My read<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> science is <strong>the</strong>re’s a legitimatedebate. My feel<strong>in</strong>g is let <strong>the</strong> debate be had.”In <strong>the</strong> same article, Stephen C. Meyer of <strong>the</strong> Discovery Institutedescribes <strong>the</strong> legislation as “an academic freedom proposal. Whatwe would like to foment is a civil discussion about science. Thatfalls right down <strong>the</strong> middle of <strong>the</strong> fairway of American pluralism.. . . We are <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> see<strong>in</strong>g that spread state by state across<strong>the</strong> country.” 55 Consider<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ideological imperatives beh<strong>in</strong>dthis language, it is not entirely <strong>in</strong>consistent that <strong>the</strong> same Santorumsought to limit debate when he announced <strong>in</strong> April 2003 tha<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tended to <strong>in</strong>troduce legislation that would cut off federalfund<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>in</strong>stitutions of higher learn<strong>in</strong>g that allowed students orfaculty members to openly criticize Israel, on <strong>the</strong> assumption thatsuch criticism is necessarily anti-Semitic.Expos<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ideological agenda <strong>and</strong> coord<strong>in</strong>ated efforts beh<strong>in</strong>d<strong>the</strong>se <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r attempts at politically codify<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> middleor balance po<strong>in</strong>t of <strong>the</strong> spectrum of knowledge on any issue is emphaticallynot an argument for <strong>in</strong>sulat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> academy from socialforces espous<strong>in</strong>g specific po<strong>in</strong>ts of view or a claim that knowledgeis generated solely by academic experts. That would be a guaranteeof irrelevance <strong>and</strong> a breach of <strong>the</strong> larger aim of serv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>public good, a task that can hardly be accomplished without a certa<strong>in</strong>degree of responsiveness <strong>and</strong> accountability to <strong>the</strong> needs ofsociety on <strong>the</strong> part of <strong>the</strong> academy. 56 However, it is difficult tosusta<strong>in</strong> a rational <strong>and</strong> productive discussion when criticisms ofU.S. or Israeli government policies are rout<strong>in</strong>ely stigmatized astreasonous or anti-Semitic. In <strong>the</strong> post-9/11 political climate,<strong>the</strong>re is no field more radioactive than Middle East studies <strong>and</strong>noth<strong>in</strong>g more frowned upon than expressions of support for Palest<strong>in</strong>ianrights. 57 This is especially clear when it comes to <strong>the</strong>third front <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> challenges to academic freedom by privateadvocacy groups: <strong>the</strong> successful pressures brought on <strong>the</strong> Ford<strong>and</strong> Rockefeller foundations to change <strong>the</strong>ir grant language.Decisions by big foundations about what l<strong>in</strong>es of <strong>in</strong>quiry tofund <strong>and</strong> what to ignore have a major <strong>in</strong>fluence on research trends<strong>and</strong> academic programs. In <strong>the</strong> heyday of <strong>the</strong> Cold War, <strong>the</strong> bigDOUMANI 31
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 32foundations, elite universities, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies constituteda veritable ménage à trois, at least when it came to language<strong>and</strong> area studies. 58 Until fairly recently, however, <strong>the</strong> importanceof universities was such that <strong>the</strong>re was a wide space for a politics of“moral ambiguity,” as John Lie calls it, which allowed area-studiesexperts <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r academics a certa<strong>in</strong> freedom to ask <strong>the</strong>ir ownquestions <strong>and</strong> even to take up public political positions that challengedU.S. foreign policies. 59 Foundations, elitist <strong>and</strong> patroniz<strong>in</strong>gas some can be, have been <strong>in</strong>strumental <strong>in</strong> exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g this space,especially dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> civil-rights <strong>and</strong> anti–Vietnam War periods.After 9/11, that distance seems to have closed considerably, asevidenced by <strong>the</strong> new language that has been added to st<strong>and</strong>ardgrant letters. In <strong>the</strong> case of <strong>the</strong> Ford Foundation, for <strong>in</strong>stance,grantees must sign a document that forbids <strong>the</strong>m to promote orengage <strong>in</strong> “violence, terrorism, bigotry or <strong>the</strong> destruction of anystate.” (See <strong>the</strong> Appendix.) Those familiar with public debateson <strong>the</strong> Palest<strong>in</strong>ian-Israeli conflict long before September 11 will<strong>in</strong>stantly recognize <strong>the</strong> phras<strong>in</strong>g, for it is identical to <strong>the</strong> publicrelationslanguage of pro-Israel advocacy groups. This is no surprise,for <strong>the</strong> new language came about as a response to criticismsfrom (<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>n <strong>in</strong> lengthy consultations with) several major Jewishorganizations upset that some of <strong>the</strong> human rights groups at<strong>the</strong> 2001 World Conference Aga<strong>in</strong>st Racism, Racial Discrim<strong>in</strong>ation,Xenophobia <strong>and</strong> Related Intolerance, <strong>in</strong> Durban, SouthAfrica, who criticized Israeli policies had received funds from <strong>the</strong>Ford <strong>and</strong> Rockefeller foundations. 60This language <strong>in</strong>troduces a different form of ambiguity, onethat can be used not to create a safe haven for counterhegemonicprojects but to filter <strong>the</strong>m out. Can universities <strong>and</strong> colleges besued or lose <strong>the</strong>ir funds if a student or faculty member affiliatedwith a sponsored project speaks out <strong>in</strong> favor of <strong>the</strong> right of <strong>in</strong>digenouspeople to use violence aga<strong>in</strong>st a foreign military occupation?Would a lecture advocat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> right of Islamist organizations suchas <strong>the</strong> Hezbollah Party to participate <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Lebanese political systembe construed as promot<strong>in</strong>g terrorism, s<strong>in</strong>ce Hezbollah isofficially listed as a terrorist organization by <strong>the</strong> U.S. State Department?Would sign<strong>in</strong>g a petition call<strong>in</strong>g for divestment from companies<strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Israeli military occupation be considereda form of anti-Semitism, hence bigotry? Would research that arguesfor <strong>the</strong> establishment of a b<strong>in</strong>ational state <strong>in</strong> Israel/Palest<strong>in</strong>e32 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 33<strong>in</strong>stead of a two-state solution be accused of promot<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> destructionof a state? Several private elite universities objected to<strong>the</strong> foundations’ new language, prompt<strong>in</strong>g some m<strong>in</strong>or changes. 61These changes were so m<strong>in</strong>or, <strong>in</strong> fact, that <strong>in</strong> 2004 <strong>the</strong> ACLU, <strong>the</strong>major civil-rights organization <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> U.S., turned down a $1 milliongrant from Ford <strong>and</strong> a $150,000 grant from Rockefeller. TheACLU press release stated that it was “a sad day when two of thiscountry’s most beloved <strong>and</strong> respected foundations feel <strong>the</strong>y areoperat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> such a climate of fear <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>timidation that <strong>the</strong>y arecompelled to require thous<strong>and</strong>s of recipients to accept vague grantlanguage which could have a chill<strong>in</strong>g effect on civil liberties.” 62Before 9/11, government constra<strong>in</strong>ts set off <strong>the</strong> loudest beepson <strong>the</strong> academic-freedom radar screens of most <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>and</strong>organizations. After 9/11, I th<strong>in</strong>k it is fair to say, <strong>the</strong>se radarsshould be retuned to track <strong>the</strong> prom<strong>in</strong>ent role of private advocacygroups, especially those engaged <strong>in</strong> enforc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> agendas of rightw<strong>in</strong>gChristian <strong>and</strong> pro-Israel organizations on campus. For severalreasons, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly weighty <strong>in</strong>volvement of <strong>the</strong>se groupsover <strong>the</strong> past decade poses a more complex if not greater challengeto <strong>the</strong> autonomy of <strong>the</strong> academy <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> future of academicfreedom than <strong>the</strong> specter of government <strong>in</strong>tervention. For oneth<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>the</strong> lack of a unify<strong>in</strong>g symbol, or at least one as convenientas “The Government,” makes it very difficult to effectively mobilizefaculty members <strong>and</strong> students <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> face of multiple <strong>and</strong>simultaneous challenges from a variety of advocacy groups to academicappo<strong>in</strong>tments, programs of study, <strong>in</strong>dividual <strong>in</strong>structors,<strong>and</strong> legitimate forms of student activism on campus. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore,private groups have, <strong>and</strong> rightly, numerous protections under <strong>the</strong>law <strong>and</strong> greater latitude of action when compared to governmentsthat are, at least <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ory, accountable to <strong>the</strong> people who elected<strong>the</strong>m. Most important, perhaps, <strong>the</strong> privatization of knowledge,one aspect of which is <strong>the</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g power of a managerial adm<strong>in</strong>istrativestructure at <strong>the</strong> expense of shared governance with <strong>the</strong>faculty <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> student body, has rendered <strong>in</strong>stitutions of highereducation more vulnerable than ever to <strong>in</strong>tervention from withoutby powerful <strong>in</strong>terest groups. 63 Corporations, donors, <strong>and</strong>advocacy groups have become adept at <strong>in</strong>stitutionaliz<strong>in</strong>g relationsof dependence with this managerial class, mostly through f<strong>in</strong>ancial<strong>and</strong> political means, <strong>in</strong> ways that are transform<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> very structure<strong>and</strong> mission of higher education.DOUMANI 33
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 34The Multiversity <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Privatization</strong> of KnowledgeWhen one is busy dodg<strong>in</strong>g sticks <strong>and</strong> stones, it is easy to forgetthat what is at stake <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> battles for academic freedom is <strong>the</strong>survival of <strong>in</strong>stitutions of higher education as a regulated publictrust. One’s sense of shock at <strong>the</strong> level of coercion <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> post-9/11 moment st<strong>and</strong>s <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>verse relationship to one’s appreciationfor <strong>the</strong> chang<strong>in</strong>g political economy of knowledge. Simply put, as<strong>the</strong> commercialization of knowledge exp<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>the</strong> space accordedto academic freedom contracts.To underst<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> significance of <strong>the</strong> post-9/11 moment,<strong>the</strong>refore, it is important to locate it <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> context of <strong>the</strong> rapid<strong>in</strong>stitutional transformation of <strong>the</strong> academy that began <strong>in</strong> earnestafter <strong>the</strong> Second World War, when <strong>the</strong> United States emerged as<strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> military <strong>and</strong> economic power <strong>in</strong> a devastated world.And that was just <strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of a golden era of unprecedentedeconomic expansion that lasted two decades. The rise of managerialcapitalism, which replaced family-run empires with arationalized hierarchy of experts ––a development that universityadm<strong>in</strong>istrations would later be patterned after –– was especiallyfortunate for <strong>the</strong> academy. Large sums of money from <strong>the</strong> government<strong>and</strong> corporations flowed <strong>in</strong>to public <strong>and</strong> private researchuniversities, which were popularly perceived as knowledge factoriesthat produced <strong>the</strong> human resources, technological advances,<strong>and</strong> ideological environment that undergirded <strong>the</strong> United States’economic <strong>and</strong> military prowess.Kathleen J. Frydl ties <strong>the</strong> many str<strong>and</strong>s of this volume toge<strong>the</strong>rby explor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> relationship between <strong>the</strong> chang<strong>in</strong>g mean<strong>in</strong>gsof academic freedom <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> chang<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>stitutional structure<strong>and</strong> political economy of <strong>the</strong> academy after <strong>the</strong> Second WorldWar. She analyzes how <strong>the</strong> University of California, <strong>the</strong> trendsett<strong>in</strong>gmodel of <strong>the</strong> new “multiversity,” experienced two formative<strong>and</strong> iconic episodes: <strong>the</strong> loyalty-oath controversy of 1949 <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>Free Speech Movement <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1960s. Even though both were popularlyseen as extramural battles over free speech, <strong>the</strong>y actuallyreflected fundamental transformations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> student body <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong> services provided by <strong>the</strong> university.Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Frydl, universities were pried open after <strong>the</strong> SecondWorld War <strong>in</strong> two ways. First, <strong>the</strong>y came to reflect moreclosely <strong>the</strong> demographic l<strong>and</strong>scape of <strong>the</strong> United States, <strong>and</strong> second,<strong>the</strong>y became much more <strong>in</strong>tegrated with larger market34 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 35forces that would prove very difficult to resist. Universities wereno longer <strong>the</strong> preserve of a t<strong>in</strong>y elite, as had been <strong>the</strong> case a centurybefore, nor were <strong>the</strong>y limited to <strong>the</strong> classical curriculum ofliberal arts <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> sciences. The multiversity became home to amuch larger <strong>and</strong> more diverse student body, <strong>and</strong> its mission exp<strong>and</strong>edto serve a stunn<strong>in</strong>gly wide range of <strong>in</strong>tellectual, research,<strong>and</strong> service objectives. The golden age of <strong>the</strong> research multiversityalso signaled <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g dependence on jo<strong>in</strong>t ventures withcorporations <strong>and</strong> on government funds for research projects <strong>and</strong>academic programs. Paradoxically, it also made possible a sociallyengaged process of knowledge production that spoke truth topower, especially at <strong>the</strong> height of <strong>the</strong> Vietnam War. With<strong>in</strong> thislarger historical context, Frydl argues, polic<strong>in</strong>g thought might bean ugly <strong>and</strong> pa<strong>in</strong>ful bus<strong>in</strong>ess, but <strong>the</strong> hidden <strong>and</strong> mundane processof establish<strong>in</strong>g sovereignty over research, teach<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>gmatters more.There is by now a large amount of scholarship on <strong>the</strong> impactof <strong>the</strong> commercialization of knowledge on <strong>the</strong> academy, on howcorporate culture has permeated <strong>the</strong> top adm<strong>in</strong>istrative ranks of<strong>the</strong> university, <strong>and</strong> on <strong>the</strong> ways neoliberal assumptions are shap<strong>in</strong>g<strong>the</strong> consciousness of <strong>the</strong> young generation of students. 64 Buttwo brief personal vignettes will suffice to convey, by way of texture<strong>and</strong> symbolism, <strong>the</strong> nature of <strong>the</strong> new environment. My firstsemester as an employee of <strong>the</strong> University of Pennsylvania <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>late 1980s opened with speeches by <strong>the</strong> university’s president <strong>and</strong>provost to newly hired assistant professors like me. The presidentgestured elegantly <strong>in</strong> an attempt to persuade <strong>the</strong> young crowd ––very much aware of <strong>the</strong> dictum “publish or perish” –– that it couldreach great heights <strong>in</strong> both teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> research, nei<strong>the</strong>r at <strong>the</strong>expense of <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r. This rosy <strong>and</strong> uplift<strong>in</strong>g rhetoric did not prepareus well for <strong>the</strong> devastat<strong>in</strong>gly honest <strong>and</strong> straightforward firstl<strong>in</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> next speaker. The provost extended his arm, po<strong>in</strong>tedhis f<strong>in</strong>ger, <strong>and</strong>, after mak<strong>in</strong>g a sweep from one end of <strong>the</strong> room to<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r, exclaimed with authority: “There is one th<strong>in</strong>g you haveto remember about <strong>the</strong> University of Pennsylvania: we are a $1.2billion corporation!”Dur<strong>in</strong>g Parents’ Weekend that same year, I sat near <strong>the</strong> statueof Benjam<strong>in</strong> Frankl<strong>in</strong> ––a proud symbol of Quaker tolerance, <strong>the</strong>scientific method, critical th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> revolutionary politics ––strategically located between <strong>the</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istration build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>DOUMANI 35
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 36library on <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> campus lawn, observ<strong>in</strong>g students giv<strong>in</strong>g toursto <strong>the</strong>ir proud parents. I saw one of <strong>the</strong> students po<strong>in</strong>t at a large,pla<strong>in</strong> metal sculpture of <strong>the</strong> ubiquitous 1960s peace sign plantedon <strong>the</strong> grass lawn <strong>and</strong> say: “And this is <strong>the</strong> Mercedes sign <strong>in</strong> frontof <strong>the</strong> Van Pelt Library.” There could not be a more stark contrastbetween <strong>the</strong> two contenders for sovereignty over <strong>the</strong> house ofknowledge: <strong>the</strong> corporation, on <strong>the</strong> one h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> subversivesymbol of <strong>the</strong> anti–Vietnam War movement, on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r. Ofcourse, it is not really much of a contest: <strong>the</strong> former was alreadyhegemonic <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> imag<strong>in</strong>ation of <strong>the</strong> student who, as it turnedout, was hurriedly walk<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> Wharton School of Bus<strong>in</strong>ess,whose resources <strong>and</strong> reputation have come to dwarf those of itspoor liberal-arts cous<strong>in</strong>. The role of <strong>the</strong> university as <strong>the</strong> producerof knowledge for <strong>the</strong> greater good, symbolized by Benjam<strong>in</strong>Frankl<strong>in</strong> –– one of <strong>the</strong> found<strong>in</strong>g fa<strong>the</strong>rs of United States as well asof <strong>the</strong> University of Pennsylvania –– is <strong>in</strong> danger of becom<strong>in</strong>g ath<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> past. 65These two vignettes sketch <strong>the</strong> parameters of <strong>the</strong> conditions ofpossibility for higher education <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> twenty-first century. AsFrank Newman <strong>and</strong> his colleagues argue, <strong>the</strong> special privilegesthat universities <strong>and</strong> colleges have long enjoyed –– such as taxexemption <strong>and</strong> state fund<strong>in</strong>g, autonomy <strong>and</strong> academic freedom,<strong>and</strong> public respect <strong>and</strong> trust –– all depend on a host of historicallylayered expectations about <strong>the</strong>ir perceived contributions to <strong>the</strong>greater social good. 66 But <strong>the</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>g of “social good” <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ways <strong>the</strong>se <strong>in</strong>stitutions have been structured to deliver it havechanged over time. In class terms, <strong>the</strong>se <strong>in</strong>stitutions, whose modest<strong>in</strong>itial goal was to deliver cultivated future civic <strong>and</strong> churchleaders from among <strong>the</strong> elite, became factories produc<strong>in</strong>g a newmiddle class of experts, technocrats, <strong>and</strong> scientists, <strong>and</strong> were <strong>the</strong>n,until recently, vehicles of social mobility for hi<strong>the</strong>rto locked-outgroups, such as <strong>the</strong> work<strong>in</strong>g classes, women, <strong>and</strong> people of color.The latter no longer obta<strong>in</strong>s. Institutions of higher educationare go<strong>in</strong>g through a dizzy<strong>in</strong>gly fast, <strong>in</strong>tense, <strong>and</strong> irreversible transformation.Pushed far<strong>the</strong>r <strong>and</strong> far<strong>the</strong>r away from <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>timateembrace of public regulation, universities <strong>and</strong> colleges are f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g<strong>the</strong>mselves <strong>in</strong> a merciless open market, very much like phone <strong>and</strong>utility companies of old. 67 They are engaged <strong>in</strong> cutthroat competition<strong>and</strong> driven by <strong>the</strong> bottom l<strong>in</strong>e. Some university adm<strong>in</strong>istratorsact <strong>and</strong> are paid like CEOs; many faculty members steer36 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 37away from controversy <strong>and</strong> learn how to become entrepreneursto fur<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>ir careers; <strong>and</strong> students are surrounded by shops,restaurants, <strong>and</strong> cha<strong>in</strong> bookstores <strong>in</strong> shopp<strong>in</strong>g-mall campuses,where <strong>the</strong>y are encouraged <strong>and</strong> expected to negotiate a consumer-cultureenvironment whose motto is “Keep <strong>the</strong> customersatisfied.” Meanwhile, knowledge is be<strong>in</strong>g commercialized <strong>and</strong>sold on <strong>the</strong> open market as a product for <strong>the</strong> private good by afantastically large array of nonprofit public <strong>and</strong> private <strong>in</strong>stitutions<strong>and</strong> for-profit mult<strong>in</strong>ational corporations operat<strong>in</strong>g both <strong>in</strong>brick-<strong>and</strong>-mortar sett<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> cyberspace. 68 This is all tak<strong>in</strong>gplace <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly deregulated environment, <strong>in</strong> which politiciansclamor for accountability <strong>and</strong> flexibility, corporations <strong>and</strong>special-<strong>in</strong>terest groups for control of <strong>the</strong> product, <strong>and</strong> academicadm<strong>in</strong>istrators for more autonomy <strong>and</strong> money. Can critical thought––<strong>the</strong> beat<strong>in</strong>g heart of academic freedom –– survive <strong>in</strong> such a corporatizedenvironment?Although <strong>the</strong> system of higher education <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> United States isstill, by <strong>and</strong> large, <strong>the</strong> best <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> world, <strong>the</strong> concerns outl<strong>in</strong>ed aboveare real, <strong>and</strong> ignor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m is folly. In <strong>the</strong> words of David Kirp,Many <strong>in</strong>stitutions have ab<strong>and</strong>oned <strong>the</strong> high ground that has givenhigher education a claim on <strong>the</strong> public resources of <strong>the</strong> society, forgett<strong>in</strong>gthat <strong>the</strong>ir purpose is speak<strong>in</strong>g truth to power.... With PublicUniversities rely<strong>in</strong>g less on state funds, <strong>and</strong> for-profit schools likeDeVry <strong>and</strong> Phoenix com<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong>ir own, <strong>the</strong> very idea that <strong>in</strong>stitutionsof higher learn<strong>in</strong>g have a mission beyond promot<strong>in</strong>g<strong>the</strong>ir members’ <strong>in</strong>dividual private good can no longer be taken forgranted.... How much academic freedom is available to professorsat a place like <strong>the</strong> University of Virg<strong>in</strong>ia’s bus<strong>in</strong>ess school, who cannotuse course materials that <strong>the</strong>y have prepared for executive tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>gcourses <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir regular classes? What is <strong>the</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong>community of scholars when a s<strong>in</strong>gle corporation can patent <strong>the</strong>research products of an entire department, as Novartis was essentiallyable to do at Berkeley? 69As <strong>the</strong> University of Pennsylvania speeches mentioned abovesymbolize, <strong>the</strong>re is a wide gap between <strong>the</strong> rhetoric of public purpose<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> reality of private good. Typical of <strong>the</strong> consequencesof privatization everywhere, <strong>the</strong>re is a grow<strong>in</strong>g class <strong>and</strong> racedivide, as current admissions policies favor affluent children withDOUMANI 37
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 38access to good schools at <strong>the</strong> grade- <strong>and</strong> high-school levels. 70 In asober <strong>and</strong> restra<strong>in</strong>ed analysis, Frank Newman, Lara Couturier,<strong>and</strong> Jamie Scurry summarize <strong>the</strong> situation as follows:The rhetoric describes devotion to student learn<strong>in</strong>g, while <strong>in</strong> reality<strong>the</strong> student bears pr<strong>in</strong>cipal responsibility.... The rhetoric describesdevotion to teach<strong>in</strong>g, while <strong>in</strong> reality . . . faculty are devoted toresearch, publish<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> outside consult<strong>in</strong>g. The rhetoric calls forservice to <strong>the</strong> community, while attention is focused on improv<strong>in</strong>grank<strong>in</strong>gs.... The rhetoric proclaims <strong>the</strong> importance of fundamental<strong>and</strong> trustworthy scholarship that serves society, while <strong>in</strong> fact impartialityis undercut by grow<strong>in</strong>g corporate control of research <strong>and</strong> facultyconflicts of <strong>in</strong>terest. 71The commercialization of education is produc<strong>in</strong>g a culture ofconformity decidedly hostile to <strong>the</strong> university’s traditional role asa haven for <strong>in</strong>formed social criticism. In this larger context, academicfreedom is becom<strong>in</strong>g a luxury, not a condition of possibilityfor <strong>the</strong> pursuit of truth.Knowledge production driven by market forces that reflect<strong>the</strong> hierarchy of power slowly restructures <strong>in</strong>stitutions of higherlearn<strong>in</strong>g by promot<strong>in</strong>g certa<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es of <strong>in</strong>quiry <strong>and</strong> quietly bury<strong>in</strong>go<strong>the</strong>rs. Over time, <strong>the</strong> process becomes hegemonic, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sensethat unwritten rules about what is fundable <strong>and</strong> what is not arebureaucratically <strong>in</strong>ternalized <strong>and</strong> modalities of self-censorshipact as a filter for condon<strong>in</strong>g or shunn<strong>in</strong>g proposed research, teach<strong>in</strong>g,<strong>and</strong> extramural utterance. For example, most scholars of <strong>the</strong>Middle East, especially graduate students <strong>and</strong> untenured professors,underst<strong>and</strong> very well that <strong>the</strong>re is a heavy price to pay forpublicly support<strong>in</strong>g Palest<strong>in</strong>ian national aspirations <strong>and</strong> very littlesupport for research projects that do not fit <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> policy-drivenpriorities of most fund<strong>in</strong>g agencies.The similarities between this self-censorship <strong>in</strong> Middle Eaststudies <strong>and</strong> that of teach<strong>in</strong>g evolution <strong>in</strong> high schools are strik<strong>in</strong>g.While it is very unfortunate that many local boards of educationare attempt<strong>in</strong>g to prevent <strong>the</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g of evolution, an evengreater concern is that large numbers of teachers who believe <strong>in</strong>evolution <strong>and</strong> who are free to teach it still choose not to discussit <strong>in</strong> class. “It is just too much trouble,” said one such teacher <strong>in</strong>reference to <strong>the</strong> repressive social atmosphere. 72 It is well to keep38 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 39<strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d here <strong>the</strong> power of popular beliefs <strong>in</strong> U.S. society. TheUnited States, <strong>in</strong> fact, is an oddity among all <strong>in</strong>dustrialized nations<strong>in</strong> that one-half of its population explicitly rejects evolution, comparedto only a m<strong>in</strong>uscule number elsewhere. This speaks volumesabout a public culture that is becom<strong>in</strong>g less tolerant of <strong>the</strong>worldviews that susta<strong>in</strong> practices such as academic freedom. Relevan<strong>the</strong>re is <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> largest study of its k<strong>in</strong>d, that <strong>the</strong>overwhelm<strong>in</strong>g majority of high-school students <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> UnitedStates are ignorant of <strong>the</strong> contents of <strong>the</strong> First Amendment. Moretroubl<strong>in</strong>g, when <strong>the</strong> exact text was read to <strong>the</strong>m, three out of foursaid that it goes “too far” <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> rights it guarantees. 73In this environment of repressive political culture <strong>and</strong> tighten<strong>in</strong>geconomic pressures, <strong>the</strong>re can be no adequate defense of academicfreedom based on what Kathleen J. Frydl calls “freedomfrom” strategies. <strong>Academic</strong> freedom has to be <strong>in</strong>vested with newmean<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>and</strong> new strategies of “freedom to” need to be articulated.There is no alternative to political engagement by facultymembers, students, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutions of higher education as awhole if <strong>the</strong>y are to preserve some autonomy <strong>and</strong> shape <strong>the</strong> radical<strong>and</strong> ongo<strong>in</strong>g transformation of higher education. But how isthis to be done?Reth<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Academic</strong> <strong>Freedom</strong>The legal structures, philosophical foundations, <strong>and</strong> ethical practicesof academic freedom have taken on different roles <strong>and</strong>mean<strong>in</strong>gs over time. Over <strong>the</strong> course of <strong>the</strong> twentieth century,especially after <strong>the</strong> Second World War, social <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectualmovements as well as legal developments exp<strong>and</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> confused<strong>the</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>gs of academic freedom: courts became <strong>in</strong>volved, especiallyon matters relat<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>in</strong>dividual rights of academics <strong>and</strong>free-speech issues; skepticism about objectivity <strong>and</strong> truth <strong>in</strong>creased;<strong>and</strong> universities became complex <strong>and</strong> varied <strong>in</strong>stitutionsmuch more <strong>in</strong>timately connected to corporations <strong>and</strong> governmentagencies.When talk<strong>in</strong>g about academic freedom, one needs to be specificabout <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitution <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> k<strong>in</strong>d of activity <strong>in</strong> question <strong>and</strong><strong>the</strong> location of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitution. It matterswhe<strong>the</strong>r one is talk<strong>in</strong>g about private or public universities, nonprofitor for-profit systems, or <strong>the</strong> variety of corporate <strong>and</strong> mult<strong>in</strong>ationalorganizations that offer degrees, certificates, <strong>and</strong> licenses.DOUMANI 39
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 40The <strong>in</strong>vocation of professional norms may be <strong>the</strong> best defense for<strong>the</strong> freedom of research <strong>and</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g by faculty members but notnecessarily <strong>the</strong> most effective when it comes to extramural utterance,especially for students <strong>and</strong> staff members. There are conflict<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>terests between tenured <strong>and</strong> nontenured faculty members<strong>and</strong> certa<strong>in</strong>ly between <strong>the</strong> academic freedom of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> special freedoms attached to academic <strong>in</strong>stitutions. Whatvisions of academic freedom can we defend <strong>and</strong> what strategiesshould we adopt <strong>in</strong> light of <strong>the</strong> structural changes to <strong>the</strong> academyover <strong>the</strong> past few decades, as well as <strong>the</strong> challenges of <strong>the</strong> post-9/11 moment?Philippa Strum’s analysis of cases heard before <strong>the</strong> U.S. SupremeCourt <strong>in</strong> this volume shows that <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual right offaculty members to free speech under <strong>the</strong> First Amendment hasbecome an important, albeit still ambiguous, part of <strong>the</strong> legalstructure of academic freedom. In a concise, accessible, <strong>and</strong> smoothlystructured exposition of case law, Strum persuasively arguesthat <strong>the</strong> Supreme Court has thus far upheld this right by us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>pragmatic rationale of “social benefit,” but only when it comes topublic <strong>in</strong>stitutions. It is also unclear whe<strong>the</strong>r this right resides <strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>dividuals or <strong>in</strong>stitutions, as <strong>the</strong> court has frequently referred toboth. She warns that <strong>in</strong> light of <strong>the</strong> fairly brief history of academicfreedom <strong>in</strong> American constitutional law, <strong>the</strong> very conservativemakeup of <strong>the</strong> current Supreme Court, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g weightof security considerations dur<strong>in</strong>g a time of war, <strong>the</strong> very samepragmatic bent can be used to politically redef<strong>in</strong>e social benefitto sacrifice liberty for security <strong>and</strong> critical th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g for nationalunity. At <strong>the</strong> same time, Strum argues strongly that academic freedomcan <strong>and</strong> must be seen as an <strong>in</strong>dividual right, especially if weare to <strong>in</strong>clude private <strong>in</strong>stitutions as well as students <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dependentscholars under <strong>the</strong> First Amendment umbrella.In his chapter, Robert Post, who served as legal adviser for <strong>the</strong>AAUP’s academic freedom committee, focuses on <strong>the</strong> historicalmoment at <strong>the</strong> turn of <strong>the</strong> twentieth century when <strong>the</strong> basicstructural foundations of academic freedom were laid. Post arguesthat, just as justice is best advanced by judges who are technicallygovernment employees yet have <strong>the</strong> right to freely exercise <strong>the</strong>irjudgment accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> law, not <strong>the</strong> whim of <strong>the</strong> government,knowledge as a public good is best served by <strong>the</strong> unfettered pursuitby faculty members of three key areas: research <strong>and</strong> writ<strong>in</strong>g,40 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 41teach<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> extramural utterance. Professional academic st<strong>and</strong>ards<strong>and</strong> norms, <strong>in</strong> short, constitute <strong>the</strong> shield that protects academicfreedom while <strong>in</strong>ternally regulat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> constra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g it.These structures have succeeded so brilliantly that academic freedomis now part of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutional woodwork of higher education.Paradoxically, <strong>the</strong>ir very success has made <strong>the</strong>m more limited<strong>in</strong> scope, orthodox <strong>in</strong> content, <strong>and</strong> estranged from a popularimag<strong>in</strong>ation that, <strong>in</strong> a historical wrong turn, planted <strong>the</strong> flag ofacademic freedom on <strong>the</strong> steps of <strong>the</strong> First Amendment.The <strong>in</strong>vocation of professional norms may <strong>in</strong>deed be <strong>the</strong> mosteffective immediate defense. But does not this strategy privilegethose who have already been admitted <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> guild of tenuredprofessors, re<strong>in</strong>forc<strong>in</strong>g a hierarchy of knowledge production thatcan underm<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> “public good”? And is not this defense attractiveto university adm<strong>in</strong>istrators eager to draw an impermeablel<strong>in</strong>e between <strong>the</strong> “free speech” of students <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> academic-freedomissues of faculty members? And what about public universities<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> epistemological problem of how norms are def<strong>in</strong>ed?In her contribution to <strong>the</strong> volume, Judith Butler argues that ifprofessional norms have a history, as <strong>the</strong>y must, <strong>the</strong>n academicfreedom is <strong>the</strong> product of ongo<strong>in</strong>g critical scrut<strong>in</strong>y <strong>and</strong> re<strong>in</strong>terpretationof <strong>the</strong> norms <strong>the</strong>mselves, comb<strong>in</strong>ed with an ethical practicethat negotiates among multiple norms <strong>in</strong> contestation with eacho<strong>the</strong>r. It is important, she cont<strong>in</strong>ues, to deconstruct <strong>and</strong> historicize<strong>the</strong> notion of professional norms <strong>in</strong> order to provide greaterfreedom for extramural political speech, so that <strong>the</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es betweenareas of expertise <strong>and</strong> political commentary, between <strong>in</strong>dividualrights <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutional prerogative, <strong>and</strong> between <strong>the</strong> public good<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutional autonomy are not too rigidly drawn.It is difficult to imag<strong>in</strong>e real academic freedom exist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>absence of <strong>the</strong> skeptical approach to professional norms that liesat <strong>the</strong> very heart of what it means to be an academic. The fluidity<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectual migrations that Butler <strong>in</strong>sists on are key to reconfigur<strong>in</strong>g<strong>the</strong> concept of academic freedom so it can meet <strong>the</strong>challenges of a new wave of coercion <strong>and</strong> privatization that issweep<strong>in</strong>g not just academia but <strong>the</strong> whole world. This fluidity,<strong>in</strong> fact, is already apparent <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> heated debates with<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> betweendiscipl<strong>in</strong>es about what questions ought to be asked <strong>and</strong>what methods ought to be used to answer <strong>the</strong>m. These correctionmechanisms of academic <strong>in</strong>quiry have always been part of <strong>the</strong>DOUMANI 41
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 42<strong>in</strong>tellectual process, <strong>and</strong> resistance to <strong>the</strong>m provides a rem<strong>in</strong>derthat professional norms can sometimes constra<strong>in</strong> freedom ofthought more than adm<strong>in</strong>istrative <strong>and</strong> external pressures. But towhat degree is it possible to conduct a relentless critique of enlightenmentcategories of knowledge –– such as <strong>the</strong> assumptionthat truth exists <strong>and</strong> can be objectively discovered –– that give academicfreedom as we know it its specific structures, while ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>gprofessional st<strong>and</strong>ards stable enough to act as pillars foracademic freedom? If <strong>the</strong> ambiguities extend too far beyond <strong>the</strong>boundaries of what it might be politically feasible to defend as <strong>the</strong>autonomous territory of professional <strong>in</strong>quiry, what compass wouldwe use to navigate that terra<strong>in</strong>? At stake is <strong>the</strong> very language thatframes perceptions, codes knowledge, <strong>and</strong> determ<strong>in</strong>es <strong>the</strong> possibilitiesof political action.Butler essentially agrees with Joan W. Scott, <strong>the</strong> former headof <strong>the</strong> Committee on <strong>Academic</strong> <strong>Freedom</strong> of <strong>the</strong> AAUP, who arguespersuasively for <strong>the</strong> need to put ethical praxis at center stage.“<strong>Academic</strong> freedom,” Scott writes, “lives <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ethical spacebetween an ideal of <strong>the</strong> autonomous pursuit of underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><strong>the</strong> specific historical, <strong>in</strong>stitutional, <strong>and</strong> political realities thatlimit such pursuits.” 74 Scott deliberately substitutes “underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g”for “truth” <strong>in</strong> order to stake a middle ground between knowledge<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>terpretation. It is precisely <strong>in</strong> that distance betweencontradictory spaces –– ideal/history, knowledge/power, discipl<strong>in</strong>arynorms/criticism –– that academic freedom operates. 75 <strong>Academic</strong>freedom, <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r words, is built, re<strong>in</strong>forced, <strong>and</strong> changed,one controversial case at a time, through an ethical practice thateschews dogmatism <strong>and</strong> appreciates <strong>the</strong> historical specificity of<strong>the</strong> moment.For Scott’s bridg<strong>in</strong>g proposal not to err too much on <strong>the</strong> sideof conservative pragmatism <strong>and</strong> accommodation, a particular underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gof what it means to be an <strong>in</strong>tellectual needs to beemphasized: Edward Said’s underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of academic freedom asa “ceaseless quest for knowledge <strong>and</strong> freedom” based on an autocritiqueof one’s own national identity, even if, as <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> case of<strong>the</strong> Palest<strong>in</strong>ians, of which he is one, national self-determ<strong>in</strong>ationhas yet to be achieved. 76 Adopt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> image of <strong>the</strong> academic asa traveler who “depends not on power, but on motion,” <strong>in</strong>steadof that of <strong>the</strong> academic as potentate who “survey[s] all . . . withdetachment <strong>and</strong> mastery,” he def<strong>in</strong>es academic freedom “as an42 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 43<strong>in</strong>vitation to give up on identity <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> hope of underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>perhaps even assum<strong>in</strong>g more than one.” “We must always view<strong>the</strong> academy,” he cont<strong>in</strong>ues, “as a place to voyage <strong>in</strong>, own<strong>in</strong>g noneof it, but at home everywhere <strong>in</strong> it.” 77 This <strong>in</strong>sistence on a compassionate,universalist, <strong>and</strong> ultimately humanist autocritique has<strong>the</strong> virtue of anchor<strong>in</strong>g ethical praxis <strong>in</strong>side <strong>the</strong> academic worldwhile guid<strong>in</strong>g political action outside of it.ConclusionIt is unlikely that a s<strong>in</strong>gle conception or strategy of academic freedomcan be equally effective <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ever-chang<strong>in</strong>g political <strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>stitutional terra<strong>in</strong>s of higher education <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> United States. Inlight of <strong>the</strong> concerted attacks on academic freedom <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> greatvulnerabilities stemm<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> commercialization of highereducation, it is clearly no longer sufficient for tenured <strong>and</strong> tenuretrackfaculty members to circle <strong>the</strong> wagons <strong>and</strong> cl<strong>in</strong>g to longst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gstructures of cognitive authority. At <strong>the</strong> same time, it isnot feasible to ab<strong>and</strong>on <strong>the</strong> effective defense of professional autonomyso as to l<strong>in</strong>e up with o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>dividuals, <strong>in</strong>side <strong>and</strong> outsideof <strong>the</strong> academy, under <strong>the</strong> ideologically more <strong>in</strong>tuitive but legally<strong>and</strong> politically leaky umbrella of <strong>the</strong> First Amendment.Fortunately, time moves very slowly <strong>in</strong>side <strong>the</strong> academy, <strong>and</strong><strong>the</strong> culture of academic freedom has become firmly embeddedlegally, ethically, <strong>and</strong> politically over <strong>the</strong> past century. Institutionsof higher learn<strong>in</strong>g occupy a privileged <strong>and</strong> protected place <strong>in</strong> oursociety, <strong>and</strong> it seems unlikely that <strong>the</strong>y will easily give up <strong>the</strong>irhard-earned autonomy <strong>and</strong> freedoms. <strong>Academic</strong> freedom may beviolently shaken by willfully bl<strong>in</strong>d <strong>and</strong> destructive political alliances,such as that between neoconservatives <strong>and</strong> “End of Days”evangelical Christian groups, but it will likely outlast <strong>the</strong>m.There is still time to have a civil <strong>and</strong> reasoned discussion thatcan result <strong>in</strong> a new compact between <strong>the</strong> academy, society, <strong>and</strong><strong>the</strong> government, before <strong>the</strong> forces of commercialization <strong>and</strong> politicalcoercion become too toxic for <strong>the</strong> body politic. Ideally,<strong>the</strong> government would support education for all, <strong>in</strong>stead of push<strong>in</strong>guniversities <strong>and</strong> colleges down <strong>the</strong> river of privatization withoutso much as a boat, let alone a paddle; private capital wouldrecognize that creativity <strong>and</strong> economic development requireautonomy, freedom, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> free flow of <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>in</strong>stead ofownership for a profit; adm<strong>in</strong>istrators would accept mean<strong>in</strong>gfulDOUMANI 43
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 44shared governance with faculty members <strong>and</strong> students to create<strong>the</strong> best conditions for free <strong>in</strong>quiry <strong>and</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>stead of pursu<strong>in</strong>g<strong>the</strong> top-down managerial style (not to mention <strong>the</strong> privileges)of CEOs <strong>and</strong> engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> cutthroat competition <strong>in</strong> service of <strong>the</strong>rich <strong>and</strong> powerful; <strong>and</strong>, f<strong>in</strong>ally, academics could reta<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir privilegesby earn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> public trust through an ethical pursuit ofknowledge <strong>in</strong>stead of hang<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> sign “Have Knowledge, WillTravel.”But time is runn<strong>in</strong>g out, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> tragedy of 9/11 has been cynicallymanipulated to create an environment that is less <strong>and</strong> lessconducive to rational <strong>and</strong> civil discussion. The stick has neverbeen wielded so heavily, massively, <strong>and</strong> effectively; <strong>and</strong> never hasit been so freely available to so many private advocacy <strong>and</strong> special-<strong>in</strong>terestgroups ready to sacrifice <strong>the</strong> public good for <strong>the</strong>irown narrowly conceived <strong>in</strong>terests. Most important, never has <strong>the</strong>state/foundation/corporation/donor nexus been so <strong>in</strong>timate, sopolitically conservative, so k<strong>in</strong>etically charged <strong>and</strong> so woven <strong>in</strong>to<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutional <strong>and</strong> cultural fabric of university adm<strong>in</strong>istrations.At a moment when coercion is facilitated by privatization <strong>and</strong>vice versa, <strong>the</strong> neoliberal “free-market-of-ideas” framework offersno adequate defense aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> attacks of antiliberal forces.We are at a crossroads <strong>and</strong> need to th<strong>in</strong>k carefully about howto reconfigure <strong>the</strong> concept <strong>and</strong> praxis of academic freedom sothat it can serve just as well <strong>in</strong> a world where war <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>formationcontrol have become <strong>the</strong> norm <strong>and</strong> peace <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> free pursuitof knowledge <strong>the</strong> exception. At stake is <strong>the</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>uation of <strong>the</strong>academy as <strong>the</strong> bastion of <strong>in</strong>formed, <strong>in</strong>dependent, <strong>and</strong> alternativeperspectives crucial to a better underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> world welive <strong>in</strong>. If teachers <strong>and</strong> students cannot th<strong>in</strong>k <strong>and</strong> speak freely,who can? True, academics <strong>in</strong> most fields are not as openly <strong>and</strong>aggressively policed as those who study <strong>the</strong> Middle East, who area small <strong>and</strong> marg<strong>in</strong>al part of <strong>the</strong> academy. Also true, richly endoweduniversities are not threatened with ext<strong>in</strong>ction or as vulnerableto buyout as many o<strong>the</strong>rs, especially those that serve <strong>the</strong>most needy. Still, what happens to Middle East studies facultymembers or to small community colleges can have dangerousconsequences. Narrow<strong>in</strong>g access to knowledge <strong>and</strong> silenc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>voices of dissent <strong>and</strong> critical thought through <strong>the</strong> stick of coercionor <strong>the</strong> carrot of fund<strong>in</strong>g creates chill<strong>in</strong>g ripple effects. Complacencyis even more dangerous. If we st<strong>and</strong> on <strong>the</strong> sidel<strong>in</strong>es hop<strong>in</strong>g44 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 45not to be hit, we deprive society of <strong>in</strong>dependent <strong>and</strong> alternativeperspectives.Much depends on what academics <strong>and</strong> academic <strong>in</strong>stitutionsdo at this juncture. Regardless of whe<strong>the</strong>r academic freedom is an<strong>in</strong>dividual or an <strong>in</strong>stitutional right, one th<strong>in</strong>g is clear: academics<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> academy have to respond to <strong>the</strong> current challenges as acommunity. Systemic challenges require a systemic response.They also have to put <strong>the</strong> “social” back <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> concept of socialbenefit <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> “public” <strong>in</strong>to public trust, for both are be<strong>in</strong>geclipsed by a neoliberal vision that puts knowledge <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> serviceof profit <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> pursuit of <strong>the</strong> private good.The question is not simply how to preserve academic freedombut ra<strong>the</strong>r what to do with it. <strong>Academic</strong>s need to consistentlyengage students, parents, <strong>and</strong> citizens about why academic freedomis important to <strong>the</strong>m <strong>and</strong> why it is not simply a guild issue ofpreserv<strong>in</strong>g special privileges for an elite. <strong>Academic</strong>s <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<strong>in</strong>stitutions must open <strong>the</strong> gates <strong>and</strong> meet <strong>the</strong> world <strong>in</strong>stead oflock<strong>in</strong>g down <strong>and</strong> hop<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> storm will soon end. It is timeto have a full <strong>and</strong> open discussion about <strong>the</strong> role of universities<strong>in</strong> this troubled world <strong>and</strong> to engage as public <strong>in</strong>tellectuals <strong>the</strong>domestic <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational movements for civil rights, democracy,<strong>and</strong> justice. Defend<strong>in</strong>g academic freedom is but a part of a largereffort to make <strong>the</strong> world a better place to live. Let us speak <strong>and</strong> actbefore it is too late.NotesI am grateful to Philippa Strum, Kathleen J. Frydl, Mary Burgan, RamonaNaddaff, John Lie, Erika Gubrium, Lisa Hajjar, Joel Be<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>, <strong>and</strong> Rashid Khalidifor <strong>the</strong>ir helpful comments on earlier drafts of this essay.1. See below for an extended discussion of this subject. HR 3077 died <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>U.S. Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor <strong>and</strong> Pensions dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>108th Congress. As this book was go<strong>in</strong>g to press, <strong>the</strong> resolution was re<strong>in</strong>troduced<strong>in</strong> essentially <strong>the</strong> same form as HR 509 <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 109th Congress.2. The Unit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Streng<strong>the</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g America by Provid<strong>in</strong>g Appropriate ToolsRequired to Intercept <strong>and</strong> Obstruct Terrorism (USA Patriot) Act of 2001 passed<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Senate on October 11, 2001, <strong>and</strong> became law on October 26, leav<strong>in</strong>g littletime for lawmakers to read this act.3. For a historical overview of free-speech issues at times of crisis, see GeoffreyR. Stone, Perilous Times: Free Speech <strong>in</strong> Wartime from <strong>the</strong> Sedition Act of 1798DOUMANI 45
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 46to <strong>the</strong> War on Terrorism (New York: Norton, 2004). The extraord<strong>in</strong>arily long listof repressive but often short-lived measures imposed on <strong>the</strong> U.S. population issober<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>, <strong>in</strong> many ways, makes <strong>the</strong> post-9/11 period look tame <strong>in</strong> comparison.Time will tell, but <strong>the</strong> powerful technologies of surveillance <strong>and</strong> controlavailable to governments <strong>the</strong>se days, <strong>the</strong> Bush adm<strong>in</strong>istration’s obsession withsecrecy, <strong>the</strong> decades-long crusade by <strong>the</strong> core constituency of this presidency toimpose a radical right-w<strong>in</strong>g agenda, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> unprecedented projection of U.S.military power <strong>in</strong> a unipolar world are but a few of <strong>the</strong> factors that have <strong>the</strong>potential to cause serious <strong>and</strong> long-term damage to civil liberties, both domestically<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternationally.4. The most <strong>in</strong>famous examples are <strong>the</strong> drum beats about weapons of massdestruction <strong>in</strong> Iraq <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> systematic attempts to l<strong>in</strong>k Saddam Husse<strong>in</strong> to September11. The effectiveness of this one-two punch despite abundant evidence to<strong>the</strong> contrary is such that even <strong>in</strong> 2005 a majority of Americans believed that <strong>the</strong>government of Saddam Husse<strong>in</strong> was beh<strong>in</strong>d <strong>the</strong> plot of September 11 <strong>and</strong> that itpossessed weapons of mass destruction. An example of a similar campaign on <strong>the</strong>domestic front is <strong>the</strong> one unleashed by President George W. Bush dur<strong>in</strong>g his <strong>in</strong>auguraladdress on January 20, 2005: to conv<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> U.S. public that <strong>the</strong> SocialSecurity system is fac<strong>in</strong>g imm<strong>in</strong>ent collapse <strong>and</strong> that <strong>the</strong> best way to fix it for <strong>the</strong>poor, <strong>the</strong> middle classes, <strong>and</strong> African Americans is through <strong>the</strong> establishment ofprivate sav<strong>in</strong>gs accounts. The goal is to push through a program of privatizationthat would destroy <strong>the</strong> New Deal society <strong>and</strong> replace it with an “ownership” society.For <strong>the</strong> extreme lengths <strong>the</strong> current adm<strong>in</strong>istration is will<strong>in</strong>g to go to <strong>in</strong> sell<strong>in</strong>gSocial Security reform, see Paul Krugman, “Kansas On My M<strong>in</strong>d,” New YorkTimes, February 25, 2005. Krugman draws on two works that explore how publicdebates are framed: George Lakoff, Don’t Th<strong>in</strong>k of an Elephant: Know Your Values<strong>and</strong> Frame <strong>the</strong> Debate; The Essential Guide for Progressives (White River Junction,VT: Chelsea Green Publish<strong>in</strong>g, 2004), <strong>and</strong> Thomas Frank, What’s <strong>the</strong> Matter withKansas? How Conservatives Won <strong>the</strong> Heart of America (New York: Metropolitan,2004). For a detailed report on one of <strong>the</strong> Bush adm<strong>in</strong>istration’s strategies toframe news coverage on television, see David Barstow <strong>and</strong> Rob<strong>in</strong> Ste<strong>in</strong>, “UnderBush, a New Age of Prepackaged News,” New York Times, March 13, 2005.5. Stone correctly rem<strong>in</strong>ds us, “Declar<strong>in</strong>g a ‘war’ on terrorism was morethan a rhetorical device to rally <strong>the</strong> public, for it enabled <strong>the</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istation toassert <strong>the</strong> extraord<strong>in</strong>ary powers traditionally reserved to <strong>the</strong> executive <strong>in</strong> wartime”(Perilous Times, pp. 554–55). That Bush went to claim that “<strong>the</strong> waraga<strong>in</strong>st terrorism will never end” raises <strong>the</strong> frighten<strong>in</strong>g possibility that <strong>the</strong>seextraord<strong>in</strong>ary powers will be abused <strong>and</strong> not given up easily, as has happenedbefore <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> history of national crises <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> United States.6. This assumption was best articulated <strong>in</strong> Bush’s <strong>in</strong>augural address of January46 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 4720, 2004. Ano<strong>the</strong>r typical phrase is “a universal right granted by a Higher Be<strong>in</strong>g.”7. Reveal<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> this regard is <strong>the</strong> detailed <strong>in</strong>vestigative report on how <strong>the</strong>Bush adm<strong>in</strong>istration is attempt<strong>in</strong>g to foment an “Islamic Reformation” byquietly funnel<strong>in</strong>g tens of millions of dollars to “Islamic radio <strong>and</strong> TV shows,coursework <strong>in</strong> Muslim schools, Muslim th<strong>in</strong>k tanks, political workshop, or o<strong>the</strong>rprograms that promote moderate Islam” <strong>in</strong> over two dozen countries. A keyplayer <strong>in</strong> what is be<strong>in</strong>g called <strong>the</strong> Muslim World Outreach strategy is KarenHughes, who was Bush’s communications guru <strong>and</strong> is now <strong>the</strong> new head of <strong>the</strong>State Department’s public diplomacy office. David E. Kaplan, “Hearts, M<strong>in</strong>ds,<strong>and</strong> Dollars,” U.S. News <strong>and</strong> World Report, April 25, 2005.8. A scroll through <strong>the</strong> press-release archives of <strong>the</strong> Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) website is very <strong>in</strong>structive here: http://www.cairnet.org/default.asp?Page=archive&<strong>the</strong>Type=NR.On May 2, 2005, for example,CAIR called on political leaders <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> U.S. to repudiate <strong>the</strong> statement by PatRobertson that Muslims should not serve <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> cab<strong>in</strong>et or <strong>the</strong> judiciary. Thedemonization of Muslims, Arabs, <strong>and</strong> Palest<strong>in</strong>ians is generated by <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly<strong>in</strong>timate alliance between many pro-Israel advocacy groups <strong>and</strong> Christianevangelical organizations. This alliance has been <strong>the</strong> subject of numerous publications<strong>and</strong> documentaries. For an overview, see <strong>the</strong> segment of <strong>the</strong> PublicBroadcast<strong>in</strong>g Station show NOW with Bill Moyers called “God <strong>and</strong> Politics <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>Holy L<strong>and</strong>,” which aired on February 20, 2004. A case study of <strong>the</strong> politicalimplications of this alliance on <strong>the</strong> Palest<strong>in</strong>ian-Israeli conflict is GershomGorenberg, The End of Days: Fundamentalism <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Struggle for <strong>the</strong> TempleMount (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).9. Useful here are <strong>the</strong> reflections on this issue <strong>in</strong> Judith Butler, “Explanation<strong>and</strong> Exoneration, or What We Can Hear,” <strong>in</strong> Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourn<strong>in</strong>g<strong>and</strong> Violence (London: Verso, 2004), especially pp. 2–4 <strong>and</strong> 15.10. See, for example, Eric Alterman, “Bush’s War on <strong>the</strong> Press,” The Nation,May 9, 2005.11. Examples of pre-9/11 constra<strong>in</strong>ts on academic freedom <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>the</strong>Solomon Amendment of 1996, which penalizes colleges <strong>and</strong> universities that banmilitary recruiters or <strong>the</strong> Reserve Officers’ Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Corps (ROTC) from campus;<strong>the</strong> 1996 federal statute mak<strong>in</strong>g it a crime to offer “material support” (<strong>the</strong>term is not def<strong>in</strong>ed) to terrorists; <strong>the</strong> Federal Bureau of Investigation’s “Carnivore”Program; <strong>and</strong> export controls on software. Some of <strong>the</strong>se are discussed <strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong> American Association of University Professors, “<strong>Academic</strong> <strong>Freedom</strong> <strong>and</strong>National Security <strong>in</strong> a Time of Crisis,” Academe 89.6 (2003), p. 56. Also, see AmyNewhall’s chapter <strong>in</strong> this volume, which provides a larger context, especially herdiscussion of <strong>the</strong> establishment of <strong>the</strong> National Security Education Program(NSEP). For more <strong>in</strong>formation, particularly about surveillance of <strong>the</strong> Arab <strong>and</strong>DOUMANI 47
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 48Muslim communities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> United States, see Susan M. Akram <strong>and</strong> Kev<strong>in</strong> R.Johnson, “The Target<strong>in</strong>g of Arabs <strong>and</strong> Muslims,” <strong>and</strong> Samih Farsoun, “Roots of<strong>the</strong> American Anti-Terrorism Crusade,” <strong>in</strong> Ela<strong>in</strong>e C. Hagopian (ed.), Civil Rights<strong>in</strong> Peril: The Target<strong>in</strong>g of Arabs <strong>and</strong> Muslims (Chicago: Haymarket, 2004).12. See David Price’s analysis of <strong>the</strong> little-noticed Section 18 of <strong>the</strong> IntelligenceAuthorization Act (2004), which budgets $4 million to <strong>the</strong> Pat RobertsIntelligence Scholars Program, whose purpose is to close <strong>the</strong> “human <strong>in</strong>telligence”gap identified as critical <strong>in</strong> prevent<strong>in</strong>g future terrorist attacks. Thespecifics, however, po<strong>in</strong>t to a grave breach of <strong>the</strong> open process of knowledgeacquisition. The names of students <strong>and</strong> scholars recruited <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> program arekept secret from university adm<strong>in</strong>istrations, as are <strong>the</strong> names of <strong>the</strong> campuses atwhich <strong>the</strong>y work. David H. Price, “The CIA’s Campus Spies,” Counterpunch,March 12, 2005. Price is also <strong>the</strong> author of Threaten<strong>in</strong>g Anthropology: McCarthyism<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> FBI’s Surveillance of Activist Anthropologists (Durham, NC: Duke UniversityPress, 2004). In a followup article, Price argues that one goal of thisprogram <strong>and</strong> of ano<strong>the</strong>r one funded <strong>in</strong> December 2004, <strong>the</strong> Intelligence CommunityScholars Program, might be to ensure that <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies donot rel<strong>in</strong>quish control over <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectual development of <strong>the</strong>ir assets dur<strong>in</strong>g<strong>the</strong>ir college years, so as to decrease <strong>the</strong> chances of <strong>the</strong>se assets’ develop<strong>in</strong>g“undesirable” political op<strong>in</strong>ions. See David Price, “CIA Skullduggery <strong>in</strong> Academia,”Counterpunch, May 21, 2005.13. American Association of University Professors, “<strong>Academic</strong> <strong>Freedom</strong> <strong>and</strong>National Security <strong>in</strong> a Time of Crisis,” p. 57. Emphasis added. As noted <strong>in</strong> thisreport, <strong>the</strong> Patriot Act underm<strong>in</strong>es several protections enacted to ensure <strong>the</strong> privacyof citizens <strong>and</strong> noncitizens alike, such as <strong>the</strong> Family Educational Rights <strong>and</strong>Privacy Act, <strong>the</strong> Electronic Communications Privacy Act, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Foreign IntelligenceSurveillance Act.14. The resolution was adopted on January 29, 2003. See http://www.ala.org/ala/washoff/WOissues/civilliberties/<strong>the</strong>usapatriotact/alaresolution.htm.15. See, for example, <strong>the</strong> Fox news report from May 7, 2003: http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,86167,00.html.16. Libya was on <strong>the</strong> list of sanctioned countries but was removed <strong>in</strong> 2004.See document GN071904.doc at http://www.ustreas.gov.17. Jess Brav<strong>in</strong>, “Nobel Laureate Sues U.S. Over Ban,” Wall Street Journal,November 1, 2004. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to this report, Cuban authors have suffered <strong>the</strong>most: “Accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> university press association, suspended or cancelledpublications <strong>in</strong>clude a book on Cuban archaeology to be published by <strong>the</strong> Universityof Alabama Press, a Cornell University Press edition of Field Guide to <strong>the</strong>Birds of Cuba <strong>and</strong> an Encyclopedia of Cuban Music from Temple University Press.”18. Barry Bergman, “Research Under Fire,” Berkeleyan, January 26, 2005.48 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 4919. For an overview of tensions between scientists <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bush adm<strong>in</strong>istration,see Andrew C. Revk<strong>in</strong>, “Bush vs. <strong>the</strong> Laureates: How Science Became aPartisan Issue,” New York Times, October 19, 2004.20. Stephen K<strong>in</strong>zer, “Muslim Scholar Loses U.S. Visa as Query is Raised,”New York Times, August 26, 2004.21. Tom Coyne, “Revoked Visa Bars Muslim Scholar at Notre Dame,” AssociatedPress, August 25, 2004.22. Deborah Sontag, “Mystery of <strong>the</strong> Islamic Scholar Who Was Barred by<strong>the</strong> U.S.,” New York Times, October 6, 2004.23. See Tariq Ramadan, “Scholar Under Siege Defends his Record,” ChicagoTribune, August 31, 2004, “Too Scary for <strong>the</strong> Classroom?” New York Times,September 1, 2004, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> letter from <strong>the</strong> AAUP, http://www. aaup.org/newsroom/press/2004/Ramadan.htm.24. “Still Fewer Foreigners Apply<strong>in</strong>g to American Graduate Schools,” AssociatedPress, March 9, 2005. This has followed three years of decl<strong>in</strong>e, after adecade of <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g applications. See also Just<strong>in</strong> Pope, “Fewer Foreign GradStudents Enroll <strong>in</strong> U.S.,” Associated Press, November 4, 2004.25. “US Loses Foreign Students to Post-9/11 Competition,” Reuters,March 24, 2005.26. A simple correction can take months to process, leav<strong>in</strong>g students <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>lurch. For more <strong>in</strong>formation see <strong>the</strong> American Association of University Professors,“<strong>Academic</strong> <strong>Freedom</strong> <strong>and</strong> National Security,” pp. 49–51. Many universitiescharge foreign students a fee for this “service,” <strong>in</strong> essence mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m payfor <strong>the</strong>ir own surveillance. See, for example, <strong>the</strong> case of University of Florida:http://www.alligator.org/edit/news/issues/stories/040407gauprev.html.27. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Steven Mikulan, “DHS’s grow<strong>in</strong>g sugar-daddy role onAmerican campuses . . . has begun to leave a deep boot pr<strong>in</strong>t on academia.Primed with a $70 million scholarship <strong>and</strong> research budget, DHS represents <strong>the</strong>biggest <strong>in</strong>trusion <strong>in</strong>to Americans’ <strong>in</strong>tellectual life by security agencies s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong>height of <strong>the</strong> Cold War.” Mikulan also notes that unlike <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cold War period,when <strong>the</strong> “CIA surreptitiously worked its magic” on U.S. campuses, <strong>the</strong> DHS’s<strong>in</strong>fluence is a “broad-daylight affair.” In September 2003, for example, <strong>the</strong> DHSfunded one hundred fellowships to undergraduate <strong>and</strong> graduate students, whowere expected to work for <strong>the</strong> agency later. Carnegie Mellon received $100 million,<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> University of Sou<strong>the</strong>rn California received a $12 million three-yeargrant to establish one of several DHS facilities across <strong>the</strong> United States. StevenMikulan, “University of Fear: How <strong>the</strong> Department of Homel<strong>and</strong> Security IsBecom<strong>in</strong>g a Big Man on Campus,” LA Weekly, April 2, 2004.28. For example, see <strong>the</strong> Journal of Homel<strong>and</strong> Security <strong>and</strong> Emergency Management,published by Berkeley Electronic Press, which was established by threeDOUMANI 49
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 50Boalt Hall School of Law professors at <strong>the</strong> University of California at Berkeley:http://www.bepress.com/jhsem/. See also <strong>the</strong> Web site of <strong>the</strong> National <strong>Academic</strong>Consortium for Homel<strong>and</strong> Security, which has a membership of overtwo hundred fifty colleges <strong>and</strong> universities: http://homel<strong>and</strong>security.osu.edu/NACHS/.29. John Lie, “Moral Ambiguity, Discipl<strong>in</strong>ary Power, <strong>and</strong> <strong>Academic</strong> <strong>Freedom</strong>,”Bullet<strong>in</strong> of Concerned Asian Scholars 29.1 (1997), pp. 30–33.30. Jerry L. Mart<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> Anne D. Neal, Defend<strong>in</strong>g Civilization: How Our UniversitiesAre Fail<strong>in</strong>g America <strong>and</strong> What Can Be Done About It (Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, D.C.:American Council of Trustees <strong>and</strong> Alumni, 2001). The section on ACTA <strong>in</strong> thischapter has benefited from <strong>the</strong> research of Osamah Khalil.31. http://www.goacta.org. ACTA was founded <strong>in</strong> 1995. Its stated goal is to“mobilize concerned alumni, trustees, <strong>and</strong> education leaders across <strong>the</strong> countryon behalf of academic freedom, excellence, <strong>and</strong> accountability at our colleges<strong>and</strong> universities.” Out of ACTA came <strong>the</strong> conservative National Scholars Association,which played a public role <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> culture wars of <strong>the</strong> 1990s.32. Mart<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> Neal, Defend<strong>in</strong>g Civilization, p. 7. The report referred to a1933 Oxford Student Union debate on “whe<strong>the</strong>r it was moral for Britons tofight for k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> country.” The authors claimed that <strong>the</strong> result of <strong>the</strong> debateemboldened Adolf Hitler by conv<strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>g him that <strong>the</strong> West would “not fight forits survival.”33. Ibid.34. These issues will not be discussed <strong>in</strong> any detail <strong>in</strong> this <strong>in</strong>troduction. Fora full consideration of how <strong>the</strong>se battles have led to <strong>the</strong> reth<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g of academicfreedom, see Louis Men<strong>and</strong> (ed.), The Future of <strong>Academic</strong> <strong>Freedom</strong> (Chicago: Universityof Chicago Press, 1996).35. Gary B. Nash, Charlotte A. Crabtree, <strong>and</strong> Ross E. Dunn, History on Trial:Culture Wars <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Teach<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> Past (New York: Knopf, 1997).36. For social conservatives <strong>and</strong> militant nationalists, <strong>the</strong> turn<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t was<strong>the</strong> tumultuous 1960s, which witnessed <strong>the</strong> failed campaign of Barry Goldwater<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> antiwar, civil-rights, <strong>and</strong> environmental movements. For <strong>the</strong> pro-Israellobby<strong>in</strong>g groups, who are also play<strong>in</strong>g a lead role <strong>in</strong> polic<strong>in</strong>g thought on campus,<strong>the</strong> turn<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts were Israel’s sweep<strong>in</strong>g victories <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1967 war <strong>and</strong> its ensu<strong>in</strong>g“special relationship” with <strong>the</strong> United States.37. The transformation of <strong>the</strong> State University of New York under Gov.George Pataki <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> ways he effected many of <strong>the</strong>se changes through anactivist board of trustees is detailed <strong>in</strong> an article by Patrick D. Healy, “In Pataki’sTime, SUNY Runs More Like Private Universities,” New York Times, March 24,2005.38. See <strong>the</strong> discussion <strong>and</strong> reference <strong>in</strong> n.8 above for how this alliance50 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 51between groups that have disparate cultural politics <strong>and</strong> domestic agendas can beconstructed through <strong>the</strong> identification of an external enemy: “militant ArabIslam.” The electoral, economic, <strong>and</strong> strategic motivations beh<strong>in</strong>d <strong>the</strong> alliancesbetween neoconservatives, <strong>the</strong> current leadership of <strong>the</strong> Christian right, <strong>and</strong>militant nationalists have received a great deal of attention. Still to be systematicallyexplored is <strong>the</strong> possible set of connections around <strong>the</strong> transformation ofrace <strong>and</strong> class politics <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> United States s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> 1960s. The Jewish versusAfrican American split that characterized <strong>the</strong> 1968 teachers’ strike <strong>in</strong> New Yorkis widely seen as a foundational moment for <strong>the</strong> neoconservative movement.Some of <strong>the</strong> major organizations <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jewish American community, such as <strong>the</strong>Anti-Defamation League, have tried to vigorously counter <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence ofnationalist, Islamic, <strong>and</strong> Third-Worldist political tendencies with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> AfricanAmerican community, identified with Malcolm X, <strong>the</strong> Black Pan<strong>the</strong>rs, <strong>and</strong> LouisFarrakhan. At <strong>the</strong> same time, <strong>the</strong> right-w<strong>in</strong>g takeover of <strong>the</strong> evangelical movement<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1970s brought to power leaders with strong roots <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> anti–civilrights movement, such as members of <strong>the</strong> John Birch Society. Two recent articlesshed light on this set of connections: Chris Hedges, “Soldiers of Christ II: Feel<strong>in</strong>g<strong>the</strong> Hate with <strong>the</strong> National Religious Broadcasters,” Harpers, May 2005; <strong>and</strong>Hishaam D. Aidi, “Slavery, Genocide <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Politics of Outrage: Underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g<strong>the</strong> New ‘Racial Olympics,’” Middle East Report 234 (2005), pp. 40–55. Aidi’sarticle discusses <strong>the</strong> relationship between <strong>the</strong> Darfur crises <strong>and</strong> racial politics <strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong> United States.39. “Nation <strong>in</strong> Brief,” Wash<strong>in</strong>gton Post, August 9, 2002.40. David Van Biema, “A K<strong>in</strong>der, Gentler Koran,” Time, August 19, 2002.41. Alan Cooperman, “A Timely Subject –– <strong>and</strong> a Sore One: UNC DrawsFire, Lawsuit for Assign<strong>in</strong>g Book on Islam,” Wash<strong>in</strong>gton Post, August 7, 2002.42. A group called Students for <strong>Academic</strong> <strong>Freedom</strong> placed ads <strong>in</strong> campusnewspapers call<strong>in</strong>g on students to report <strong>the</strong>ir professors. As an AAUP statementnotes, <strong>the</strong> John Birch Society <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1960s, Accuracy <strong>in</strong> Academia <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>1980s, <strong>and</strong> Campus Watch after 9/11 all assumed that role; Campus Watchfocuses on professors of Middle East studies. For an overview of <strong>the</strong> issues <strong>and</strong>pend<strong>in</strong>g legislation, see http://www.aaup.org/Issues/ABOR/abor<strong>in</strong>tro2.htm.43. The new version, however, is perhaps even more threaten<strong>in</strong>g. By remov<strong>in</strong>g<strong>the</strong> names of <strong>in</strong>dividuals yet list<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> department <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitution foreach objectionable comment, <strong>the</strong> report implicates a far larger group of people asaccessories to apologists for terror. I thank Osamah Khalil for po<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g this out.44. Some Web sites, such as discover<strong>the</strong>network.org, are vulgar <strong>and</strong> take a“know your enemy” approach, spew<strong>in</strong>g out venomous polemics along withdeliberately distorted mug shots. O<strong>the</strong>rs are meant to <strong>in</strong>timidate, as is clearfrom <strong>the</strong> warn<strong>in</strong>g that Mart<strong>in</strong> Kramer, one of <strong>the</strong> public figures <strong>in</strong> this campaign,DOUMANI 51
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 52sent out after <strong>the</strong> launch of <strong>the</strong> Campus Watch Web site: “Well, academic colleagues,get used to it. Yes, you are be<strong>in</strong>g watched. Those obscure articles <strong>in</strong>campus newspapers are now available on <strong>the</strong> Internet, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>y will be harvested.Your syllabi, which you’ve also posted, will be scrut<strong>in</strong>ized. Your websiteswill be visited late at night. And to judge from <strong>the</strong> Campus Watch website, <strong>the</strong>people who will do <strong>the</strong> real watch<strong>in</strong>g will be none o<strong>the</strong>r than your students,those young people who pay hefty tuition fees to sit at your feet. Now <strong>the</strong>y havean address to turn to, should <strong>the</strong>y fall victim to <strong>in</strong>tellectual malpractice.” Thisquote was later removed, but it was available on his Web site as of September 18,2002. The Campus Watch Web site also removed a passage <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>troductionpage that imputed disloyalty on <strong>the</strong> parts of Edward Said, Rashid Khalidi, <strong>and</strong>o<strong>the</strong>rs because of <strong>the</strong>ir ethnic orig<strong>in</strong>s.45. The report of <strong>the</strong> second <strong>in</strong>vestigation found no evidence of anti-Semitism: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/news/05/03/ad_hoc_grievance_committee_ report.html. Massad’s reply to <strong>the</strong> Ad Hoc Grievance CommitteeReport can be found at http://electronic<strong>in</strong>tifada.net/v2/article3744.shtml.Still, a New York Times editorial on <strong>the</strong> report, provocatively titled “Intimidationat Columbia,” called on <strong>the</strong> university to clamp down on <strong>the</strong> “anti-Israel bias” ofsome of its professors (April 7, 2005). It is highly unusual for such a majornewspaper to call for <strong>in</strong>tervention to correct perceived political bias <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> classroom.Juan Cole, an em<strong>in</strong>ent scholar of <strong>the</strong> Middle East, identifies <strong>the</strong> “lessonfor academics, <strong>and</strong> American society as a whole: McCarthyism is unacceptableexcept when criticism of Israel is <strong>in</strong>volved.” Juan Cole, “The New McCarthyism,”Salon.com, April 22, 2005.46. Scott Sherman, “The Mideast Comes to Columbia,” The Nation, April 4,2005, http://www.<strong>the</strong>nation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20050404&s=sherman. Thisargument is consistent with press reports at <strong>the</strong> time. A fairly detailed exampleis Rachel Pomerance, “Jewish Groups Coord<strong>in</strong>ate Efforts to Help Students ‘TakeBack Campus,’” Jewish Telegraphic Agency, August 27, 2002. See also RachelPomerance, “AIPAC Tra<strong>in</strong>s US Student Pro-Israel Activists on Campus,” Clevel<strong>and</strong>Jewish News, December 31, 2002. On August 1, 2005, AIPAC’s Web sitestated that “AIPAC’S mission <strong>in</strong> 2005–2006 is noth<strong>in</strong>g short of reposition<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>American campus to be a tangible asset to <strong>the</strong> pro-Israel movement” (http://www.aipac.org/NERO80105_Reposition<strong>in</strong>g%20campus.htm).47. For a careful <strong>and</strong> forceful rebuttal see Judith Butler, “No, It’s Not Anti-Semitic,” London Review of Books, August 21, 2003. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to a New YorkTimes article, Summers “vocally supported br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g R.O.T.C. back to Harvard... And he supported Harvard’s honor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Solomon Amendment, which tiesfederal fund<strong>in</strong>g to universities’ allow<strong>in</strong>g military recruitment on campus, someth<strong>in</strong>gstudents <strong>and</strong> faculty had protested.” The article goes on to quote <strong>the</strong>52 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 53author Richard Bradley that ‘’Summers explicitly l<strong>in</strong>ked <strong>the</strong> future of <strong>the</strong> UnitedStates <strong>in</strong> its fight aga<strong>in</strong>st terrorism with <strong>the</strong> success of Harvard.’’ Rachel Donadio,“The Tempest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ivory Tower,” New York Times, March 27, 2005. SeeRichard Bradley, Harvard Rules: The Struggle for <strong>the</strong> Soul of <strong>the</strong> World’s Most PowerfulUniversity (New York: HarperColl<strong>in</strong>s, 2005). Many o<strong>the</strong>r university presidentswere quick to issue statements call<strong>in</strong>g for protection of academic freedomwhile <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> same breath register<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> strongest terms <strong>the</strong>ir personal revulsionabout specific views attributed to targeted faculty <strong>and</strong> students, such as callsfor divestment of university funds from companies that profit from Israel’s militaryoccupation of Palest<strong>in</strong>ian l<strong>and</strong>s. What <strong>the</strong>y give with one h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rwords, <strong>the</strong>y take away with <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, for <strong>the</strong>se statements pull <strong>the</strong> political<strong>and</strong> moral rug from under <strong>the</strong> teachers <strong>and</strong> students <strong>the</strong>y are supposed todefend. For example, Columbia University President Lee Boll<strong>in</strong>ger is quoted asstat<strong>in</strong>g that he f<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>the</strong> views of Hamid Dabashi “deeply offensive.” See N.R.Kle<strong>in</strong>field, “Mideast Tensions Are Gett<strong>in</strong>g Personal on Campus at Columbia,”New York Times, January 18, 2005. In contrast, see also <strong>the</strong> statement by Universityof Pennsylvania President Judith Rod<strong>in</strong>, who registers her opposition todivestment from Israel, yet resists <strong>the</strong> temptation that ensnared so many of hercolleagues ei<strong>the</strong>r to register personal revulsion or to rush <strong>in</strong>to a public apologyfor <strong>the</strong> speech of a faculty member. “Judith Rod<strong>in</strong>: On Divestment <strong>and</strong> Hate,”Daily Pennsylvanian, October 18, 2002, http://www.dailypennsylvanian.com/vnews/ display.v/ART/3dafaccbea74e?<strong>in</strong>_ archive=1.48. See, for example, Peter Berkowitz <strong>and</strong> Michael McFaul, “Study<strong>in</strong>gIslam, Streng<strong>the</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Nation,” Wash<strong>in</strong>gton Post, April 12, 2005. The <strong>in</strong>vestigationsof <strong>the</strong> Columbia professors came at <strong>the</strong> same time that a new chair <strong>in</strong>Israel Studies was announced.49. One of <strong>the</strong> remarkable aspects of this <strong>in</strong>cident is that <strong>the</strong> ban wasimposed without any knowledge by those responsible about what <strong>the</strong>se viewsactually were. Brock Read, “Columbia Professor Banned From Teacher Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g,”Chronicle of Higher Education, March 4, 2005.50. Jonathan R. Cole, “<strong>Academic</strong> <strong>Freedom</strong> Under Fire,” Daedalus 135.2(2005), p. 13.51. http://www.studentsforacademicfreedom.org/abor.html. If <strong>the</strong> billsfail, efforts by <strong>the</strong>ir backers are made to persuade <strong>in</strong>dividual universities to adopt<strong>the</strong> language.52. http://www.aaup.org/statements/SpchState/Statements/ billofrights.htm.53. For a deft disposal of <strong>the</strong> concept of “advocacy” <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> classroom, seeLouis Men<strong>and</strong>, “The Limits of <strong>Academic</strong> <strong>Freedom</strong>,” <strong>in</strong> Men<strong>and</strong> (ed.), Future of<strong>Academic</strong> <strong>Freedom</strong>, pp. 14–17.DOUMANI 53
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 5454. For details about <strong>the</strong> “wedge” techniques aimed at giv<strong>in</strong>g academiclegitimacy to creationism, see Barbara Forrest <strong>and</strong> Paul R. Gross, Creationism’sTrojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design (Oxford: Oxford University Press,2004). A synopsis of <strong>the</strong> book is Barbara Forrest <strong>and</strong> Glenn Branch, “Wedg<strong>in</strong>gCreationism <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> Academy,” Academe 91.1 (2005), pp. 37–41.55. Peter Slev<strong>in</strong>, “Battle on Teach<strong>in</strong>g Evolution Sharpens,” Wash<strong>in</strong>gton Post,March 14, 2005.56. Especially useful here is <strong>the</strong> essay by David Holl<strong>in</strong>ger, “What Does ItMean to Be ‘Balanced’ <strong>in</strong> Academia?” paper given at <strong>the</strong> annual meet<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong>American Historical Association, January 9, 2005. This paper was first presentedto <strong>the</strong> conference out of which this volume has come. Us<strong>in</strong>g a number of strik<strong>in</strong>g<strong>and</strong> witty examples, Holl<strong>in</strong>ger shows <strong>the</strong> absurdity of accusations madeaga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> academy by right-w<strong>in</strong>g groups. “We must remember,” he argues,“that any particular discipl<strong>in</strong>ary community exists with<strong>in</strong> what we might see as aseries of concentric circles of accountability <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>formal but vitally importantstructure of cognitive authority.... The far<strong>the</strong>r you get from <strong>the</strong> technical particularsof <strong>the</strong> field, <strong>the</strong> less authority you have to decide what should be go<strong>in</strong>gon, but <strong>in</strong> a democratic society <strong>the</strong>re is some authority distributed all <strong>the</strong> wayout.”57. A judicious <strong>and</strong> persuasive account of <strong>the</strong> politics of this field is ZacharyLockman, Contend<strong>in</strong>g Visions of <strong>the</strong> Middle East: The History <strong>and</strong> Politics of Orientalism(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004). See especially <strong>the</strong> chapter“After Orientalism” for a comprehensive analysis of <strong>the</strong> political motivationsbeh<strong>in</strong>d <strong>the</strong> campaigns to dom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>and</strong> police knowledge about <strong>the</strong> Middle East.58. In <strong>the</strong> 1950s, for example, some foundations were used to laundermoney from <strong>in</strong>telligence agencies to universities, to m<strong>in</strong>imize <strong>the</strong> degree towhich <strong>the</strong> academy was perceived to be will<strong>in</strong>g servant of <strong>the</strong> nation-state. Forthis <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r details about area studies, see Bruce Cum<strong>in</strong>gs, “Boundary Displacement:Area Studies <strong>and</strong> International Studies Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> After <strong>the</strong> ColdWar,” Bullet<strong>in</strong> of Concerned Asian Scholars 29.1 (1997).59. Lie, “Moral Ambiguity.”60. The key articles <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> campaign aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> Ford Foundation appeared<strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>vestigative series, “Fund<strong>in</strong>g Hate,” published <strong>in</strong> Jewish Telegraphic Agency.Edw<strong>in</strong> Black wrote <strong>the</strong> articles. See http://www.featuregroup.com/fgarchive/jta.org/ for more details. See also Daniel Golden, “Colleges Object to NewWord<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Ford Grants,” Wall Street Journal, May 4, 2004. In addition to <strong>in</strong>stitut<strong>in</strong>g<strong>the</strong> new language, Ford funded a major new <strong>in</strong>itiative to combat anti-Semitism, with a focus on Europe.61. They are Harvard, Yale, Pr<strong>in</strong>ceton, Cornell, Columbia, Stanford, <strong>the</strong>University of Pennsylvania, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Uni-54 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 55versity of Chicago. All but Stanford relented after <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial round of changes,which declared respect for <strong>in</strong>dividual academic freedom <strong>and</strong> focused <strong>in</strong>stead on“official speech” by colleges <strong>and</strong> universities. This is a dangerous development,as it aggravates <strong>the</strong> tension between faculties <strong>and</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istrations over issues ofgovernance. Now adm<strong>in</strong>istrations have even more cause to discipl<strong>in</strong>e professors<strong>and</strong> students for <strong>the</strong>ir research <strong>and</strong> speech when it comes to hot-button issues,which was one of <strong>the</strong> central aims of <strong>the</strong> groups that pressured <strong>the</strong> foundations<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> first place.62. ACLU press release, October 19, 2004, http://www.aclu.org/news/newspr<strong>in</strong>t.CFM?ID=16838c=206.63. See, for example, Gary Rhoades, “Capitalism, <strong>Academic</strong> Style, <strong>and</strong>Shared Governance,” Academe 91.3 (2005), pp. 38–42.64. See, for example (<strong>in</strong> chronological order): David F. Noble, America byDesign: Science, Technology, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rise of Corporate Capitalism (Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, 1977); Rebecca S. Lowen, Creat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Cold War University: TheTransformation of Stanford (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997);Christopher Simpson, Universities <strong>and</strong> Empire: Money <strong>and</strong> Politics <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Social SciencesDur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Cold War (New York: New Press, 1998); Derek Bok, Universities<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Marketplace: The Commercialization of Higher Education (Pr<strong>in</strong>ceton, NJ:Pr<strong>in</strong>ceton University Press, 2003); Eric Gould, The University <strong>in</strong> a CorporateCulture (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003); Christopher Newfield,Ivy <strong>and</strong> Industry: Bus<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mak<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> American University, 1880–1980(Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003); Roger L. Geiger, Knowledge <strong>and</strong>Money: Research Universities <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Paradox of <strong>the</strong> Marketplace (Stanford, CA:Stanford University Press, 2004); Sheila Slaughter <strong>and</strong> Gary Rhoades, <strong>Academic</strong>Capitalism <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> New Economy: Markets, State, <strong>and</strong> Higher Education (Baltimore:Johns Hopk<strong>in</strong>s University Press, 2004); Jennifer Washburn, University, Inc.: TheCorporate Corruption of American Higher Education (New York: Basic Books,2005). Historians of higher education cannot help but notice that we are rush<strong>in</strong>gforward <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> late n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century, which was characterized by naked corporatecontrol of universities, a wide gap <strong>in</strong> access to knowledge between <strong>the</strong>haves <strong>and</strong> have-nots, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> narrow<strong>in</strong>g boundaries of permissible speech. SeeRichard Hofstadter <strong>and</strong> Walter Metzger, The Development of <strong>Academic</strong> <strong>Freedom</strong> <strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong> United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 1955), pp. 413–20. Ofcourse, <strong>the</strong> context has changed. The legacy of advances <strong>in</strong> academic freedoms<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong>n cannot be ignored. At <strong>the</strong> same time, corporate control of boards oftrustees seems less threaten<strong>in</strong>g than <strong>the</strong> transformation of <strong>the</strong> university <strong>in</strong>to acorporation <strong>in</strong> structure <strong>and</strong> ethos.65. I see <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g tragic story as a symbolic warn<strong>in</strong>g about <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectual<strong>and</strong> spiritual empt<strong>in</strong>ess of unchecked privatization of knowledge. On Octo-DOUMANI 55
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 56ber 22, 1996, Kathleen Chang, a classically tra<strong>in</strong>ed ballet dancer <strong>and</strong> activist whohaunted <strong>the</strong> streets of Philadelphia, perform<strong>in</strong>g one-person plays <strong>and</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>gspeeches about justice, liberty, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> need to protect <strong>the</strong> environment, walkedonto her favorite campus grounds, <strong>the</strong> lawn near <strong>the</strong> Van Pelt Library of <strong>the</strong>University of Pennsylvania, as she often did <strong>in</strong> a va<strong>in</strong> attempt to attract students’attention. This time, she stood just a few feet beh<strong>in</strong>d <strong>the</strong> peace-sign sculpture,doused herself with gasol<strong>in</strong>e, <strong>the</strong>n lit a match. For a few days, a modest pile offlowers marked <strong>the</strong> spot where she burned to death. http://www.a<strong>in</strong>fos.ca/A-Infos96/7/0173.html.66. Frank Newman, Lara Couturier, <strong>and</strong> Jamie Scurry, The Future of HigherEducation: Rhetoric, Reality, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Risks of <strong>the</strong> Market (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004), pp. 213–19.67. State universities, which account for almost three-quarters of all collegeenrollment, have been especially hard hit. Contrary to conventional wisdom,public fund<strong>in</strong>g has actually <strong>in</strong>creased, but it is not keep<strong>in</strong>g pace with privatefund<strong>in</strong>g. See Newman, Couturier, <strong>and</strong> Scurry, Future of Higher Education, p. 41.Also, open competition for government fund<strong>in</strong>g based on peer review is giv<strong>in</strong>gway to noncompetitive legislative fund<strong>in</strong>g priorities generated by lobby<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>political <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>in</strong>stead of scientific merit. Consequently, <strong>the</strong> amount ofmoney that universities spend on professional lobby<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, D.C.,nearly tripled <strong>in</strong> just five years (1998–2003), from $23 million to $62 million.See Alan B. Krueger, “The Farm-Subsidy Model of F<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g Academia,” NewYork Times, May 26, 2005. The process of politiciz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> commercializ<strong>in</strong>g fund<strong>in</strong>gwill take on new mean<strong>in</strong>g if <strong>the</strong> U.S. delegation to <strong>the</strong> World Trade Organizationhas its way. The delegation has proposed <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g all higher education <strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong> global free market. See Newman, Couturier, <strong>and</strong> Scurry, Future of HigherEducation, p. 26.68. The Bayh-Dole Act of 1980 was a turn<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> corporate <strong>in</strong>vestment<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> control of university science research (Washburn, University, Inc., pp.59–72). Corporate sponsorship of research jumped from $850 million <strong>in</strong> 1985to $4.25 billion <strong>in</strong> 1995. Not surpris<strong>in</strong>gly, a slew of sc<strong>and</strong>als followed corporatecensorship of <strong>and</strong> meddl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> scientific research at <strong>the</strong> expense of truth <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>public <strong>in</strong>terest. See Newman, Couturier, <strong>and</strong> Scurry, Future of Higher Education,pp. 61–63.69. David L. Kirp, Shakespeare, E<strong>in</strong>ste<strong>in</strong>, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bottom L<strong>in</strong>e: The Market<strong>in</strong>gof Higher Education (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), pp.259–60. For a full account of <strong>the</strong> Novartis affair, see ch. 1 of Washburn, University,Inc. In April, 2005, Ignacio Chapela, a microbial biology professor, filed alawsuit aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> University of California, claim<strong>in</strong>g that he was refused tenure<strong>in</strong> 2003 for political reasons stemm<strong>in</strong>g from his vocal opposition to <strong>the</strong> Novartis56 BETWEEN COERCION AND PRIVATIZATION
Doumani f<strong>in</strong>al pages 8/7/06 7:06 PM Page 57deal. On May 23, 2005, <strong>the</strong> university announced that he had been grantedtenure.70. Some universities, such as Harvard, are try<strong>in</strong>g hard to admit more studentsfrom work<strong>in</strong>g-class families, but <strong>the</strong> dynamic of privatization is benefit<strong>in</strong>gelite students with access to first-rate public or private schools, almost all ofwhich are located <strong>in</strong> well-to-do neighborhoods. See Newman, Couturier, <strong>and</strong>Scurry, Future of Higher Education, p. 11. Also see Robert H. Frank, “The IntenseCompetition for Top Students Is Threaten<strong>in</strong>g F<strong>in</strong>ancial Aid Based on Need,”New York Times, April 14, 2005.71. See Newman, Couturier, <strong>and</strong> Scurry, Future of Higher Education, pp.66–67.72. Cornelia Dean, “Evolution Takes a Back Seat <strong>in</strong> U.S. Classes,” New YorkTimes, February 1, 2005.73. Ben Feller, “First Amendment No Big Deal, Students Say,” AssociatedPress, February 1, 2005. The study <strong>in</strong>volved over 100,000 students, 8,000 teachers,<strong>and</strong> over 500 adm<strong>in</strong>istrators <strong>in</strong> both public <strong>and</strong> private high schools. Thestudy was funded by <strong>the</strong> John S. <strong>and</strong> James L. Knight Foundation <strong>and</strong> conductedby <strong>the</strong> University of Connecticut.74. Joan W. Scott, “<strong>Academic</strong> <strong>Freedom</strong> as an Ethical Practice,” <strong>in</strong> Men<strong>and</strong>(ed.), Future of <strong>Academic</strong> <strong>Freedom</strong>, p. 177.75. Ibid., p. 174.76. Edward W. Said, “Identity, Authority, <strong>and</strong> <strong>Freedom</strong>: The Potentate <strong>and</strong><strong>the</strong> Traveler,” <strong>in</strong> Men<strong>and</strong> (ed.), Future of <strong>Academic</strong> <strong>Freedom</strong>, p. 228.77. Ibid., p. 227.DOUMANI 57