Culture and Ecology of Chaco Canyon and the San Juan Basin
Culture and Ecology of Chaco Canyon and the San Juan Basin
Culture and Ecology of Chaco Canyon and the San Juan Basin
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62 <strong>Chaco</strong> Project Syn<strong>the</strong>sisto <strong>the</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Plains. Southwestern <strong>and</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rnMexican cultures that had mixed or locally specializedeconomies were <strong>the</strong>n free to move into <strong>the</strong> <strong>San</strong> <strong>Juan</strong><strong>Basin</strong>. By 3,000 B.C., Picosa (<strong>the</strong> ElementarySouthwestern culture) covered sou<strong>the</strong>rn California, all<strong>of</strong> Arizona, <strong>the</strong> western half <strong>of</strong> New Mexico, parts <strong>of</strong>sou<strong>the</strong>astern Utah, <strong>and</strong> southwestern <strong>and</strong> south-centralColorado, as well as nor<strong>the</strong>rn Mexico (Irwin-Williams1967). This elementary Southwestern culture lasteduntil about A.D. 1, <strong>and</strong> could be divided into threeareas that <strong>of</strong>ten blurred at <strong>the</strong>ir edges. The PintoAmargosa complexes covered California, sou<strong>the</strong>rnNevada, <strong>and</strong> western Arizona. The Cochise included<strong>the</strong> Chiricahua <strong>and</strong> <strong>San</strong> Pedro phases <strong>of</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>asternArizona <strong>and</strong> southwestern New Mexico. Less wellknown materials from northwestern New Mexico,nor<strong>the</strong>astern Arizona, sou<strong>the</strong>astern Utah, <strong>and</strong> central<strong>and</strong> southwestern Colorado were given <strong>the</strong> nameOshara, <strong>and</strong> were considered to be ancestral to <strong>the</strong>Anasazi (Irwin Williams 1967). In a more detaileddescription <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Oshara tradition, Irwin-Williamsplaced her data from <strong>the</strong> Arroyo Cuervo region <strong>of</strong>New Mexico into six temporally ordered phases <strong>and</strong>provided illustrations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lithic technology for eachperiod (Irwin-Williams 1973:Figures 2 through 7).Jay phase (5,500 to 4,800 B.C.). This phaserepresents a broadly mixed ga<strong>the</strong>ring <strong>and</strong> huntingeconomy. Sites are located on cliff tops in canyonheads, near ephemeral ponds or low mesas. Site sizeis less than 50 m2, but some represent repeated use <strong>of</strong><strong>the</strong> same area. Tool kits include large, slightly shoulderedprojectile points, well-made lanceolate bifacialknives. <strong>and</strong> very well made side scrapers. No toolsfor breaking or pulverizing seeds or nuts are present.Data suggest a mixed spectrum <strong>of</strong> subsistenceactivities, <strong>and</strong> year-round exploitation <strong>of</strong> local resourceswhose maximum concentration was accessiblefrom permanent water resources.Bajada phase (A.D. 4,800t03,200B.C.). Thisphase occurred during a period <strong>of</strong> decreased moisture,<strong>and</strong> was divided into early <strong>and</strong> late parts (IrwinWilliams <strong>and</strong> Haynes 1970). It is thought to representan increasingly effective adaptation to a broadspectrumsubsistence base. Sites are located at canyonheads, with special activities taking place on adjacentsloping mesas <strong>and</strong> along canyon rims. Site sizeremains small (less than 50 ~). The tool kit during<strong>the</strong> early part <strong>of</strong> this phase includes points with longparallel-sided stems <strong>and</strong> basal indentation <strong>and</strong>thinning; those with shorter stems, well-definedshoulders, <strong>and</strong> decreased overall lengths are assignedto <strong>the</strong> later part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phase. Bifacial knives are rare,<strong>and</strong> side-scrapers range from well made to poorlymade. Overall <strong>the</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> stone tool technologydeclines. There is an increase in ground stone; e.g.large chopping tools. Small cobble-filled hearths <strong>and</strong>earth ovens appear, suggesting changes in foodprocessing. Continuity <strong>and</strong> change reflected in <strong>the</strong>artifacts probably represent an annual cycle that wasnot strongly seasonal but did have some scheduledactivities.<strong>San</strong> Jose phase (3,000 to 1,800 B.C.). Duringthis phase, <strong>the</strong>re was an increase in effective moisture,dune stabilization, <strong>and</strong> soil formation that resulted inan increased reliability <strong>of</strong> springs, <strong>and</strong> an improvedquantity <strong>of</strong> reliable flora <strong>and</strong> fauna. The number <strong>of</strong>sites increased, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> average size <strong>of</strong> a camp alsoincreased (100 to 150 m 2 ). The presence <strong>of</strong> postholessuggests <strong>the</strong> construction <strong>of</strong> temporary shelters;extensive refuse suggests repeated occupation. Thereis a decline in workmanship <strong>of</strong> chipped stone tools.Chipped <strong>and</strong> ground stone artifacts indicate shiftstoward mixed foraging as <strong>the</strong> subsistence strategy.Cooking in large subsurface or surface ovens linedwith cobbles was introduced. Irwin-Williams (1973:9) thought that this phase represents localized adaptationsthat exploited regional microenvironmentsduring a somewhat systematic annual cycle.Armijo phase (1,800 to 800 B.C.). At this time<strong>the</strong> environment was slightly less moist; <strong>the</strong> majorchange is <strong>the</strong> addition <strong>of</strong> maize to <strong>the</strong> subsistence base.Even though maize was only a minor component, itprovided a localized <strong>and</strong> temporary seasonal surplus.A new type <strong>of</strong> site, <strong>the</strong> rockshelter, is added to <strong>the</strong>settlements along cliff tops <strong>of</strong> canyon heads. Sitesnear ephemeral ponds are now rare. Tools in <strong>the</strong>Armijo rockshelter represent a wider range <strong>of</strong> classes,including some objects considered representative <strong>of</strong>ideological significance. Irwin-Williams (1973: 11)interpreted this period as one in which seasonalaggregation developed, possibly involving groups <strong>of</strong>30 to 50 individuals. They would have had greateropportunities for social <strong>and</strong> ceremonial activities whileliving toge<strong>the</strong>r than during <strong>the</strong> rest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> year when<strong>the</strong>y splintered into smaller groups.